Community Media Sustainability Guide

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COMMUNITY MEDIA SUSTAINABILITY GUIDE

The Business of Changing Lives An Internews publication written and edited by Jean Fairbairn

“Innovative program production can go straight to the station’s bottom line — every time a new audience is created, there are new opportunities for funding and sponsorship.” — PROFESSOR JOHN VAN ZYL, MEDIA EDUCATOR, SOUTH AFRICA

COMMUNITY MEDIA SUSTAINABILITY GUIDE 1

COMMUNITY MEDIA SUSTAINABILITY GUIDE

About Internews Internews Network is an international media development organization whose mission is to empower local media worldwide to give people the news and information they need, the ability to connect, and the means to make their voices heard. Founded in 1982, the organization has worked in over 70 countries and trained over 70,000 media professionals worldwide.

Internews Network Administrative Headquarters: Washington, DC Oﬃce: P.O. Box 4448 1640 Rhode Island Ave. NW Arcata, CA 95518 USA Washington, DC 20036 Phone: +1 707 826-2030 Phone: +1 202 833-5740 Fax: +1 707 826-2136 Fax: +1 202 833-5745 Email: [email protected] Web: www.internews.org

CREDITS: COVER PHOTO: Radio listenership has increased in Afghanistan since 2001. Picture by BARAT ALI BATOOR. Source: Internews Afghanistan. COVER QUOTATION: From A Sense of Belonging: Community Radio and Civil Society, by Professor John van Zyl (ABC Ulwazi, 2005, p. 12). ABC Ulwazi is a radio training and production house based in Johannesburg, South Africa. www.abculwazi.org.za DESIGNER: CORY DEIBERT COPY EDITOR: NANCY KOTARY

This publication is made possible by the gener- ous support of the American people through the United States Agency for International Develop- ment (USAID) through a subgrant from Pact under cooperative agreement #GEG-A-00-01-00005-00. The contents are the responsibility of Internews Network and do not necessarily reﬂect the views of USAID, the United States Government or Pact.

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COMMUNITY MEDIA SUSTAINABILITY GUIDE

Table of Contents

Project Staﬀ, Acknowledgments ...... 2 Advisory Committee ...... 3 Introduction ...... 4

Section 1: ...... 6 Community Media: Core Principles and Deﬁnitions ...... 6 It’s Not Just About the Money: Approaches to Sustainability ...... 11 Sustainable Energy for Sustainable Stations ...... 15 Models of Sustainable Funding ...... 16 Business Models, Business Plans, and Community Media ...... 19 Making Donors Work For You ...... 21 How to Write a Successful Funding Proposal and Achieve Your Goals ...... 22 Getting Your Support to Media Right ...... 24 The Role of National Networks in Sustaining Community Media ...... 26 The Need for an Enabling Environment ...... 27 Community Research for Community Media Sustainability ...... 34

Section 2: ...... 38 The Business of Changing Lives ...... 38 Work with What You Have ...... 39 You Cannot Put a Price on Community Involvement ...... 42 Keeping the Money Neutral ...... 45 Soweto’s “Number One” Station ...... 48 Diverse Sources of Funding Keep the Five Rivers Flowing Strongly ...... 51 It’s Your Baby—It Needs Food ...... 54 Sustainability Through Partnerships: A Lasting Cup of Coﬀee ...... 57 The Road from Community Service to Social Enterprise ...... 60 Listener-Supported Public Radio in the United States ...... 63 Balancing Continued Aid with a Public Service Mission in a Competitive Market ...... 66 Sustaining the Intercontinental Radio Communication System ...... 71 Peru’s CNR: A Decentralized Network ...... 74 Small Towns Find a Voice Online ...... 76

Resources ...... 81

COMMUNITY MEDIA SUSTAINABILITY GUIDE 1 staff / acknowledgments 2 - - - - COMMUNITY MEDIA SUSTAINABILITY GUIDE ing this project. In particular, we thank we particular, In ing this project. at USAID for providing Koenig Mark and con ideas, content, commentary, nections. the would also like to acknowledge We support staff, field offices, of Internews and partners in Rwanda, on the ground Afghanistan, and Nepal. Haiti, of all, thanks to the many people Most interviewed we their for their time, and their courage in discussing honesty, sometimes difficult issues. what are Acknowledgments people and organiza thank all the We what we helped in creating tions who be an informative will find to hope you sustainability of and useful guide to community media. Advisory especially thank our Com We helped shape the mittee for advice that sections of the wrote guide and who also thank other writers and also We guide. in credited who are other contributors, the text. Our partners States Agency for United Thanks to the (USAID) Development International for support and our partners at Pact - - - vice president for vice president is senior program as- is senior program

copyedited the guide. copyedited

design consultant for the NANCY KOTARY CORY DEIBERT, ANAMIKA NELSON MARJORIE ROUSE, She has been editing projects covering a covering has been editing projects She wide range of topics since 1995. for projects guide, has designed several including annual reports Internews, 1997 to 2007. from of broadcast outlets including WGBH, WGBH, outlets including of broadcast the History Channel, NBC, and others. at Internews. Initiatives sociate for New since for Internews has worked She 2004, supporting implementation of globally. programs media development is in International background Nelson’s concentrating on democ Development, racy and governance. Europe and Eurasia Programs at In at Programs and Eurasia Europe in media develop ternews, has worked background ment since 1997. Rouse’s TV as a work in journalism includes 1989–1995 from journalist in Moscow of the breakup covering for NBC News, in the and the conﬂict Union the Soviet on to start then went her She Balkans. long- company doing production own and short-format a variety for programs ------

. One of . One

Tarikh researcher researcher

the guide’s director, director, the guide’s

TUPUR CHATTOPADHYAY,

JEAN FAIRBAIRN, sion news channel in Mumbai, India. sion news channel in Mumbai, focuses on Indian cinema. Chattopad focuses on Indian for a televi working hyay is currently her interests is drama; her master’s thesis is drama; her master’s her interests also edited the University of Delhi’s His- of Delhi’s also edited the University tory magazine, Society Now for Harmony and Democracy. She She and Democracy. for Harmony Now on several research projects for organiza projects research on several and Act for Peace Youth tions including While studying, Chattopadhyay worked While studying, Chattopadhyay worked Communication at London’s School of Communication at London’s (2008). and African Studies Oriental completed an MA in Post National National completed an MA in Post and intern for the guide, has recently and intern for the guide, has recently based in the United Kingdom. based in the United marginalized communities in Africa. marginalized consultant a freelance is presently She munications projects servingmunications projects and poor distributes wind-up and solar-powered distributes wind-up and solar-powered radios and integrates them into com ager of the Freeplay Foundation, which Foundation, ager of the Freeplay South Africa’s vibrant community radio Africa’s South also served She as general man sector. playing a leading role in developing in developing playing a leading role ety Foundation for South Africa’s Media Media Africa’s for South ety Foundation to 2003, 1996 from Program Support ation. Fairbairn directed the Open Soci the Open directed ation. Fairbairn building democracy and civil society, and civil society, building democracy and evalu- HIV/AIDS, and monitoring independent and community radio, independent and community development sector. Specialist areas are are areas Specialist sector. development local development, communications for 20 years’ experience in the international experience 20 years’ chief writer, and editor, has more than than has more and editor, chief writer, Project Staﬀ advisory committee 3 - COMMUNITY MEDIA SUSTAINABILITY GUIDE is executive director of Glob director is executive

IVAN SIGAL media as writer and editor. al Voices, a citizen media project that that media project a citizen Voices, al curate, and amplify seeks to aggregate, online—shining the global conversation people that other light on places and joining Before media often ignore. was 2008, Sigal in August Voices Global of Institute at the U.S. a senior fellow digital media he researched where Peace, partsin conﬂict-prone world. of the spent a decade with previously He implement- designing and Internews, in the projects ing media development Asia, and Latin Union, former Soviet has America and the Caribbean. Sigal photographer as a freelance also worked and in documentary ﬁlm and print ------, and has worked for 25 years 25 years for has worked

is president of Develop- is president

from a local to a national from All Things Considered Things All Fresh Air Fresh BILL SIEMERING BIRGITTE JALLOV Society Institute in South Africa, Mo in South Institute Society among other zambique, and Mongolia, the original wrote countries. Siemering Radio Public mission for National and was the States (NPR) in the United at NPR. of programming first director developed NPR staff, Siemering With the program Phila WHYY-FM, later as manager at Gross Terry delphia, he helped bring and audience. networks and national media develop and national networks as a facilita and works ment initiatives, tor and coach with a focus on strategic planning, elaboration of partnership, and other sustainability strategies. orga a nonprofit ing Radio Partners, nization that supports local radio in Radio countries. Developing developing experi out of Siemering’s grew Partners with the Open ence since 1993 working with media development, press freedom, freedom, press development, with media and empowerment, communication for 50 countries in Af community radio in East. and the Middle rica, Asia, Europe, community ra with has worked Jallov an organizer, a trainer, dio as a producer, a devel a film maker, a writer, a lecturer, and an an evaluator, opment strategist, is often invited to advise Jallov advisor. community radio national and regional - - . He has . He Fun-

Púlsar

is chief executive of- is chief executive in Uruguay and has in Uruguay

has more than twenty than twenty has more

PhD, is a research fellow fellow is a research PhD,

FRANKLIN HUIZIES

BRUCE GIRARD KATE COYER, African region. African region. media training within the Southern media training within the Southern Directors for Nordic SADC Journalism SADC Journalism for Nordic Directors (NSJ), an organization providing Trust Province. He also serves on the Board of also serves on the Board He Province. radio station serving rural farming com- Cape Western Africa’s munities in South member of Radio KC, a community member of Radio KC, tioner. Huizies, who also serves on the Huizies, tioner. was a founder Africa Board, AMARC experience as a community radio practi- ficer of the National Community Radio ficer of the National years’ Africa and has 15 in South Forum between broadcasting and new broadcasting media. between a particular interest in the intersection in the a particular interest countries. He is director of the of is director countries. He dación Comunica conducted research in more than forty more in conducted research communication rights, designed and led communication rights, designed and international courses and seminars, and reports about community media and about community reports published numerous books, articles,published numerous and founded Latin America’s first Internet- founded Latin America’s based radio news service, nity Radio Broadcasters (AMARC) and (AMARC) nity Radio Broadcasters trainer, and researcher. He helped set He and researcher. trainer, Association of Commu World up the alternative media as a producer, activist, producer, media as a alternative years’ experience with community and experience with years’ munity stations over the past twenty the past twenty munity stations over years. producing radio and helping build com radio and helping producing of Pennsylvania and Central European and Central European of Pennsylvania has been (CEU). Coyer University for Communication at the University at the University for Communication and lecturer with the Annenberg School with the Annenberg and lecturer Advisory Committee introduction 4 - - COMMUNITY MEDIA SUSTAINABILITY GUIDE forms of community media—newspa pers, community media centers, online Community media, film, and video. principles and media of all kinds share practices. financially sustain become do you How is no simple there able? Unfortunately, situation and organization Every answer. of community media from all over the all over of community media from perspectives different world to provide to on sustainability and approaches achieving it. focus on financial sustainability. We that suc- we believe This is not because cess with funding and finance automati- in sustainable community cally results media, but because funding and finance a major concern. are spotlight falls mainly on com- Our munity media serving communities in fortunesare whose countries, developing so often tied to international donor support. This in turn means a bias towards community radio because of its wide world. However, use in the developing other a focus on radio does not exclude - - The view from Kibongo, capital of Rwanda’s Eastern Province. In Section include 2, we Province. Eastern capital of Rwanda’s Kibongo, view from The a Kibongo to from broadcasts that a study of Radio station Izuba, a community radio audience. rural largely others who provide support to commu- others who provide nity media in a changing environment. and experiences on research draw We services—activities that go far beyond their primary dis and as producers role tributors of information, education and entertainment. Sustainability Media The Community the challenges some of explores Guide and issues facing community media as they struggle to survive in the twenty- is designed to be of value It first century. to community media practitioners and to donors, trainers, consultants, and emails on behalf of their listeners. same time, new the At technologies competition for greater brought have the Advertising—at resources. scarce of most media business models—is core and all flooding to the Internet now seeking new ways of making media are engag Community media are money. ing in activities like training, running managing farms, conducting research, centers, operating telephone Internet stations with Internet connections can stations with Internet act as post offices, sending and receiving - - - - - a responsibil concerned about meeting the becoming a valued and recog becoming a valued partnized of the media land aid agencies, scape. International oday community media are oday community media are

to survive and provide high-quality to survive and provide

used to watch television programs; radio used to watch television programs; receivers and cameras; computers can be receivers media and “new” technologies—means media and “new” mobile phones can be used as radio Convergence—the mixing of “old” mixing of “old” Convergence—the brought about an explosion of newbrought me dia opportunities, activities and forms. The shift to digital communications has Internet—are also profoundly affecting also profoundly Internet—are the community media environment. New technologies—particularly the New services. ity community media are increasingly seen increasingly community media are as small enterprises with media. In this new era of recognition, this new era of recognition, media. In development, and are introducing posi introducing and are development, legal frameworks for community tive to education, to health and economic to education, to health and economic communications and service delivery, communications and service delivery, are acknowledging the contribution of acknowledging are community media to local government empower. More and more governments governments and more More empower. showing ever greater interest in com- interest greater ever showing ability to inform and munity media’s T are Goals, Development Millennium of“business” “model.” both and fundamentally to contradict the notions the hands of ordinary people—seem to provide an alternative to mainstream media, to place control of media in purpose—to give voice to the voiceless, production processes, and its whole ownership structures, its participatory to ridicule. Community origins media’s in political struggle, its community brought responses ranging from dismay model for community media would have Some years ago the notion of a business Introduction introduction 5 COMMUNITY MEDIA SUSTAINABILITY GUIDE - - - We hope the guide will be of value to hope the guide will be of value We the thousands of community media activists and practitioners engaged in the daily struggle to build sustainable community media and to the many agencies that donors and development supportthem. community media face as they struggle to become sustainable. Community media has become some and new industry, thing of a growth papers, evalu books, articles, research appearing are ation and other reports include a list we all the time. Finally, cannot our list Inevitably, of resources. it is a believe we but be comprehensive, solid start for those wanting to explore further. do not deal with each comprehensively; comprehensively; each with deal not do them. of all on touch we however, include the second section, we In community media, detailed studies of examples put a pool of chosen from the advisoryforward by and committee mak to the guide. In other contributors our intention was ing the final selection, countries contexts, different to cover the of all, Most and kinds of media. the challenges studies aim to highlight dress these topics in the first section. We We section. first the in topics these dress

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tions to advocate for community media, media, community for advocate to tions ad We standards. set and content share capacity and the networks and associa and networks the and capacity mission; the importance of an enabling enabling an of importance the mission; research audience environment; legal nature of communities; the centrality of of centrality the communities; of nature approaches to sustainability and business business and sustainability to approaches dynamic the of account take that models financial sustainability: clear definitions; definitions; clear sustainability: financial nal and external factors that are neces are that factors external and nal achieve to media community for sary have used what we believe are the inter the are believe we what used have The guide The we guide, the for framework loose a As

munity media. the extraordinary creativity of the com the extraordinary creativity munities who build and sustain com order to survive, and above all to show all to show to survive, and above order arguments, to demonstrate the strugglesarguments, to demonstrate community media must face daily in We do this to illustrate some of our do this to illustrate We approaches. Throughout the guide we the guide Throughout approaches. community media. include examples of the issues and share ideas, models, and ideas, models, and the issues and share So we cannot tell you how to achieve fi- to achieve how cannot tell you we So can discuss but we nancial sustainability, ety of models and experiences, good and and experiences, ety of models bad, to learn from. solution, no secret recipe—only a vari recipe—only no secret solution, is different. There is no one business is no one There is different. all formula, no one-size-fits model or e n o n o i t c e s e n o n o i t c e s

When we talk about sustainability, what is it that we want to sustain? In simple terms, sustainability means to keep going over a period of time, and many 1 community media do keep going for long periods of time, providing valued services. But the majority live a hand-to-mouth existence, with no cash reserves to cushion them against crises or unexpected expenses. There are examples of community media institutions that generate steady streams of income, but these are mostly in developing countries—and they are exceptions.

Most community media serve poor and marginalized communities and have at one time or another received grant support. Donors are especially concerned that the projects they fund should become sustainable. Apart from the loss of community beneﬁt, donors’ reputations are at stake if projects fail. The managers, staﬀ and volunteers of projects are equally concerned about sustainability—their livelihoods may depend on it. In communities without access to other forms of media, community media play life-saving roles. Radio Vwa Peyizan Abriko in Haiti, for example, was set up primarily to broadcast storm warnings, because when storms arrived unannounced, communities were unprepared and people were killed.

These issues make the ﬁnancial sustainability of community media a universal concern. In this section, we discuss community media’s core principles and diﬀerent approaches to sustainability.

COMMUNITY MEDIA: CORE PRINCIPLES AND DEFINITIONS ommunity media is now widely recognized by governments and the international development community both for its reach and for its practices, that is, the ways in which it reaches people. Recognition has led more and more governments (sometimes reluctantly, under pressure to democratize) to introduce laws and regulations that include community media. What Cthis means is that community media organizations are increasingly being shaped and deﬁned within mainstream systems, as a “third” tier of media, in relation to the “ﬁrst” and “second” tiers of commercial and public media.

