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Burj Khalifa

"Khalifa "),[2] formerly known as Burj , isب رج خ ل ي فة : ( a in Dubai, , and thetallest man-made structure ever built, at 828 m (2,717 ft).[2] began on 21 September 2004, with the exterior of the structure completed on 1 October 2009. The building officially opened on 4 January 2010.[1][9] The building is part of the 2 km2 (490- acre) flagship development called Downtown Burj Khalifa at the "First Interchange" along Sheikh Zayed Road, near Dubai's main business district.

The tower's architecture and engineering were performed by Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill of . , who worked with Skidmore, Owings and Merrill until 2006, was the chief architect, and Bill Baker was the chief structural engineer for the project.[10][11] The primary contractor was C&T of South Korea, who also built the 101 and Twin .[12] Major subcontractors included Belgian group Besix and Arabtec from the UAE. Turner Construction Company was chosen as the construction project manager.[13]Under UAE law, the Contractor and the Engineer of Record are jointly and severally liable for the performance of Burj Khalifa. Therefore, by adoption of SOM's design and by being appointed as Architect and Engineer of Record, Hyder Consulting is legally the Design Consultant for .

The total cost for the Burj Khalifa project was about US$1.5 billion; and for the entire new "", US$20 billion.[14] Mohamed Ali Alabbar, the Chairman of , speaking at the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat 8th World Congress, said in March 2009 that the price of office space at Burj Khalifa had reached US$4,000 per sq ft (over US$43,000 per m2) and that the Armani Residences, also in Burj Khalifa, were selling for US$3,500 per sq ft (over US$37,500 per m2).[15] The completion of the tower coincided with a worldwide economic slump and overbuilding, causing it to be described as "the latest ... in [a] string of monuments to architectural vacancy

Height Current records

. Tallest skyscraper to top of spire: 828 m (2,717 ft) (previously – 509.2 m/1,671 ft) . Tallest structure ever built: 828 m (2,717 ft) (previously mast – 646.38 m/2,121 ft) . Tallest extant structure: 828 m (2,717 ft) (previously KVLY-TV mast – 628.8 m/2,063 ft) . Tallest freestanding structure: 828 m (2,717 ft) (previously CN Tower – 553.3 m/1,815 ft) . Building with most floors: 160 (previously – 108)[17] . World's highest installation,situated inside a rod at the very top of the building[18][19] . World's fastest at speed of 64 km/h (40 mph) or 18 m/s (59 ft/s)[19] (previously Taipei 101 – 16.83 m/s) . Highest vertical pumping (for a building): 606 m (1,988 ft)[20] (previously Taipei 101 – 449.2 m/1,474 ft) . Highest vertical concrete pumping (for any construction): 606 m (1,988 ft)[20] (previously Riva del Garda Hydroelectric Power Plant – 532 m/1,745 ft[21]) . The first world's tallest structure in history to include residential space[22] . Highest outdoor in (124th floor) at 442 m (1,450 ft)[23] [24][25] . World's highest (located on the 158th floor)[26][27] . World's highest installation of an aluminium and glass façade, at a height of 512 m (1,680 ft)[28] . World's highest swimming pool (76th floor)[26] (previously World Financial Center – 85th floor)

There are unconfirmed reports of several planned height increases since its inception. Originally proposed as a virtual clone of the 560 m (1,837 ft)Grollo Tower proposal for , 's Docklands waterfront development, the tower was redesigned with an original design by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill (SOM) discussed below.[29] Marshall Strabala, an SOM architect who worked on the project until 2006, late 2008 said that Burj Khalifa was designed to be 808 m (2,650 ft) tall.[30]

The design architect, Adrian Smith, felt that the uppermost section of the building did not culminate elegantly with the rest of the structure, so he sought and received approval to increase it to the current height.[citation needed] It has been explicitly stated that this change did not include any added floors, which is fitting with Smith's attempts to make the crown more slender Delay

Emaar Properties announced on 9 June 2008 that construction of Burj Khalifa was delayed by upgraded finishes and would be completed only in September 2009.[32] An Emaar spokesperson said "The luxury finishes that were decided on in 2004, when the tower was initially conceptualized, is now being replaced by upgraded finishes. The design of the has also been enhanced to make them more aesthetically attractive and functionally superior."[33] A revised completion date of 2 December 2009 was then announced.[34] However, Burj Khalifa was opened on 4 January 2010

The tower is designed by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill, which also designed the Willis Tower (formerly the Tower) in Chicago, and 1 World Trade Center in , among numerous other famous high-rises. The building resembles the bundled form of the Willis Tower, but is not a tube structure. Its design is reminiscent of Frank Lloyd Wright's vision for , a mile-high skyscraper designed for Chicago. According to Marshall Strabala, an SOM architect who worked on the building's design team, Burj Khalifa was designed based on the 73-floor Tower Palace Three, an all-residential building in Seoul, South Korea. In its early planning, Burj Khalifa was intended to be entirely residential.[30] Subsequent to the original design by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill, Emaar Properties chose Hyder Consulting to be the supervising engineer.[35] Hyder was selected for its expertise in structural and MEP (mechanical, electrical and plumbing) engineering.[36] Hyder Consulting's role was to supervise construction, certify SOM's design, and be the engineer and architect of record to the UAE authorities.[35] Emaar Properties also engaged GHD,[37] an international multidisciplinary consulting firm, to act as an independent verification and testing authority for concrete and steelwork.

