Cambridge University Press 978-1-108-47408-5 — Burials, Migration and Identity in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond Edited by M

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Cambridge University Press 978-1-108-47408-5 — Burials, Migration and Identity in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond Edited by M. C. Gatto , D. J. Mattingly , N. Ray , M. Sterry Index More Information

Index

Page numbers in italics are figures; with ‘t’ tables; with ‘n’ notes.

3D geometric morphometrics 140–41, 143–45, Tiddis 253, 260, 264, 267, 268 144t children’s burials 265 pottery 270, 271 Abalessa (Algeria) 17, 102–3 Tiffech 250, 266 Adrar Zerzem (Morocco) 325, 326, 327, 328 Tin Hanan 17–19, 103, 530 Afroasiatic languages 434, 436, 438, 454, Wadi Gir 15 464–65, 498 Allain, Charles 321–24 Aghram Nadharif (Libya) 53, 101, 117, 120, Althiburos (Tunisia) 14, 249, 250, 276, 121 506–7, 529 loom weights 124 bone in domestic areas 268–69 straw matting 117 pottery 271, 272, 273 agriculture 135 Amazighs see Berbers Kissi (Burkino Faso) 375–78 amazonite 95–96, 117, 124, 406, 408, 417, 420 Lake Chad Basin 399, 490, 492t ancestor worship 5, 118, 128–29, 330–31, 528 and language 485–87, 486t animals Middle Nile 197–98 in burials 269–70 Numidia 506–7 burials of 7, 364, 406–7, 411, 412, 418 Wadi Tanzzuft 125, 125, 129, 135 names for 452–53, 482–87, 484–85t, 489–90 Ahaggar Tuareg 497 see also livestock; pastoralism Aïn Dahlia Kébira (Morocco) 283, 287, 288, antennae tombs 61–62, 363, 514 295, 297 Western Sahara 16, 355–56 Aïn el Bey (Algeria) 250, 266 Apuleius 509–10 Aissa Dugjé (Cameroon) 406–7, 410–11, 412 Arabic 200, 432, 433t, 434, 495–96, 502 Algeria Hassānāya 431, 432, 433t, 434, 450–51, 456 Abalessa 17, 102–3 Shuwa 433–34 Aïn el Bey 250, 266 archaeology, funerary 3, 4–19, 526, 527 Beni Messous 250, 261, 266, 267 architecture, Wadi Tanzzuft 120–22, 122 Bou Chène 250, 261, 266 Arnaud, R. 450 Djebel Mazela 250, 252n9, 259, 260, 263–64, artefacts 27 266–67, 268, 270 Wadi Tanzzuft 123–25, 124 animal bone 270 see also grave goods pottery 273 Asbytes 431 El Khroub 250, 256, 262 Atarantes 108, 125–29, 432, 504–5 Fedj el Koucha 250, 266 Atlantic Europe 362, 363, 366–68 Gastel 250, 253, 266, 271, 272 Augustine, St 514 Jorf Torba 15–16 Awjila (Libya) 9, 478, 481, 497 Roknia 250, 261, 266, 300 Ayoub, M. S. 12, 54 Sétif region 250, 253 Azayr/Azer 444, 450–51 Sigus 250, 266 Sila 250, 264, 265, 267, 268, 270, 274, Bach, J. S. 438 275–76 bags, leather 86–87 Tebessa 250, 253 Baistrochi, M. 359 549

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-108-47408-5 — Burials, Migration and Identity in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond Edited by M. C. Gatto , D. J. Mattingly , N. Ray , M. Sterry Index More Information

550 Index

Al-Bakri 447 biological identity, Garamantes 134–56, 137, Banasa (Morocco) 285–86, 303 144t, 146, 147, 150, 151, 152, 154 Bangsgaard, P. 208 blacksmiths 202, 452 banquets, funerary 273, 330, 332 Blažek, V. 448, 449t, 496 Barkat (Libya) 116, 152–53, 154, 163 Blé (Cameroon) 406 bazinas 252n9, 257, 258, 260, 261, 267, 277, ‘Blemmye’ burials 213 345–49, 346–48t, 350, 351 bone artefacts 270, 272 worked 301 children’s burials 265 see also skeletal analysis dating 264, 355 Boniface 514 Djebel Mazela Bazina XXII 263–64, 266–67 Boozer, A. 21 Gour Mausoleum 276, 290, 291–92t, 293, Borno (Nigeria) 408–9 294, 333, 513 Bou Chène (Algeria) 250, 261, 266 treatment of the body 268 Bou Mimoun (Morocco) 290, 291–92t see also chouchet Bouïa (Morocco) 319, 320, 321, 330, 335, 336 beads ‘bound’ bodies 204, 411 Burkino Faso 386 Braber (Morocco) 323–24, 324, 330 Fewet (Wadi Tanzzuft) 117, 124 Bradley, R. 62 Kissi (Burkino Faso) 385–87, 388, 392, 395 Breunig, P. 401–3 Morocco 297, 300, 327, 328, 333 Britain 21 Nigeria 409 Brocca, Paul 281 southern Lake Chad basin 406, 409, 411, 414, Broodbank, C. 506–7 415, 417–18, 419, 420 Brooks, N. 449 Tin Hanan burial 17 Brosset, D. 450 Wadi al-Ajal 69–71, 77, 78, 88–89t, 91, 94, Brubaker, Rogers 25 96, 97 burial landscapes 532–34 Bechhaus-Gerst, M. 434–35 burial rite see ritual, funerary Beja 213, 215, 432 Burkino Faso 386, 395 Bell Beaker burials 366 Kissi 375–78, 376, 377 bells, bronze/copper 318 burial practices 379, 380, 381, 382, 383, Beni Messous (Algeria) 250, 261, 266, 267 384, 385, 387, 388, 389, 390, 395, Beni-Snous, language 466, 467, 470, 471, 473, 531–32 476, 478, 481, 497, 517 migration 395 Berbers modern parallels 390–95, 392, 393, 394 burial practices 332 and Christianity 331 cairns 10–12, 60, 65, 80t, 101 identity 25–26 Fazzan 57–60, 64, 65, 69, 70t, 100–1 languages 23, 25–26, 27, 431, 434–38, 435, beads 94 452–54, 453t, 456, 464–66, 466, 467, pottery 92 470, 471, 473, 476, 478, 481, 490–93, Fewet 100–1 497, 525 Iwelen 18 and economies 482–87 types Oasis languages 516–17 corbelled 57–60, 64, 65, 65, 72t, 78, 80, 98, proto-Amazigh 480, 483, 484–85t, 486t, 100–1 503–8 crater 57 Proto-Berber 436, 447, 449t, 465, 482–87, crevice 57, 72t 486t, 498–502 kerbed 57, 65, 72t proto-Central Amazigh 512–16 mound proto-East-West Amazigh 508–12 Central Sahara, Wadi al-Ajal 64, 65, origins 138 71–77, 72t, 80t Beria (=Zaghawa) 196, 431, 434, 440, 451 Numidia 257–60, 258, 259 Berti 196, 204 Western Sahara 16, 345, 349, 355 Biagetti, S. 446 quadrangular 60, 64–65, 65, 72t