This is a shift from the past, when community media developed in opposition to the mainstream, to represent and give voice to oppressed, marginalized, and excluded communities. One of the deﬁning features of community media was its origins in people’s struggles against oppressive regimes, poverty, and exploitation, and there are many examples of community media that have been shut down by repressive governments. The new era of recognition and value owes a huge debt to decades of work by community media pioneers and activists, whose thinking and contributions are reﬂected in the new policies and laws now being drafted.

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Core principles within many From struggle to mainstream: community radio in South Africa definitions The birth of community radio in South Africa is a classic example of community radio Community media are dynamic entities. being born in struggle and later becoming a part of the mainstream. Some people see them as processes, or 1 communities using technology to take South Africa’s community radio sector started small, in the 1980s, pioneered by a tiny control of their own development. Oth- resistance organization known as CASET (the Cassette Education Trust). CASET inter- ers see them as more as communications viewed leaders and activists of the anti-apartheid struggle and recorded speeches and tools, or institutions organized around debates on cassette tapes. Activists distributed the tapes at meetings and rallies so that opponents of apartheid could hear resistance news and viewpoints and the voices of information and communications tech- their leaders, who were then barred by state radio and the white-owned mainstream nologies. press.1 The World Association of Community Despite repression, arrests, and bannings, resistance media persisted under apartheid. Broadcasters (AMARC) gives the task CASET caught the imagination of student organizations, and a community radio move- of defining community radio over to its ment took root. The movement learnt from international organizations like AMARC, said members, and lists on its website several Edric Gorfinkel, founder of CASET and pioneer of community radio in South Africa:2 answers to the question, “What is community radio?”6 There are also many We had a lot of debate about the [term] community radio and what we wanted to call it definitions in the growing number of and quite honestly at the time we thought we were inventing the [term]. We thought we’d charters, statements, and manuals that invented the concept of community radio! It was only when AMARC got hold of our stuff are emerging. However, in general, there somehow or other, and we got this thing inviting us to send something to the World Assem- bly of Community Radio. And we thought whoa, hey, man—there’s other people out there is agreement on four principles that are doing it.2 seen as pillars of community broadcasting: The new movement incorporated lessons learned in the international arena into proposals for a post-apartheid radio system. The first law defining community radio was • Community ownership and control passed in 1993—and in 1995, after liberation and amid great joy and celebration, the • Community service first community radio stations went on air. • Community participation The law states that a community radio station must have the following properties: • A nonprofit business model

• Fully controlled by a nonprofit body and run for nonprofit purposes All community media embrace some or • Serves a particular community • Encourages community participation in selecting and running programs all of these principles, and apply them • May be funded by donations, grants, sponsorships, advertising, or membership fees, in different ways and degrees, depend- or by a combination of these methods4 ing on their local and national contexts.

To be granted a license, the station must meet all four criteria. South Africa’s legal defini- Who owns community media? tion sees the radio frequency spectrum as a public resource. Community radio licenses represent frequencies and are held by community representatives acting on behalf of Community ownership operates at the larger community. Ownership of the license is open to challenge, and to keep the both a practical level and at the level of license, the community’s representatives must ensure that programming consistently community perception. Both levels are serves community needs and interests. important: community media are most sustainable where there is actual com- More than 100 stations have been licensed in South Africa, serving a variety of geo- munity ownership and a strong sense of graphic communities and ethnic, cultural, and religious groups. Community radio is community ownership. today an accepted part of the media landscape, and stations compete with commercial and public radio for listeners and advertisers. According to figures published in 2008 by In some places, ownership is legally the South African Advertising Research Bureau, 22.6% of all South Africans over age 18 defined. In South Africa, the law states listen to community radio.5 This is an impressive statistic and marks steady growth from 10%–11% of the same group since the launch of the sector in 1995. that a community radio station must be owned and controlled by an elected board representing all sectors of the community. In practice, board members

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are elected at Annual General Meetings there is community control and ac- host NGO’s funding dries up; and there (AGMs) and serve for one or two years, countability without actual community may be nothing to stop the owner of the depending on the station’s constitution. ownership. (The question of community commercial station from selling the busi- In other places community media may media ownership is further discussed ness to someone who is less concerned be owned by NGOs, religious institu- the The Need For An Enabling with community service and more with 1 tions, cultural associations, munici- Environment.) profit. palities, or universities. In Afghanistan where (until recently) there were no In practice, the nature of governance These examples tell us that legal commu- regulations specifically for community and membership structures can be more nity ownership is neither a prerequisite radio, most community radio stations important than the legal system. In a for nor a guarantee of sustainable com- study of six local independent radio sta- munity service. However, where struc- tions in Africa, Developing Radio Part- tures are representative and processes “When radio fosters the ners7 found it difficult to see a clear link are democratic, community ownership between legal ownership and commu- has the highest potential to guarantee participation of citizens nity service. Among the six stations were sustainable community service. Legal a community-owned station dominated safeguards are important—but only if and defends their interests; by a single church, an NGO-owned communities are empowered to take up station that went way beyond its NGO legal challenges. when it reflects the tastes mission in community service, and a for-profit station that valued the notion Nonprofit structure of the majority and makes of perception of community ownership A nonprofit structure is an important so highly that it gave over running of way of distinguishing community media good humour and hope the station to members of the commu- from other media forms. It also safe- nity several times a year. guards community media from pure its main purpose; when commercial interests, which might favor The community-owned but church- cheaper music and talk-show formats. it truly informs; . . . when dominated station was South African. As with ownership, nonprofit structures In this case, the community was not can be legislated. In countries where everyone’s words fly without happy: people flocked to the annual there is no community media legisla- general meeting; objected to the high tion, however, some community media discrimination or censorship, proportion of church programming, initiatives operate as businesses and elected a new board, and instructed the nonetheless provide vibrant community that is community radio.” new board to restore general commu- services. nity programming. The community’s — José Ignacio Lòpez Vigil in Manual intervention was made possible by the Being nonprofit does not mean that you urgente para Radialistas Apasionados legal environment that makes commu- have to be poor. The main difference (1997, quoted on Comunica website, nity ownership a condition for obtain- between commercial and community ing and retaining a license. This example www.comunica.org). media is that profit made by commercial demonstrates how an enabling legal media benefits individuals or investors, environment can protect community and profit made by community media is media from being hijacked by a faction returned into service provision or used are owned by private individuals and or group within a community. (The for the benefit of the community. run as businesses. In Ireland, the broad- example of Jozi FM, is another example cast regulations make it possible for a of community action to safeguard their Some countries have regulations that variety of organizations (churches, uni- airwaves.) enforce public financial accountability versities, NGOs) to own community ra- and transparency. In the United King- dio and television stations, but stipulate For the NGO station, in Tanzania, and dom, community media institutions that the owners must make provision for the commercial station, in Zambia, can register as charities. If they do, they membership, management, and staff- community service may be less secure. must comply with the Charities Act, ing by the community that is served. In In the case of the NGO station, there which stipulates that organizations earn- this way, the Irish system ensures that is a risk that the station will close if the ing more than a certain amount must

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post their annual accounts on the Chari- • Facilitates community participation Community participation: the key ties Commission website for public in production and dissemination of to community communications viewing.8 In South Africa, the radio content Participation is the key defining feature licensing authority has powers to • Ensures that voices of marginalized, of community media; it is what places monitor expenditure and audit financial 1 stigmatized, and repressed sectors of community media outside of traditional records to ensure that communities ben- communities are heard media models, in which audiences are efit from any surplus funds. The logic • Provides spaces for perspectives and passive receivers of messages. In the of this is clear—extra cash generated views that are alternative to those community media model, senders and through a community resource is seen originating from mainstream media receivers together create messages and to belong to the community. meaning through participatory processes. Community media theorists Although they are often criticized as Debate about community, what it is distinguish “meaningful” community intrusive, provisions like these can be and whether community even exists participation from other forms of (less helpful to community media. Public has been ongoing. Many writers point meaningful) participation seen in accountability generates trust and trust out that communities are not made up commercial and public media: writing is more likely to attract donor and com- of one kind of person, but are divided letters; sending photographs; inviting munity support. To fulfil the require- along lines that include class, gender, people to call in. ments of public accountability, com- religion, age, interest, sexual orientation, munity media must develop strong and and ethnicity. These divisions make Meaningful participation happens at effective financial planning and manage- questions of shared ownership and ser- all levels of community media, and ment systems, which are the foundation vice more complex. will involve many activities, including of financial sustainability. An interesting ownership, consultation on topics and aspect of the research for this guide was By creating new forms of community formats, training, production and distri- how difficult we found it to obtain fi- that are far more loosely defined, the bution of messages, audience research, nancial records from community media Internet and online media have forced and finance. Participatory processes organizations. In some cases, managers us to look again at how we see commu- generate a strong sense of community were protective of the information and nity. Online communities—also known ownership; media are demystified, and nervous about sharing it; in others, it as virtual communities—communicate by participating, communities learn was simply not available in any orga- primarily through computers, blogging, valuable communications and media nized form, suggesting a great need for email, and text-based chat rooms. literacy skills and understandings. financial management training. In Small Towns Find a Voice Online, Community service Persephone Miel discusses some of the new forms of online media. Miel draws ENDNOTES Community service is at the heart of a distinction between big, international 1 For a history of CASET, see the chapter titled community media. All community virtual communities, and small, geo- “Making waves with CASET,” by Edric Gor- media must have a community and finkel, in A Passion for Radio, edited by Bruce graphically focused community-service the intention to serve and build the Girard. Published in 1992 (Black Rose Books, websites. The big virtual communi- community. In the community media Montreal), A Passion for Radio is out of print, ties use computers to discuss or share environment, communities tend to be but an electronic version can be found at information about particular interests www.comunica.org. defined in terms of geography (a group and issues, but the communication is of people living in a particular location) 2 AMARC is the World Association of Commu- unmanaged. Smaller, geographically fo- or interest (religion, politics, culture, nity Radio Broadcasters (it stands for Associa- cused community-service websites have hobby, or any other interest). A quality tion Mondiale de Radiodiffuseurs Commu- similarities with traditional community community service is one that: nautaires). See www.amarc.org. media, in that they are owned by com- 3 Edric Gorfinkel, quoted in “Community munities and communities participate • Validates and strengthens communi- radio in post-apartheid South Africa: The case in producing and sharing content. ties of Bush Radio in Cape Town,” by T. Bosch, Transformations 10 (February 2005). See • Covers topics that are relevant to the The Internet has also created many new www.transformationsjournal.org/journal/is- community opportunities for community media to sue_10/article_05.shtml. • Encourages community discussion generate income and cut costs. and debate

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4 Summarized from the IBA Act of 1993. In 1999, another law—the Broadcasting Act—was passed. The two laws work together to deﬁne and regulate community radio and the licensing process. Both laws can be downloaded from the ICASA website, www.icasa. 1 org.za (under Legislation).

5 The South African Advertising Research Bureau, 2008. Community Radio Summary, November 2008, www.saarf.co.za, under RAMS (radio)/Radio Listening: Community.

6 See www.amarc.org (under About AMARC/ What is Community Radio). See also www. comunica.org for 14 deﬁnitions of community radio.

7 Fairbairn, J., and B. Siemering. (2006). Guidebook on Sustainability. Developing Ra- dio Partners. www.developinradiopartners.org (under Programs and Projects / community radio sustainability project). [[AU: Publisher/ location info?]]

8 See www.charity-commission.gov.uk.

COMMUNITY MEDIA SUSTAINABILITY GUIDE 10 e n o n o i t c e s

It’s Not Just About the Money: Approaches to Sustainability At the heart of the deﬁnition of community media are community participation in the production and dissemination of messages and community service. What we want to 1 sustain, therefore, is a valued and high quality community service, and community participation in producing the service.

n their manual on setting up • Language and cultural relevance. • Enabling legislation, regulation and community media centers (CMCs), One of community media’s greatest policies for community media. An Alfonso Gumucio-Dagron and He- strengths is its ability to communicate enabling legal environment is ideal, zekielsocial Dlamini define sustainability with communities in local language but it works best if communities as having three aspects: social, in- and dialects, and to be able to address understand their rights and know how Istitutional, and financial sustainability.1 sensitive issues in ways that take into to use the law. To become sustainable, an organization account local cultures. This is im- • Internal democracy; staff and man- must succeed in all three aspects. portant for community media every- agement systems; stable governance. where. Community participation in decision making requires democratic As discussed earlier, under Who owns management structures. Although community media?, Community service most community media are staffed fin and Community participation, com- by volunteers, they should be under l a munity is a complex concept. Commu- contract, so they know their roles, ia n c nities—whether they are communities responsibilities, and rights. Stable oc ia s l of interest or geographic communi- governance is essential to sustainabil- ties—are never made up of one kind of ity: the board of directors is ultimately person. There are always divisions, along responsible for overseeing finances. institutional language, cultural, gender, age, income, If the books are not properly kept or and many other lines. This has an im- there is mismanagement of funding, Gumucio-Dagron and Dlamini’s model for understanding community media sustainability is represented as a tripod. pact on on community ownership. this can jeopardize sustainability, as the examples of Jozi FM and Radio The size of communities claimed by Izuba demonstrate. Social sustainability refers to all the some community media calls into ques- social processes that are needed to tion the community media definition of create sustainable community media, community: Jozi FM, broadcasting to “Community media services including community participation in vast suburb of Soweto (Johannesburg, governance, management, operations, South Africa) claims a community of six in any form—radio, theatre, content production, generation of in- million people. Radio Salus in Rwanda come, and feedback. claims to provide a community service, Internet, telephone, or but covers the whole of Rwanda; effec- Gumucio-Dagron and Dlamini list tively, Radio Salus is a national station. video—need community three conditions to achieve social sustainability: Institutional sustainability refers to participation for their creation the policies, governance structures, man- • Community ownership of the com- agement structures and styles, staffing, as well as for their use and munication process. As discussed internal relationships, and practices, as previously, this includes both legal/of- well as partnerships with organizations survival.” ficial structure and the community’s and the legal and regulatory environ- sense of owning the process. ment. — Alfonso Gumucio-Dagron and Hezekiel • Development of local content, through community participation in The important issues in achieving insti- Dlamini (2005) in Sustainability of the selection of topics, research, writ- tutional sustainability are: CMCs, cited previously, p. 103. ing, filming, recording, and editing.

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• Appropriate technology. Most com- asks listeners to donate to the station the Sustainability as an interaction munity media need equipment. When equivalent of a handful of rice. between mission, model, and planning and building community money media, make sure that the equipment “In-kind” support most often takes The National Council for Voluntary is affordable, durable, easy to use, and the form of volunteer labor—writ- 1 Organizations (NCVO) in the United whenever possible, able to be main- ers, editors, and producers can all be Kingdom presents a sustainability model tained by local technicians. volunteers. Usually, volunteers are that is similar to the tripod model.2 Ac- unpaid, but some community media • Networking and convergence. cording to the NCVO model, sustain- pay volunteers stipends. Jozi FM pays Community media associations and ability of any community organization 45 volunteers a monthly stipend; Radio networks enable sharing of learning, requires means finding the right balance Vwa Peyizan Abriko, on the other hand, pooling of expertise, sharing content, between the three interrelated areas of has volunteers who contribute time and lobbying and advocating on behalf of mission, model, and money. members, and many other activities. money. Other examples of community Convergence refers to the ability of donations include food, stationary, and community media to use new digital services such as equipment maintenance technologies to diversify their services. and accounting. �� There is wide recognition that partici- Financial sustainability is the organiza- patory processes are the backbone of tion’s ongoing income-generating poten- community media, but they are also tial, and includes cash and donations of time-consuming and expensive. Vol- goods and services. unteers work hard, but they must also �� be organized and managed; they need Community media generate income space, sustenance, resources, and trans- �� in many different ways. There are two portation. Yet these costs tend to remain considerations that are fundamentally hidden, and it is rare to find the benefits important. The first is independence— and costs of community participation because of their reach, mass media of reflected in business plans and budgets. all kinds are vulnerable to control by Mission powerful interests. The most obvious A useful planning tool The most sustainable mission statements concern is state or political control, are clear and focused. Concerned about but media are also vulnerable to pow- The Gumucio-Dagron and Dlamini being inclusive, community media may erful commercial, religious and other definition of sustainability is especially develop broad public service “informa- interests. The second consideration useful as a planning tool. Too often, tion, education, and entertainment” is to ensure that that income-genera- sustainability is narrowly used to mean missions. However, this is commercial- tion activities are consistent with the financial sustainability, and social and media thinking. A broad mission dilutes mission and goals of the organization. institutional aspects are neglected in the notion of community service by To be consistent, Community Radio planning. By breaking up the concept, making it hard to distinguish from com- Madanpokhara in Nepal, for example, Gumucio-Dagron and Dlamini steer us mercial or public media. Community will broadcast advertisements—but not away from a single focus on financial media are generally less well resourced, for cigarettes, alcohol, and gambling, sustainability. Finance is important— and staffed by nonprofessional vol- which are seen as bad for the health of but only insofar as it resources and unteers who are less experienced than the community. strengthened social and institutional commercial and public media. They are sustainability. Media for Development’s therefore unlikely to be able to produce Financial contributions can include community television projects, T.I.M.E services of the same quality. donations from individuals, local busi- and Inside Job productions are good ness, institutions, and local government. examples of community media. A broad mission also makes it much Haiti’s Radio Vwa Peyizan Abriko, for harder to measure impact. example, organizes fan clubs and asks fans to give what they can afford; Com- munity Radio Madanpokhara in Nepal