The design of Burj Khalifa is derived from patterning systems[38] embodied in . According to the structural engineer Bill Baker of Burj Khalifa, the building's design incorporates cultural and historical elements particular to the region. The Y-shaped plan is ideal for residential and hotel usage, with the wings allowing maximum outward views and inward natural light.[39] The design architect Adrian Smith has said the triple-lobed footprint of the building was inspired by the flower Hymenocallis.[40] The tower is composed of three elements arranged around a central core. As the tower rises from the flat desert base, setbacks occur at each element in an upward spiralling pattern, decreasing the cross section of the tower as it reaches toward the sky. There are 27 terraces in Burj Khalifa. At the top, the central core emerges and is sculpted to form a finishing spire. A Y-shaped floor plan maximizes views of the Persian Gulf. Viewed from above or from the base, the form also evokes the onion domes of Islamic architecture. During the design process, engineers rotated the building 120 degrees from its original layout to reduce stress from prevailing winds. At its tallest point, the tower sways a total of 1.5 m (4.9 ft).[41] To support the unprecedented height of the building, the engineers developed a new structural system called the buttressed core, which consists of a hexagonal core reinforced by three buttresses that form the ‘Y'‎shape.‎This‎structural‎system‎enables‎the‎building‎to‎support‎itself‎laterally‎ and keeps it from twisting[42]. The spire of Burj Khalifa is composed of more than 4,000 tonnes (4,400 ST; 3,900 LT) of structural steel. The central pinnacle pipe weighing 350 tonnes (390 ST; 340 LT) was constructed from inside the building and jacked to its full height of over 200 m (660 ft) using a strand jack system. The spire also houses communications equipment.[43]

More than 1,000 pieces of art will adorn the interiors of Burj Khalifa, while the residential lobby of Burj Khalifa will have the artwork of 196 bronze andbrass alloy cymbals representing the 196 countries of the world. The visitors in this lobby will be able to hear a distinct timbre as the cymbals, plated with 18- carat gold, are struck by dripping water, intended to mimic the sound of water falling on leaves.[44]

The exterior cladding of Burj Khalifa consists of 142,000 m2 (1,528,000 sq ft) of reflective glazing, and aluminium and textured spandrelpanels with vertical tubular fins. The cladding system is designed to withstand Dubai's extreme summer temperatures. Additionally, the exterior temperature at the top of the building is thought to be 6°C (11°F) cooler than at its base.[45] Over 26,000 glass panels were used in the exterior cladding of Burj Khalifa. Over 300 cladding specialists from were brought in for the cladding work on the tower.[43]

The hotel interior will be decorated by Giorgio Armani. An Armani Hotel, the first of four by Armani, will occupy 15 of the lower 39 floors.[46] The hotel will be opened on 18 March 2010.[47][48] whereas the Corporate Suites and offices, will be opened from March onwards.[49] The sky lobbies on the 43rd and 76th floors will house swimming pools.[50] Floors through to 108 will have 900 private residential apartments (which, according to the developer, sold out within eight hours of being on the market). An outdoor zero-entry swimming pool will be located on the 76th floor of the tower. Corporate offices and suites fill most of the remaining floors, except for a 122nd, 123rd and 124th floor where the At.mosphere restaurant, and an indoor and outdoor observation deck is located respectively. Burj Khalifa will receive its first residents from February 2010. They will be among the first of 25,000 people who will live there.[50][51] The outdoor observation deck, opened on 5 January 2010, is the highest in the world, at 442 m (1,450 ft). Tickets are time stamped at 30-minute intervals, on specific days, in order to carefully manage the daily rush of sightseers. Introductory ticket price is AED 100 for adults and AED 75 for children up to 12 years.[52]

Burj Khalifa is expected to hold up to 35,000[53] people at any one time.[54] A total of 57 elevators and 8 escalators are installed,[43],with the capacity of 12 to 14 people per cabin[55] the fastest rising and descending at up to 18 m/s (59 ft/s).[56] Engineers had considered installing the world's first triple-deck elevators, but the final design calls for double-deck elevators.[22]Double-deck elevators, are with built in light and entertainment features including LCD displays, which serves the visitors throughout their travel to the Observation deck[57]The building has 2,909 stairs from the ground floor to the 160th floor.[58]

The graphic design identity work for Burj Khalifa is the responsibility of Brash Brands, who are based in Dubai. Design of the global launch events, communications, and visitors centers[59]for Burj Khalifa have also been created by Brash Brands as well as the roadshow exhibition for the Armani Residences, which are part of the Armani Hotel within Burj Khalifa, which toured Milan, , , and Delhi Water supply system

The Burj Khalifa's water system will supply an average of about 946,000 litres of water per day. At the peak cooling times, the tower will require approximately 10,000 tonnes of cooling per hour, which is equivalent to the capacity provided by 10,000 tonnes (22.4 million lbs or 10.2 million kg) of melting ice in one day[61].

