Running head: EFFECTS OF SENSATION SEEKING AND ATHLETIC INVOLVEMENT 1
Effects of Sensation Seeking and Athletic Involvement on Substance Use in College Students
Luke C. Ewald
Wittenberg University
EFFECTS OF SENSATION SEEKING AND ATHLETIC INVOLVEMENT 2
Abstract
The present study addresses the issue of substance use behaviors among college students, particularly those engaged in varsity and recreational athletics, and how possible associations may be moderated by the effects of sensation seeking. Past studies have analyzed college athletes by gender in relation to substance use behaviors such as alcohol and prescription medications. The present study aims to expand the scope of the literature by analyzing athletic involvement in relation to involvement in varsity athletics and involvement in recreational athletics such as intramural or club sports. The present study also analyzes substance use by including the measurement of use of a wide range of substances from legal to illicit drugs. The present data are based on information collected from 84 students taking spring courses at
Wittenberg University for the spring of 2011. The participants filled out 2 separate survey instruments, a shortened version of the YRBS, which assesses risk behavior involvement in a number of different areas such as drugs and sex (only substance use was analyzed) as well as athletic involvement, and the Sensation Seeking Scale, which assesses levels of risk taking in terms of a desire to seek thrills. Scale totals assessing risk involvement and sensation seeking were created from the data. Dichotomous variables assessing varsity athletics and intramural/club sports participation were also created. Correlation analyses revealed that sensation seeking was positively associated with all substance risk variables. Analyses of variance revealed for males reported higher levels of substance use and that involvement in intramural or club sports, especially for females, was a protective factor against substance use.
The results provide interesting insight into how gender differences and gender by athletics interactions indicate risks and protective factors for males and females, respectively.
EFFECTS OF SENSATION SEEKING AND ATHLETIC INVOLVEMENT 3
Background
Athletes, especially professionals, hold an important position in today’s society. They have incredible talents that the masses enjoy and emulate, and their skills are often showcased in front of national audiences. As a result, athletes serve as role models for many of our youth.
Ten years or so ago, the favorite person for many kids was Michael Jordan, and now the fame and idolization has been passed on to athletes like LeBron James and Tom Brady. However, because these high-profile athletes are in the limelight for a majority of their careers, it becomes apparent that they are not always the perfect people that society wants them to be. Olympic champion and gold medal winner Michael Phelps, for example, was caught with suspected drug paraphernalia and it was broadcast over national television. Josh Hamilton, who many believed was the most impressive professional baseball prospect since Alex Rodriguez, dropped out of the league due to severe problems with alcohol and crack-cocaine. There are large-scale doping issues present today in Major League Baseball, as evidenced by Barry Bonds’ present trial, and for years there have been issues with substance use among NBA players as the league tries constantly to clean up its image. It is clear, then, that just because somebody is an athlete, even a professional athlete serving as a role model, they are not infallible and free from temptation concerning risky behaviors like substance use. One might wonder, then, if there is something inherent about being an athlete (professional or not) that contributes to these illicit behaviors and also how stable these behaviors are over time. It is the aim of the present study, then, to analyze athletic involvement including intramural and club sports in the context of substance abuse and trait-oriented factors such as sensation seeking among college students.
Past research concerning sensation seeking, which includes desires to seek adventure, thrill, and experiences and is also marked by impulsivity, in relation to substance use has been EFFECTS OF SENSATION SEEKING AND ATHLETIC INVOLVEMENT 4 well documented. Research on sensation seeking conducted by Miller and Quick (2010) assessed sensation seeking and psychological reactance and personality characteristics in relation to specific risky behaviors in an adult sample. Using items from the Youth Risk
Surveillance System (YRBS), they found that both psychological reactance and sensation seeking were individually predictive of substance use behaviors, whereas only psychological reactance predicted risky sexual activity. Curry (2005) studied the relationship between impulsivity, sensation seeking, affect, and decision making processes with specific risk behaviors such as alcohol and drug use, violence, and sexual behavior among adolescents and young adults. The results suggested that impulsivity and sensation seeking influenced risk perception, decision making, and thus risk behavior. We can come to an understanding here that risk behaviors may be moderated by a perception of how risky an action may be, and clearly sensation seeking has an effect on thought processes of this nature.
Risk taking may not be seen as an absolute, however. Desrichard and Denarie (2005) studied the difference between occasional and frequent risk taking in terms of sexual behavior, substance use, behavior on the road, and delinquent behavior in relation to positive and negative affect as well as sensation seeking. For occasional risk taking, only sensation seeking was a significant predictor of substance use and delinquent behavior. For frequent risk taking, especially in the domain of substance abuse, significant predictors included age, sensation seeking, and negative affectivity. Though the present study does not make the distinction between occasional and frequent risk taking, we may still expect such associations between sensation seeking and risk taking, particularly substance abuse which is the focus of this study.
Further links between sensation seeking and risk involvement were found in a study of college students. Rolison and Scherman (2003) studied risk involvement in relation to environmental EFFECTS OF SENSATION SEEKING AND ATHLETIC INVOLVEMENT 5 influences, decision making, and dispositional traits including sensation seeking. Their results suggest that sensation seeking, perceived peer involvement, and perceived benefits were significantly associated with risk involvement. In the present study of athletics, perceived peer involvement, or normative social influence, may indirectly moderate any relationships between athletic involvement and substance use, regardless of the effects of sensation seeking.
Rosenbloom (2003) studied the differences in risk taking between high sensation seekers and low sensation seekers and found a positive correlation between high sensation seeking and risky actions and that low sensation seeking was related to higher levels of risk evaluation. The present study does not distinguish among levels of sensation seeking, but we may expect that those who are not sensation seekers, relative to the present study’s measure, will not be as involved in substance use. Previous research clearly indicates that a relationship does exist between affect, sensation seeking, and risky behaviors and that demographics may play a role in these associations.