Index 551

with vertical outer walls 60, 72t chalcedony 297, 298, 300, 386 see also monuments chapels, funerary 9 camels 3, 197–98, 434, 437, 515–16 Western Sahara/Morocco 16, 316, 320, 323, terms for 483, 484–85t 325n27, 328–31, 330 Cameroon chariots 18, 28, 326, 440, 505–6, 510 Aissa Dugjé 406–7, 410–11, 412 chefferies 284, 285, 293–94 Blé 406 children’s burials Doulo Igzawa 406 Kissi (Burkino Faso) 383, 384 Doulo Kwovré 410, 410 Numidia 264–65, 276 Houlouf 406 southern Lake Chad Basin 411 Mandara (Cameroon) 410, 412, 412, chouchet 254, 255, 268 413, 416 see also bazinas Camps, Gabriel 12–13, 249–50, 251–52, Christianity 331, 419 257–60, 262–63, 267, 269, 272, 281, ‘Christian’s Tomb (Kbour Roumia) 250, 257, 331, 505 293, 294 Aux origines de la Berbérie. Monuments et ‘Círculo del Estrecho’ 283 rites funéraires protohistoriques 251 Cirta 250, 256, 537 Camps-Fabrer, H. 272 citadels, fortified, Wadi Tanzzuft 120, 121 Camus, A. 319 Civrac, M. A. 452 Canary Islands 435, 438–39, 455 Clapperton, Hugh 451 Caputo, G. 54 Cleaveland, T. 444 caravan routes 112 climate 2–3, 23, 530 Carcopino, Jérôme, Le Maroc antique and linguistics 431 281 Middle Nile 199, 201, 206 carnelian beads Southern Lake Chad Basin 400, 405–6, Durbi Takusheyi (Nigeria) 415 421–22, 490 Morocco 333 Western Sahara 343–44, 367–68 Nigeria 409 see also ‘green Sahara’ concept southern Lake Chad Basin 406, 408, 409, Coarelli, F. 257 411, 414, 415, 417–18, 420 collective burials see multiple burials Carthage 250, 250, 282–83 colonisation 20t, 22, 23 bells 318 in Morocco 281, 285 burials 253, 260 Nubia by Egypt 9, 209–10, 212 red ochre 89 see also Roman period cowrie shells 300 ‘complex megalithic monuments’ 254–56, glass paste beads 297 255 Punic 446, 448 complex monuments 346–48t, 354, 355, see also Djebba; El Hkayma 356–57 castes 202, 452 conical tumuli cattle 2, 7, 436, 449 Fewet 112–14, 113 Lake Chad Basin 405, 489 Morocco 319, 325 caves, burial 253, 268 Connah, Graham 403, 408–9 Çelebi, Evliya 439 connectivity xxiv, 2, 21–22, 525, 530–31, 532 cemetery morphology 63–64 and the Western Sahara 358 Central Amazigh languages 466, 467, 470, 471, see also trade 473–76 conquest 20t, 22, 23, 378, 495–96, 537–38 Central Sahara 10–12 Islamic 539 Chabot, J.-B. 511 and language 470 Chad 19 Roman 437, 537 Mdaga 413–14 Songhay of Timbuktu 442 Mege 406 Vandal 538 see also Lake Chad Basin copper/copper alloy 201, 305, 449t Chadic languages 465, 487–93, 491t, 492t, 498 Kissi 31, 386–87, 403, 531–32