The building has a condensate collection system, which uses the hot and humid outside air, combined with the cooling requirements of the building and will result in a significant amount of condensation of moisture from the air. The condensed water will be collected and drained into a holding tank located in the basement car park,this water will then be pumped into the site irrigation system for use on the Burj khalifa park[62]. Maintenance

To wash the 24,348 windows, a horizontal track has been installed on the exterior of Burj Khalifa at levels 40, 73 and 109. Each track holds a 1,500 kg (3,300 lb) bucket machine which moves horizontally and then vertically using heavy cables. Above level 109, up to tier 27 traditional cradles from davits are used. The top of the spire, however, is reserved for specialist window cleaners, who brave the heights and high winds dangling by ropes to clean and inspect the top of .[63] Under normal conditions, when all building maintenance units will be operational, it will take 36 workers three to four months to clean the entire exterior facade.[43][64]

Unmanned machines will clean the top 27 additional tiers and the glass spire. The cleaning system was developed in Australia at a cost of A$8 million.[64]

Outside, and at a cost of Dh 800 million (US$217 million), a record-setting fountain system was designed by WET Design, the -based company responsible for the fountains at the Bellagio Hotel Lake in Las Vegas. Illuminated by 6,600 lights and 50 coloured projectors, it is 275 m (900 ft) long and shoots water 150 m (490 ft) into the air, accompanied by a range of classical to contemporary Arabic and world music.[65] On 26 October 2008 Emaar announced that based on results of a naming contest the fountain would be called Burj Khalifa park

Burj Khalifa is surrounded by an 11 ha (1,200,000 sq ft) park. The design of the park is also inspired by the core design concepts of Burj Khalifa which is based on the symmetries of the desert flower, Hymenocallis.[67] The park has six water features, gardens, palm lined walkways, and flowering trees.[68] At the centre of the park and the base of Burj Khalifa is the water room, which is a series of pools and water jet fountains. In addition the railing, benches and signs incorporate images of Burj Khalifa and the Hymenocallis flower. The plants and the shrubbery will be watered by the buildings's condensation collection system,that uses water from the cooling system. The system will provide 15,000,000 imp gal (68,000,000 L) annually.[68] WET designers, who also developed the Dubai Fountain, developed the park's six water features

Construction

The tower was constructed by a South Korean company, Samsung Engineering & Construction, which also did work on the Petronas Twin Towersand Taipei 101.[70] Samsung Engineering & Construction is building the tower in a joint venture with Besix from and Arabtec from UAE.Turner is the Project Manager on the main construction contract.

The primary structural system of Burj Khalifa is reinforced concrete. Over 45,000 m3 (58,900 cu yd) of concrete, weighing more than 110,000 tonnes(120,000 ST; 110,000 LT) were used to construct the concrete and steel foundation, which features 192 piles, with each pile is 1.5 metre diameter 43 metre long buried more than 50 m (164 ft) deep.[22] Burj Khalifa's construction used 330,000 m3 (431,600 cu yd) of concrete and 55,000 tonnes of steel rebar, and construction took 22 million man-hours.[10] A high density, low permeability concrete was used in the foundations of Burj Khalifa. A cathodic protection system under the mat is used to minimize any detrimental effects from corrosive chemicals in local ground water.[43]

The previous record for pumping concrete on any project was set during the extension of the Riva del Garda Hydroelectric Power Plant in Italy in 1994, when concrete was pumped to a height of 532 m (1,745 ft). Burj Khalifa exceeded this height on 19 August 2007, and as of May 2008 concrete was pumped to a delivery height of 606 m (1,988 ft),[20] the 156th floor. The remaining structure above is built of lighter steel.

Burj Khalifa is highly compartmentalised. Pressurized, air-conditioned refuge floors are located approximately every 35 floors where people can shelter on their long walk down to safety in case of an emergency or fire.[43][71]

Special mixes of concrete are made to withstand the extreme pressures of the massive building weight; as is typical with reinforced concrete construction, each batch of concrete used was tested to ensure it could withstand certain pressures.

The consistency of the concrete used in the project was essential. It was difficult to create a concrete that could withstand both the thousands of tonnes bearing down on it and Persian Gulf temperatures that can reach 50 °C (122 °F). To combat this problem, the concrete was not poured during the day. Instead, during the summer months ice was added to the mixture and it was poured at night when the air is cooler and the humidity is higher. A cooler concrete mixture cures evenly throughout and is therefore less likely to set too quickly and crack. Any significant cracks could have put the entire project in jeopardy.