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Model generating income from advertising. lization and capacitation” phase before The model is the structure of the organi- But the station has been criticized for the arrival of the radio equipment. zation and all the people, relationships, neglecting community education and The aims were to create community activities, and infrastructure needed development programming in favor structures to own the equipment, to of more commercial and music shows. build channels for community partici- 1 to deliver the service. This is similar to institutional sustainability as described Radio Izuba in Rwanda—through in- pation, and to instill a strong feeling in the tripod model, discussed elsewhere. stitutional weaknesses—may be vulner- of community ownership. Sustainable models are ones that can be able to political control, unless it can • Put in place systems for effective efficiently managed. In terms of financial diversify its funding base. training and capacity building. Exter- sustainability, the most important issue nal and internal training capacities are is to understand what the model costs. Sustainability in the development needed. External training can provide sector valuable leadership, management, and Community media models are built Writing about sustainability as the programming and technical skills. But around community participation. In concept is used in the international to keep up, community participation community media, something that is of- development sector, Simon Bell and stations need internal training systems ten overlooked is the cost of community Stephen Morse (1999) say that there is to train new participants and volun- participation, that is, the cost in time confusion between sustaining institu- teers all the time. Choose appropriate and money of mobilizing, organizing, tions and sustaining outputs or impact.3 technology (equipment)—good-qual- and managing community participa- This leads to an emphasis on sustaining ity, sturdy equipment that is easy to tion; in training participants and volun- the institutions or organizations that understand and maintain, and that teers; and in transport and subsistence produce the outputs, rather than on will hold up to use by inexperienced of community members involved in the outputs themselves. In the develop- people. content production. Community par- ment sector, institutional sustainability • Develop a financial partnership ticipation is mostly seen only in terms is valuable only as long as the institution strategy for community and develop- of income, as “sweat” equity, but—as has valued (developmental) outputs. To ment support. The ability to attract, with all human resources—there are also put it another way, what does it matter establish, manage, and maintain costs attached. if a community media organization that partnerships is at the heart of financial is not producing a valuable community sustainability. A financial partner- Money service collapses? ship strategy is not about money—it The main way of achieving sustainable is about attracting partnerships and funding, NCVO argues, is to diversify Sustainability in a shared managing and maintaining them. the funding base so that if any one development strategy • Impact assessment—it is through im- source dries up or is threatened, alterna- Based on practical experiences gained in pact assessment research that commu- tive funding is available. Mozambique, Birgitte Jallov argues that nity media can prove their worth to achieving long-term sustainability of partners in the community and from A very important issue for community community media is the shared respon- outside. media is independence. Most external sibility of all stakeholders, including funding and support, no matter where international or national donors and Conclusion it comes from, brings with it agendas or communities. She uses Gumucio- Sustainability is often seen as a goal or interests. These are sometimes transpar- Dagron’s “tripod” to help us understand end point, as something that organiza- ent, sometimes hidden. Even the in- a comprehensive five-tier community ra- tions must achieve. However, com- kind support of volunteers is sometimes dio development strategy developed by munities are dynamic—they change all based on their private interests, with UNESCO.4 Each of the tiers comprises the time. Community media organiza- volunteers wanting various benefits, a set of activities, all of which circle back tions that do not respond to changes in from training to status or even possible to institutional, social, and financial their communities’ needs and contexts future jobs. sustainability: become irrelevant—and unsustainable, because they lose their value. What is The best way of ensuring independence • Ensure that the project has strong sustainable today may very well not be is not to allow any one source of fund- community ownership. In order to re- sustainable tomorrow. ing to become too important. Jozi FM alize this goal, the UNESCO project in South Africa is very successful in underwent a one- to two-year “mobi-

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The models mentioned have similarities and differences. What they all agree on is that sustainability is not just about generating income and managing it efficiently. It is about mobilizing the right 1 kinds of resources at the right time, to fit changing needs and contexts. It is about communities, institutions, and finance. It is about mission and ideol- ogy. It is not just about the money.

ENDNOTES 1 Gumucio-Dagron, Alfonso, and Hezekiel Dlamini. (2005). “Sustainability of CMCs,” in Guidebook on setting up a community media center. Unesco. See portal.unesco.org/ ci/en/ﬁles/15721/1084292960512.pdf/12. pdf.

2 An introduction to sustainable funding: Understanding your options. NCVO Sustain- able Funding Project, July 2006. See www. ncvo-vol.org.uk/index.asp?id=2090. The National Council for Voluntary Organizations (NCVO) is a support agency for charities and NGOs in the United Kingdom. The book is not available to read online, but can be ordered from NCVO. The NCVO website www.ncvo-vol.org.uk has excellent information about sustainable funding for nonproﬁt organizations.

3 Bell, Simon, and Stephen Morse. (1999). Sus- tainability Indicators: Measuring the Immea- surable. London: Earthscan.

4 Jallov, Birgitte. (2004). “Community Ra- dio—For Empowerment and Impact,” in Development Communication (December).

COMMUNITY MEDIA SUSTAINABILITY GUIDE 14 e n o n o i t c e s

Sustainable Energy for Sustainable Stations 1 BY BILL SIEMERING

When you drive into a rural town in Sierra Leone at night, you see a blue haze com- posed of a toxic mix of kerosene fumes from the little lamps lighting shops along the road, charcoal smoke from cooking ﬁres, and diesel exhaust from electricity generators.

In many developing countries, community radio stations are found in places where grid electricity is nonexistent or at best, and they are prone to frequent and lengthy breakdowns. In the discussion of sustainability, something stands out: many stations could double their available funds Radio Vwa Peyizan Abriko in Haiti saves money by using solar power. by substituting renewable energy sources for diesel-powered generators. Configuration for each station is unique, best unreliable, these methods certainly but in general, Alais estimates that a radio make the day-to-day operation of radio Over half the budget for Radio Gbafth in station can be powered by solar with an stations cheaper and more effective. Mile 91, Sierra Leone, is used to pay for investment of about US$4,500–US$5,000. diesel fuel that costs US$5.60 a gallon. WJFF, Jeffersonville, New York: Hydro- Once they connect to grid electricity, Radio Internews Network recently used solar and powered radio. www.wjffradio.org/wjff/in- Gbafth will be able to extend their hours of wind power to establish four community dex.php?section=19 broadcasting and use the money currently radio stations in Southern Sudan, in places spent on fuel to provide stipends for some where there is extremely limited or no KTAO Radio, Taos, New Mexico: Solar-pow- of the volunteers. electricity. South African broadcast equip- ered radio. www.ktao.com/home.php ment supplier and installation engineer Similar stories can be told at countless Matt Buck, who worked with Internews KRCL Community Radio, Salt Lake City stations across Africa, Asia, and South Network in Southern Sudan, advised very Utah: 50% wind-powered radio. www.krcl. America. Some stations are already careful planning and the use of more org/utahpower.net/Article/Article14573. powered by sustainable energy sources. than one energy source. He said that in html For example, in Mali, Olivier Alais—Geek- addition to solar panels, “We also use wind corps’ Mali program manager—has been turbine hybrid systems where possible, as KBSJ Boise State Radio, Jackpot, Ne- installing solar systems in order to power this often provides charging at night and braska: Wind-powered transmitter. radio. transmitters and audio equipment at sta- increases overall system efficiency.”1 boisestate.edu tions. The Geekcorps solar power package for each station includes: A few public radio stations in the United HCJB World Radio, Ecuador: Loretto States are hydro- and wind-powered, and Hydroelectric Project. www.hcjb.org/mass_ • Six solar panels of 60 watts each (US$375 more stations are turning to alternative media/loreto_hydro_project/overview. each) sources of energy. (See the links at the end html; • Six batteries of 12 Volt/100 Amps of this piece.) Although radio powered www.hcjb.org (US$230 each) by renewable energy technologies is still • One charge controller of 45 Amps relatively new and needs evaluation, the (US$600 each) increasing number of stations turning to ENDNOTES these alternatives suggests that they are 1 For further information, see the In- working. One thing is clear: in locations ternews website: www.internews.org/ar- where grid electricity is nonexistent or at ticles/2009/20090130_radioworld_sudan. shtm

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Models of Sustainable Funding The funding climate for all community organizations is changing. The number of organizations seeking funding is increasing and the pool of funds is shrinking. Over 1 the past few years, community organizations have begun turning to new ways of generating income. Here we look at two business models aimed at generating sustainable funding. Both models consider different ways of generating income. The first was developed for the nonprofit sector in the United Kingdom, but its lessons are universal. The second—the “three-legged funding model”—is well known in the community media sector.

INCOME AND EXPENDITURE IN Project costs are all costs directly re- When developing a financial sustain- THE NONPROFIT SECTOR lated to running a particular project. For ability plan, the most important ques- example, if a donor has funded productions are: ommunity media are often tion and airing of a radio drama series, • What are your core costs and how registered nonprofit organiza- direct project costs would include train- much money is needed to cover them? tions. Before turning to sources ing volunteers to produce the series, • What are the best sources of income of funding, we briefly discuss scripting the series, airtime to market to cover them? the main categories of income and broadcast the series, and monitor- Cand expenditure in the nonprofit sector, ing and evaluation of impact. • How much money do you want to where many community media orga- raise from each source? nizations operate. Different sources of Income income will be used to cover different There are also two categories of income: The final question helps avoid overreli- costs. ance on one source of funding. Expenditure General income (also called nonpro- ject income, or unrestricted income). Moving from gifts to trading Most nonprofit organizations divide ex- General income is usually used to cover The National Council of Voluntary penditure, or costs, into core costs (also core costs. The main source of general Organizations (NCVO)1 in the United called overhead or operational costs) income in the community media sector Kingdom divides funding sources into and direct project costs. is advertising or individual donations four categories. The breakdown is il- (gifts) from the community members or lustrated with the diagram on the next Core costs are all the expenses that are businesses (this can be money or sup- page.2 not connected to running projects. They plies and services). occur before and after a project has been Sustainability is determined by the running, and it is difficult to link them Project income (also called project organization’s ability to draw on each to any particular project. In the com- income or restricted income). This is of the four sources in a balanced way, munity media sector, core costs would income that is attached to a particular without relying too much on any one include any costs relating to governance contract or project and that can be source of income. (transportation to board meetings; fees used only according to the terms of the to audit accounts). They would also contract. The main sources of restricted The gift economy cover any planning and consultation not income in the community media sector This term is used to refer to charitable directly related to a project, fundraising, are grant funding and sponsorship of donors, including individuals and busi- general training, public relations and content and programs. marketing, rent, electricity, and salaries. nesses (corporations) wanting to benefit an organization. Core costs can be shared with projects, An effective financial sustainability plan however. includes all core costs and project costs, The best example of community media and considers all possible sources of tapping into the gift economy is the income and funding. United States, where community radio

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Donor Funder Purchaser Consumer • Training contracts through which community media tap into govern- Gift Economy Grant Funding Structured Market Open Market ment or other training funds by offering internships and training. Media for Development in London does this 1 Asking Earning very effectively for its prisons radio projects, Radio Wanna and T.I.M.E. stations hold several fundraising drives donor expects that grant funding will (Television Information Media Edu- every year, calling on members of the produce outputs that are agreed upon in cation). Desi Radio, also in London, public to donate to their radio stations. advance. Once the grant period is over, raises money from the UK govern- Bill Siemering discusses this kind of the donor expects a report that includes ment for training. fundraising in his article on National measurement (evaluation) of results. Public Radio in the United States. The open market Most grantors have guidelines about The open market is where trading hap- Community media all over the world how their grants may be spent. Any pens—where organizations sell goods raise funds through gifts. Radio Madan- changes in expenditure must be negoti- and services to make money, in the pokhara in Nepal asks its listeners to ated in advance. (For more about grant same way as any business would. The give the equivalent of a handful of support, see Making Donors Work for goods and services can be related to the rice to sustain the station; Radio Vwa You.) organization’s core business, or they can Peyizan Abriko organizes listeners into be completely unrelated. For example, fan clubs and asks them to give what- The structured market community radio technicians who ever they can afford. Community media The “structured market” refers to charge small fees for fixing radios gener- are increasingly using websites to invite situations where goods or services are ate income for their station and ensure people to support their work through paid for under conditions set out in a that listeners have access to program- gifts. Bush Radio in Cape Town, South contract. Income earned through the ming; however, stations that grow and Africa, for example, invites visitors to structured market is restricted to a sell vegetables generate income for the its website to “Give us a hand-up not a particular purpose. The most common station, activities that are unrelated to hand-out” (www.bushradio.co.za, under ways in which community media use broadcasting. Keep Bush Live!). the structured market are: Community media everywhere trade The advantage of gift support is that the • Content sponsorship by NGOs or on the open market through advertis- money is unrestricted—it can be used as government departments wanting to ing—selling page space or broadcast necessary within the broad boundaries get messages out. NGOs will often time to businesses to advertise products. of your mission statement. Individuals also provide the content, or training Advertising is one of the main sources and organisations giving gifts do not of content producers in the topic, so of unrestricted income for community want a specific return on their invest- that they can produce the programs media. Advertising contracts are signed, ment; they are providing general sup- in local languages. Contracts specify but these are different from those de- port to help you do your work. the number of programs, the content scribed previously under the structured to be included, who will provide the market section. Advertising contracts Donor or grant funding content, costs of production, times of specify the content of the advertisement, This is contracted money, from nongov- broadcast. roles, and responsibilities in generating ernmental organization (NGOs) or gov- Businesses also sponsor programs; content for the advertisement and pro- ernment donors, private foundations, or for example, an insurance company ducing the advertisement, the length of trusts. In seeking grant funding, com- might sponsor a program focusing on the advertisement, and when and how munity media should look for funders road safety. With businesses, however, often it should be broadcast. However, and donors whose mission and goals are it is important to distinguish between contracts do not specify how the income closely aligned to the mission and goals the sponsorship, which promotes should be spent. of the community media outlet. Grant the business, and the content of the funding is almost always tied to par- program, which educates and informs Community media—like many non- ticular projects or specific purposes. The about the issue. profits—are turning to other kinds of

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trade to generate income, particularly in developing countries where there Advertisements/ads/adverts: Attempts to persuade potential customers to buy or con- are few local businesses that can afford sume more of a particular product, brand, or service. Short, and focused on the product, advertising. Examples of trading include brand or service. farming, provision of photocopying and 1 Advertorial: Advertisements written to look like opinion or news. It is important that fax services, offering telephone phone advertorials always be identified as such so that readers know that the text is actually an kiosks and cybercafés (where com- advertisement for a product, brand, or service. This distinction is important in order to munity members are charged for use maintain the trust and credibility of the community media outlet. of facilities, as opposed to community media centers, or CMCs, which pro- Infomercial: Short or average-length television or radio programs that vide similar services but are nonprofit combine information with a suggestion that the viewer or listener should buy a particu- structures). lar product or service. As with advertorials, it is important to identify infomercials and the fact that a product is being advertised. Some community media “trade” services of their staff and volunteers. For example, community media staff and one source. Income that is generated these are not the only models of fund- volunteers have newspaper layout and evenly from different sources is more ing. Sustainability is context-based, design skills; writing and editing skills; stable, as it is unlikely that all of the and different communities and cultures and radio and television production sources of income will decrease or dry have different economies and will think skills that can be sold to NGOs and up at the same time. about income differently. businesses. Many radio stations hire out popular presenters as disc jockeys to The first two sources of income—com- ENDNOTES parties and events. munities and advertisers—generate unrestricted funding that can be used 1 NCVO; see www.ncvo-vol.org.uk. The website to cover core costs. The third source of also has a good collection of guides and Money earned in this way is unre- manuals on financial planning and financial stricted. But when community media funding, from donors and the govern- management. Some of the guides can be engage in income generating activities ment, will most often be restricted to a downloaded from the website; others can be that are not related to media, staff and particular contract. bought from NCVO. volunteers may have to learn a whole For the three-legged model to work, 2 Graham Collins and Claire Glossop (2006), new set of skills relating to running the An Introduction to Sustainable Funding, alternative business. There may also be each of the three funding sources must NCVO, page 23. NCVO, London. legal and tax issues that must be taken receive something of value in return: 3 Dennis List bases his book Participative into account. • Communities benefit from participa- Marketing for Local Radio (Original Books, Wellington, 2003) on the three-legged model tion and from content. The three-legged funding model of funding. The book explores different mar- • Businesses, through advertising, get ex- keting models for local radio stations and has Community media also use a “three- posure for their products and services. excellent ideas about how to generate income. legged” model for funding. In this Sections of the book are available in English • Donors and government want success model, income generation is spread at www.audiencedialogue.net/pmlr.html. in their funding efforts (the invest- across three sources: Originally in English, the book has also been ment must pay off in terms of social translated into Indonesian and is being trans- or development impact) or dissemina- • Communities lated into Spanish. The Audience Dialogue tion of education and information website, www.audiencedialogue.net, also has • Advertisers content, for example, health or voter information and guides on audience research • Donors, including NGO and govern- education; promoting safer sex prac- for radio and developing a business plan for ment funding programs3 tices and human rights; discourag- online media. ing violence against women or racial As with the NCVO model described discrimination. previously, sustainability is achieved by successfully drawing upon all three Once you have decided upon a fund- sources of funding in a balanced way, ing model, it is possible to develop a without becoming too reliant on any sustainability plan. As noted earlier,