552 Index

copper/copper alloy (cont.) grave goods 269, 270, 272 Lake Chad Basin 409, 414, 415, 418 red ochre 272 Morocco 297, 298, 299, 318, 327–28, secondary burials 263, 264, 267–68 332, 333 Djebel Mazela (Algeria) 250, 252n9, 259, 260, corbeille monuments 346–48t, 349–52 263–64, 266–67, 268, 270 Corippus 515, 516 animal bone 270 covered galleries of Kabylia 256 pottery 273 cowrie shells Djebila (Morocco) 283, 286–87, 289, 290, Kissi (Burkino Faso) 386–87, 388 295–97, 296, 299–300, 301–2 Morocco 299–300, 305 djedars/jedars 293, 294, 513–14, 516 southern Lake Chad Basin 406, 409, 415 dogs 411, 499, 501 craftworkers, status of 202 dolmens 12–13 craniometry Northern Sahara/Maghrib 12–13, 254–56, Egyptian and Nubian 240 255, 268, 281 Fewet 168–72, 169, 170, 171 zenithal access 259, 260, 264, 277 Wadi al-Ajal 140–41, 144t, 145, 146–48, 147, domestic evidence, Wadi Tanzzuft 119–25, 149–55, 151, 152, 154 121, 122, 123, 124, 125 cremation 262–69, 272, 305, 527 domesticated animals see livestock crescent-shaped monuments 10, 15–16, Doulo Igzawa (Cameroon) 406 346–48t, 352–53, 359, 360–61t, 362–63 Doulo Kwovré (Cameroon) 410, 410 Crews, D. 231 Drake, N. A. 453 cults drum tombs 60, 65, 71–77, 72t, 80t, 92, 101 ancestor 118, 128–29, 273–74 Abalessa 102–3 Astarte 285, 298 beads 94 Egypt/Nile Valley/Eastern Sahara 9 Daima sites (Nigeria) 408–9 Fewet 101, 113, 115, 119, 127 Daniels, Charles 12, 54, 60, 69, 77, 85, 86, funerary furniture 98 180, 504 Iwelen (Niger) 18 Darfur (Sudan) 196–97, 198 Western Sahara 16 date palm cultivation 198n8, 212 drum-shaped monuments 60–61, 62, 64, Dawada 451, 455–56 65, 72t defended sites 505 square-rectangular 60–61, 62 Lake Chad Basin 403, 404, 420–21 see also bazinas Lower Nubia 225 Durbi Takusheyi (Nigeria) 414–15 Morocco 336–37 Wadi Tanzzuft 111n17, 120 East-West Amazigh 476–82, 478 demographic profile, Wadi al-Ajar 79–81, 80t Eastern Sahara 7, 8,10 Desert Migrations Project (DMP) 12, 54, 55, Egypt 8,10 62, 532 isotopic analysis of interaction in Nile Valley di Lernia, S. 359, 436, 449 223–41, 224, 229, 234t, 235t, 236 diaspora 31 and Libyans 503 diet El Hkayma (Tunisia) 250, 252, 253, 260, 261, Garamantian 134, 141–42, 148–49, 153–55, 262, 264–66, 267, 269 180, 183 grave goods 270, 272 Morocco 301, 302 El Khroub (Algeria) 250, 256, 262 Proto-Berber 485–87, 486t El Ksour (Tunisia) 252n9, 259, 260–61, 264, Tombos 239 266, 267, 269, 275 see also agriculture; livestock and animal bones 270 diffusion 20–21, 289, 495 funerary banquets 273 discrepant identity 26–27 funerary cults 274 Djebba (Tunisia) 250, 252, 253, 260, 261, 262, pottery 272 264, 266, 267 elephants 302–3 children’s burials 265 see also ivory

Index 553

Ellès (Tunisia) 250, 252, 254, 255, 261 AMS dates/chronological trends in burial ‘emergent-hierarchy’ 207–8 practice 71–79, 73–76t enamel hypoplasia 179–80 demographic profile 79–81, 80t enclosure type monuments, Numidia 252–53 grave furnishings 88–89t, 93, 95, 96, 97, Enfida (Tunisia) 250, 259, 266 98, 99–100 entanglement 110–11 orientation and treatment of the body environment see climate 81–89, 82, 83, 84t Erfoud (Morocco) 316, 317–18, 318 tomb survey 64–68, 65, 67, 68 excarnation 262–63, 269, 293, 527–28 tomb typologies 57–63, 58, 59 exogamy 20t, 23 identity 28 biological 134–56, 137, 144t, 146, 147, 150, Fazzan 10–12, 11, 503–04, 504–6, 533 151, 152, 154 see also Garamantes; Wadi al-Ajal; Wadi language 446, 447, 508–10 Tanzzuft and the southern Lake Chad Basin 418–22 feasts, funerary see banquets, funerary Gastel (Algeria) 250, 253, 266, 271, 272 Fedj el Koucha (Algeria) 250, 266 Gattefossé, J. 336 Fewet (Wadi Tanzzuft, Fazzan) 53, 101–3, 163 Gauthier, Y. 362–63 burials 60, 80–81, 100–1, 111–19, 113, 136 gender orientation 101–2 and burials 94, 98–99, 115 shrouds 101, 116 Middle Nile 204, 207 domestic architecture 120, 122, 123 task-specialisation 136 osteology 162–64, 237 genetics 22, 497, 498–500, 507–8 fish/fishing, Morocco 301 geology, Nile Valley 228–29 foggara irrigation systems 125, 125, 129, 135 Gerteiny, A. G. 450, 451 forced movement 535, 541–42 Ghadamis (Libya) 497, 538, 542 see also slavery language 473, 474–76, 476, 477, 478, 480, Fortier, C. 451 481 fortifications see defended sites Ghat (Libya) 125, 163, 497 Foum Larjam (Morocco) 16, 324, 325, language 473, 474, 476, 478, 481, 517 331–32, 534 textiles 116 Francis, E. D. 126 Ghwa Kiva (Nigeria) 406 Free Zone see Western Sahara Giddens, A. 26 frontiers 110–11 globalisation 21–22 Fuchs, P. 451 theory 24 Fulani 378, 391 Gobin, C. 353 funerary archaeology 3, 4–19, 526, 527 gold 17, 71, 88–89t, 91–92, 297–99, 298, 305, funerary banquets 273, 330 415, 421 funerary cults 273–74 goulets 346–48t, 353, 354, 356–57, 363 furniture Gour Mausoleum (Morocco) 276, 290, funerary 5, 63 291–92t, 293, 294, 333, 513 Fewet (Wadi Tanzzuft) 101, 102, grave goods 117–18, 127 Fazzan 12 Wadi al-Ajal 56, 97–99, 98 Fewet (Wadi Tanzzuft) 102–3, 116, 117, 127 Iwelen (Niger) 18 Gabès (Tunisia) 250, 266 Kissi (Burkino Faso) 385–90, 387, 388, 389, Gaetuli 509–10 390, 392, 393, 394–95 Gajiganna culture 399, 401–3, 402, 404–5, Morocco 291–92t, 295, 296, 298, 304, 305, 407–8 327, 328, 333, 337 Garamantes xxiii–xxiv, 10–12, 108–11, 125–29, bells 318 515–16, 517, 526, 536 Numidia 270–72 burials 9–10, 53–56, 54t, 55, 100–3, 529–30 southern Lake Chad Basin 409, 414, 417–18 excavated burials 68–71, 70t Southern Sahara, tomb of Tin Hinan 17–18