The unique design and engineering challenges of building Burj Khalifa have been featured in a number of television documentaries, including the Big, Bigger, Biggest series on the National Geographic and Five channels, and the Mega Builders series on the Discovery Channel. Labour controversy Further information: Human rights in the United Arab Emirates

Burj Khalifa was built primarily by workers from South Asia.[72][73] Press reports indicated in 2006 that skilled carpenters at the site earned UK£4.34 a day, and labourers earned UK£2.84.[72] According to a BBC investigation and a report, the workers were housed in abysmal conditions, their pay was often withheld, their passports were confiscated by their employers, and they were working in hazardous conditions that resulted in an apparently high number of deaths and injuries on site.[74]

On 21 March 2006, about 2,500 workers, who were upset over buses that were delayed for the end of their shifts, protested, damaging cars, offices, computers, and construction equipment.[72] A Dubai Interior Ministry official said the rioters caused almost UK£500,000 in damage.[72] Most of the workers involved in the riot returned the following day but refused to work.[72]

On 17 June 2008, there were 7,500 skilled workers employed in the construction of Burj Khalifa.[32] Milestones

. January 2004: Excavation commences.[28] . February 2004: Piling starts.[28] . 21 September 2004: Emaar contractors begin construction.[75] . March 2005: Structure of Burj Khalifa starts rising.[28] . June 2006: Level 50 is reached.[28] . February 2007: Surpasses the Sears Tower as the building with the most floors. . 13 May 2007: Sets record for vertical concrete pumping on any building at 452 m (1,483 ft), surpassing the 449.2 m (1,474 ft) to which concrete was pumped during the construction ofTaipei 101, while Burj Khalifa reached 130 floor.[28][76] . 21 July 2007: Surpasses Taipei 101, whose height of 509.2 m (1,671 ft) made it the world's tallest building, and level 141 reached.[28][77] . 12 August 2007: Surpasses the Sears Tower , which stands 527.3 m (1,730 ft). . 12 September 2007: At 555.3 m (1,822 ft), becomes the world's tallest freestanding structure, surpassing the CN Tower in Toronto, and level 150 reached.[28][78] . 7 April 2008: At 629 m (2,064 ft), surpasses the KVLY-TV Mast to become the tallest man-made structure, level 160 reached.[28][79] . 17 June 2008: Emaar announces that Burj Khalifa's height is over 636 m (2,087 ft) and that its final height will not be given until it is completed in September 2009.[32] . 1 September 2008: Height tops 688 m (2,257 ft), making it the tallest man-made structure ever built, surpassing the previous record-holder, the in Konstantynów,.[80] . 17 January 2009: Topped out at 828 m (2,717 ft).[81] . 1 October 2009: Emaar announces that the exterior of the building is completed.[82] . 4 January 2010: Burj Khalifa's official launch ceremony is held and Burj Khalifa is opened. Burj Dubai renamed Burj Khalifa in honour of the current President of the UAE and ruler of Abu Dhabi, Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed al Nahyan.[2] Floor plans

The following is a breakdown of floors.[43][83]

Floors Use

160 and above Mechanical

156-159 Communication and broadcast

155 Mechanical

139–154 Corporate suites

136–138 Mechanical

125–135 Corporate suites

124 At the Top observatory 123 Sky lobby

122 At.mosphere restaurant

111–121 Corporate suites

109–110 Mechanical

77–108 Residential

76 Sky lobby

73–75 Mechanical

44–72 Residential

43 Sky lobby

40–42 Mechanical

38–39 Armani Hotel suites

19–37 Armani Residences

17–18 Mechanical

9–16 Armani Residences 1–8 Armani Hotel

Ground Armani Hotel

Concourse Armani Hotel

B1–B2 Parking, mechanical

Opening ceremony

The opening ceremony of Burj Khalifa was held on 4 January 2010.[84] The ceremony featured a display of 10,000 fireworks, light beams projected on and around the tower, and further sound, light and water effects.[85] Using the 868 powerful stroboscope lights that are integrated into the facade and spire of the tower, different lighting sequences were choreographed, together with more than 50 different combinations of the other effects.

The event began with a short film which depicted the story of Dubai and the evolution of Burj Khalifa. The displays of sound, light, water and fireworks followed.[85] The portion of the show consisting of the various pyrotechnic, lighting, water and sound effects was divided into three. The first part was primarily a light and sound show, which took as its theme the link between desert flowers and the new tower, and was co- ordinated with the Dubai Fountain and pyrotechnics. The second portion, called 'Heart Beat', represented the construction of the tower in a dynamic light show with the help of 300 projectors which generated a shadow-like image of the tower. In the third act, sky tracers and space cannons enveloped the tower in a halo of white light, which expanded as the lighting rig on the spire activated.[85]

The ceremony was relayed live on a giant screen on Burj Park Island, as well as several television screens placed across the Downtown Burj Khalifa development. Hundreds of media outlets from around the world reported live from the scene.[85] In addition to the media presence, 6,000 guests were expected.[86] Purpose

Burj Khalifa has been designed to be the centrepiece of a large-scale, mixed-use development that will include 30,000 homes, nine hotels such as The Burj Khalifa, 3 hectares (7.4 acres) of parkland, at least 19 residential towers, , and the 12-hectare (30-acre) man-made Burj Khalifa Lake. The building has returned the location of Earth's tallest free-standing structure to the Middle East — where the claimed this achievement for almost four millenniabefore being surpassed in 1311 by Lincoln Cathedral in .