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Business Models, Business A community media organization may as long as there is a commitment to include a number of small businesses. community service and to community Plans, and Community The key to financial sustainability is to participation in producing the service. Media ensure that all the businesses cover their own costs and support the community The owner will be responsible for the 1 media service. following items: business model explains all the activities that make an organi- What makes up a business model? • The legal right to run the project, zation financially viable, and including registration and title for emphasizes the factors that Business models generally include the newspapers, or broadcast license for make it financially sustainable. following information: radio or TV AThe aim of the model is to convince • The assets of the organization: in- potential partners—businesses, banks, Idea or need: the mission statement frastructure, equipment, computers, funders—that the organization is worth Community media organizations arise vehicles investing in. out of a community’s need for a specific service. The service could be broad, • Any agreements or contracts with A business model is different from a such as news and general information, partners (donors, advertisers, commu- business plan or a sustainability plan in or quite narrow, such as health infor- nity groups), staff, and volunteers that it describes what is happening in mation. Both the idea and the need the present rather than what is intended are usually expressed in the form of a Customers (planned) to happen. It is a way of mission statement, as a set of aims and Customers are people who buy goods understanding and explaining what you objectives, or both. or services. Because community media do in “business” terms. It answers the organizations are both owned and pro- question “How do you make money?” Product: community service, community duced by communities, communities The business model will form the core opportunity are the producers and the beneficiaries of the business plan. Because community media organiza- of the service, rather than the custom- tions are generally run as nonprofit enti- ers of the service. With the exception There is no single business model for ties aiming to produce social benefit or of some online community media community media. Business models of gain, “product” is best expressed as the organizations that are funded through different community media organiza- “outputs” or “results” of the service. purchased subscriptions and some com- tions will have many things in community newspapers that are sold, people mon, but each one will also be unique. For community media, the main out- who receive community media generally As discussed in Models of Sustainable puts are: do not pay for it. Funding, community media are increasingly turning to mixed business models • Community development/social gain/ However, community media do have to sustain their services. Desi Radio in community empowerment. customers, and who they are depends the United Kingdom, for example, has a • Community communications—news, on the business model. Most commu- business model built around advertising; information, education, entertain- nity media build or try to build business however, they also generate income by ment, development, discussion—the models based on advertising sales or training community members in media content that is created by and distrib- sponsorship of content. The customers skills and renting out volunteers who in these models are the advertisers who 1 uted to readers, viewers, and listeners. dance at weddings. Homeless Talk, a buy space or airtime, or sponsors who community newspaper in South Africa want the name of their organization, that is owned, run, published, and Ownership/governance company, or service linked to particular distributed by homeless people, has a Community media are (Who owns content, as well as to the media outlet. business model that incorporates a wide community media?) owned in a variety range of activities: advertising, sponsor- of ways. They may be owned by com- For community media organizations ship of editorial content, newspaper munities, in the form of community- that run other businesses to subsidize sales, sales of services (including design elected or appointed boards. Or they their media operations, customers will and editing), vending publications, may be owned by NGOs, educational be the people who buy other goods and media training, and a running childcare institutions, or local government struc- services. For example, some community center. tures—or even individuals or businesses, radio stations have set up cybercafés

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and rent out computers to clients. In rent, or electricity. However, they will base from which to be flexible. Having the case of Homeless Talk, mothers buy consider core costs if they are included a plan helps the organization identify childcare services. as a part of project costs. new opportunities and respond to them without losing sight of its goals. Once it Partnerships There are various ways of drafting proj- is written up, the plan is both a guide to 1 The business model will include details ect budgets to ensure that core costs are activities and a useful way of explaining of other individuals and organizations included. The Esmee Fairbairn Founda- to outsiders what the organization does that support the organization and tion2 in the United Kingdom provides and why it is worth funding. explain what value they bring. In the a good guide on their website, www.es- development sector, donors and funding meefairbairn.org.uk, on drafting project Resources 3 agencies are important partners. They budgets that include core costs. There are thousands of books and provide start-up grants, operational and articles about business planning and development support, and development Income drafting and presenting business plans. expertise. Other partners can include What are the organization’s sources of The following three websites provide local institutions. For example, schools income? This section includes infor- good examples and insights for commu- can organize children to write for com- mation about all the different ways nity media: munity newspapers or to produce radio in which the organization can make content, university departments can money. (See Models of Sustainable • www.comunica.org: Explore the provide expertise on many subjects, Funding.) Community Media Management business associations can encourage cor- Resources blog. porate donations, and training institu- Developing a business plan • www.radioregen.org: See Community tions can train community media staff A business plan is a complete descrip- Radio Toolkit, or www.communityra- and volunteers. tion of an organization and its plans for diotoolkit.net the next one to three years. It suggests • www.esmeefairbairn.org.uk: See Our Managing partnerships absorbs a good who will support the organization and Funding/Business Planning and Cost- deal of energy and time. However, part- demonstrates why they should support ing Projects nerships are fundamental to sustainable it. The business plan provides financial business models, and great care should forecasts to show that the organization be taken to build and maintain them. is sustainable. It explains what finance is already available and what finance is ENDNOTES Competencies needed. 1 See Homeless Talk—www.homelesstalk.org.za, Competencies are organizational under Services. capabilities, and include all the skills A business plan is both a way of orga- 2 No relation to the author/editor of this guide. required to sustain the service, includ- nizing activities (through the planning 3 David Irwin (2007), “Costing projects & ing leadership and management skills, process) and convincing donors and content production, business and tech- programmes in the voluntary sector,” www. investors that the organization is viable esmeefairbairn.org.uk/docs/FullCostRecovery. nical skills, partnership building skills, and worth funding. It should be short pdf. networking skills, research skills, and (no more than 10 pages), properly many others. researched, well presented, convincing, and honest. Financial information Costs The business model forms the core of What does it cost to run the organiza- the business plan. tion? It is important to analyze all costs, taking care to differentiate between core Developing a business plan requires or general costs, and project costs (see planning. A good plan gives direction Models of Sustainable Funding). It is and security; it ensures that activities are also important to consider how core (or structured and are consistently mov- general) costs are reflected in the bud- ing the organization forward towards get. Many donors have policies preclud- its goals. However, the plan should not ing funding of core costs, like salaries, be binding; rather, it should provide a

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Making Donors Work for You There are many diﬀerent kinds of donor organization, working at all levels— international, national, local—and delivering vastly diﬀerent amounts of money, 1 to projects big and small. It is most likely that at some point everyone engaged in community media will have been touched by at least one donor, either directly through being funded, or indirectly through receiving content or training, attending funded conferences or workshops, being evaluated, or through membership of funded forums or associations.

he funding environment is con- In South Africa, a much wealthier stantly changing. Instability of country than Mozambique, community the global economy is squeezing radio stations serving disadvantaged “It is fundamental that government, philanthropic and communities were heavily reliant on corporate giving. Government Open Society Foundation for South development is seen as Tdevelopment agencies, like the Danish Africa3 for start-up funds, equipment, government aid agency (Danida)1 or and development support. a long-term process. It the United Kingdom’s Department for International Development (DFID),2 But grant funding often comes with implies a gradual unfolding are subject to both economic pressures restrictions on spending and weighty and changes in policy and agenda when bureaucratic reporting procedures that of people’s latent capacity new governments are voted in. small projects often do not have the capacity to manage. Grant funding can to innovate, to deal with International aid also follows politi- also create dependency. Where there cal upheavals and humanitarian crises. are flaws in the way that funds are setbacks or adversity, to take European funding budgets for Africa delivered, the quality of projects can be and Latin America shrank considerably negatively affected. Many community control over their lives, to when the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 media projects have collapsed or nearly exposed need for development support collapsed through mismanagement of hold onto a vision for a better in the new countries born out of the grants. The experience ofRadio Izuba in dismantling of the Soviet Union. The Rwanda is one example. future, to seize opportunities, 2004 Asian tsunami, which killed over 250,000 people, acted like a magnet Mismanagement can arise out of loose to develop and nurture a for donors anxious to provide relief for contracting and reporting requirements; hundreds of thousands of desperate setting unrealistic goals and targets; and variety of relationships, to people whose villages and livelihoods inadequate assessment of the situation. were swept away by the giant waves. Responsibility in cases like these must learn from experiences and be shared between the grant provider A lot has been written about grant fund- and the project. Mismanagement can to be involved in civil and ing, its benefits and flaws. Grant fund- also arise out of corruption and inexpe- ing has kickstarted many excellent com- rience. However, if care is taken at the political life.” munity media projects—and in some outset, there are fewer opportunities for places, whole community media sectors. mismanagement. — John Wilson and Dan Taylor (2005), In Mozambique, for example, there Financing Development Practice: would most likely be no community Grant funding works best under the fol- How can we start to make the radio stations if donors like the United lowing conditions: difference that makes a difference? Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) (United Nations Non-Governmental and the United Nations Educational, • Donors have in-country offices and Liaison Service, www.un-ngls.org/cso/ Scientific, and Cultural Organization staff to visit, discuss needs, and assess cso6/financing.doc) (UNESCO) had not become involved. applications on-site.

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• The partnership is developmental and How to Write a Successful Funding Proposal donors are willing to negotiate terms and conditions. and Achieve Your Goals • Agendas and interests are open and transparent. To be successful, a funding proposal must be: 1 • Relationships between donors and Comprehensive: Cover all the information that is required by the donor. grant applicants are equal and respect- Relevant: Include only information that is needed by the donor. Do not include informa- ful. tion that is not relevant—this just gives project assessors more to read. • Grant applicants have other sources of Attractive: Make the layout and design inviting. Break up the text with clear headings; income to tap into. include photographs; include your logo on the front cover; if you are delivering a hard • Applicants have access to the Internet, copy, bind it with a cover that makes a reader want to and can conduct research online to open it. find out about the donor’s policies, Coherent: The proposal must be properly planned. There should be a narrative flow— criteria, and funding procedures. with an introduction and conclusion. The information should be presented in logical order. Grant funding has advantages. The key advantage is that some donors are will- There are four stages to writing a fund- • What the organization does ing to give large sums during the starting proposal: • A very short description of what you up phase, enabling new community want funds for media to find their feet and over time to develop other partnerships and ways of Understand the donor’s strategic • The expected impact of the project generating income. Donors are able to aims and objectives you want the funds for connect their partner organizations to What motivates the donor? What are • How the donor’s support will help international support networks, and will the donor’s concerns? What do they you achieve your objectives also sometimes provide other valuable need to know about you? Do they have • How you will assess the impact of the support, like organizational develop- a special format for a proposal? Are you project ment and training. eligible—and can you fulfil the requirements? However, grant funding also has disad- Plan the proposal vantages: Most donor organizations have websites Brainstorm the information you want to explaining their missions, policies, and put into the proposal, and then group • It tends to be short-term—most part- applications procedures, and what they the information under headings, such nerships last from one to three years. do and don’t fund. Many have applica- as background, aims, . Arrange the • Unless a sustainability plan is built tion forms. Some donor websites also headings in logical order and include into the partnership from the begin- include useful guides to strategic plan- your points under each heading. Work ning, grant funding can create depen- ning, writing proposals, and drafting through the document and change dency. budgets. If you can’t go to the website, headings or rearrange information if you need to. • Managing grants can take a lot of write to the donor or call and ask for information and an application pack. energy—writing applications and sub- Write the proposal mitting reports takes skill and time. Define the proposal Write a first draft, and then get at least Once you are clear about what you want one other person to read it. Based on the funds for, describe your idea. This feedback, write a second draft (and a description will be your opening state- third if you need to) and get the same ment, and should be clear, short, simple, person to read it again, to see whether it and motivating. The opening statement makes sense. Once you are sure that the must grab the donor’s attention. It content is fine, write a final draft, pay- should include the following basic infor- ing special attention to spelling, layout, mation about your organization: and presentation. Add photographs, graphs, and statistics. Proofread and edit

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• The need for your service—a brief • Contents page—if your proposal is Tips for writing funding description of the need that you are longer than 10 pages, include a table proposals addressing. Why it exists, what solu- of contents with page numbers at the Don’t just ask for something. tions are being provided by others beginning. Market your project as an investment (including the state, the private sector, 1 other NGOs). How your work fits in opportunity. Adapted from “Curriculum for Training with other services. Community Radio Station Managers,” Success sells more than sympathy. • The structures of the organization, prepared by Benita Pavlicevic for the Open You do great work—there’s no need to and who is involved—donors are ask for a hand-out. Society Foundation for South Africa, particularly interested in how staff are 1999. accountable to board members and Tell a story. to the community. An organogram/ Your story will go something like this—here’s a need, here’s a response, org chart (diagram of organizational ENDNOTES here’s a plan to make it happen, here’s structures) is a useful way of illustrat- 1 www.um.dk/en. ing governance and reporting rela- how the donor fits in, this is how all of 2 www.dfid.gov.uk. our lives will improve, and this is how tionships. Include a list of the names we will prove it. of your board and staff members in an 3 The Open Society Foundation for South appendix. Africa is a member of the Soros Foundations Network, which was started by the philanthro- Don’t just make an application. • Partnerships and affiliations—is Develop a relationship. Some donors pist George Soros. See www.soros.org. your organization affiliated with any are keen to develop a constructive dialogue with the grant recipient in association or forum? Who are your order to ascertain what kind of funding partners and supporters? best meets the organization’s needs, • Aims—explain the overall aims of the and where appropriate, to provide organization. resources to enable the organization to • Objectives and plans—what are your grow and develop. long-term and short-term objectives? Tips selected from the National Council What are your plans for the next of Voluntary Organizations website, couple of years? Advice on Funding Proposals, www. • Very important—a monitoring and ncvo-vol.org.uk/sfp/funding?id=2123& evaluation plan. Donors want to terms=motivat - Understand. know what results and impact their “investment” has produced, and many donors will fund monitoring and evaluation as part of their grant. carefully to get rid of any mistakes and • A business plan—the Hyperlink to formatting problems. business plan spells out your plans in detail. Basic information to include in the proposal includes the following: • A budget explaining: • Mission statement—include this early - What the project will cost in the proposal. - What parts of the budget you are • Background—a brief history of the asking the donor to fund organization, who founded it, when - What other income you already and why. Who you serve and where have or are expecting to come in you are based.

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Getting Your Support to Community Media Right BY BIRGITTE JALLOV 1 In your opinion, what is an ideal donor strategy for supporting development of community media? This was the question posed to me by the writer and editor of this guide. My immediate response was that supporting community media has such great value for everyone involved that it is not very diﬃcult at all.

Value for the funding/development for more than 20 years as a development these kinds of “quick-fix” solutions are organization: facilitator. I have firsthand experience of that funds must be spent within the what it means to be in the middle—be- donors’ budgetary cycles; that results community radio station is tween the community-based project, the must be quickly proved; that swift a powerful and positive tool international development agency, and delivery shows that the agreement was for reaching communities. sometimes governments—working to serious and not just another develop- Community radio means that mediate different experiences, expecta- ment promise turned cold. But in my information is being listened to tions, perceptions, and ideas about de- experience, it is possible to plan slower Aand trusted; information is turned into velopment and what community radio processes involving bottom-up develop- communication as community broad- is and can do. ment in which communities are con- casters work with it. Funding commu- sulted and engaged. In processes like nity media means developing com- Although all parties involved say that these, the results to be measured are munity capacity to communicate about they want community participation, community development and empower- important issues, about the future, and many agendas influence the process. ment, rather than the amount of hard- about the community’s dream of a bet- ware delivered and number of stations ter life for themselves and their children. The funders: dilemmas based on launched. In many places, it means 90% listenership—often more.1 tradition and regulations International development agencies The community: impatience, high For the community radio station: sometimes think that establishing a expectations, and needs community radio station involves only I have also met with representatives of Donors bring many resources. Interac- equipment, initial training, payment communities who are sceptical about tion with professional development of start-up and running costs for a few slower community development and agents can help communities find months or a couple of years . . . and off bottom-up processes: is this just another concrete ways of realizing their dreams you go! so-called development agency with and solving problems, and donors can impressive promises and plans that are provide expertise and funding to help In some cases, funds for community never transformed into action? turn wishes into realities—for example, radio creation are given to the national having money for a vehicle to visit parts government, who asks their public I have met people in communities who of the community living far away from service broadcaster (or government/state initially engage in development of a the station. radio) to establish stations that more of- community radio station, but, as time The partnership at the core of ten than not become small local public goes by, become impatient and consider sustainability radio stations. The stations are seldom abandoning the process. It is important owned by the community; once up and to listen carefully to participants at this The core message to the funder is to en- running, they operate with limited com- stage, and to find the right balance of ter into an engaged partnership that will munity involvement. It is no surprise, effort and time. But it is still important benefit both parties. A partnership that then, when there is no community to persist. Development has to be done will generate sustainability must have a empowerment and the station fails to right; in the end people, will realize the solid foundation. But building a solid address local development challenges. benefit that comes from owning, man- foundation is not easy. I have worked aging, and deeply understanding the with these issues in different contexts The explanations most often given for community radio station.