Specific risk behaviors of interest in the present study have been influenced by the work of Latimer and Zur (2010) studying the risk factors among adolescents for drug and alcohol use.
Their findings indicate that tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana are the most frequently used substances and that the greatest risk factors for such behaviors include being male, white, older adolescent, and engaging in sexual risk behaviors. The present study will include the analysis of these substances and their relations to the aforementioned risk factors, especially substance use behaviors.
Research on sensation seeking and athletic involvement is also compelling. Noting that sensation seeking, partly by definition, includes the willingness to take risks, Zarevski, Marusic,
Zolotic, Bunjevac, and Vukosav (1997) analyzed degrees of sensation seeking and their effects EFFECTS OF SENSATION SEEKING AND ATHLETIC INVOLVEMENT 6 on high versus low-risk sports. More popular in Europe, high-risk sports include bungee jumping, base jumping, and sky diving whereas low-risk sports are the average team athletic sports such as basketball and soccer. Zarevski et al., found that the degree of sensation seeking effectively differentiated the two sports risk groups. Even though the present study aims at low- risk sports (team varsity and intramural/club sports), we may still expect sensation seeking to be associated with athletic involvement.
Davis and Mogk (1994) distinguished between the participants’ degree of skill and interest in athletics by classifying participants as elite athletes, sub elite athletes, recreational sport enthusiasts, non-athletes as controls. Among other variables, they found no significant differences in degree of sensation seeking between elite athletes and the other groups, suggesting that levels of sensation seeking do not vary with degree of skill or interest in athletics. There is variety of results, then, concerning the relation between sensation seeking and degree of athletic involvement. The present study, however, treats athletic involvement dichotomously, such that participants were characterized either as athletes or non-athletes. On the other hand, there are separate comparisons among those engaged in varsity athletics and intramural or club sports. Also, recreational sport enthusiasts were the only group that scored higher on measures of Extraversion than the nonathlete control group. Extraversion may share some characteristics with sensation seeking (i.e. willingness to try new things), so perhaps sensation seeking may be more associated with intramural/club sports than varsity athletics in the present study.
The research on athletes and substance use is also of interest for the present study.
Analyzing nonmedical prescription use among college athletes and non-athletes, Ford (2008) reviews the noted that college athletes are at greater risk for certain types of substance use as he EFFECTS OF SENSATION SEEKING AND ATHLETIC INVOLVEMENT 7 points to alcohol as the predominant substance but notes several studies implicating marijuana as well. He also found that non-athletes were more likely to report nonmedical prescription use than athletes, a finding that may generalize to other substances in the present study.
Furthermore, Ford (2008) notes that few researchers have compared the illicit drug use of athletes and non-athletes. In addition, the results from the study indicated that involvement in athletics, especially for women, is a protective factor for substance use among college students.
The present study analyzes illicit drug use as well as alcohol and tobacco in relation to athletic status. More specifically, the present study will analyze gender differences in those involved in athletics in relation to sensation seeking and further substance use. In assessing athletic status,
Ford (2008) used the College Alcohol Study (CAS) which included questions asking how many teams the participant played for. Athletic involvement was treated as a dichotomous measure in that as long as the participant was on at least one team, they were labeled “athlete” and all others were “non-athletes”. The present study also treats athletic and intramural/club sport involvement dichotomously.
Lastly, Rockafellow and Saules (2006) studied athletic involvement and sensation seeking in relation to substance use. However, their study differentiated between motivation for sports (extrinsic vs. intrinsic) and also sport type (team vs. individual). They found that among other variables, sensation seeking and athletic involvement were significantly associated with substance use among college students. In particular, they found that athletes in team sports reported more substance use than athletes in individual sports. Even though the present study does not account for motivation for sport or sport type, a link between athletic involvement, sensation seeking, and substance use is expected. Hypotheses, then, may be based on basic findings of the aforementioned research. I expect substance use behavior to be correlated EFFECTS OF SENSATION SEEKING AND ATHLETIC INVOLVEMENT 8 significantly and positively with sensation seeking. We may also expect gender differences in relation to athletic status and substance use; such substance use will be significantly lower for females than for males (Ford, 2008). Lastly, I expect alcohol use to be higher among athletes than non-athletes (Ford, 2008).
Method
Participants
Participants consisted of 84 young adult students, between the ages of 18 and 23 (M =
20.25, SD = 1.02) who were enrolled in spring courses at a Midwestern liberal arts university.
Of these participants, 80 identified themselves as White and 4 identified themselves as Black or
African American. In addition, there were 25 males and 59 females involved in the study. In terms of athletic involvement, 58 were not involved in intercollegiate or varsity athletics whereas
26 respondents had participated in intercollegiate/varsity athletics within the past year.
Recruited through faculty rosters, some participants received extra credit from their professors for their involvement, but all participants volunteered freely and were kept anonymous as names were not associated with individual results.