The decision to build Burj Khalifa is reportedly based on the government's decision to diversify from an oil-based economy to one that is service- and tourism-oriented. According to officials, it is necessary for projects like Burj Khalifa to be built in the city to garner more international recognition, and hence investment. "He (Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum) wanted to put Dubai on the map with something really sensational," said Jacqui Josephson, a tourism and VIP delegations executive at Nakheel Properties.[87] BASE jumping

The building has been used by several experienced BASE jumpers for both authorized and unauthorized BASE jumping:

. In May 2008, Hervé Le Gallou and an unnamed British man, dressed as engineers, illegally infiltrated Burj Khalifa (around 650 m at the time), and jumped off a balcony situated a couple of floors below the 160th floor.[88][89] . On 8th January 2010, with permission of the authorities, Nasr Al Niyadi and Omar Al Hegelan, from the Emirates Aviation Society, broke the world record for the highest BASE jump from a building after they leapt from a crane suspended platform attached to the 160th floor at 672 m (2,200 ft). The two men descended the vertical drop at a speed of up to 220 km/h (140 mph), with enough time to open their parachutes 10 seconds into the 90 second jump

Height Height Year Category Structure Country City (metres) (feet) Built

Skyscraper - all United Arab

Burj Khalifa Dubai 828 2,717 2009 categories Emirates

Blanchard,

Guyed Mast KVLY-TV mast 628.8 2,063 1963

Concrete tower (Topped TV & China Guangzhou 610 2,001 2009 out) Sightseeing Tower Concrete tower CN Tower Canada Toronto 553.3 1,815 1976

Tower for scientific Test

BREN Tower United States 462 1,516 1962 research Site

Petronas Twin

Twin towers 452 1,482 1998

Towers

GRES-2 Power

Chimney Kazakhstan Ekibastusz 419.7 1,377 1987

Station

Dimona Radar

Radar Dimona 400 1,312 2008

Facility

Belmont United Donington on

Guyed tubular steel mast 387.7 1,272 1965

transmitting station Kingdom Bain

Lattice tower Kiev TV Tower Kiev 385 1,263 1973

Partially guyed tower Gerbrandy Tower Netherlands IJsselstein 366.8 1,203 1961

Yangtze River

Electricity pylon China Jiangyin 346.5 1,137 2004 Crossing, Jiangyin

Bridge pillar Millau 342 1,122 2004

[7]

Dam Nurek 300 984 1980

Grande Dixence Concrete dam Switzerland Val d'Hérens 285 935[8] 1965

Dam NTT Docomo

Clock tower 240 790 2000

Yoyogi Building

Minaret Hassan II Mosque Morocco Casablanca 210 689 1993

Fuhrländer Wind Laasow,

Wind turbine Germany 205 673 2006

Turbine Laasow Brandenburg

Niederaussem

Cooling tower Germany Niederaussem 200 656 2003

Power Station

St. Louis,

Monument Gateway Arch United States 192 630 1965

Anaconda Smelter Anaconda,

Masonry tower United States 178.3 585 1919

Stack

Inclined structure,

Olympic Stadium Canada 175 574 1976 Stadium

San Jacinto Deer Park,

Obelisk United States 173.7 570 1939

Monument

Chicago Temple

Church building United States Chicago 173 568 1924

Building

Masonry building Mole Antonelliana Italy Torino 167 548 1889

Philadelphia City Masonry building United States Philadelphia 167 548 1901

Hall Ferris wheel Flyer Singapore Singapore 165 541.3 2008

Church tower Ulm Minster Germany Ulm 162 530 1890

Vehicle Assembly Kennedy Space Industrial hall United States 160 525 1966

Building Center

Santa Cruz del Valle

Memorial cross Spain El Escorial 152.4 500 1957

de los Caídos

Jackson, New

Roller coaster United States 138.98 456 2005 Jersey

Great Pyramid of

Tomb Giza, Cairo 138.8 455.2 2560 BC

Giza

St Peter's Vatican City,

Dome Vatican City 136.57 448.06 1626 Basilica dome Rome

Suvarnabhumi

Air traffic control tower Airport control Bangkok 132.2 433.7 2006

tower

[9]

Flagpole, free-standing Ashgabat Flagpole Turkmenistan Ashgabat 133 436.4 2008

Ushiku Statue (including Daibutsu Bronze Japan Ushiku 120 394 1995 pedestal) Buddha Statue

Storage silo Henninger Turm Germany Frankfurt 120 394 1961 Sculpture Spire of Dublin Ireland Dublin 120 393 2003

Gliwice Radio Wooden structure Poland Gliwice 118 387 1935

Tower

Pillar of third support section of Kaprun 113.6 373 1966 tower Gletscherbahn Kaprun

Yokohama Marine

Lighthouse Japan 106 348 1961

Tower

Sphere Ericsson Globe Stockholm 85 279 1989

Statue (not including The Mamayev Volgograd 82 269 1967 pedestal) Monument

Torre della Brick lighthouse Italy Genoa 77 253 1128

Lanterna

Brick minaret Qutub Minar Delhi 72.5 237.8 1386

[edit]Tallest destroyed structures by category, not surpassed by existing structures

There are some destroyed architectural structures which were taller than the tallest existing structure of their type.