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Many people participating in donor- • Identify whether radio is the right • Where other donors are present, find funded community projects expect channel for addressing development ways of coordinating support to en- money to flow in and jobs to be created. needs. sure development is coherent and not When they realize that community ra- • Develop plans for a community- competitive. dio is based on volunteer support, there based development process, in which • Market donor programs—many 1 is disappointment, and some partici- the community makes decisions and organizations are unaware of existing pants leave. Those who remain behind implements plans. opportunities. and are willing to take part in the kinds • Facilitate the process from the begin- of activities needed to bring about Good luck! ning, but hand over facilitation to longer-term development objectives will local players as time goes by. form the core organizing group for the Birgitte Jallov has worked for 25 years station. • Ensure that the process builds on local with media development, press freedom, culture and tradition. communication for empowerment, and The role of the development • Request that all interest groups in the community radio in 50 countries in facilitator community be involved. Africa, Asia, Europe, and the Middle East. Jallov also served as an advisor to the Community development facilitators are • Agree to a planning phase that lasts at Community Media Sustainability Guide. most often people from who do not live least a year before installing the equip- in the communities where they work. ment. Once the equipment arrives, it This is one of the factors that causes the is difficult to find time for meetings ENDNOTES early stages (until local players take over) and community planning processes. 1 This figure is based on impact assessment stud- to take a long time to ripen and mature. • Ensure the development of an effec- ies carried out by Jallov in Mozambique. tive organizational framework with However, the role of the development transparency and good internal gover- facilitator is crucial: mediating, explain- nance. ing, and making sure that both the • Provide for ongoing training, includ- funder and the community understand ing methods like coaching and study that adjusting the funding framework tours, and make space for ad hoc to allow for a slower process is the right crash courses and seminars to address thing to do. It is through slower pro- problems as they come up. Make sure cesses that community radio will realize to train local trainers. its promise as an agent of community development, and it is through slower • Plan for effective involvement by processes that communities will realize community members in editorial the value of the station. A radio station groups. that contributes to development and • Ensure that equipment is durable, that people value will be sustainable— repairable, and appropriate for local and everyone’s investment will pay off. conditions. • Plan for slim budgets and build realis- What does a funder need to do to tic sustainability plans. get it right? • Support development of national First, clarify what kind of station you radio networks, and associations and are supporting. Do you want to sup- forums that will lobby for ongoing port development of a small local sector development and support. public radio station, or is your goal the • Support development community- development of a community-owned oriented research methods to establish and community-run radio station. The the impact of community media, and approach will be very different. To sup- support the actual research. port development of a community radio station, the funder should consider the following steps:

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The Role of National Radio Association1 in the United King- • Represent member stations in nego- dom was launched in 1983 as a mem- tiations with government and lobby Networks in Sustaining bership body to lobby and advocate for on their behalf. Community Media an enabling environment some 20 years • Represent stations in negotiations with before the first community radio station 1 ssociations and networks are other bodies such as performing rights was licensed; the National Community critically important to the organizations and advertisers. Radio Forum (NCRF)2 in South Africa development and eventual • Provide advice on license application was launched in 1992, three years before sustainability of community and renewal procedures. the first station was licensed. media. The best known global • Provide or arrange for training and Anetwork is AMARC (www.amarc.org), technical assistance for member sta- In countries where community media the giant World Association of Commu- tions. nity Radio Broadcasters. Organized are better off, national associations can into five regions—Africa, Asia Pacific, earn a fair percentage of their income • Produce training materials for use by Latin America, Europe and North from membership fees, but almost all members. America—AMARC has over 4,000 also receive grant support and/or public • Facilitate the exchange of news and members. Most of these are com- funding and seek other ways of generat- programs. ing income. Olon, in the Netherlands, munity radio stations, but AMARC • Coordinate solidarity actions and is an example of how networks can also embraces community media campaigns to defend stations under diversify their income base. Repre- federations and other stakeholders. pressure from political or financial in- senting some 300 broadcasting organi- terests because of their programming; Associations and networks operate at the zations that provide radio television, • Mobilize support for the stations from intercontinental, regional and national text television, teletext and Internet donor organizations. levels and perform different functions. services, Olon receives over half of its In Colombia, there are 23 regional income from funds distributed by the • Provide spaces for debate, exchange groupings, but there is no strong na- Dutch Broadcasting Services Corpora- of experience, cooperation among tional association. Historically a central- tion. The balance of its funding comes stations etc. by organizing meetings, ized national association, South Africa’s from membership fees, services charged publishing newsletters, websites, and National Community Radio Forum is to members, and project income. The so on. establishing decentralized “hubs” to pro- Community Media Association in the vide services to stations grouped accord- United Kingdom’s income comes from a ing to region and language. One activity combination of grants, membership fees ENDNOTES of the hubs will be to market groups of and service provision, including selling 1 Now called the Community Media Associa- stations to advertisers. Similarly, Peru’s Internet streaming services to member tion – visit www.commedia.org.uk stations. Coordinadora Nacional de Radio has an 2 See the NCRF website – www.ncrf.org.za intermediary agency to represent its members in the provinces to national Despite their value, networks and 3 Girard, Bruce, Empowering Radio: Good practices in development and operation of advertisers. In some places, like Mali, associations also struggle with financial community radio – Issues important to its sustainability, particularly in places networks have both community and effectiveness, World Bank Institute, 2007. commercial stations as members. where membership cannot afford to http://comunica.org/radio2.0/archives/69 pay for services or fees. In some places, In most countries where there are flour- networks are heavily reliant on grant ishing community media there are na- funding. tional associations and networks. Most networks perform functions that go way A World Bank Institute study of the beyond their core work of lobbying and development of community radio in five advocating on behalf of their members. countries3 found that national or sub- In some places, community media national networks were instrumental to associations were established in order the development of community radio. to create and build community media The study identified nine ways that they sectors. For example, the Community can support community radio.

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The Need for an Enabling Environment BY KATE COYER 1 The political will to create, nurture, and guide community media and an enabling legal environment are fundamental to long-term sustainability. According to the World Association of Community Broadcasters (AMARC), the lack of proper enabling legislation is the biggest single barrier to community media’s social impact and sustainability. After a visit to Croatia to explore the community media environment there, Kate Coyer discusses the role that supportive and enabling legislation can play in developing sustainable community media, and discusses some legal and regulatory best practices.

scan of community radio want to operate outside state infrastruc- ized state control. In 1990, on the way legislation around the world ture for ideological or political reasons. to becoming independent, Croatia held finds an international sector its first free elections. However, intense dominated by a lack of cohe- In many countries, regulations remain fighting broke out after hundreds of sive policy. There are coun- unclear or have built-in limitations. In thousands of Croats were forced to flee Atries with well-established community Indonesia, community radio has had as a result of violence enacted by ethnic broadcasting radio sectors, like the legal status since 2000, but for many Serbs living in Croatia. Crimes of “eth- Netherlands, Australia, South Africa, years there was no regulatory system in nic cleansing” were perpetrated on both Hungary, Canada, and Colombia, and place. As a result, community stations sides; hundreds of thousands of civilians countries where community radio is still operated in a quasi-legal but unlicensed were displaced, and intermittent armed not recognized, like Japan and Chile. status. In Bosnia, community radio li- conflict would continue for a few more There are countries in which commu- censes are available, but to date, not one years, as ethnic wars and massacres nity radio is permitted but not actively application has been filed, because the moved from Croatia into Bosnia and supported or distinguished by law, and regulation imposes so many limitations Herzegovina. Today, the processes of there are countries where community that there are very few ways for stations peace building, reconciliation, and war radio is expressly forbidden. Even where to support themselves financially. crime trials continue. community radio has legal status, the regulations and policies vary dramatical- Developing supportive legislation is The development of democratic media ly. Encouragingly, countries as diverse as crucial. Civil society groups, including systems in Croatia has been slow. The Argentina, Bolivia, Uganda, India, Ban- grassroots groups, community media state radio and television were recon- gladesh, and the United Kingdom have organizers, and nongovernmental orga- structed into a public service broad- recently adopted significant reforms that nizations (NGOs) of all sizes, can play casting station, but the government assist community media.1 an important role in the development of continued to exert substantial influence. good policies and regulations through Croatia is on the path towards joining Where there is no licensed community lobbying, participation in policy-mak- the European Union (EU). Because radio, there may be thriving landscapes ing processes, and practice. Civil society media freedom, independence, and plu- of unlicensed stations. In Thailand, participation is crucial to sustain and de- ralism are important criteria for eligibil- there is currently no way for local velop good community media policies. ity to join the EU, Croatia has sought groups to apply for a license, but there to make improvements in these areas, are an estimated 4,000 to 7,000 “pirate” Key issues in the development of with some supervision by international radio stations. Even where there is legal community media frameworks organizations. community broadcasting, unlicensed “pirate radio” might still operate, be- Case study: Croatia Croatia is a democratic country, but cause of limitations of national policy, After World War II, Croatia was a part media reforms are still required. Broad- lack of available broadcast frequencies or of Yugoslavia under Communist rule, casting is dominated by commercial licenses, or because there are people who and the media operated under central- industries. Competition laws exist,

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but transparency of media ownership of community media carries negative been problems with commercial radio remains poor. Civil society activity is associations that community advocates stations applying for licenses under the weak and nonprofit organizations have attribute to the legacy of Communist pretext of community service provision. suffered, as international development rule and the history of ethnic violence Similar concerns were documented in money has virtually dried up in Croatia. in the region. a UNESCO report on Nepal,3 which 1 found that a poorly defined policy Community media is not recognized as Despite the obstacles, NEMEZA is part framework resulted in some stations be- a distinct sector in Croatia. There are of a growing network of organizations ing captured by local elites. opportunities to obtain a radio license in the region that are working towards Strengthen the media environment Useful terms and definitions: A strong media environment has safe- Legislation: A single law or collective body of laws within a legal system. guards for a free and open media; the rights of journalists; freedom of expres- Policy: A deliberate plan of action to guide decisions and achieve outcomes. Any organi- sion; the rights of women, racial, ethnic, zation, government, corporation, groups, or individuals might have a number of policies that guide their decision making or spending priorities, for example. religious, and other minorities; recognition of nonprofit organizations; and a Regulation: A rule or order given by an executive authority or government agency that is legal system with the capacity to enforce typically carried out by the government agency granted the task of overseeing that area, these rights. Community media will for example, a communication or broadcasting commission. Regulations are often ways thrive in a strong media environment. through which agencies implement laws and policies. Focus on core principles Criteria: The standards, rules, or statements of need that a decision is based on, or that are used to evaluate what decision should be taken. There is no single approach to defining community media, and the shape and feel of each national system will reflect local conditions and cultures. However, as a nonprofit organization, but the the establishment of community radio in most places, community media is requirements are not clear and there are as a distinctive sector of broadcasting. recognized at the very least as media very few stations with this license. In With NEMEZA’s struggles in mind, the that is not-for-profit, participatory, and the capital city of Zagreb, there is only following sections cover some strategies produced for and by a local audience. a licensed student radio station that and practices drawn from experiences in Experience also suggests that policy functions as a training facility for the other countries.2 should include the following in defini- journalism program, rather than a com- tions of community media: munity-oriented project. There is also Win recognition an online radio station at the university • Independence from government and that is focused on innovative music and The first step is to get community media commercial entities cultural programming. recognized by policy and lawmakers as a distinct sector with its own laws • Community service—targeting geo- A new NGO called NEMEZA has been and regulations. Experience generally graphic communities or communities created to lobby on behalf of com- shows that once recognition has been of interest munity radio in Croatia, but they are secured, resources (like access to broad- • Community ownership and manage- struggling to meet the basic costs of op- cast frequencies) will be allocated. In ment erating the organization. The two main the United States, community radio has a long and rich history, but it is not organizers have full-time employment The question of independence from all elsewhere, because they cannot raise legally recognised as a sector in its own right, as the licensing system distin- levels of government is crucial. Inde- enough money to sustain their commu- pendence can be difficult to ensure in nity media advocacy work. One of the guishes only between “commercial” and “noncommercial” broadcasters. As a re- areas where local governments might obstacles they must overcome is to edu- themselves have high levels of corrup- cate Croatians about what community sult, community radio stations fight for frequencies with commercial and public tion, or might be dominated by a small media is, because the concept is unfa- number of powerful elites. For this and miliar. For some Croatians, the concept broadcasters. In Ghana, there have

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other reasons, it is important for policies • Fair and equitable distribution of fre- • The regulatory agency should have to have some anticorruption mecha- quencies between public service, com- sufficient capacity to handle commu- nisms, or ways to avoid co-option by mercial, and community broadcasters. nity radio applications. Poor resourc- local elites. When community media Legislation should reserve a portion ing of South Africa’s Independent organizations become mouthpieces for of the radio frequency spectrum for Broadcasting Authority led to long 1 local government, they lose credibility. nonprofit community broadcasting. delays in licensing, and many com- One way of helping prevent control by • Minimal or no license fees. In Mali munity radio initiatives foundered government, or perceptions of such con- and Colombia, the license fee for and collapsed while waiting. trol, is to channel government support community radio stations is the • Broadcast regulators should set up through an independent body. equivalent of approximately US$20. a special community radio support In Bolivia, community stations pay office or officers within the licensing Lobby for an independent 10% of what commercial stations pay. agency dedicated to assisting commu- regulator By contrast, in Ghana, stations must nity radio stations. This works well in An independent regulatory agency pay an application fee of US$100, Colombia, the United Kingdom, and makes all the difference. The agency (or a license fee of US$2,000 and an South Africa. agencies) that regulate broadcasting and annual fee of US$800. High fees • Licenses should give stations time communication has the authority to dramatically limit the spread of com- to operate and to prove themselves. provide frequencies, grant broadcasting munity stations. Five-year renewable licenses are the licenses, and regulate content. In some • Licensing processes for community standard in places where community countries, there is one regulatory agency radio should be fair, open, transpar- radio stations are becoming sustain- that oversees both the broadcasting ent, and specifed clearly in law from able. spectrum and licensing (such as Ofcom the start. In South Africa, the In- in the United Kingdom). But in others, dependent Broadcasting Authority Focus on social gain responsibility for the broadcasting spec- began issuing community broadcast- trum and licensing is divided between ing licenses in 1995, but clarified the If a key aim of community media is to a telecommunications authority and a regulatory framework only in 1997. develop and empower communities, leg- broadcasting commission. The telecom- For two years, community stations islation should reflect these values. Clear munications authority will create more operated in uncertainty and under criteria will play an important role in space on the radio dial for new stations, temporary licenses. Listeners and protecting stations from pressures such and the broadcasting authority will advertisers could not depend on com- as commercialism, authoritarian con- determine who gets the license. munity stations during this period, a trol, or co-option by nonrepresentative sitation that has had lasting impact on bodies. For example, if one of the aims For an independent body to be effective, attitudes towards community radio of community radio is to build multilin- certain criteria are crucial, including and on long-term sustainability. gualism and to represent marginalized transparency and public consultation groups, policies should be written to • Criteria for licensing should hinge encourage this kind of content. Indian on decision making. Regulatory trans- on the core defining principles of parency includes publishing members’ legislation requires 50% of content to community ownership, participatory be locally originated. Australian legisla- interests and affiliations, proceedings practice, and nonprofit status. of meetings, and reasons for licensing tion includes strong support for indig- decisions. Consultation means gathering • Some countries also ban ownership enous broadcasting. input from the general public, media by political parties in order to prevent advocates, and practitioners on all as- stations from becoming the mouth- To reinforce the participatory aspects pects of the licensing process. piece of a particular party. In South of stations, South African legislation Africa, officials of political parties may encourages community participation in Create licensing processes that not be elected to community media the planning stages of stations and in build sustainability governance structures. governance, management, and produc- • The least-invasive technical limita- tion of programs once the station is on Community radio licensing processes tions should be applied; restrictions the air. In the United Kingdom, the ap- can make or break community radio on coverage area, antenna height, or plication process focuses on community stations. Enabling licensing processes transmission power are not recom- service plans. should include the following principles: mended.