554 Index

grave goods (cont.) Morocco 297–99, 298, 305 Wadi al-Ajal 69–71, 77–78, 88–89t, 92, 93, southern Lake Chad Basin 403 95, 97, 98, 99–100 see also grave goods; jewellery Winchester (Britain) 21 irrigation systems ‘green Sahara’ concept 2–3, 400, 405–6, 431, Middle Nile 198n8 432, 448–50, 450, 454, 501 Wadi Tanzzuft 125, 125, 129 grinding equipment 123–24 Islam 333, 395, 419, 456, 496 Gronenborn, Detlef 409 Islamic remains 61, 72t, 336 Gsell, Stéphane 318, 337 isotopic analysis 143, 540–41 Guanche 435, 438–39, 455 Egypt and Nubia 223–41, 224, 229, 234t, 235t, 236 Haaland, G. 198 Fewet 180–83, 182 Hachid, Malika 510 and southern Lake Chad Basin 418 Hackendorf, R. 505 Wadi al-Ajal 141–42, 144t, 145–48, 146, 147, Haddad 452 154–55 haouanet 14, 253, 254, 260 ivory 302–3, 366 Haour, A. 419, 421 Iwelen (Niger) 18–19 Harvati, K. 140 Hassānāya Arabic 431, 432, 433t, 434, Jabal Bouïa (Morocco) see Bouïa (Morocco) 450–51, 456 Jacques-Meunié, D. 316, 321–24 headrests 86, 117 jar burials 411, 413, 414, 416, 419 Henchir Mided (Tunisia) 250, 252, 261, 264, Jarma see Wadi al-Ajal 267, 270, 272 jedars see djedars/jedars Hennessy, R. J. 141 jewellery Herodotus, Histories 108, 126, 330–31, 431, Kissi (Burkino Faso) 385–87, 387, 388,392–93 432, 440, 504–5 Morocco 299, 300, 305, 332 Holl, Augustin 413, 414 southern Lake Chad Basin 409 Holy, D. 204 see also beads horses 483, 484–85t, 503, 504–5, 508, 510 Jewish communities 331–32 southern Lake Chad Basin 406–7, 411, Jodin, A. 366 412, 418 Jorf Torba (Algeria) 15–16 Houlouf (Cameroon) 406 Human Mobility and Identity workgroup Kabyle 476, 478–79, 480, 481, 497, 508 137–38 Kabylie (Algeria) 256, 512 hunter-gatherers 2, 470 Kalaat es-Snam (Tunisia) 250, 260 hunting 448–49, 450–51, 455, 491 Kallala, N. 252 hypogea 9, 253, 260, 265, 267, 275–76 Kanuri-Kanembu 433, 439 Kapteijns, L. 212 Iberian Peninsula 281, 283, 303, 305–6 Kbour Roumia (the ‘Christian’s Tomb) Ibn Khaldun 446 (Morocco) 250, 257, 293, 294 Icard, F. 267 Kerma (Middle Nile) 198–99, 205–6, Ichoukkane 505 208–9, 225 identity 4, 24–28, 539–42 isotopic analysis 233, 234t, 235t Imraguen 451 language 200 In-Aghelachem 111–14, 112, 530 keyhole tombs 10, 356, 363 Royal Tumulus 111, 112, 118, 119 Kienlin, T. L. 199–200 infant burials see children’s burials kingdoms 200, 505 inhumation see treatment of the body in burial Middle Nile 200, 207, 208 inscriptions 444–46, 445, 447, 455, 456 Kissi (Burkino Faso) 375–78, 376, 377 iron burial practices 379, 380, 381, 382, 383, 384, tools 124 385, 387, 388, 389, 390, 395, 531–32 working 201–2 migration 395 Burkino Faso 375 modern parallels 390–95, 392, 393, 394