Materials
Behavioral Survey
The present study used two self-report instruments including the Youth Risk Behavior
Survey (YRBS) and the Zuckerman Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS). The Youth Risk Behavior
Survey (YRBS) 2009 Standard Questionnaire is a list of 98 questions concerning level of involvement in risk behaviors in several areas, including violence, suicide, tobacco, alcohol, EFFECTS OF SENSATION SEEKING AND ATHLETIC INVOLVEMENT 9 marijuana, and sex. However, a shorter, 34 item version of the YRBS was used for the present study for the purpose of addressing only substance use and athletic involvement. A typical question concerns how often the participant had engaged in a certain activity, such as a driving after consuming alcohol, during the past week or year. The types of scales used in the survey vary from question to question, so subscale totals were computed instead of averages for the specific risk areas. Higher values for these subscales indicated higher levels of risk in the given area. Only the items addressing alcohol, tobacco, marijuana, and other hard drugs were included to assess substance use risks. Specific items from the survey were grouped to produce the following subscale totals: 10 items for Tobacco Risk (Cronbach’s Alpha = .813), 7 items for
Alcohol Risk (α =.852), 4 items for Marijuana Risk (α =.843), and 11 items for Other Drug Risk
(α =.767), which reflected drugs such as cocaine and prescription medications.
The Cumulative Risk index presented by Gerard and Buehler (2004) was computed. For each of the specific risk behavior subscales, the score value representing the 75th percentile or higher was identified, and all those who scored at or above this value received a “1” for “High
Risk” in that area, and all values below the 75th percentile received a “0” for High Risk in that area. All of the “1” responses for each of the individual’s subscale scores were added up to produce a “Total HL Risk” variable, representing a high cumulative risk across all of the subscales. This variable was used for subsequent correlation and analyses of variance.
Athletic involvement was measured by responses to the question asking how many intercollegiate/varsity sports teams they had participated on in the past 12 months. The same was true for the determination of intramural or club sport involvement. The variables
“NoYesVarsity” and “NoYesIntramurals” were created such that as long as one team was participated on, the participant received a “1”, and all others received a “0”. EFFECTS OF SENSATION SEEKING AND ATHLETIC INVOLVEMENT 10
Trait Measures
The Sensation-Seeking Scale, a 19 item questionnaire developed by Marvin Zuckerman,
assesses facets of sensation seeking behavior: thrill and adventure seeking, experience seeking,
disinhibition, and boredom susceptibility. The items are true or false statements that address the
participant’s sensation-seeking personality traits. Items were coded so that higher values
reflected higher levels of sensation seeking. Depending on how the statement was worded, the
sensation-seeking response could either be a “true” or a “false”. Item scales summed to produce
a Sensation Seeking Total (α=.831) for each individual.
Table 1 Descriptive Statistics and Reliabilities for YRBS, SSS Scales Scale M SD Skew Reliability Youth Risk Behavior Survey Tobacco Risk Total 5.07 6.79 1.43 .81 Alcohol Risk total 14.95 7.12 -.330 .85 Marijuana Risk Total 5.12 5.56 .699 .84 Other Drug Risk Total 2.63 4.60 2.262 .77 Sensation Seeking Scale Sensation Seeking Total 8.25 4.46 .398 .83
Note. Internal consistency reliability was used for all scales
Procedure
Participants filled out the two instruments previously described during one session of
their class time. The surveys took approximately 10 to 15 minutes to complete.
Results
Correlations were run between the Sensation Seeking total (SS Total), all of the substance use subscale totals, the varsity athletic variable, and the intramural or club sport variable. For the whole sample, SS Total and Tobacco Risk Total were significantly correlated, r (82) = .37, p < EFFECTS OF SENSATION SEEKING AND ATHLETIC INVOLVEMENT 11
.01. SS Total and Alcohol Risk Total were significantly correlated, r (82) = .45, p <.001. SS total and Marijuana Risk Total were significantly correlated, r (82) =.44, p<.001. Lastly, SS total and Other Drug Risk Total were significantly correlated, r (82) = .39, p < .001. These findings were consistent with those of Miller and Quick (2010) who found that sensation seeking was associated with risky substance abuse behaviors.
Table 2 Correlation Matrix for Substance Risk Variables and Sensation Seeking Total
Variable 1 2 3 4 5 Sensation Seeking Scale 1. Sensation Seeking Total - Youth Risk Behavior Survey 2. Tobacco Risk Total .37* - 3. Alcohol Risk Total .45** - .56** 4. Marijuana Risk Total .44** .70** - .59** 5. Other Drug Risk Total .39** .67** .45** .68** - * p < .01 and **p < .001.
To address potential gender differences, Chi-square analyses were carried out to determine if there were differences in the percentages of males and females engaged in varsity athletics and intramurals. The first Chi-squared analysis compared the percentages of males and females participating in varsity athletics. The sample included 84 total participants, 25 males and 59 females. Of the 25 males, 13 were engaged in varsity athletics and 12 were not; of the 59 females, 13 were engaged in varsity athletics and 46 were not. Thus, the percentage of participants involved in varsity athletics significantly differed by gender, X2 (1, N = 84) = 7.39, p
< .01. Males were more proportionally divided in varsity athletics and had the same number of varsity athletes as females even though there were substantially fewer males than females in the sample. EFFECTS OF SENSATION SEEKING AND ATHLETIC INVOLVEMENT 12
The second Chi-square analysis compared the percentage of males and females
participating in intramural or club sports. Of the 25 males, 18 participated in intramural or club sports and 7 did not; of the 59 females, 20 participated in intramural or club sports and 39 did not. As a result, the percentage of participants involved in intramural or club sports also significantly differed by gender, X2(1, N = 84) = 10.29, p < .01. Males were more proportionally
divided in intramural or club sports and had a comparable number of participants in the
intramural/club sports as females even though there were substantially fewer males than females
in the sample.
These results are important in that they reveal significant differences in the proportion of
males and females engaged in athletics, with \ higher percentages of males engaged in varsity
and intramural/club sports. T-tests indicated that those engaged in varsity and intramural sports
had higher means than non-athletes and those not participating in intramural/club sports on the
alcohol risk total variable. However, the Chi-square analyses reveal that these mean differences
in are confounded with gender, such that male respondents skewed the data so that it appeared
that there were differences between athletes and non-athletes instead of between males and
females. Having established the aforementioned gender differences, 2 x 2 MANOVAs were
employed to analyze the effects of gender and athletic/intramural involvement on the four
substance use risk variables.