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Applicants must provide evidence of Africa and the United Kingdom, for their funding sources, and may include social gain and/or public service broad- example). a combination of: casting; not-for-profit status; accessibil- • Support from local councils, local • State-generated financing distributed ity for people living within the proposed community funds, or regional bodies.4 through an independent body. broadcast area; training and community 1 • Commercial revenue and sponsorship. participation; and engagement with There are also examples of state money disadvantaged and underserved people • Community-led fundraising and earmarked for expenditures beyond and communities. local forms of support, including basic operational costs. For example, fundraising events, fees for services, Ireland provides funding for station listener contributions, merchandise Address financial sustainability research and development, such as sta- sales, and the like. Many stations also The question of whether governments tion evaluations, listener surveys, and raise funds through very modest fees should directly or indirectly finance audience studies. Dutch law provides for things like on-air dedications or community media is controversial. In funding to help support a community announcements as a way to encour- some places, direct state support would media association. The Venezuelan, age listeners to contribute even small dramatically reduce independence or Bolivian, and Colombian governments amounts. make funds available to support train- create the perception that the media • Foundation support from interna- ing, equipment purchases, and/or pro- are the voice of government. However, tional, national, or local NGOs and vide indirect funding such as fee and tax most policies that encourage long-term funders. sustainability are those that also include waivers. Bangladesh has also set aside some form of indirect financial support. funds for training, technical support, and research and development. Through regulation, governments can When there is government support, in also provide other incentives for com- order to ensure independence, it should munity media development and relieve Encourage mixed models of some of their economic burden, such as be administered through an indepen- funding dent public body, separate from the concessions on rates for public utili- regulatory agency or any government A review of best practices around the ties like electricity and water; free or ministry. The body should include both world finds that the most sustainable reduced Internet and telephone connec- government and civil society representa- community radio sectors are those that tivity fees; access to solar or wind power; tion. encourage mixed models of financing, tax-exempt status as nonprofit organiza- so that no one entity can claim “owner- tions; exemptions from sales tax and Examples of financing include: ship” of the station. In many cases, there import duties on equipment purchased is a cap of 50% on any single form of abroad; access to low-cost satellite and • A community radio fund paid into revenue, such as in the United King- mobile phone services; access to training by the state (such as in Hungary or dom, where the policy was set up to en- programs; employee benefits; and many the United Kingdom, for example; in sure stations are not “captured” by any others. South Africa, the fund also includes single financial interest (commercial, support from the media industry and government, foundation, and so on) Limit restrictions on content donors). and rely on multiple funding sources. This option might make sense only Policies vary widely on this topic, but • A tax on cable or telecommunication in countries where policy provides for the most sustainable sectors are those operators (Colombia). additional means of funding. Yet there with minimal interference from govern- • A percentage of license fees from com- are still some who are unhappy with this ment with regard to content. However, mercial stations (Denmark). kind of policy. For example, London’s it is also not unusual to find requirements that a percentage of program- • A percentage of advertising revenue Desi Radio is frustrated by the 50% ming must be locally produced or from commercial stations (France). cap, because they would have no trouble securing more advertising revenue than originated. • Indirect public funding in the form the regulation allows. of support for employment, skills development, and lifelong learning, Engage in digital debates now Mixed funding models create opportu- social inclusion programs, cultural The growth of digital radio provides nities for community media to balance programs, youth programs, or neigh- both new opportunities and new chal- borhood regeneration support (South lenges for community media. Though

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there are few places in the world where So far, most of these discussions are are the new gatekeepers to accessing the the switch from analog radio is on the being led by industry interests rather airwaves (such as multiplex operators)? immediate horizon, there are decisions than consumer needs. Questions Will there be legal safeguards for com- and debates taking place that will have include: What will the new platforms munity radio access? a major impact on the future of com- for delivery be? What will happen to 1 munity radio. analog radio in the longer term? Who Opportunities in the digital transition

Rural community radio in Mali Mali is a large, sparsely populated country with a thriving rural URTEL (l’Union des Radios et Télévisions Libres du Mali) is an community radio sector serving a large majority of the rural popula- organization that offers training and advocacy services to its 168 tion in local languages. Mali has tried different ways of introducing member stations throughout the country, including 121 com- Information and Communications Technologies (ICTs) into rural munity stations, 38 commercial stations, and 9 religious ones. areas, including rural telephony, the Internet, and sound and televi- URTEL also offers advice to new stations; for example, it recom- sion broadcasting. Of all of these attempts, the greatest impact both mends a suggested package of studio and transmission equip- socially and economically has been through the establishment of ment for a 250-watt station that costs approximately US$11,000. local rural radio stations. Many of Mali’s stations have received support from donor agen- As in most West African countries, broadcasting in Mali has tradition- cies, but today, most of them are self-sufficient. Even though the ally been a state monopoly, with the ORTM (Office de Radiodiffusion stations have received external support, local people have been au Television de Mali) broadcasting primarily French-language pro- involved at all stages. In many cases, the villagers themselves gramming produced in Bamako to the entire country. constructed the stations’ buildings. Management is overseen by boards of directors and committees elected by the communities. The country’s first independent radio station was established in 1988 Staff members are hired locally, and women are actively involved in the remote community of Kayes as a product of a presidential at all levels. decree. Start-up financing for Kayes Rural Radio came from an Italian NGO, but over time, the station has been sustained through local Language is an important issue in Mali. Although French is the community support and a strong relationship with Malian expatri- official language, many people, especially in rural areas, do not ates living in France, who regarded radio as a vehicle for their own speak French. In 2004, some 90% of the radio stations in Mali communication with the community. broadcast in local languages.

Following the introduction of multiparty democracy in 1991, Mali Success factors and ongoing challenges formally allowed the operationg of private radio and television stations, and adopted one of the most democratic broadcast laws in The success of rural radio can be explained by the accessibility Africa. Within a few years, dozens of private radio stations, both com- of the medium; illiterate or preliterate, much of the population mercial and community-oriented, were established, most of them can listen to broadcasts in their own language. In an area of very local stations. high illiteracy, only oral means can ensure effective communication. Local stations have largely met the challenge of language Mali now has one of the strongest and most diverse radio systems in barriers. On many stations, programs are broadcast not in Mali’s Africa. Fifteen years ago, the ORTM broadcast its programming via official language (French) or in the widely spoken language repeater transmitters across the country. Now there are as many as (Bamana), but rather in the local language of that specific small 300 radio stations broadcasting local programming throughout the area. The government’s deliberate policy to encourage the emer- country in more than a dozen local languages. gence of local broadcasters has also been important, especially in minimizing financial and bureaucratic hurdles. One reason for the sector’s growth has been the absence of bureaucratic and financial hurdles to procuring a license. If an individual or However, there are shortcomings of the community radio move- community has the funds for equipment, they can start and operate ment in Mali. For example, many of the radio broadcasters lack a station. There are no license fees to establish a radio station. The professional expertise. Also, many stations make do with archaic only requirements are that the applicant must be a citizen of Mali, technical equipment, which constitutes a significant threat to and must fill in a form requesting a frequency and explaining the sustainability, as they do not have the funds for replacement technical integrity of the application. If the proposal is technically parts. Although Mali has over 300 community radios, a number sound, and the requested frequency is available, the radio station is are struggling (financially). granted a license to use that frequency. Otherwise, a new frequency is allocated. Each year, a frequency allowance of about US$20 is paid by each radio station.

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include greater frequency availabil- ity—the so-called “digital dividend.” Key requirements for an enabling environment But without public service obligations • Community broadcasting should be recognized in law as a distinct type of broadcast- in place, there are no guarantees that ing to be supported and encouraged through specific and explicit licensing arrange- this new airspace will result in greater ments that guarantee fair and equitable access to radio spectrum for civil-society and 1 opportunities for community media. community-based organizations. Debates about the future of broadcast • Community broadcasting can be defined as independent broadcasting that is pro- media as it moves into a digital era vided by and for the members of a community in a particular geographical location should include the needs and interests or that belongs to a particular community of interest. Its primary purpose is to deliver of local communities and small-scale, social benefit and not to operate for private commercial profit. It should be owned not-for-profit media for a truly pluralis- by and accountable to the community that it seeks to serve and it should provide for tic media environment to flourish. This participation by the community at all levels. issue might seem far removed from the • Licensing processes for community broadcasting should be fair, open, transparent, immediate needs of community media and set out in law and should be under the responsibility of an independent licens- in large parts of the world, but AMARC ing body. Criteria for application and selection should be established openly and in has begun to tackle it at the regional consultation with civil society. level, in Europe, Latin America, and • License terms and conditions for community broadcasting should be consistent with Africa. the objectives of broadcast regulation and be designed to ensure that the community broadcasting service characteristics are protected and maintained for the duration of the license period. Develop the political will • Community broadcasting services should have access to a diversity of funding sources When participatory, community-orient- according to local circumstances. ed practices are not granted distinctive • Community broadcasting may be supported by public funding, including direct pub- recognition or are left to the commercial lic subsidies. Where there is a regular and guaranteed system of public funding, this sector to provide, they tend to not last should be fair, open, and transparent in its administration and under the responsibility over time. Policy best practices include: of an independent public body. recognition of community media as a formal “third sector” alongside commer- — Excerpt from Broadcasting, Voice, and Accountability, by Steve Buckley, Krisztina cial and public service media; regula- Duer, and Toby Mendel, with Monroe Price and Marc Raboy, published by the World tions and criteria that ensure that par- Bank Institute in 2008. ticipatory, open, and community-driven media emerge; mixed models of funding that include some form of ongoing and Duer, Toby Mendel, with Monroe Price and some support from local or county govern- renewable government subsidy; flex- Marc Raboy, published by the World Bank ment. For examples of local government sup- ibility that allows for communities to Institute in 2008, and the ICT Regulation port in London, see Lewis, Peter M., (2008), self-identify and define their own area Toolkit, found online at www.ictregulation- “Finding and Funding Voices: The London of service coverage; recognition of the toolkit.org. Experience,” available online at www.londonmet.ac.uk/londonmet/library/s16011_3.pdf. social gain and value that community 2 Many of the best practices listed here are media can provide; and support for drawn from Buckley, Steve, Krisztina Duer, research, impact measurement, and and Toby Mendel, with Monroe Price, and audience studies to improve community Marc Raboy, (2008), Broadcasting, Voice, and service. Accountability, published by the World Bank Institute, Washington. The creation of an enabling environ- 3 Pringle, Ian and Bikram Subba. (2007). Ten ment requires the political will to sup- Years On: The State of Community Radio port sustainable community media. in Nepal. UNESCO. portal.unesco.org/geography/en/files/7991/11966615215State_ of_Community_Radio_in_Nepal_abridged. pdf/State+of+Community+Radio+in+Nepal_ ENDNOTES abridged.pdf 1 Coyer’s article draws extensively on two particularly useful sources: Broadcasting, Voice 4 Even in Sweden, it has been argued that com- and Accountability, by Steve Buckley, Kriztina munity radio would not be possible without

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Related documents and websites Legislating advertising revenue • AMARC Africa country reports, available online at www.africa.amarc. The question of how much—and whether—community stations should be allowed to org/index.php?p=Community_Ra- support themselves through advertising is an area that sparks heated debate. In some places, there is broad opposition from the commercial broadcast sector to any kind of 1 dio_in_Africa commercial revenue for community stations. However, this opposition is not supported • Buckley, Steve, Kriztina Duer, Toby by any evidence that the development of successful of community radio stations has Mendel, with Monroe Price and Marc resulted in significant loss of revenue for commercial broadcasters. Raboy. (2008). Broadcasting, Voice, and Accountability. (World Bank In some countries such as the United States, Chile, Mexico, and Brazil, there are govern- Institute, Washington.) http://www. ment restrictions on community radio advertising. Restrictions include either all-out digitalculture.org/broadcasting.html bans, limits that allow for on-air sponsorship (underwriting) but not actual commercials, or limits on the content of advertising, such as bans on political party advertisements, or • Buckley, Steve. (2007). "Community allowing advertising from local companies only. broadcasting in an all-digital environment: A preliminary assessment of op- Restrictions like these may make sense in the United States, where broadcasting is tions and challenges," paper presented dominated by commercial rather than public media and where community stations at Broadcasting Communities? A have access to funding from the general public. In most parts of the world, however, it is Workshop on European Community generally accepted that community radio cannot sustain itself without access to some form of advertising and commercial revenue. Without access to commercial sources of Broadcasting Policies. (Central Euro- income, stations can become too dependent on international donors. Donor funding is pean University, Budapest.) not necessarily guaranteed each year, and reliance on donor funding does not promote • Coyer, Kate. (2007). "Access to long-term financial independence. This concern has been raised regarding India’s policy, Broadcasting: Radio," in Handbook where stations are allowed to carry up to five minutes of advertising per hour, but no of Alternative Media, by Kate Coyer, program sponsorship is allowed unless that sponsor is the government, and there is no Tony Dowmunt, and Alan Fountain. central source of funding for stations. (London, Routledge.) • Coyer, Kate. (2005). "Community Policies. Central European University, (2007). "Ten Years On: The State radio licensing and policy: An over- Budapest. of Community Radio in Nepal." view." Global Media and Communi- • ICT Regulation Toolkit online. UNESCO cation, Vol. 2, No. 1, 129-134. Sage. http://www.ictregulationtoolkit.org • www.portal.unesco.org/geography/ • Coyer, Kate and Arne Hintz. (2009 • Lewis, Peter M. (2008). "Finding en/files/7991/11966615215State_ forthcoming). "Developing the 'third and Funding Voices: The London of_Community_Radio_in_Nepal_ sector': Community media policies Experience." Journal of Information, abridged.pdf/State%2Bof%2BComm in Europe," in forthcoming book on Society, and Justice, Volume 2.1. unity%2BRadio%2Bin%2BNepal_ comparative media policies, Beata www.londonmet.ac.uk/londonmet/li- abridged.pdf Klimkiewicz (ed). (Central European brary/s16011_3.pdf • Stevenson, John Harris. (2006). University Press, Budapest.) • Lewis, Peter M. (2008). "Promoting "Community Radio Support in Other • European Parliament. (2007). "The Social Cohesion: The Role of Com- Jurisdictions," report for National State of Community Media in the munity Media." Report prepared for Campus and Community Radio As- European Union," report by Kern the Council's Group of Specialists on sociation. www.tranquileye.com/free/ European Affairs for the Director- Media Diversity. www.coe.int/t/dghl/ comment/reply/131 ate General Internal Policies of the standardsetting/media/MC-S-MD/H- • See also the websites for national Union. www.europarl.europa.eu/ Inf(2008)013_en.pdf regulatory agencies, and advocacy meetdocs/2004_2009/documents/ • Plansak, Mojca. (2008). "Community groups for community media, such dv/691/691771/691771en.pdf Broadcasting Policy in Europe: Slovenia as AMARC (www.amarc.org) and the • Gosztonyi, Gergely. (2007). "Com- with references to Macedonia," paper Community Media Forum Europe munity Radio in Hungary. It has a presented at ESF Exploratory Work- (www.cmfe.eu) past. It has a present. Does it have a shop on the impact of digitalization • A number of European community future?" paper presented at Broadcast- on community broadcasting. (Central media policy reports, articles and ing Communities? A Workshop on European University, Budapest.) resources are available online at www. European Community Broadcasting • Pringle, Ian and Bikram Subba. communitymedia.eu

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Community Research for Community Media Sustainability BY BIRGITTE JALLOV 1 Audience research that produces credible results can be expensive, hard to manage, and difficult to analyze. Such research may seem well beyond the means and capacity of a community radio station in a poor, rural or peri-urban area. However, audience research is essential, because it forms the basis for planning, effective implementation, and understanding impact. Birgitte Jallov discusses some of the creative and cost- effective ideas that community media have come up with for doing audience.

ll community media organiza- Who conducts research? tain partnerships. Research is needed tions struggle to do research, at all stages of community radio devel- Research can be conducted by commu- but all need it to become opment and operations. The research nity radio station staff and volunteers, sustainable. Research can be design and data gathered will depend on and incorporated into the daily life of used to confirm that com- the current stage of development and the station. Community radio sta- Amunity media are properly anchored what kind of information is needed. tions are by definition developmental in the community, and it can ensure and participatory. Community-based that the media outlet serves all groups research methods are therefore recom- Stage 1: Early development in the community. Research results are mended, as an extension of the station’s the strongest basis for strategic planning Research is used to find out about local activities. Community-based research and making decisions. Research enables development needs, whether communi- has the following qualities: community media to understand their ty radio is the right medium, or if there audience and to inform others about are alternatives to community radio. Participatory: It involves community their audience and their impact. Research will: radio managers and broadcasters. The benefits are that the research starts Most of this article focuses on commu- • Clarify legal issues relating to setting from a strong base of insight into the nity radio. However, community radio up a radio station. community; the station builds research shares its central features of community • “Map” the community to ensure capacity and broadcasters become better ownership, participation, and not- that all groups and organizations are known in the community. for-profit business model with other involved. community media forms, such as com- Regular: It ensures a steady flow of in- • Identify the aspirations of the community newspapers, multimedia groups, formation and feedback for the station munity, and of groups within the telecenters, and television. Obviously, and its partners, and maintains a certain community. the specifics of research design and level of research capacity. • Identify the community’s information method will vary for different kinds of and communication needs. Which of media, but the same overall principles Transparent: As with all research, if the these can be met by a community ra- about the need for credible, cost-effec- methodology is explained, the results are dio station? Which will require other tive research on key points apply. more likely to be trusted. types of community development intervention? There are many reasons to conduct Simple: Straightforward questions gen- research. The two main ones are: • Assess feasibility—is a community erate straightforward answers that are radio station a feasible (and viable) easier to interpret. • To build and improve the organization option? • To demonstrate impact to community media users, practitioners, and At what stages is research needed? Research methods at this stage include funders—potential funders, as well as To become sustainable, the community community mapping and simple data paying partners, like program spon- radio station needs a clear plan and the collection exercises. The community is sors and advertisers capacity to identify, manage, and main- involved throughout the process, which