Index 555

Kitchen, Andrew 465 loom weights 124 Knudson, K. 237 straw matting 117 Kopytoff, I. 214 Awjila 9, 478, 481, 497 Kordofan (Sudan) 196–97 Barkat 116, 152–53, 154, 163 Kossmann, M. 437, 438, 448, 472n8 Ghadamis 497, 538, 542 language 473, 474–76, 476, 477, 478, Laguatan 538 480, 481 Lake Chad Basin (southern) 399–400, 402, Murzuq 152–53, 154 531–32 Murzuq region (Libya) 101n67, 125, 138 archaeological/historical background 400–4 Saniat bin Huwaydi 54, 61, 69, 70t connections/separations 404–7, 418–22 Watwat 54, 65, 77–78, 87–89, 149–55 see also Chadic languages osteology analysis 149, 150, 153 Lalla Ghano (Morocco) 290, 294, 297 Zinkekra 54, 60, 69, 70t, 77, 504 Lalla Mimouna (Morocco) 290, 291–92t osteology analysis 149, 150, 153, 154 lamps, vesicular basalt 113, 118 see also Fazzan; Garamantes landscapes Libyan Valleys Survey 6n24, 14–15 funerary 5–6, 532–34 Libyans, proto-Amazigh 503 and siting of monuments 363, 364, 365 Libyco-Berber Atlantic Europe 366–67 language 316, 431, 444–46, 445, 447, 455 languages and linguistics 431–32, 454–56 lip plugs 69, 91, 155, 419 former ethnolinguistic diversity 448–52, 450 Liverani, M. 108, 517 inscriptional languages 444–46, 445, 447, livestock 436, 449, 482, 484–85t, 498, 504 455, 456 Lake Chad Basin 403, 405, 489–90 language change 495–96, 497–98 Middle Nile 199 Middle Nile 200–1 in burials 208 and migration 22, 23 Lixus (Morocco) 281, 285–86, 302, 303–4, Nilo-Saharan (Eastern Sudanic) 200 507 and the present-day 432–44, 433t, 434, 435, loom weights, Aghram Nadharif 124 440, 441, 443, 443t Louata 515, 516 substrate words in Sahara languages 452, 453t, 454t Maban 454t, 488 see also Berbers, languages MacMichael, H. A. 440 Latin 436, 437–38, 445, 445–46, 487, 495, Maghreb 12–15, 507–8 511–12 see also Algeria; Mauretania; Morocco; Le Quellec, J. L. 452 Numidia; Western Sahara leather Magnavita, Carlos 408 bags 86–87 Makthar 250, 252, 256, 266, 274, 275 Kissi (Burkino Faso) 389 malaria 232 pillows, Fewet (Wadi Tanzzuft) 117 Malášková, Z. 448, 449t shrouds Mandara (Cameroon) 410, 412, 412, 413, Fewet (Wadi Tanzzuft) 101, 116, 117 416 Iwelen (Niger) 18 Manzi, G. 359 tomb of Tin Hinan 17 Margat, J. 319 Wadi al-Ajal 85–87 Marion, J. 336 Lebeuf, Jean-Paul 412–13 Masalit 197 legumes, Morocco 302 Matmata 469, 470–72, 471, 473, 476, 477, 478, ‘Leiterband Complex’ 205 481, 516–17 Leptiminus 14 matting in burials Leschi, L. 152 Fewet (Wadi Tanzzuft) 117 Lhote, H. 18 Kissi (Burkino Faso) 389–90 Libya Wadi al-Ajal burials 85 Aghram Nadharif (Barkat) 53, 101, 117, 120, Mauretania 6, 12–13, 15, 26, 299, 433t, 449, 121, 163 511, 529

556 Index

Mauretania (cont.) funerary 7, 512–14, 527, 528–29 and jedars 513–14 Central Sahara, Fazzan 57–63, 58, 59 Siga 250, 256, 286 Numidia 251–60, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, Zanega 435, 478–80, 502 258, 259 mausolea 61, 67 Western Sahara 15–16 Mdaga (Chad) 413–14 see also antennae tombs; bazinas; cairns; Mdidi (Tunisia) 14 conical tumuli; corbeille; crescent- Medracen (Morocco) 250, 257, shaped; dolmens; drum tombs; 294 enclosure type; keyhole tombs; megalithic structures see dolmens platform tumuli; pyramid tombs; Mege (Chad) 406 pyramids; ridge; shaft burials; silo- memorialisation 5–6, 30–31 shaped tombs; stepped tombs see also furniture; monuments; ritual ‘Moors’ 514–15 Merlo, S. 533–34 Moreno García, J. C. 431–32 Meroë/Meroitic kingdom 9, 209–12, Morocco 226 north-west 281–85, 282, 284, 286–87, 305–6 language 200, 201 cemeteries metals/metalworking burial practices 287, 288, 289, 530–31 Lake Chad Basin 403 chronology 294 Middle Nile 201 grave goods 295, 296, 298, 304, 305 Morocco 281–82, 297–99, 298, 333 tomb typologies 290, 293, 294 see also gold; silver tumuli 289–93, 290, 291–92t microliths 449–50 settlements 285–86 Middle Nile 195–97, 196, 215–16, 530 pre-Saharan 315, 317, 332–38 agriculture 197–98 funerary zones/monuments 317–28, 324, burials 9–10, 203–15, 226–27 325, 333 craft production 201–2 Adrar Zerzem 325, 326, 327, 328 ethnicity 198 Bouïa 319, 320, 321, 330, 335 language 200–1 Braber 323–24, 324, 330 pastoralism 197–98 Erfoud 316, 317–18, 318 social status 202–3, 206–10 Foum Larjam 16, 324, 325, 331–32 trade 199–200 Taouz 321–23, 322, 323, 330 migration 3–4, 19–24, 20t, 134–35, 395, settlement 335, 335–36 534–35, 543 tumuli 315–16 Neolithic (Pastoral) phase 535 with cruciform chapels 328–31, 330 first oasis settlements of the first with windows 331–32 millennium BC 535–36 Tamazight 466, 468, 469, 470, 472, 478, 479, Roman period 536–37 483, 517 late antique and early medieval periods morphometric analyses, Garamantes 143–44, 537–39 144t early modern and contemporary eras mound type monuments see cairns, mound 539 mud-brick architecture 120–23, 126, 127 Milburn, M. 362 multilevel funerary towers 256 ‘milking stools’, Fewet (Wadi Tanzzuft) multiple burials 117–18, 127 Fewet (Wadi Tanzzuft) 115 millet farming Kissi (Burkino Faso) 384 Kissi (Burkino Faso) 375–78, 391, 395 Middle Nile 210, 226–27 Lake Chad Basin 401 Morocco 334–35 mobility 20t, 22–24 Numidia 267–68, 277 Mogador (Morocco) 285, 298–99, 303, 318 Wadi al-Ajal 79–81 Monod, T. 353 mummification/mummies 9, 232, 438, 529 Monteil, C. 444 natural 77, 87 monuments Murzuq (Libya) 152–53, 154