The first MANOVA analyzed the effects of gender and varsity involvement on the four
substance use risk variables. The independent variables were gender (males and females) and
the varsity athletics variable (varsity and no varsity). At the multivariate level, there was a main
2 effect for gender, Fm (4, 77) = 4.71, p < .01, ηp = .197. In particular, at the univariate level,
2 gender affected total tobacco risk, F (1, 80) = 9.94, p < .01, ηp = .111, total alcohol risk, F (1, EFFECTS OF SENSATION SEEKING AND ATHLETIC INVOLVEMENT 13
2 2 80) = 13.58, p < .001, ηp = .145, total marijuana risk, F (1, 80) = 13.22, p < .01, ηp = .142, and
2 total other drug risk, F (1, 80) = 13.43, p < .01, ηp = .144. In all cases, males scored higher than
females, which is the reason for the main effect for gender (See Table 3). At the multivariate
level, there was also a marginally significant effect for varsity athletics, F m (4, 77) = 2.29, p <
2 .10 ηp = .106. However, at the univariate level, there was only one marginally significant varsity
2 athlete effect on total other drug risk, F (1, 80) = 2.78, p = .10, ηp = .034. However, there was
2 no gender by varsity athletics interaction, F m (4, 77) = 1.42, ns, ηp = .069 and no significant
univariate gender by varsity athletics interaction effects, all ps > .20.
A MANCOVA analyzed the same gender and varsity athletics effects on the substance
use variables, but this analysis also included the sensation seeking variable as a covariate.
Essentially, the results duplicated those reported above. Even though sensation seeking
accounted for a significant proportion of the variability in substance use risk, Fm (4, 76) = 5.88, p
2 2 < .001, ηp = .236, there was still a main effect for gender, F m (4, 76) = 4.06, p < .01, ηp = .176.
All of the univariate results for gender were still significant as reported above, all ps < .01.
2 There was still a marginally significant effect for varsity athletics, Fm (4, 76) = 2.27, p < .10, ηp
= .107, and the univariate varsity athletics effect for total other drug risk was still present, F (1,
2 79) = 3.13, p < .10, ηp = .038. Finally, there was still no multivariate gender by varsity athletics
2 interaction, Fm (4, 76) = 1.40, ns, ηp = .069 and no significant univariate gender by varsity
athletics interaction. This secondary MANOVA for the gender and varsity effects, as well as
those of sensation seeking, indicates that the results of the first MANOVA hold true even when considering the effects of sensation seeking.
EFFECTS OF SENSATION SEEKING AND ATHLETIC INVOLVEMENT 14
Table 3 Means of Substance Use Variables as a Function of Varsity Involvement and Interactant Sex Measure Varsity-Male Varsity- No Varsity- No Varsity- Female Male Female Youth Risk Behavior Survey Tobacco Risk Total 8.92 2.69 8.08 3.87 Alcohol Risk total 21.15 13.62 17.58 12.89 Marijuana Risk Total 9.08 4.31 8.17 3.43 Other Drug Risk Total 3.77 1.15 6.92 1.61
A third MANOVA analyzed the effects of gender and intramural/club sport involvement
on the four substance use variables. Again, there was a main effect for gender, Fm (4, 77) = 3.33,
2 p < .05, ηp = .148. In particular, at the univariate level, gender affected total tobacco risk, F (1,
2 2 80) = 5.78, p < .05, ηp = .067, total alcohol risk, F (1, 80) = 8.76, p < .01, ηp = .099, total
2 marijuana risk, F (1, 80) = 12.26, p < .01, ηp = .133, and total other drug risk, F (1, 80) = 7.23, p
2 < .01, ηp = .083. There was a marginally significant effect for intramural/club sport
2 involvement, Fm (4, 77) = 2.18, p < .10, ηp = .102. At the univariate level, intramural/club sport
2 involvement marginally affected total alcohol risk, F (1, 80) = 3.84, p < .10, ηp = .046, and total
2 other drug risk, F (1, 80) = 2.86, p < .10, ηp = .034.
However, for this MANOVA, there was a significant gender by intramural/club sport
2 interaction, Fm (4, 77) = 4.42, p < .01, ηp = .187. At the univariate level, the gender by
intramural/club sport interaction specifically affected the total tobacco risk variable, F (1, 80) =
2 2 14.65, p < .001, ηp = .155, and the total other drug risk variable, F (1, 80) = 9.69, p < .01, ηp =
.108. The nature of this interaction has to do with the fact that males in intramural/club sports
are engaging in much higher levels of the relevant substance use behaviors (especially tobacco
and other drugs) than males not in intramural/club sports whereas females involved in
intramural/club sports are engaging in relatively lower levels of the relevant substance use EFFECTS OF SENSATION SEEKING AND ATHLETIC INVOLVEMENT 15
behaviors than females not in intramural/club sports (See Table 4). For females, then,
involvement in intramural/club sports seems to be a protective factor against substance use but
for males, the intramural/club sports seems to be a risk factor.