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takes place in facilitated workshops and • How to ensure that all interest groups functioning; (ii) community satisfaction meetings. are continually involved with programming content; and (iii) • How to structure volunteer teams to social change/impact in the community. Stage 2: Strategic planning meet programming needs Research methods include the following: 1 Information gathered during Stage 1 is • How to develop a programming for- • Regularly hearing out the commu- mat, structure, and style that is true drawn into a community-led strategic nity: Every time program makers and to local culture, history, situation, and planning process. The strategic plan- presenters went out into the com- needs ning process identifies the steps that the munity to gather material, they would station must take in order to realize the • How to identify the necessary informally interview people to find community’s development vision. equipment out their views about the station and • How to plan for (preventive) mainte- its programs. The focus of planning will be social nance of equipment • Registration of callers’ details and sustainability, resulting from commu- opinions: nity ownership; institutional sustain- • What kind of ongoing training will be A set of basic questions ability, resulting from a participatory needed were placed next to the station’s tele- organizational development process; and • What kind of ongoing impact assess- phone, and whenever someone called, financial sustainability. ment will be needed the producer would conduct a short interview. This technique enabled the station to establish the profile of The Mozambican community radio Stage 3: Impact assessment development process uses Lisa Cannon’s callers (gender, age, address, etc.) and definition of sustainability: There are many ways of doing impact to record their opinions about the research, yet in day-to-day operations station. They would also ask questions “The ability of an organization to it is often considered a low priority. about changes in the community that secure and manage sufficient re- Impact assessment is important, so that might be attributed to the station’s sources to enable it to fulfill its mis- the organization can: work. sion effectively and consistently over • Registration and analysis of listen- time without excessive dependence • Report to presenters and producers ers’ letters: Listeners’ letters provided on any single funding source. . . . on the effectiveness of programming. considerable unsolicited feedback Sustainable organizations have, at Are the target audiences happy with about programming. Listeners would minimum, a clear mission and stra- the programs? Are the programs also write to the station to complain tegic direction; the skills to attract fulfilling community interests and about inadequate public services, resources from a variety of local, expectations? Are they interesting and providing the station with informa- national, and international sources; accessible? tion about issues and needs, and the and the know-how to manage them • Report to listeners about the station’s opportunity to act as an intermediary efficiently.”1 performance. Is the community happy between the community and local with the station as a whole? authorities. In this conception, partnerships with • Report to partners about the effective- • Questions on the back of message many different groups within a commu- ness and impact of messages. slips: An important function of radio nity and from outside the community • Demonstrate to future funding part- stations in Mozambique is to broad- are central to sustainability. Community ners that the station is making an im- cast listeners’ messages. Messages are ownership is generated by ensuring that pact and is able to document impact also an important way for the station all interest groups and organizations are in quantitative and qualitative terms. to generate income. The listener buys involved, as partners, in development of a printed message slip on which s/he the station. It is important to include all writes the message, the sender’s name, localities, religions, age groups, genders, How do you do cost-effective impact the preferred broadcast time, and any and socioeconomic groups. research? A group of eight community other important information. On the radio stations in Mozambique came up back of the slip are survey questions The main research issues will be: with and implemented some creative 2 about the station to elicit opinions ideas. and other feedback. Answers were col- • How to establish a sustainable organi- lated and categorized as they came in. zational structure that is also inclusive The methods assess impact at three and transparent levels: (i) internal governance and COMMUNITY MEDIA SUSTAINABILITY GUIDE 35 e n o n o i t c e s

• Interviews with people living near DOING A “BAREFOOT” IMPACT ASSESSMENT individual programmers: The eight radio stations that were part of the Mozambique development program Area of assessment What to do had community programmers living 1 Ensuring that the radio works ef- Use a checklist: in all different areas of the communities served. Stations generally had fectively as an institution and that 1. Staff: any vacancies? Are responsibilities clear? all groups within the community How long have people been involved? What high numbers of volunteers—as high are involved (twice yearly) training has been received? as 50. Each volunteer would carry out about six interviews, giving the 2. Volunteer structure: how many? Duration of station a large set of results from all involvement? Training received? parts of the community. This method 3. Work/action plans: do they exist? Are they was successfully used in a community used? Status of budgets, accounts, schedules? where a person living with HIV/AIDS 4. Programs: content variation, relevance, local was interviewed on radio for the first production, source of content? time. The next day, 50 volunteers car- 5. Community involvement and participation: ried out interviews about the program who comes to meetings? Who doesn’t? in their areas, and the station had 6. Sustainability: status of partnerships? Fund- instantly taken the pulse of the raising initiatives? community. 7. Satisfaction: of staff, volunteers, and commu- • Interviewing people attending pub- nity members? lic events: In Mozambique, public events draw large crowds nearly every month. The subject of interviews was The impact of community radio 1. Conduct informal interviews while out prepar- generally the same as that of the pub- content (ongoing assessment) ing programs or doing other radio work lic event. For example, on Women’s 2. Register opinions of listeners who call in Day, the interviews would primarily 3. Register and analyze letters received from focus on women’s programming. listeners 4. Register and analyze responses to questions All of these methods are simple, yet can printed on the back of returned message slips be planned in advance and carried out (used to announce births, deaths, community in a structured and rigorous way. The events, meetings, and the like) first time that research processes like 5. Conduct interviews with people living near these are developed and conducted, individual programmers it is useful to engage a facilitator or trainer to work with the station’s staff 6. Conduct interviews with people during major and volunteers, to help draft interview public events schedules, and to compile and analyze data. However, the facilitation role can The impact of radio on community 1. Conduct individual interviews be taken over by a volunteer—perhaps a development (ongoing and annual 2. Conduct focus group interviews (distinct local teacher—as time goes by. assessments) profiles, such as young women, young men, women in rural areas, men in rural areas, The research is extremely cost-effec- women in town-like areas, men in town-like tive and can be incorporated into the areas), with 6–10 people per group everyday life of the station. The main 3. Keep identified problems at the forefront of costs will be facilitation; transportation; organization and planning (in Mozambique and the purchase of, installation of, identified problems include: food security, and training on computer software like health, and security and infrastructure) Microsoft Excel—and perhaps a festive lunch for volunteers.

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Community media will also benefit tion provision, its ability to act as the from the following three impact assess- voice of the community, and its role in ment methods that are more cost-effec- encouraging debate and dialogue.5 tive, yet rigorous. Barefoot impact assessment 1 Most significant change See the box titled Doing a “barefoot” impact assessment, which includes a Most Significant Change is a story- 6 based impact assessment tool, system- summary of the method. atized by Rick Davies and Jessica Dart (2005),3 which builds on oral traditions, ENDNOTES and is especially useful in communities 1 Cannon, Lisa. (1999). Life beyond aid: in which literacy levels are low. Twenty strategies to help make NGOs sustainable. Johannesburg: Initiative for Participatory The method is relatively easy for com- Development. munity groups to use. When using it for 2 The methods were identified and tested by the impact assessment, the most important sociologist Nelia Taimo as part of a media de- question is: What is the most significant velopment project run by the United Nations change that has taken place in your Educational Scientific and Cultural Organiza- life—or in the life of the communi- tion/United Nations Development Program ty—since the community radio station (UNESCO/UNDP). started? 3 See www.mande.co.uk/docs/MSCGuide.htm.

Simple, structured interviews with care- 4 See www.communicationforsocialchange. fully identified interest groups will regis- org/pdf/who_measures_change.pdf. ter a series of “significant changes.” The 5 The method is presented inwww.undp.org/ changes are categorized and grouped, governance/docs/A2I_guides_communication- and at meetings, community members forempowerment.pdf. are asked rank changes from the most to 6 The method was conceptualized, tested, and the least significant, through voting. In implemented by the UNESCO/UNDP Media this way, the community decides which Development Project in Mozambique in changes are most significant. 1998–2006 under Birgitte Jallov’s leadership. The checklist was created by id21 Insights for For further information about the Most their newsletter, www.id21.org/insights/in- sights58/art07.html, and is based on an article Significant Change method, see the by Birgitte Jallov: www.comminit.com/en/ Communications for Social Change node/71540/307. Consortium publication, “Who measures change? An Introduction to Par- ticipatory Monitoring and Evaluation of Communication for Social Change.”4 Information and communication needs assessment This is an effective way of identifying communities’ usual communications channels, and determining unmet communication and information needs. The method is particularly useful during the early planning stages of a radio station, and for ongoing planning once the station is on the air. The method helps strengthen the station’s role in informa- COMMUNITY MEDIA SUSTAINABILITY GUIDE 37 o w t n o i t c e s

The Business of Changing Lives lets and whole community media sectors, through sharing information and In this section, we include detailed studies of community media. The studies have making programs, training, and mar- been chosen from a pool of examples put forward by the advisory committee and keting and selling airtime. In addition to other sources of income, the Latin 2 other contributors to the guide. In making the final selection, our intention was American and Afghan networks rely to cover different contexts, countries and kinds of media. Most of all, the studies on donors for support. National Public aim to highlight the challenges community media face as they struggle to become Radio (NPR) in the United States also sustainable. relies to a large degree on grant support—in this case, government grants to herever possible, research- and Radio Gbafth in Sierra Leone are as member stations to enable them to buy ers conducted site visits poor as their listeners, but have strong NPR programs. and, using an open- social support, and can depend on ended question guide, volunteers to survive. Similarly, Radio Community media everywhere are interviewed practitioners. Madanpokhara in Nepal has been able turning to the Internet to seek new op- WPrimary research was supplemented to rely on community buy-in. Desi portunities to reach and connect people, with desk research, including books, Radio, in London in the United King- and to extend their audiences. Many documents and the Internet. We have dom, thrives through a mixed business community radio stations now claim presented most of the studies in nar- model, including advertising, hiring out international audiences and generate rative style, and include descriptions volunteers to dance at weddings, gifts, income through offering communica- about the look and feel of projects vis- and grant support for a media training tions services to Diaspora communities. ited—which are important indicators of program. Online community media as a format sustainability—and information about in their own right are on the rise in their structures and business models. TheCoffee Lifeline project in Rwanda the developed world, where computers demonstrates the value of partner- and the Internet are increasingly being We begin with six studies of community ships in sustaining high-quality pro- used as a source of news, informa- radio stations. The experience ofRadio gram content, in this case, agricultural tion, education and entertainment. We Izuba in Rwanda highlights the inter- information for coffee farmers. Program include a study of online newspapers in connectedness of social, institutional sponsorship is an important source of the United States, which draws useful and financial sustainability. The station’s income for radio stations everywhere, distinctions between online community experience demonstrates how institu- and particularly in developing countries, media and big, international social net- tional weaknesses—inadequate finan- where government departments, non- working and blogging sites. The study cial systems; an inability to maintain governmental organizations and donors also shows how online community partnerships—undermined the station’s are increasingly recognizing the value of media face many of the same challenges income generating potential and made distributing education and development of community media everywhere—fi- it vulnerable to political control. In- messages through media that are close nancial sustainability, volunteer fatigue, dependence—or audience perception to communities, and which are sensitive lack of capacity, and the like. of independence—is highly prized in to local cultures and broadcast in local Rwanda’s controlled media environ- languages and dialects. The experience We’ve argued that sustainability is not ment, and the station is concerned that of Media for Development, in London, just about money—even financial sus- loss of independence will mean loss of points to the potential of taking a more tainability is not just about money—but listeners. commercial approach to building sus- about deciding what are the right tainable community media. resources at the right time, and engaging Jozi FM, which broadcasts to the vast in activities to secure and manage them, city of Soweto in South Africa, is clearly We discuss networks in three parts without compromising community financially sustainable, but listeners are of the world: the United States, Af- service and community development. As not happy with programming and man- ghanistan and Latin America. The Latin the studies show, sustainability cannot agement, and protesters have marched American and Afghan examples dem- be an exact science. For external support to the station gates demanding greater onstrate the variety of ways in which agencies, community media can be frus- community accountability. In contrast, networks contribute to sustainability of trating and difficult to work with (and Radio Vwa Peyisan Abriko, in Haiti, both individual community media out- vice versa), but community media have shown that it is worth staying the course.

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Radio Vwa Peyizan Abriko 102.7FM (RVPA) in Haiti is a typical community radio station. Work with It was set up and owned by a community association and provides a vital community service and is staﬀed by volunteers. When RVPA lost its studio some years ago, the What You Have station’s volunteers set up operations at the side of the road, inspiring community 2 members to bring cash contributions and in kind to build new premises for the BY BERNICE ROBERTSON station. RVPA has made community support and participation the core of its ﬁnancial sustainability plan.

ust off the newly paved main road kilometers from Jérémie, the provincial that leads to the town of Abri- capital. Located in an isolated region cots, or the Village, as residents of Haiti, Abricots was not reached by call it, the studio of Radio Vwa any Haitian radio until the late 1990s, Peyizan Abriko 102.7 FM (RVPA) when the Taino Cultural Movement Jis announced on a simple panel board. for Development (MOCTAD), a lo- Lined with trees and plants, the path cal nonprofit community association, that leads us towards the tiny concrete spotted the opportunity. On November building ahead 28, 1998, MOCTAD launched RVPA, ends at a terrace the first—and 10 years later, still the framed by cheerful only—radio station in the commune. flowers that echo the smiles on the Hurricane warnings launch eight faces who the station welcome us. Ban- The department of Grand Anse is ners and posters at frequently hit by seasonal storms and the door support a hurricanes and the people of Abricots, vaccination cam- ignorant of storm warnings, have suf- paign taking place fered fatalities, injuries, and material in the Abricots loss. RVPA’s debut broadcasts were community. The weather warnings. Their next priority door opens into a was the promotion of local arts and single room that crafts, interests that are gaining momen- is separated by tum in the commune. partial walls into Radio Vwa Peyizan Abriko supports a vaccination campaign a reception area, the broadcast studio, targeting the residents of the commune. The mission of the radio station is to and a tiny storage area. Space is limited, bring about change, moving toward but everything has a place: the books sustainable human development by are neatly stacked; the CDs ordered; the keeping the population informed. To- files arranged. Brightly colored posters day, RVPA’s programming is varied and on the walls publicize campaigns and includes education, local government events and provide a cheerful back- news and information, health, culture, ground that is enhanced by the tropical religion, children’s programs, women’s music on the radio. A copy of the day’s affairs, human rights, environmental program schedule hangs at eye level affairs, and music. The station gener- next to the studio operator’s chair. The ates its own local news bulletins, but sense of order, organization, and tidiness national and international news bul- Fè brings to mind the Haitian saying “ letins come from a larger radio station avek ”: work with what you have. via telephone. The presenter telephones someone in the city, who holds the Abricots, a commune of the depart- phone next to a radio receiver, relaying ment (province) of Grand Anse, is 25 COMMUNITY MEDIA SUSTAINABILITY GUIDE 39 o w t n o i t c e s

the news to the people of Abricots. placing it 152 out of 178 countries. An estimated 66% of Haiti’s 8.7 million The station is on the air 82 hours every people work in agriculture, mostly in week; if they had more energy to power subsistence farming. Just under half of the equipment and transmitter, this the population cannot read or write. 2 number would be increased. Energy is mainly provided by a solar panel, which The official website of the commune of is affordable, and occasionally by a fuel Abricots website (www.myabricots.com) generator, which is expensive. says that Abricots has 25,000 inhabit- ants. There are about 9,000 pupils Radio is a crucial source of information registered at some 60 schools in the for the vast majority of people in Haiti, commune, only three of which are sec- where access to the press is limited by Radio Abriko’s director, Kechner Toussaint ondary schools. Agriculture and fishing low literacy rates. Television remains are the main occupations of the com- expensive and does not reach all parts of journalism and programming through mune. City Hall labels three-quarters of Haiti, because of the mountains. There a capacity-building program supported the population as “unemployed” because are hundreds of radio stations in Haiti. by Internews Network (United States) they do not have a fixed and continuous Because many operate without licenses, and the U.S. Agency for International income. it is difficult to say exactly how many Development (USAID). stations there are, and the estimated Decisions are taken by the team Listeners are the voice of the radio number varies between 250 and 400, The station’s approach to management depending on whom you ask. RVPA’s success arises out of community and governance is simple. There are 17 engagement, says its director Kechner members of the radio team, all volun- Community radio is not recognized by Toussaint. “Listeners are the voice of the teers, who rotate through the current law in Haiti, where the three legal cate- radio. Les paysans écoutent leur propre programs. Each programming area is gories are commercial, religious/cultural voix par radio. The peasants hear their headed by a coordinator, who reports to stations, and government radio. Some own voices on the radio. The radio plays the management coordinator or sta- stations, like RVPA, brand themselves as a role in all commune development tion director. Decisions are made by the community radio and embrace the com- activities and local problems are debated team. munity radio principles of community on air, ensuring that City Hall hears ownership, community participation, what citizens have to say.” Financial management is equally simple. and community service. The station records income and expen- Despite pressure, RVPA has remained diture in an accounting book, which is Haiti has a community media associa- politically neutral. Director Toussaint maintained by the management coordi- tion, RAMAK (in Creole: Rasanbleman recalled the station’s role in putting nator or director. Medya pou Aksyon Kominoté, translated the two front-runners for the mayoral as Media Gathering for Community race for Abricots in 2006 in touch with Surviving on community Action). RAMAK’s 41 member sta- the community through debates and contributions tions are community-oriented, although call-in programs. The debates appeared some are registered as commercial to result in less rivalry between the Despite their poverty, the community stations, others as religious or cultural candidates, and a greater focus on the gives generously, and their contributions stations. RAMAK’s member stations are community in the mayoral election form RVPA’s main source of income. dispersed across Haiti. Some are quite campaign. The winning mayoral candi- RVPA organizes listeners into fan clubs. close together and sometimes compete date appointed the other candidate as There are about 200 fan clubs, with with each other, particularly during Director of City Hall. membership numbers ranging from election time, when they might side 10 to 50 people (mostly youths). They with different candidates. About half of Financially, the station faces many meet regularly, confirming their com- their programming is music; the rest is dilemmas, confronting the same daily mitment to the community and sup- devoted to talk shows, debates, news, struggle to survive as its listeners. Haiti porting the station financially in a way education, and cultural programming. is the least-developed country in the that takes the cliché out of the popular All of RAMAK’s members have com- Americas. The World Bank put Haiti’s phrase “radio for the people, by the mitted to improving their quality of per capita income in 2006 at US$480, people.” COMMUNITY MEDIA SUSTAINABILITY GUIDE 40 o w t n o i t c e s