Index 557

Murzuq region (Libya) 101n67, 125, 138 Wargla 467, 467, 470, 471, 471, 473, 474, 476, Mzab 467, 467, 470, 471, 474, 476, 478, 481, 478, 481, 497, 517 497, 517 ochre 13, 18, 19, 528, 529 Mzora (Morocco) 290, 291–92t, 293, 294 Fewet (Wadi Tanzzuft) 115–16 Morocco 287 Nafusa 472n8, 473, 476, 476, 477, 478, 481, 497 Numidia 272, 276 Napatan dynasty 223, 226–27, 230–31, 233, tomb of Tin Hinan 17 235–37, 240–41 Wadi al-Ajal 69, 84t, 87–89 Nasamones 330–31, 537n37 offering tables 63, 320 Nemadi 450, 451, 455–56 ‘Old North African’ (ONA) 455–56 Neumann, K. 401–3 olive cultivation 302, 449t, 506 Nicolaisen, I. 452 orientation Niger, Iwelen 18–19 burial Niger-Congo languages 444 Fewet (Wadi Tanzzuft) 101–2, 115 Nigeria Iwelen (Niger) 18 Borno 408–9 Kissi (Burkino Faso) 379, 382, 383, Daima sites 408–9 384, 390 Durbi Takusheyi 414–15 Middle Nile 203–4 Ghwa Kiva 406 Morocco 287, 288 Thuliva Kwacha 411–12, 413 southern Lake Chad Basin 409 Zilum 402, 406, 408, 415, 420–21 Wadi al-Ajal 81, 82, 83 Nile Valley 6–7, 8,10 see also treatment of the body drum tombs 9 of monuments 362–64, 363, 365 isotopic analysis 223–41, 224, 229, 234t, Osborne, R. 27 235t, 236 osteology see skeletal analysis strontium isotope analysis 228–31, 229 ostrich eggs Nilo-Saharan (Eastern Sudanic), languages beads made from 200, 440–44, 453, 454t southern Lake Chad Basin 409 nomadism 23, 24, 337, 516 Wadi al-Ajal 77, 78 Non-Tuareg Berber languages 433 Morocco 303, 304, 327–28 Nubia see Middle Nile; Tombos Oujda (Morocco) 284, 286, 293, 303, 306, 336 Numidia 249–50, 250, 275–77, 506–7 Ounia 440, 451 funerary ritual 261–74, 529 oxygen isotope analysis 231–37, 234t, 235t, 236 language 455 research history 251–52 painted decoration in tombs 16 structure of cemeteries 260–61 ‘Pan-Grave’ burials 213 types of funerary monuments 252–60, 253, Parenti, R. 152 254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259 Paris, F. 17, 356, 362 Park, D.P. 444 oasis languages 472n8, 475, 516–17 pastoralism 20t, 23, 24, 526, 535–36 Beni-Snous 466, 467, 470, 471, 473, 476, 478, and the Berber language 436–37, 456, 500–2 481, 497, 517 Lake Chad Basin 399, 405 Ghat 473, 474, 476, 478, 481, 517 Middle Nile 197–98, 204–5, 211–13 Moroccan Tamazight 466, 468, 469, 470, and Proto-Berber 499–502 472, 478, 479, 483, 517 see also livestock Mzab 467, 467, 470, 471, 474, 476, 478, 481, pathologies, dental, Fewet 179–80 497, 517 Pauphilet, P. 274 Rif 467, 470, 471, 473, 476, 478, 479, 481, 517 Phoenicians 14, 276, 281–83, 302, 446, 507, 531 Sanhaja 466, 467, 470, 471, 472–73, 473, 476, cremation 262 478, 479–80, 481, 497, 517 and Morocco 315 Shawiya 467, 467, 470, 471, 473, 476, 478, Punic 446–48, 449t 481, 497, 515, 516–17 pillows, leather 117

558 Index

pits, burial 253 Renfrew, Colin 495 placement/position reproductive behaviour, Fazzan 136 platform tumuli 345, 346–48t, 349, 355 Reygasse, M. 17, 18, 102–3 Plautus, Poenlus 446–47 ridge monuments 355, 356, 357 Pliny 446, 510 Rif 304, 497, 512, 515 POLISARIO 341–42 language 467, 470, 471, 473, 476, 478, 479, porotic hyperostosis 177–79 481, 517 pottery 126, 127, 526 ritual 5 Middle Nile 213 funerary 527–28 Morocco 296–97 Fewet (Wadi Tanzzuft) 117–18, 127 Numidia 270–72 Numidia 261–74 southern Lake Chad Basin 407, 417 ‘Royal Tumulus’ (In-Aghelachem) 118 Wadi Al-Ajal 65–66, 72, 88–89t, 90–91, 92, sleeping with the dead 329–31 93, 99, 100 Wadi al-Ajal 127 Wadi Tanzzuft 102–3, 117, 118, 127 rock art 127, 456, 525–26 preservation, bone 143–44 animals in 453 primary deposition 262, 263–65, 268, 334 Iwelen (Niger) 18 Fewet 115 Morocco 16, 282, 316 Procopius 515, 516 Roknia (Algeria) 250, 261, 266, 300 Proto-Amazigh 480, 483, 484–85t, 486t, 503–7 Roman period 26–27, 456, 509–12, 536–37, genetics 507–8 538–39 Proto-Berber 436, 447, 449t, 465, 482–87, 486t, burial practices 6n26 498–502 imports 114–15, 128–29, 531 proto-Central Amazigh 512–16 and Latin 436, 437–38, 445, 445–46, 487, 495 proto-Chadic language/society 465, 487–93, Leptiminus 14 491t, 492t Roset, J.-P. 400 proto-Chado-Berber 465, 492–93 Royal Cemeteries 54, 61, 102 proto-East-West Amazigh 508–12 beads 95 Punic 446–48, 449t, 495, 511 osteology analysis 149, 150 putrefaction of bodies 86 ‘Royal Tumulus’ (In-Aghelachem) 111, 112, pyramid tombs 61, 67, 69, 70t, 72t, 80t, 92 118, 119 pyramids, Egyptian 8–10 Ruhlmann, Armand 316, 317–18