A final MANCOVA again analyzed these gender and intramural/club sport effects on the
substance use variables, but this analysis also included the sensation seeking variable as a
covariate. Essentially, the results duplicated those reported in the paragraph above. Even though sensation seeking accounted for a significant proportion of the variability in substance use risk,
2 Fm (4, 75) = 5.45, p < .01, ηp = .225, there was still a main effect for gender, Fm (4, 75) = 3.48, p
2 < .05, ηp = .156. All of the univariate results for gender were still significant as reported above, all ps < .01. The marginally significant effect for intramurals became insignificant, Fm (4, 75) =
2 1.52, ns, ηp = .075. However, the gender by intramural/club sport involvement interaction
2 remained significant, Fm (4, 75) = 4.19, p < .01, ηp = .183. At the univariate level, the gender by
intramural/club sport interaction specifically affected total tobacco risk, F (1, 78) = 13.84, p <
2 2 .001, ηp = .151, and the total other drug risk variable, F (1, 78) = 8.96, p < .01, ηp = .103. The
fact that this interaction remained significant is important because it indicates that the males in intramurals are at greater risk for certain substance use behaviors (especially tobacco and other drug use, as displayed in Table 4) and that females in intramurals are at less risk for certain substance use variables, even when considering the effects of sensation seeking.
EFFECTS OF SENSATION SEEKING AND ATHLETIC INVOLVEMENT 16
Table 4 Means of Substance Use Variables as a Function of Intramural/Club Involvement and Interactant Sex Measure Intramural- Intramural- No No Male Female Intramural- Intramural- Male Female Youth Risk Behavior Survey Tobacco Risk Total 10.78 1.00 2.71 4.95 Alcohol Risk total 21.06 13.60 15.29 12.77 Marijuana Risk Total 9.28 2.95 7.00 3.97 Other Drug Risk Total 6.72 .500 1.57 2.02
Table 5 Tests of Substance Risks as a Function of Gender and Varsity Involvement Measure Gender Varsity Gender x Varsity 2 2 2 F p ηp F p ηp F p ηp
Youth Risk Behavior Survey
Tobacco Risk Total 9.94 .002 .111 .01 .919 .000 .37 .544 .005 Alcohol Risk Total 13.58 .000 .145 1.67 .199 .020 .74 .394 .009 Marijuana Risk Total 13.22 .000 .142 .47 .497 .006 .00 .989 .000 Other Drug Risk Total 13.43 .000 .144 2.78 .100 .034 1.55 .217 .019
Table 6 Tests of Substance Risks as a Function of Gender and Intramural/Club Sport Involvement Measure Gender Intramural Gender x Intras 2 2 2 F p ηp F p ηp F p ηp
Youth Risk Behavior Survey
Tobacco Risk Total 5.78 .019 .067 1.72 .194 .021 14.65 .000 .155 Alcohol Risk Total 8.76 .004 .099 3.84 .054 .046 2.14 .146 .026 Marijuana Risk Total 12.26 .001 .133 .22 .640 .003 1.53 .220 .019 Other Drug Risk Total 7.23 .009 .083 2.86 .095 .034 9.69 .003 .108
EFFECTS OF SENSATION SEEKING AND ATHLETIC INVOLVEMENT 17
Finally, separate ANOVAs assessed how gender and athletic involvement affected total
substance use risk, as measured by the Total HL Risk variable described in the introduction. In
the first ANOVA, gender and varsity athletics were independent variables and the Total HL Risk
variable was the dependent variable. There was a significant effect for gender, F (1, 80) = 19.37,
2 p < .001, ηp = .195. However, there was no effect for varsity athletics and also no gender by
varsity athletics interaction. A follow-up ANOVA was employed with the same independent and
dependent variables, but also included sensation seeking as a covariate. Even though sensation
seeking accounted for a significant proportion of the variability in total substance use risk, F (1,
2 79) = 15.51, p < .001, ηp = .164 there was still a main effect for gender F (1, 79) = 16.31, p <
2 .001, ηp = .171. Again, this effect is present because males scored higher than females,
regardless of athletic affiliation, on the Total HL Risk variable, even after controlling for the
effects of sensation seeking. In this sense, gender, not varsity athletics, seems to be a risk factor
for substance use.
The second ANOVA analysis differed from the previous analysis in that the independent
variables were gender and intramural/club sport involvement, but the dependent variable was
2 still Total HL Risk. There was a significant effect for gender, F (1, 80) = 15.12, p < .001, ηp =
.159. There was also a significant gender by intramural/club sport interaction, F (1, 80) = 9.21, p
2 < .01, ηp = .103. A follow-up ANOVA was employed with the same independent and dependent
variables, but also included sensation seeking as a covariate. Even though sensation seeking
accounted for a significant proportion of the variability in total substance use risk, F (1, 79) =
2 2 16.27, p < .001, ηp = .170 there was still a main effect for gender F (1, 79) = 15.31, p < .001, ηp
= .162. The gender by intramural/club sport interaction also remained significant, F (1, 79) =
2 8.69, p < .01, ηp = .099. This effect is still present because males involved in intramural/club EFFECTS OF SENSATION SEEKING AND ATHLETIC INVOLVEMENT 18
sports scored higher than males not involved in intramural/club sports whereas the opposite trend
was true for females as lower substance use scores were associated with involvement in intramurals and higher scores were associated with no involvement in intramural/club sports.
This should not be surprising because the MANOVA analyses showed the same trends with the specific substance use risks. The only difference in the ANOVAs is that the substance
use risks were summed to a Total HL Risk. Again, the finding from the present ANOVA is
important in that it indicates the main effect for gender and the gender by intramural/club sport
interaction are still significant even after controlling for the effects of sensation seeking.
Discussion
The present study yields several important and interesting findings in relation to sensation
seeking, substance use risk, and athletic involvement. There is a clear association between
sensation seeking and substance risk, as indicated by the significant positive correlations
between the sensation seeking and specific substance risk variables. In the analyses of variance,
sensation seeking accounted for significant proportions of variability in both specific substance
use risks as well as total substance use risk for both varsity athletes and those participating in intramural/club sports. The Chi-square analyses revealed that what initially appeared to be effects of athletic involvement in the mentioned (but not included) t-tests were actually gender effects as males were more proportionally distributed in athletics in relation to females. The gender differences manifested themselves in the analyses of variance in that males had higher scores than females on the specific substance use variables.
