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Discourse and the Power of Symbols: Representation and Regulation Of AN ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS OF Jennifer L. Sweatman for the Degree of Master of Arts in Interdisciplinary Studies in Histoiy, Philosophy, and Women's Studies presented on May 6, 1999. Title: Discourse and the Power of Symbols: Representation and Regulation of Prostitution in France, 183 1-1975. 1') Signature redacted for privacy. Abstract approved: Robert A. Nye This is a study of the representations of prostitutes and prostitution produced within a particular historical framework-regulationism. Drawing support from public health movements, campaigns against depopulation and degeneration and protest from feminists and socialists, the "French system" of regulation of prostitution occupied center stage in social debates from the mid- nineteenth century to 1975. Within this context, images of prostitutes and their work proliferated. Prostitutes came to symbolize the key tensions of modern, industrial, urban life. Like women generally, prostitutes represented the social body. Their bodies, as female bodies, were caught in a network of attempts to "properly" channel sexual activity. Through their "promiscuous" lifestyles, class origins, and social mobility, they violated key tenets of familialism, and models of proper womanhood, and they eluded the determined gaze of regulationists. Additionally, prostitution became associated with the "dangerous" working classes so that discourses about the control and regulation of prostitutes' bodies were inseparable from similar discourses about the control of the working classes. The bourgeois fears and anxieties about the threats of working-class revolt within the tight quarters of Paris brought to the surface underlying themes of the inherent danger of the city, the assumed irrationality of the "masses," and the threat posed by dangerous and sexually "loose" women. My method has been to examine these constructions and how they were produced in discourses. This makes my study a "discursive" one and situates my. work in a particular genre of historical study usually referred to a "postuiodern." However, I would like to emphasize that part of my method has included an attempt to fmd a balance between the material conditions of a French society in transition by referring to the themes of industrialization and women's condition with the more linguistic aspects of the production of subjects through language. This approach necessarily makes my project limited; but, as I discuss in the conclusion, there are no historical records of desire and pleasure that can merely be taken up and reproduced for our contemporary eyes. I refer to this as an empirical problem in the history of sexuality in the Conclusion. I have found that it is impossible to "discover "what women (and men) thought and felt, which necessitates dealing with discursive production. Discourse and the Power of Symbols: Representation and Regulation of Prostitution in France 183 1-1975. by Jennifer L. Sweatman A THESIS submitted to Oregon State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Interdisciplinary Studies Presented May 6, 1999 Commencement June 1999 Master of Arts in Interdisciplinary Studies thesis of JenniferL. Sweatman presented on May 6, 1999. APPROVED: Signature redacted for privacy. Major Professor, representing Hist/' Signatureredacted forprivacy. Committee Member, representing Philosophy Signature redacted forprivacy. Committee Member, representing Women's Studies Signatureredacted forprivacy. Chair of Department of History Signatureredacted for privacy. Dof3r S I understand that my thesis will becomepart of the permanent collection of Oregon State University libraries. My signature below authorizesrelease of my thesis to any reader upon request. Signature redactedfor privacy. Jenifer L. eaiman, Author TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Introduction i Chapter 1: The Medico-Moral Framework 6 The Origin of Public Health 7 The Development of Soliclarism 9 Chapter 2: The Role of Solidarism in Shaping Women's Lives.....................14 The Movement for Women's Suffrage 17 Women's Bodies as the Social Body 21 Chapter 3: The Logic of Regulationism................................................25 Complications in Regulationist System 32 Blurring the Boundaries: Suspicious Women in the Streets 36 Chapter 4: Challenges to Regulationism 42 French Feminists Challenge Regulation 45 Socialist Responses to Regulationism 51 The Victory of the Medico-Moral Framework 52 Chapter 5: Woman as Fetish 54 Commodification of Social Relationships 56 The Spectacle of Dangerous Women 61 Tne Masquerade 63 The Paintings of Manet... 70 Chapter 6: The Twentieth Century 85 1975-The Prostitute's Strike 92 Self-Representation: The Prostitutes' Testimonies 96 Chapter 7: Conclusion . 