Height Height Category Structure Country City Remarks (metres) (feet)

Warsaw Radio completed in 1974,

Guyed mast Poland Gąbin 646.38 2,121

Mast collapsed on 8 August 1991 Shushi-Wan Guyed tubular completed in 1973, Omega Japan Tsushima 389 1,276 steel mast dismantled in 1998

Transmitter

Guyed mast, which carried Structure for 44 kt yield nuclear bomb destructive Smoky Shot United Nevada "Smoky" ( part of operation 213 700 scientific Tower States Test Site Plumbbob) on top until its experiment explosion on August 31, 1957

completed in 1934, Mühlacker Wooden destroyed on April 6, 1945, Wood Radio Germany Mühlacker 190 623 structure by the Germans to prevent

Tower usage by the Allies.

spire destroyed by Masonry Mole Italy Torino 167.5 549.5 a tornado in 1953 (Rebuilt building Antonelliana since then).

Pre-Industrial Lincoln completed in 1311, spire England Lincoln 160 524

Era building Cathedral blown off in 1549

[edit]Tallest building by function

Architectural top Architectural top Category Structure Country City (metres) (feet)

United Arab

Mixed-Use* Burj Khalifa Dubai 828 2,717 Emirates

Office Taipei 101 Taipei 509 1,671

United Arab

Hotel Rose Tower Dubai 333 1,093 Emirates Gold

Residential Australia 323 1,059 Coast

Moscow State Educational Russia Moscow 240 787

University

Hospital Guy's Hospital United Kingdom London 143 468

Library China Shanghai 106 348

* Mixed-Use is defined as having three or more real estate uses (such as retail, office, hotel, etc.) that are physically and functionally integrated in a single property and are mutually supporting.[10]

[edit]Tallest buildings

Main article: List of tallest buildings in the world

Up until 1998 the tallest building status was essentially uncontested. Counting buildings as structures with floors throughout, and with antenna masts excluded, Sears Tower (now Willis Tower) in Chicago was considered the tallest. When the Petronas Twin Towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia were built, controversy arose because the spire extended nine metres higher than the roof of Willis Tower. Excluding the spire, the are not taller than Willis Tower. At their convention in Chicago, the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (CTBUH) reduced Willis Tower from world's tallest and pronounced it not second tallest, but third, and pronounced Petronas as world's tallest. This action caused a considerable amount of controversy, so CTBUH defined four categories in which the world's tallest building can be measured:[11]

1. Height to Architectural Top (including spires and pinnacles, but not antennas, masts or flagpoles). This measurement is the most widely utilized and is used to define the rankings of the 100 Tallest Buildings in the World. 2. Highest Occupied Floor 3. Height to Top of Roof (omitted from criteria in November 2009)[12] 4. Height to Tip

The height is measured from the level of the lowest, significant, open-air, pedestrian entrance. At the time, the Sears Tower held first place in the second and third categories, the Petronas Towers held the first category and the original World Trade Towers held the fourth. Within months, however, a new antenna mast was placed on the Sears Tower, giving it hold of the fourth category. On April 20, 2004, Taipei 101 in Taipei, Taiwan, was completed. Its completion gave it the world record for the first three categories. On July 21, 2007 it was announced that Burj Khalifa had surpassed Taipei 101 in height, reaching 512 m (1,680 ft).

Since completed in early 2010, Burj Khalifa leads in all categories (the first building to do so). With a spire height of 828 m (2,720 ft), Burj Khalifa surpassed Taipei 101 as the tallest building to architectural detail and the Willis Tower as the tallest building to tip. It also leads in the category of highest occupied floor.

Before Burj Khalifa was completed, Willis Tower led in the fourth category with 527 m (1,730 ft), previously held by the World Trade Center until the extension of the Chicago tower's western broadcast antenna in 2000, over a year prior to the World Trade Center's destruction in 2001. Its antenna mast included, measured 526 m (1,730 ft). The World Trade Center became the world's tallest buildings to be destroyed or demolished; indeed, its site entered the record books twice on September 11, 2001, in that category, replacing theSinger Building, which once stood a block from the WTC site.[citation needed]

Structures such as the CN Tower, the Ostankino Tower and the are excluded from these categories because they are not "habitable buildings", which are defined as frame structures made with floors and walls throughout.[1] [edit]History of record holders in each CTBUH category

Architectural Highest occupied Date (Event) Roof Tip top floor

2010: Burj Khalifa completed Burj Khalifa Burj Khalifa Burj Khalifa

2009: CTBUH omits Height to Shanghai World Taipei 101 Willis Tower Roof category Financial Center

2008: Shanghai World Financial Shanghai World Shanghai World Taipei 101 Willis Tower Center completed Financial Center Financial Center

2003: Taipei 101 completed Taipei 101 Taipei 101 Taipei 101 Willis Tower 2000: Willis Tower antenna extension Petronas Towers Willis Tower Willis Tower Willis Tower

World Trade 1998: Petronas Towers completed Petronas Towers Willis Tower Willis Tower Center

World Trade 1996: CTBUH defines categories Willis Tower Willis Tower Willis Tower Center

[edit]World's tallest freestanding structure on land

Main article: List of tallest freestanding structures in the world

Freestanding structures include observation towers, monuments and other structures not generally considered to be "Habitable buildings", but excludes supported structures such as guyed masts and ocean drilling platforms. (See also history of tallest .)