quartz 357, 359–62, 360–61t, 364, 366–67 sacrifices 119, 274, 320, 328, 330, 332, 334 querns 18, 123–24, 128 human 119, 206, 290–93 Saguia al-Hamra 342, 344, 367 radiocarbon/AMS dating 62, 527 Saharan languages 431, 439, 440 Central Sahara 501n32 Sala (Morocco) 285, 297 Chad 413–14 Salih, A. 505 Kissi 380, 381 Sanhaja 466, 467, 470, 471, 472–73, 473, 476, Libya 436–37 478, 479–80, 481, 497, 517 Garamantian burials 69, 71–79, 73–76t Saniat bin Huwaydi (Libya) 54, 61, 69, 70t Morocco 16, 325, 328, 333, 501–2, 513–14 ‘Sao’ sites 412–14, 416 Tunisia 273 Saxe, A. 6 Western Sahara 341, 344, 355–56 Schuhmacher, T. X. 303, 366 Rakob, F. 257 secondary deposition 528 red ochre see ochre Morocco 290–93, 334 refugees 20t, 22, 367, 421, 537n37 Numidia 262–64, 266–67, 268 Reitsema, L. 231 southern Lake Chad Basin 408 religion 419–20 sedentarisation 198, 401–3, 536 Christianity 331, 419 see also agriculture; pastoralism Islam 333, 395, 419, 456, 496 Sen, A. 25 Jewish communities 331–32 Sétif region (Algeria) 250, 253

Index 559

shaft burials 60, 66, 67, 68, 69, 72t, 77–78, 80t, Middle Nile 202–3 84t, 84–85, 501 Smirat (Tunisia) 250, 272 grave goods 92, 94 Smith, H. F. 140, 141 Shawiya 467, 467, 470, 471, 473, 476, 478, 481, social memory 5–6 497, 515, 516–17 social mobility 21–22 shells 299–300 social status 530 Shenwa 467, 467–68, 471, 478, 481, 497 Durbi Takusheyi (Nigeria) 414–15 Shilh 469, 470, 473, 476, 478, 481, 497 and isotopic analysis 141 shrouds 85 Middle Nile 202–3, 206–10 Fewet (Wadi Tanzzuft) 101 craftworkers 202 Kissi (Burkino Faso) 389–90 Morocco 333–34 leather 17 southern Lake Chad Basin 414, 417–18 Fewet (Wadi Tanzzuft) 101 Wadi al-Ajal 152, 154–55 Iwelen (Niger) 18 Wadi Tanzzuft 119, 129 Wadi al-Ajal 85–87 solar alignment 62–63 Wadi al-Ajal burials 83–85, 84t Songhay languages 433, 434, 440–44, 441, 443, Shuwa Arabic 433–34 443t, 488 sickle-cell disease 231–32 Souk el Gour see Gour mausoleum Sidi Allal el Bahraoui (Morocco) 284, 290, Southern Lake Chad Basin, settlement 399, 291–92t, 293, 294 401–4, 402, 420–21 Sidi Bchir (Morocco) 290 Southern Sahara 17–19 Sidi Jari (Morocco) 290, 291–92t Souville, G. 283, 289–90, 293 Sidi Khelili (Morocco) 290, 291–92t, 293, 294 Spain see Iberian Peninsula Sidi Latrech (Tunisia) 250, 254 Spaulding, J. 212 Sidi Slimane (Morocco) 290, 291–92t, 293, standing stones 346–48t, 352, 357, 358, 365 294, 302 stelae 63, 97–99, 98 Siga (Mauretania) 250, 256, 286 funerary 102 Sigus (Algeria) 250, 266 Burkino Faso 379–81, 381 Sila (Algeria) 250, 264, 265, 267, 268, 270, 274, Fewet (Wadi Tanzzuft) 117 275–76 Moroccan 316, 330 silo-shaped tombs 253 of Pasenhor 503 silver 17, 71, 88–89t, 91–92, 297, 298, 299, 305 stepped tombs 9–10, 61, 66–68, 67, 69, 70t, 72t Simitthus (Tunisia) 250, 258, 261 Fewet 114 Simoneau, André 332, 336 pottery 92 Sivilli, S. 355–56, 362 Stockhammer, P. W. 110 Siwa 497, 504 Stojanowski, C. 237 languages 476, 478, 481, 509 Strabo 510 mummification 9 Stringer, C. B. 141 skeletal analysis strontium isotope analysis, Nile Valley Egyptian/Nubian 223–41, 224, 229, 234t, 228–31, 229 235t, 236 structuration theory 26 Garamantes Sudan 198 Fewet 162–64, 163, 183 Darfur 196–97, 198 craniometry 168–72, 169, 170, 171 Kordofan 196–97 dental dimensions 172–74, 173 Tombos 223–27, 224, 239–41 mortality profiles 164–68 burials 240–41 postcranial skeleton 174–77, 176, 178 porotic hyperostosis 178 sample 164, 165–66t strontium isotope analysis 229–31, 233, stress markers/dental pathologies 177–80 235t Wadi al-Ajal 135–37, 138–40, 144t, 145 slavery 20t, 22, 23–24, 539 tables, offering 63, 320 Lake Chad Basin 404, 407, 420–22 Tadrart Akakus see Wadi Tanzzuft/Tadrart and language 439 Akakus