100 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued) Endnotes 108 Bibliography. 116 LIST OF FIGIJRES Figure Page 1 Edouard Manet, Café-Concert, 1878, oil on canvas, Walters Art Gallery, Baltimore................59 2 Edouard Manet, The Waitress, 1878-1879 oil on canvas, Musee d'Orsay, Paris...................60 3 Jean Quidam (Douglas Jerrald), "A Man Who Follows Women," La Vie Amusante, 1878- 1879, and Le Monde Comique, 1879-1880............67 4 Edouard Manet, Women Drinking Beer, 1878 pastel on canvas, Burreli Collection, Glasgow Museum and Art College 71 5 Edouard Manet, The Plum, Ca. 1877, oil on Canvas, National Galleiy of Art, Washington, D.0 .............................................72 6 Edouard Manet, Olvmp4a, 1863, oil on canvas, Musee d'Orsay, Paris 74 7 Titian, Venus of Urbino.. Florence Galleria Degli Uffizia........................ 75 Edouard Manet, Nana, 1877, oil on canvas, Kursthalle, Hamburg........................... 77 Edouard Manet, The Garter (The Toilette), 1878, pastel on canvas, Chdrupgaard College, Copenhagen............................................79 10 Edouard Manet, Before the Mirror, 1876, oil on canvas, Justin K. Thannhauser Collection, Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York.. 80 11 Edouard Manet, A Bar at the Folies-Bergere, 1882, oil on canvas, Court auld Institute Galleries, London 030' 12 The prostitute as death and war. C.D. Batchelor, 1937, courtesy of the Chicago Tribune, New York News Syndicate, Inc 87 LIST OF FIGURES (Continued) Figure Page 13 Venereal Disease Warning, Reginald Mount; Imperial War Museum, London 88 14 "Keep Mum..." Fougasse, Imperial War Museum, London, ca 1940..............................91 15 St. Nizier Occupatioi, Claude Jaget, Prostitutes: Our Life 93 16 Group Statement of Lyons Strikers, 1975, Claude Jaget 94 17 List of Demands of Lyons Strikers, 1975 Claude Jaget...............................................95 Discourse and the Power of Symbols: Representation and Reiulation of Prostitution in France 1831-1975. Introduction A former prostitute named Sandy summarized the tensions I will explore when she said, "it's like prostitutes are just these bodies who are somehow connected to something bad and evil or something good and on the cutting edge of revolution. They just turn us into symbols." While she is referring to 'middle-class feminists' of the 1970-1990's, her statement applies as well to the history of prostitution in France from the nineteenth century to the present. By examining the representations of prostitutes produced in the regulation of prostitution, called the "French system" by nineteenth century commentators, one can grasp more easily the weight of Sandy's statement. My own motivations for this project were to seek out explanations for this synibolic role the prostitute plays in our contemporary society. Influenced by current feminist theorizing about sexuality and sex work, often referred to as the sex wars, I began to sense that something about this debate was problematic and that this debate was producing some of the key dilemmas for feminism. Through doing this project I have found that to adequately deal with the issue of prostitution and what it means for women, one must address the history of the symbolic role of the prostitute because it is here that the foundations of our contemporary debate becomes clear. Our current association of the prostitute with social and moral problems is not new. Writers, artists, policy makers, reformers. feminists and other social groups deployed powerful images of prostitutes to address social issues throughout the nineteenth century and into the twentieth century. Prostitutes came to symbolize the 2 unique set of problems associated with modem, urban, industrial society: disease, degeneration, depopulation, the breakdown of class and gender barriers, changes in sexual mores, the rise of consumer culture and the threat of political radicalism. Timothy Gilfoyle, in a recent American Historical Review article, challenges historians of prostitution to re-examine their equation of prostitution with modernity by arguing that there are elements of commercial sex that transcend time.2 He asks what is unique about prostitution in the so-called "modem" period that distinguishes it from earlier forms and debates about prostitution. Certainly Gilfoyle has a point; the modern association of prostitutes with disorder is not a new phenomenon. Alan Hunt, in his study of suinptuary law notes that medieval Europeans were also concerned with distinguishing "bad" women from "good" women and associated prostitutes with disorder.3 So, there does seem to be some continuity through historical time in images of prostitutes. However, what one seesinthe modem representations of prostitutes and the regulation of their work as a social activity is different than
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