The world's tallest freestanding structure on land is defined as the tallest self-supporting man- made structure that stands above ground. This definition is different from that of world's tallest building or world's tallest structure based on the percent of the structure that is occupied and whether or not it is self-supporting or supported by exterior cables. Likewise, this definition does not count structures that are built underground or on the seabed, such as the Platform in the Gulf of Mexico. Visit world's tallest structure by category for a list of various other definitions.

As of 12 May 2008, the tallest freestanding structure on land is the Burj Khalifa in Dubai, United Arab Emirates. The building, which now stands at 828 m (2,720 ft), surpassed the height of the previous record holder, the 553.3 m (1,815 ft) CN Tower in Toronto, , on September 12, 2007. It was completed in 2010, and was topped out at 828 m (2,717 ft) in January 2009.[2] [edit]History

The following is a list of structures that have held the title as the tallest freestanding structure on land. (See also Timeline of three tallest structures in the world until Building).

tallest historical structures

record record Name and Height Height Constructed Notes from to Location (metres) (feet) Pyramid of Djoser, c. 2700 BC c. 2600 BC c. 2700 BC 62 203 Egypt

Red c. 2600 BC c. 2570 BC Pyramid of Sneferu, c. 2600 BC 105 345 Egypt

By 1439, the Great Great Pyramid of Pyramid had eroded to a c. 2570 BC c. 1311 AD c. 2570 BC 146 481 Giza in Egypt height of approximately 139 m (460 ft).

The central spire was destroyed in a storm in 1549. While the reputed Lincoln Cathedral in height of 525 ft (160 m) is 1311 1549 1092–1311 160 525 England doubted by A.F. Kendrick,[13] other sources[which?] agree on this height.

The spire burnt down St. Olaf's after a lightning strike in 1549 1625 Church in Tallinn, 1438–1519 159 522 1625 and was rebuilt Estonia several times. The height is 123 m (400 ft) .

The spire burnt down St. Mary's after a lightning strike in 1625 1647 Church in Stralsund, 1384–1478 151 495 1647. The height is 104 m Germany (340 ft) .

Strasbourg 1647 1874 1439 142 469 Cathedral in France

1874 1876 1846–1874 147 483 St. Nikolai in

Hamburg, Germany

Cathédrale Notre 1876 1880 Dame in Rouen, 1202–1876 151 495 France

Cologne Cathedral in 1880 1884 1248–1880 157 515 Germany

Washington Monument in 1884 1889 1884 169 555 D.C., United States

First structure to exceed 300 metres in height. The addition of a in Paris, 1889 1930 1889 300 986 telecommunications France tower in the 1950s brought the overall height to 324 m (1,060 ft).

Chrysler Building in 1930 1931 New York, United 1928–1930 319 1,046 States

First building with 100+ stories. The addition of a pinnacle and antennas Empire State later increased its overall 1931 1967 Building in New York, 1930–1931 381 1,250 height to 448.7 m United States (1,472 ft). This was subsequently lowered to 443.1 m (1,454 ft).

Ostankino Tower in 1967 1975 1963–1967 537 1,762 Remains the tallest in Moscow, Russia Europe. Fire in 2000 led to extensive renovation.

CN Tower in Toronto, Remains the tallest in 1975 2007 1973–1976 553 1,815 Canada the

Holder of world's tallest Burj Khalifa in Dubai, freestanding structure. 2007 present 2004–2009 828 2,717 United Arab Emirates Topped out at 828 m (2,717 ft).

World's highest observation deck Main article: Observation deck

Timeline of development of world's highest observation deck since inauguration of Eiffel Tower.

Held Height Height record above above Name and Location Constructed Notes ground ground (m) (ft) From To

Two further observation decks Eiffel 1889 1931 1889 275 902 at 57 m (190 ft) and 115 m Tower, Paris, France (380 ft).

A second observation deck is , 1931 1973 1931 369[14] 1211 located on the 86th floor at , USA 320 m (1,000 ft).

Destroyed during World Trade Center, 1973 1976 1973 420 1378 the September 11, 2001 New York City, USA attacks Two further observation decks CN Tower, Toronto, 1976 2008 1976 446.5 1464.9 at 342 m (1,120 ft) and 346 m Canada (1,140 ft).

Other observation decks are at 423 m (1,390 ft) and 439 m (1,440 ft). Shanghai World Note: Burj Khalifa, opened on 2008 present Financial Center, 2008 474 1555 4 January 2010, has the Shanghai, China world's highest outdoor observation deck at 442 m (1,450 ft).

Higher observation decks have existed on mountain peaks or cliffs, rather than on tall structures. For example, the Bridge in Cañon City, , USA, was constructed in 1929 spanning the Royal Gorge at a height of 321 m (1,050 ft) above the River. [edit]Timeline of guyed structures on land

As most of the tallest structures are guyed masts and the absolute height record of architectural structures on land is since 1954 kept by them, here is a timeline of world's tallest guyed masts, since the beginning of radio technology.