560 Index

Tafilalat area (Morocco) 15–16 trading chiefs, Middle Nile 207 chapel monuments 276 trading communities 20t, 22 see also Bouïa; Braber; Erfoud; Taouz Trans-Sahara (defined) xxiv, 8 Tamazight, Moroccan 466, 468, 469, 470, 472, Trans-SAHARA Project xxiv–xxvi, 12, 478, 479, 483, 497, 517 134–35, 137 Taouz (Morocco) 321–23, 322, 323, 330 transhumance 20t, 20, 23, 205, 211, 213 Taqallit (Fazzan) 67 transportation, of bodies to burial 86, 204 burials 81–82, 82,98–100 treatment of the body in burials osteology analysis 149, 150, 153, 154 Iwelen (Niger) 18 Tashelhit 509, 511 Morocco 287–89, 288 task-specialisation 136 Numidia 262–69, 276–77 Tayadirt (Morocco) 284, 286, 290–93, 300, 303 southern Lake Chad Basin 415–16, 531 Tebessa (Algeria) 250, 253 Daima/Borno 408–9 Teboursouk (Tunisia) 250, 266 Gajiganna Culture 407–8 Teda-Daza 432, 434, 440 Mandara 410, 412, 413, 416 teeth, see under skeletal analysis ‘Sao’ sites 414 textiles Wadi al-Ajal 83–89, 84t Fewet (Wadi Tanzzuft) 116–17 trephinations 136–37 Kissi (Burkino Faso) 387, 390 Tripolitania 61, 446, 511, 515, 531, 537n36, 538 see also shrouds Tuareg 26, 378, 379, 435, 452–53, 453t, 455–56, Thamusida (Morocco) 285–86, 297, 300, 302, 478, 481 303–4 and genetics 507–8 Thébert, Y. 257 language 473, 474–78, 476, 480, 484–85t, Thugga 250, 256, 256, 261, 286 517 Thuliva Kwacha (Nigeria) 411–12, 413 and Tin Hinan 17 Tiddis (Algeria) 253, 260, 264, 267, 268 Tuareg Berber, language 432, 434 children’s burials 265 Tubiana, Joseph and Marie-Jose 440, 451 pottery 270, 271 Tubu see Teda-Daza Tiffech (Algeria) 250, 266 tumuli see monuments, funerary Tifinagh inscriptions 128, 444–45, 511 Tunisia Tin Hanan (Algeria) 17–19, 103, 530 Althiburos 14, 249, 250, 276, 506–7, 529 Tissot, Charles 281 bone in domestic areas 268–69 Tombeau de la Chrétienne 250, 257, 293, 294 pottery 271, 272, 273 Tombos (Sudan) 223–27, 224, 239–41 Ellès 250, 252, 254, 255, 261 burials 240–41 Enfida 250, 259, 266 porotic hyperostosis 178 Gabès 250, 266 strontium isotope analysis 229–31, 233, 235t Henchir Mided 250, 252, 261, 264, 267, tools 299 270, 272 iron 124, 403 Kalaat es-Snam 250, 260 trade 20t, 56, 126–27, 136, 155, 526, 531, Mdidi (Tunisia) 14 532, 542 Sidi Latrech 250, 254 caravan routes 112 Simitthus 250, 258, 261 Durbi Takusheyi (Nigeria) 415 Smirat 250, 272 Egypt/Nubia 225 Teboursouk 250, 266 (Kissi) Burkino Faso 378 see also Djebba; El Ksour; Numidia Middle Nile 199–200 Morocco 333, 338 urbanisation 443t, 444, 505, 526 and Iberian Peninsula 297, 301, 303, 305–6 V-shaped monuments 346–48t, 352, 352–53, southern Lake Chad Basin 406–7, 355–56, 363 417–18, 420 Valencia de la Concepción (Spain) 366 Western Sahara 343–44, 366 Vandals 515 see also slavery Vernet, R. 359

Index 561

vesicular basalt weapons 455 bowls, Wadi Tanzzuft 124, 125 as grave goods 337 lamps, Wadi Tanzzuft 113, 118 Kissi (Burkino Faso) 387, 389, 393 Volubilis (Morocco) 283, 284, 285, 286, 290, microliths 449–50 299n48, 303, 511 Weaver, T. D. 140 von Cramon-Taubadel, N. 141 West Africa and Chad 19 Western Sahara 15–17, 341–44, 342, 343, 530 Wadi al-Ajal 53, 111, 532 monuments 344–58, 349, 350, 351, 353, 354, biological identity 134–56, 137, 144t, 146, 355, 356, 357, 358, 364–66, 513 147, 150, 151, 152, 154 locations/alignments 362–64, 363, 365 burials 60, 64–68, 65, 67, 68, 102 use of colours/materials 362 and the Garamantes 108, 125–29 use of quartz 357, 359–62, 360–61t, 364 Wadi Draa (Morocco) 15–16, 337–38, 531, Western Sahara Project 344 533, 534 Western Sahelian languages 488 horse/chariot engravings 505 Wilson, Andrew 56, 496, 512 see also Adrar Zerzem; Foum Larjam Wölfel, D. J. 438–39 Wadi Gir (Algeria) 15 word borrowing 469–70, 479 Wadi Tanzzuft/Tadrart Akakus (Fazzan) and Berber 442, 469–70 11–12, 108–11, 109, 529 and Latin 436, 437, 487 burials 111–19 and Punic 447–48, 449t cairns 57–60 and Songhay 444 drum-shaped monuments 60 Wynne-Jones, S. 419 domestic evidence 119–25, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125 Al-Ya’qubi 440 Wadi Tifariti (Western Sahara) 364, 367, 513 wage labour 20t, 23, 537 Zaghawa see Beria Wargla 467, 467, 470, 471, 471, 473, 474, 476, Zenaga 435, 448, 452–53, 476, 478–80, 481, 478, 481, 497, 517 483, 484–85t, 486–87, 497, 499, 501–2 water, availability of 3 Zenati language 472–73 water courses 448–49 zenithal access dolmens 259, 260, 264, 277 Western Sahara 344, 358, 367–68 Zilum (Nigeria) 402, 406, 408, 415, 420–21 Watwat (Libya) 54, 65, 77–78, 87–89, 149–55 Zinkekra (Libya) 54, 60, 69, 70t, 77, 504 osteology analysis 149, 150, 153 osteology analysis 149, 150, 153, 154