However, in the realm of intramural/club sports, there was a significant gender by intramural interaction such that for males, involvement in intramural/club sports was associated EFFECTS OF SENSATION SEEKING AND ATHLETIC INVOLVEMENT 19
with higher levels of substance use whereas for girls, involvement in intramural/club sports was
associated with lower levels of substance use (See Table 4). To a degree, this finding supports that of Ford (2008) who found that involvement in athletics, especially for females, was a protective factor for substance use among college students. The present study found that involvement in less demanding and less structured athletics such as intramural or club sports was a protective factor for females. These findings also held true after controlling for the effects of sensation seeking.
In the realm the less-organized and less demanding intramural and club sports, the gender by intramural interaction leads to interesting plausible explanations. Males involved in intramurals engaged in more substance use behaviors than males not involved in intramurals, suggesting a normative social influence among a group of friends who choose to play these sports together. For college males, intramurals are perhaps more of a social event seen as a part of college life. For females, involvement in intramurals was associated with less substance use, except for alcohol. Perhaps females generally see intramurals and club sports as a means of health, fitness, and exercise, which would perhaps make these individuals less likely to engage in substance use for health reasons. Females not involved in intramurals had higher levels of
substance use, perhaps indicating that substance use may serve as a recreational activity in the
absence of any structured intramural of club sport involvement.
The study yields several implications for university coaches and athletic directors as well as clinicians. It is important for those administrators in athletics to understand and be aware that just because students are involved in athletics, especially recreational athletics, the fact that they are college students still means that there is risk for substance use, especially for males. For those administrators concerned about the public health of students, it seems to be a good idea to EFFECTS OF SENSATION SEEKING AND ATHLETIC INVOLVEMENT 20 encourage recreational sport involvement, especially for females, as a means to provide alternative forms of recreation other than substance use.
Clinicians should be aware of the effects of sensation seeking on substance use behavior.
As noted earlier, sensation seeking was significantly positively correlated with all substance use behaviors. The willingness to take risks and try new things, a core feature of the sensation seeking trait, undoubtedly leads to riskier decisions, especially involving substance use. Those clients scoring high on measures of sensation seeking should be given special attention in regards to preventative measures against substance use. If clients are college-aged, clinicians may consider making inquiries into athletic and recreational sports backgrounds as intramurals and recreational sports may be associated with higher levels of substance use for males and lower levels of substance use for females.
Conclusion
The present study has several strengths and weaknesses worthy of note. Particular strengths of the study include the variety of statistical analyses employed to further understand links between gender, substance use, and athletic involvement. The analyses uncovered gender differences not otherwise accounted for as well as controlled for sensation seeking in the study of gender effects, varsity and recreational sports effects, and gender and athletic interactions concerning substance use. The relatively high reliabilities of the scales should also be of note when considering strengths of the present study.
In terms of weaknesses, there was a lack of a true heterogeneous sample as females greatly outnumbered males and there were only 4 ethnic minorities involved in the study. For this reason, ethnic or racial comparisons were not sought. Also, the measures used to address EFFECTS OF SENSATION SEEKING AND ATHLETIC INVOLVEMENT 21 sensation seeking, athletic involvement, and substance use were based on self-report surveys.
Even though individuals were kept anonymous, there may still have been a desire to answer the questions in a socially-desirable way, perhaps leading to less reporting of substance use, for example. The issue of comparing athletes and non-athletes in terms of illicit drug use is in need of further research (Ford, 2008). Also, subsequent studies should make racial and ethnic comparisons in conjunction with gender comparisons to provide a more complete picture of how demographic differences moderate substance use differences among athletes and non-athletes.
Athletes are far from infallible. The mistakes of professional athletes are showcased almost daily as a form of entertainment to the public. The possibility that recreational substance use and athletic involvement (especially recreational athletics) share aspects in common should not be surprising in light of the present findings, considering that recreational athletes often had higher levels of substance use than recreational non-athletes (especially females). The present study was based on college students, indicating that the mistakes of professional athletes may not be a result of being a professional or being in a national spotlight, but that trends of athletes using substances are apparent before athletic prowess manifests itself in professional athletics.
EFFECTS OF SENSATION SEEKING AND ATHLETIC INVOLVEMENT 22
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Rockafellow, B.D., & Saules, K.K. (2006). Substance use by college students: the role of
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http://www.cdc.gov/HealthyYouth/yrbs/questionnaire_rationale.htm
EFFECTS OF SENSATION SEEKING AND ATHLETIC INVOLVEMENT 24
APPENDIX A
YRBS 1. During the past 30 days, how many times did you ride in a car or other vehicle driven by someone who had been drinking alcohol? A.0 times B. 1 time C. 2 or 3 times D.4 or 5 times C. 6 or more times
2. During the past 30 days, how many times did you drive a car or other vehicle when you had been drinking alcohol? A. 0 times B. 1 time C. 2 or 3 times D. 4 or 5 times E. 6 or more times
The next 11 questions ask about tobacco use.