As many large guyed masts were destroyed at the end of World War II, the dates for the years between 1945 and 1950 may be incorrect. If Wusung Radio Tower survived World War II, it was the tallest guyed structure shortly after World War II.

Held record Height Height Name and Location Constructed Notes (m) (ft)

From To

Mast was divided in 145 m by Central mast of Eilvese 1913 1920 1913 250 820 an , demolished in , Eilvese, Germany 1931

1920 1923 Central masts of Nauen 1920 260 853 2 masts, demolished in 1946 Transmitter Station, Nauen, Germany

Masts of Ruiselede transmitter, 1923 1933 1923 287 942 8 masts, destroyed in 1940 Ruiselede, Belgium

Blaw-Knox Tower, insulated Lakihegy Tower, Lakihegy, 1933 1939 1933 314 1,031 against ground, destroyed in Hungary 1945, afterwards rebuilt

Deutschlandsender Insulated against ground, 1939 1946 Herzberg/Elster, Herzberg 1939 335 1,099 dismantled 1946/1947 (Elster), Germany

Blaw-Knox Tower, Insulated Lakihegy Tower, Lakihegy, 1946 1948 1946 314 1,031 against ground, rebuilt after Hungary destruction in 1945

WIVB-TV Tower, Colden, New 1948 1949 1948 321.9 1,056 York, USA

Longwave transmitter Raszyn, 1949 1950 1949 335 1,099 Insulated against ground Raszyn, Poland

Forestport Tower, Forestport, 1950 1954 1950 371.25 1,218 Insulated against ground New York, USA

Griffin Television Tower 1954 1959 , Oklahoma City, 1954 480.5 1,576 Oklahoma, USA

KOBR-TV Tower, Caprock, New 1956 1959 1956 490.7 1,610 Collapsed in 1960 Mexico, USA WGME TV Tower, Raymond, 1959 1960 1959 495 1,624 , USA

KFVS TV Mast, Cape Girardeau 1960 1962 1960 511.1 1,677 County, Missouri, USA

WTVM/WRBL-TV & WVRK-FM 1962 1963 1962 533 1,749 Tower, Cusseta, , USA

WIMZ-FM-Tower, Knoxville, 1963 1963 1963 534.01 1,752 , USA

KVLY-TV mast, Blanchard, 1963 1974 1963 628.8 2,063 North Dakota, USA

Mast radiator insulated Warsaw Radio Mast, Gąbin, 1974 1991 1974 646.4 2,121 against ground, collapsed in Poland 1991

KVLY-TV mast, Blanchard, 2,063 1991 1963 628.8 North Dakota, USA

Under construction

Numerous supertall skyscrapers are in various stages of proposal, planning, or construction. Each of the following are under construction and, depending on the order of completion, could become the world's tallest building or structure in at least one category:

. The Tokyo Sky Tree under construction in Tokyo's Sumida district, is expected to be 634 m (2,080 ft) tall. It will be a broadcasting tower to replace the old . Construction began in 2008 and completion is expected in 2011, with public access in the spring of 2012. . The , under construction in Shanghai, next to the Shanghai World Financial Center and the Jin Mao Building, is expected to be 632 m (2,070 ft). Completion is expected in 2014. . The , under construction in Dubai, is expected to be 516 m (1,690 ft) tall and have 120 floors. If completed, it would be the tallest all-residential building in the world. Construction began in 2007 and completion is expected in 2013. . Incheon Tower is a 151-floor, 610 m (2,000 ft) twin tower under construction in Incheon, South Korea. If completed, it will stand as the tallest twin towers in the world, surpassing thePetronas Twin Towers. It is estimated to be completed in 2012. . The Guangzhou TV & Sightseeing Tower, under construction in Guangzhou, China, is topped-out at 610 m (2,000 ft). Construction began in November 2005 and completion is expected in 2009. . The (formerly Fordham Spire), under construction in Chicago, is expected to be 609.6 m (2,000 ft) and have 150 floors. If completed, it would surpass the CN Tower as the tallest freestanding building in North America,[16] and would be the second tallest all-residential building in the world (behind the aforementioned Pentominium). Construction began in June 2007 and completion is expected in early 2012, however, construction is on hold.[17] . The Towers are under construction in , . The tallest tower is expected to be 595 m (1,950 ft) tall when completed in 2010, becoming second-tallest building in the world when completed. It will also be the largest building in the world with a floor area of 1,500,000 m2 (1.61E+7 sq ft) and the tallest hotel in the world. . The Tower (Menara Jakarta) is on-hold in Jakarta, . It is expected to be 558 m (1,830 ft) tall up to the antenna, thus may be tallest concrete tower. It was expected to be completed in 2012, but has been put on hold.[18] . The Keangnam Landmark Tower, under construction in Hanoi, is expected to be 336 m (1,100 ft) tall. It will be completed on time in 2010 to celebrate Hanoi's 1000 anniversary. . The East, under construction in Moscow's International Business Centre, is expected to be 242 m (790 ft) tall. Construction began in 2003 and completion is expected in 2010.

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