3. Have you ever tried cigarette smoking, even one or two puffs? A. Yes B. No
4. How old were you when you smoked a whole cigarette for the first time? A. I have never smoked a whole cigarette B. 8 years old or younger C. 9 or 10 years old D. 11 or 12 years old E. 13 or 14 years old F. 15 or 16 years old G. 17 years old or older
5. During the past 30 days, on how many days did you smoke cigarettes? A. 0 days B. 1 or 2 days C. 3 to 5 days D. 6 to 9 days E. 10 to 19 days F. 20 to 29 days G. All 30 days
EFFECTS OF SENSATION SEEKING AND ATHLETIC INVOLVEMENT 25
6. During the past 30 days, on the days you smoked, how many cigarettes did you smoke per day? A. I did not smoke cigarettes during the past 30 days B. Less than 1 cigarette per day C. 1 cigarette per day D.2 to 5 cigarettes per day E. 6 to 10 cigarettes per day F. 11 to 20 cigarettes per day G. More than 20 cigarettes per day
7. During the past 30 days, how did you usually get your own cigarettes? (Select only one response) A. I did not smoke cigarettes during the past 30 days B. I bought them in a store such as a convenience store supermarket, discount store, or gas station. C. I bought them from a vending machine D. I gave someone else money to buy them for me E. I borrowed (or bummed) them from someone else F. A person 18 years old or older gave them to me G. I took them from a store or family member H. I got them some other way
8. During the past 30 days, on how many days did you smoke cigarettes on school property? A. 0 days B. 1 or 2 days C. 3 to 5 days D. 6 to 9 days E. 10 to 19 days F. 20 to 29 days G. All 30 days
9. Have you ever smoked cigarettes daily, that is, at least one cigarette every day for 30 days? A. Yes B. No
EFFECTS OF SENSATION SEEKING AND ATHLETIC INVOLVEMENT 26
10. During the past 12 months, did you ever try to quit smoking cigarettes? A. I did not smoke during the past 12 months B. Yes C. No
11. During the past 30 days, on how many days did you use chewing tobacco, snuff, or dip, such as Redman, Levi Garrett, Beechnut, Skoal Bandits, or Copenhagen? A. 0 days B. 1 or 2 days C. 3 to 5 days D. 6 to 9 days E. 10 to 19 days F. 20 to 29 days G. All 30 days
12. During the past 30 days, on how many days did you use chewing tobacco, snuff, or dip on school property? A. 0 days B. 1 or 2 days C. 3 to 5 days D. 6 to 9 days E. 10 to 19 days F. 20 to 29 days G. All 30 days
13. During the past 30 days, on how many days did you smoke cigars, cigarillos, or little cigars? A. 0 days B. 1 or 2 days C. 3 to 5 days D. 6 to 9 days E. 10 to 19 days F. 20 to 29 days G. All 30 days
The next 6 questions ask about drinking alcohol. This includes drinking beer, wine, wine coolers, and liquor such as rum, gin, vodka, or whiskey. For these questions, drinking alcohol does not include drinking a few sips of wine for religious purposes.
EFFECTS OF SENSATION SEEKING AND ATHLETIC INVOLVEMENT 27
14. During your life, on how many days have you had at least one drink of alcohol? A. 0 days B. 1 or 2 days C. 3 to 9 days D. 10 to 19 days E. 20 to 39 days F. 40 to 99 days G.100 or more days
15. How old were you when you had your first drink of alcohol other than a few sips? A. I have never had a drink of alcohol other than a few sips B. 8 years old or younger C. 9 or 10 years old D. 11 or 12 years old E. 13 or 14 years old F. 15 or 16 years old G. 17 years old or older
16. During the past 30 days, on how many days did you have at least one drink of alcohol? A. 0 days B. 1 or 2 days C. 3 to 5 days D. 6 to 9 days E. 10 to 19 days F. 20 to 29 days G. All 30 days
17. During the past 30 days, on how many days did you have 5 or more drinks of alcohol in a row, that is, within a couple of hours? A. 0 days B. 1 day C. 2 days D. 3 to 5 days E. 6 to 9 days F. 10 to 19 days G. 20 or more day
EFFECTS OF SENSATION SEEKING AND ATHLETIC INVOLVEMENT 28
18. During the past 30 days, how did you usually get the alcohol you drank? A. I did not drink alcohol during the past 30 days B. I bought it in a store such as a liquor store, convenience store, supermarket, discount store, or gas station C. I bought it at a restaurant, bar, or club D. I bought it at a public event such as a concert or sporting event E. I gave someone else money to buy it for me F. Someone gave it to me G. I took it from a family member H. I got it some other way
19. During the past 30 days, on how many days did you have at least one drink of alcohol on school property? A. 0 days B. 1 or 2 days C. 3 to 5 days D. 6 to 9 days E. 10 to 19 days F. 20 to 29 days G. All 30 days
The next 4 questions ask about marijuana use. Marijuana also is called grass or pot.
20. During your life, how many times have you used marijuana? A. 0 times B. 1 or 2 times C. 3 to 9 times D. 10 to 19 times E. 20 to 39 times F. 40 to 99 times G. 100 or more times
21. How old were you when you tried marijuana for the first time? A. I have never tried marijuana B. 8 years old or younger C. 9 or 10 years old D. 11 or 12 years old E. 13 or 14 years old F. 15 or 16 years old G. 17 years old or older
EFFECTS OF SENSATION SEEKING AND ATHLETIC INVOLVEMENT 29
22. During the past 30 days, how many times did you use marijuana? A. 0 times B. 1 or 2 times C. 3 to 9 times D. 10 to 19 times E. 20 to 39 times F. 40 or more times
23. During the past 30 days, how many times did you use marijuana on school property? A. 0 times B. 1 or 2 times C. 3 to 9 times D. 10 to 19 times E. 20 to 39 times F. 40 or more times
The next 11 questions ask about other drugs.
24. During your life, how many times have you used any form of cocaine, including powder, crack, or freebase? A. 0 times B. 1 or 2 times C. 3 to 9 times D. 10 to 19 times E. 20 to 39 times F. 40 or more times
25. During the past 30 days, how many times did you use any form of cocaine, including powder, crack, or freebase? A. 0 times B.1 or two times C. 3 to 9 times D. 10 to 19 times E. 20 to 39 times F. 40 or more times
EFFECTS OF SENSATION SEEKING AND ATHLETIC INVOLVEMENT 30
26. During your life, how many times have you sniffed glue, breathed the contents of aerosol spray cans, or inhaled any paints or sprays to get high? A. 0 times B. 1 or 2 times C. 3 to 9 times D. 10 to 19 times E. 20 to 39 times F. 40 or more times
27. During your life, how many times have you used heroin (also called smack, junk, or China White)? A. 0 times B. 1 or 2 times C. 3 to 9 times D. 10 to 19 times E. 20 to 39 times F. 40 or more times
28. During your life, how many times have you used methamphetamines (also called speed, crystal, crank, or ice)? A. 0 times B. 1 or 2 times C. 3 to 9 times D. 10 to 19 times E. 20 to 39 times F. 40 or more times
29. During your life, how many times have you used ecstasy (also called MDMA)? A. 0 times B. 1 or 2 times C. 3 to 9 times D. 10 to 19 times E. 20 to 39 times F. 40 or more times
30. During your life, how many times have you used hallucinogenic drugs, such as LSD, acid, PCP, angel dust, mescaline, or mushrooms? A. 0 times B. 1 or 2 times C. 3 to 9 times D. 10 to 19 times E. 20 to 39 times F. 40 or more times
EFFECTS OF SENSATION SEEKING AND ATHLETIC INVOLVEMENT 31
31. During your life, how many times have you taken steroid pills or shots without a doctor’s prescription? A. 0 times B. 1 or 2 times C. 3 to 9 times D. 10 to 19 times E. 20 to 39 times F. 40 or more times
32. During your life, how many times have you taken a prescription drug (such as OxyContin, Percocet, Vicodin, Adderall, Ritalin, or Xanax) without a doctor’s prescription? A. 0 times B. 1 or 2 times C. 3 to 9 times D. 10 to 19 times E. 20 to 39 times F. 40 or more times
33. During your life, how many times have you used a needle to inject any illegal drug into your body? A. 0 times B. 1 time C. 2 or more times
34. During the past 12 months, has anyone offered, sold, or given you an illegal drug on school property? A. Yes B. No
35. During the past 12 months, on how many intercollegiate/varsity sports teams did you play? A. 0 teams B. 1 team C. 2 teams D. 3 or more teams 36. During the past 12 months, on how many club/intramural sports teams did you play? A. 0 teams B. 1 team C. 2 teams D. 3 or more teams
37. During the past 30 days, did you exercise to lose weight or to keep from gaining weight? A. Yes B. No
EFFECTS OF SENSATION SEEKING AND ATHLETIC INVOLVEMENT 32
38. On how many of the past 7 days did you exercise or participate in physical activity for at least 20 minutes that made you sweat and breathe hard, such as basketball, soccer, running, swimming laps, fast bicycling, fast dancing, or similar aerobic activities? A. 0 days B. 1 day C. 2 days D. 3 days E. 4 days F. 5 days G. 6 days H. 7 days
39. On how many of the past 7 days did you participate in physical activity for at least 30 minutes that did not make you sweat or breathe hard, such as fast walking, slow bicycling, skating, pushing a lawn mower, or mopping floors? A. 0 days B. 1 day C. 2 days D. 3 days E. 4 days F. 5 days G. 6 days H. 7 days
40. During the past 7 days, on how many days were you physically active for at least 60 minutes per day? (Add up all the time you spent in any kind of physical activity that increased your heart rate and made you breathe hard some of the time.) A. 0 days B. 1 day C. 2 days D. 3 days E. 4 days F. 5 days G. 6 days H. 7 days
EFFECTS OF SENSATION SEEKING AND ATHLETIC INVOLVEMENT 33
APPENDIX B
SSS
This test will help you determine the level of your sensation seeking disposition.
This is based on the test developed by Prof. Marvin Zuckerman from the
University of Delaware. Please complete the following questions. There are no right or wrong answers, everyone is an individual, just respond to the statement.
For each statement, choose either true or false. If you do not like either choice, mark the choice you dislike the least. Write “True” or “False” in the margins, or circle which letter is more applicable.
1. I like to have new and exciting experiences and sensations even if they are a little frightening- T/F
2. I like doing things just for the thrill of it- T/F
3. I sometimes do “crazy” things just for fun- T/F
4. I sometimes like to do things that are a little frightening-T/F
5. I enjoy getting into new situations where you can’t predict how things will turn out- T/F
6. I’ll try anything once- T/F
7. I enjoy friends who are excitingly unpredictable- T/F
8. I like “wild” uninhibited parties- T/F
9. I would like the kind of life where one is on the move and traveling a lot, with lots of change and excitement- T/F
10. I am an impulsive person –T/F
EFFECTS OF SENSATION SEEKING AND ATHLETIC INVOLVEMENT 34
11. I like to explore a strange city of section of town by myself, even if it means getting lost- T/F
12. I would like to take off on a trip with no preplanned or definite routes or timetables- T/F
13. Before I begin a complicated job, I make careful plans –T/F
14. I very seldom spend much time on the details of planning ahead-T/F
15. I tend to begin a new job without much advance planning on how I will do it- T/F
16. I usually think about what I am going to do before doing it- T/F
17. I often do things on impulse- T/F
18. I often get so carried away by new and exciting things and ideas that I never think of possible complications- T/F
19. I tend to change interests frequently- T/F