RVPA staff recall its toughest crisis: basis. The difficulty of this approach is The station has collaborated with the mu- just after the station was launched, the that revenue is unpredictable. nicipality to create a website for the com- building became unavailable. Deter- mune, and the municipality has said that mined to stay on the air and avoid inter- Another source of income—also irregu- if RVPA can get connected, they will pro- ruption of their service, RVPA set up its lar—is from the local Fondation Paradis vide computers for the cybercafé. RVPA 2 studio at the side of the road. Commu- des Indiens (Indian Paradise Foundation), has a spot on the municipality’s website nity members stepped in with cash and which grows, dries, and preserves fruit that markets its programming—further volunteered time for construction of the and which advertises its products over evidence of the station’s good relationship current premises. the radio. But revenue from this client is with City Hall and of its value to seasonal, and occurs only when harvests the commune. Station director Toussaint proudly and sales are good. Overall, however, the informed us that the station receives partnership is productive, and an ad- For now, RVPA survives through the gen- contributions even from Abricots na- ditional benefit for RVPA is access to the erosity of its fans and community mem- tives—former fan club members—who Fondation’s Internet service. bers, the ingenuity and leadership of the now live outside of the commune. A director and his team, and the willingness former resident who now lives in Port- For 2008, RVPA projected income of the team to dig into their own pockets. au-Prince sends the station CDs. The of 249,000 Haitian gourdes (about What does sustainability mean for RVPA? community also provides technical sup- US$6,470) and expenditure of 243,000 It means, team members say, ensuring that port; for example, the station’s genera- Haitian gourdes (about US$6,314). the station stays on the air in order tor is maintained free of charge by an However, the team says that reality is to continue educating the community. experienced engineer from Abricots. quite different, particularly when it comes to income, which is far lower. To Bernice Robertson is an independent con- “What you can afford, when you compensate, team members pay for the sultant who has worked for several years in can afford it” station’s needs from their own pockets Haiti in the areas of democratic governance and institutional strengthening. Fan club contributions are not prede- and are reimbursed if and when money termined. Members provide what they comes in. The only other sources of in- can afford when they can afford it. The come are two annual fundraisers. A mu- This report is based on interviews with same principle applies to community sic festival with local musicians is held RVPA’s management and a visit to the members wanting to advertise. The sta- on January 2 and an RVPA anniversary station in June 2008. tion does not have fixed rates. Instead, event is organized on November 28. community members are invited to pay Resources what they can—and contributions often The station’s biggest programming expense is the distance-learning program, Resources used in compiling this report exceed expectations. Although death an- include: nouncements are often used as a source which is headed by a paid expert. The program teaches reading and compre- • Report on Community Radio Stations of radio income in other parts of the in Haiti, Internews Network Communi- country, RVPA provides the service free hension and mathematics; its listeners include adults and children. RVPA ty Radio Stations Strengthening Project, of charge. This is just one of the ways in March 2008 which RVPA gives something back to reports that according to teachers, stu- • Trip Report on Field Interviews in the community. dents’ exam results have improved since the program started. Grand Anse, Creative Associates Inter- national, Inc., Haiti Media Assistance RVPA believes that international or- and Civic Education Program, October ganizations that receive funding for a Future plans: expand, diversify, 2004 development or human rights project and survive should pay for advertising their services. At present, RVPA does not cover the • Haiti Media Assistance and Civic Edu- But this income is not always easy to whole commune, and the staff hopes to cation Program Final Report, Creative come by, as some organizations say that soon increase its technical capacity to Associates International, Inc., March RVPA is a community station and so do this. There are also plans to start up a 2006 should carry their advertisements for cybercafé, and a store selling crafts and • Community Radio Handbook, UNES- free. For commercial advertisements, clothing. RVPA hopes to raise funds for CO, 2001 RVPA does not have a list of rates, and these projects through the assistance of • www.amarc.org rates are negotiated on a case-by-case the municipal government and community fundraising. • www.myabricots.com COMMUNITY MEDIA SUSTAINABILITY GUIDE 41 o w t n o i t c e s

For Radio Madanpokhara in Nepal, community support makes the station sustainable. You Cannot Community support covers the annual license fee, raises operational funds, and Put a Price on extends listenership. 2 Independent media has been on the rise in Nepal since 1991, when the monarchy Community agreed to introduce a multiparty democracy. By 2007, more than 90 licenses had been granted to nonproﬁt and community radio stations. Not all have gone on the air yet, Involvement but once they are all up and running, about 70% of the population will be within reach of a community radio station.1 Nepal became a republic in 2008 after 240 years BY MANISHA ARYAL of monarchy and about 12 years of insurgency by Maoist guerrillas aimed at ousting the monarchy.

Decades of instability and political violence have left Nepal one of the poorest countries in the world. The economy is primarily agricultural, and about 85% of the population is rural. Nepal’s communications infrastructure is underdeveloped and the growing numbers of community radio stations play an important role in reaching distant, marginalized, and illiterate people, and engaging them in local and national government. In this study, Manisha Aryal shows how community radio stations are rising to the challenge.

ustainability is not just about a tribution from organizing a reading of revenue stream, says Gunakar the Hindu scriptures and built premises Aryal, station manager of Com- with a professional recording studio. munity Radio Madanpokhara in In 2004, UNESCO helped the station Palpa District, West Nepal. “It is add on a community telecenter. The Sabout a community’s investment in the telecenter includes computers and an station and their commitment to keep Internet connection, enabling Commu- broadcasting despite all odds.”2 nity Radio Madanpokhara to provide information and training services. Radio Aryal should know! Community Radio Madanpokhara now trains community Madanpokhara, located some hundred members to use computers and the Every day, Community Radio Madanpokhara receives streams miles outside the capital, Kathmandu, Internet, expanding their access to in- of visitors. went on the air eight years ago with ini- formation. Program producers and hosts tial technical support from UNESCO incorporate information from the Inter- (United Nations Educational, Scien- net through radio browsing programs, tiﬁc, and Cultural Organization),3 and in which listeners send in questions and 65,000 rupees (US$835) in an endow- programmers use the Internet to ﬁnd ment fund collected from the commu- answers. nity. The station had a 100-watt transmitter, with the broadcast console at the Today the station has a 500-watt manager’s house and a recording studio transmitter, broadcasts 18 hours a day, next to Aryal’s cow shed.4 and reaches all 65 Village Development Committees (VDC) in Palpa District. Three years later, the station collected The endowment fund has grown to 507,000 rupees (US$6,500) as a con- 235,000 rupees (about US$3,000).

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Strengthening local democracy “We need transparent local government,” says Gunakar Aryal. “And our radio fosters participation at the most 2 local level and makes local democracy strong.”

Recognizing the importance of the radio station, the Madanpokhara VDC puts in an annual budget line item to pay for the annual license renewal fee. This helps the station meet 50% of its license renewal cost to the government. The rest of the licensing cost and the running costs come from the station’s own earnings—revenue collected from broadcast- Station Manager Gunakar Aryal consults with Friends of Community Radio Madanpokhara. ing public service announcements, local government information campaigns, Radio Sangi Samuha and Mahila ganizes around radio, extends the reach and commercial advertisements (barring Sanchar Samuha also help Community of broadcast through public discussions, those for fast food, soft drinks, tobacco, Radio Madanpokhara mobilize resourc- and contributes to news and program- and alcohol-based products, which es from within the community. They ming. This is sustainability.” Commu- are deemed bad for the community’s collect Musti Daan (a voluntary contri- nity Radio Madanpokhara is expanding health). bution equivalent to a handful of rice its volunteer support group and its per day) for the station and have helped community mobilization activities to six “Community involvement was the key increase the station’s endowment fund. new VDCs each year and hopes to cover to running this station from the begin- all of Palpa District by the year 2012. ning,” says Aryal, who used to be a high Another innovative revenue generation school teacher. “If there is no involve- stream is Daura Daan (a contribution Manisha Aryal, Pakistan Resident Jour- ment, it makes no sense to have a com- set aside by the Forest Users’ Commit- nalism Advisor and South Asia Regional munity radio station.” tees, which are active in Palpa). These Development Officer for Internews Net- funds also go toward the station’s oper- work, is a Nepali-born journalist based Three other voluntary groups support ating costs. in Pakistan. Aryal works with Pakistan’s the station in 36 of the 65 VDCs of emerging independent media and trains Palpa District: Each of the 36 VDC where Community radio and television journalists. She has Radio Madanpokhara is heard selects a worked in media development across Asia, • Radio Sangi Samuha or Friends of Radio Representative from their VDCs. including in Nepal, where she set up the Radio conducts public hearings on Radio Madanpokhara trains these Radio Antenna Foundation, a nonprofit radio issues raised on radio and acts as a Representatives in community report- and television production house that works bridge between the station’s program ing, radio production, and broadcasting. on programming and sustainability issues staff and listeners. Radio Representatives attend weekly of Nepal’s thriving community radio sector. • Mahila Sanchar Samuha or the meetings with the station’s program Women Communicators’ Group seeks staff, contribute news items from their to mobilize women listeners through VDCs, and in consultation with Radio radio and involve them in community Sangi Samuha and Mahila Sanchar development. Samuha, produce a monthly 30-minute program. • Radio Sahayog Samiti or Radio Sup- port Committee is made up of local “This involvement is priceless,” says public officials and helps the station station manager Aryal. “No amount of raise funds. money can buy a radio station this commitment. Imagine: the community or-

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ENDNOTES 1 Station manager Gunakar Aryal is no relation of the author of this article. 2 Girard, B. (2007) Empowering Radio: Good 2 practices in development & operation of community radio: Issues important to its eﬀective- ness. Research conducted for the Program on Civic Engagement, Empowerment & Respect for Diversity, World Bank Institute, Washing- ton, June 2007. http://comunica.org/radio2.0/ archives/69

3 UNESCO’s development strategy includes supporting integration of “traditional” (like radio) and “new” technologies (Information and Communications Technologies—ICTs) in order to improve and extend access to information. They have supported development of telecenters at several radio stations in Nepal and other countries.

4 See the station’s website at www.communityradio-madanpokhara.org.

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Radio Izuba in Kibongo, the capital of Rwanda’s Eastern Province, has been on the Keeping air for four years. Like many community radio stations, it started on a high note, with a start-up grant, some willing international partners, and plenty of ideas for the Money raising funds by marketing creative programming ideas to sponsors. For the first year, 2 everything was rosy. However, an internal crisis disrupted partnerships and plans, and Neutral today Radio Izuba is struggling to get back on track. The key concern is that financial instability could make the station vulnerable to BY RYAN HICKS political influence. Ryan Hicks visited Radio Izuba to find out what the future may hold.

adio Izuba 100.0FM was born In keeping with the decentralization from a decentralization plan plan, Radio Izuba’s mission is to con- for Rwanda’s Eastern Province. tribute to sustainable local development. This was a multistakeholder They aim to build and maintain peace plan involving national, pro- so that communities can live in har- Rvincial, and local government depart- mony in a democratic environment, an- ments, nongovernmental organizations, chored in good governance and respect business, and international development for human rights. agencies. The aim was for local The station broadcasts from premises in citizens to have a Kibongo, the capital of Eastern Prov- greater say in pro- ince, where they have one studio and vincial and local four offices. Broadcasting happens in government. two sessions, from 6:00 a.m. to 10:00 a.m. and 4:00 p.m. to 9:00 p.m. Posters Radio is known to of international music stars decorate the be a good vehicle walls and the offices are equipped with for mobilizing citi- desktop and laptop computers. Dur- zens’ participation, ing our visit, the atmosphere was quiet, so setting up a ra- without the excitement or buzz that dio station became one would expect in a radio station that an important part provides news and information to a po- of the decentral- tential audience of two million people. ization plan. The U.S.-government- Radio Izuba’s signal covers 60% of East- funded United ern Province and also spills over into States Agency other provinces, including the province A volunteer presents the news at Radio Izuba. for International of the capital city, Kigali. A great major- Development (USAID) supported the ity of listeners are subsistence farmers, decentralization plan and agreed to give and Rwanda is unusual in Africa, in that US$200,000 for building a community most of its people speak one language— radio station. Responding to the oppor- Kinyarwanda. Radio Izuba’s program- tunity, community-based stakeholders ming is therefore 85% Kinyarwanda, set up the Association for Community with the balance in English, French, or Development through Communication Swahili. Included is a mixture of news (ADECCO) to oversee formation of the programming, current affairs program- radio station, and Radio Izuba went on ming, and programming aimed at con- the air in June 2004. tributing to community development

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and education, including women’s issues Crisis: sponsors and women’s rights, agricultural, health, withdraw support and youth programming. In addition to the USAID start-up grant, The community owns and controls 2 there was strong com- Radio Izuba through ADECCO, whose munity support for board of directors is also the station’s Radio Izuba in its board. ADDECO board members beginning. Local people are nominated and elected from the provided materials, ADECCO General Assembly, which money, and labor to comprises 54 representatives of differ- build the studio and ent sectors of Eastern Province society. offices in Kibongo. At their meetings, General Assembly Other local partnerships members offer input into the station’s developed, and the sta- activities and programming, and this is tion did well. how the community’s voice is formally heard and their needs and interests are Unfortunately, in 2006, incorporated. ADECCO is proud of issues regarding expen- its independence from political influ- diture caused serious ence and its community development disagreement between orientation. the board and manage- Independence — an important ment. There were allegations that funds were theme being routed to political Independence is an important theme party projects rather Radio Izuba’s mast. The station’s signal reaches most of Eastern Province, where most for Rwandan media. Radio in Rwanda listeners are rural farmers. It also reaches Kigali, Rwanda’s capital city. than initiatives directly is and will for many years be associated related to community with Radio Milles Collines, the sta- censorship among journalists, and in development, and the station was un- tion that notoriously incited Hutus to 2008, Reporters without Borders ranked able to justify expenditures to donors murder Tutsis and moderate Hutus dur- Rwanda 145 out of 169 countries in and sponsors.4 ing the 1994 genocide. Some 800,000 their annual Press Freedom Index.2 people were massacred during the geno- During the crisis, partnerships were cide, and the present Rwandan govern- In this sense, Radio Izuba is no excep- not properly maintained, and donors ment argues that this history makes tion to other Rwandan media, and and program sponsors lost interest and strict media laws necessary. As a result, station staff and community members withdrew support. The sharp decline in Rwandan media of all kinds, including perceive the station as being “soft” with income meant that staff members were radio, are today extremely careful not to regard to reporting on national and not paid, and some workers left the sta- transgress laws around incitement, hate provincial government. However, the tion. Management made little effort to 1 speech, and “divisiveness.” station has a proud tradition of actively ensure that the sponsored program slots challenging local government. As an ex- were continued or sustained. Rwandan media also tend to favor the ample, Radio Izuba staff tells about how Rwanda Patriotic Front (RPF), the their journalists followed up on a story In an attempt to resolve the crisis, the movement that ousted the govern- about a brutal local policeman who community intervened via the AD- ment that provoked the terrible events beat a man into a coma. After ignor- DECO General Assembly, which or- of 1994. In the most recent election ing many requests for an interview, the dered an investigation. The ADDECO (2003), President Paul Kagame was mayor eventually answered the phone General Assembly also disbanded the reelected with over 95% of the vote, in a vulgar and unpleasant way.3 Radio board and replaced some senior staff giving the RPF enormous power and Izuba aired the interview in full despite members. influence at all levels of government and attempts by the mayor’s office to stop civil society. The extent and depth of the them, and the mayor was considerably With renewed energy and resolve, the RPF’s power has bred a culture of self- embarrassed. station is now trying to rebuild relation-

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ships, but financial weakness may have (US$1) per year, giving them the right threaten their independence and their made it vulnerable to political control. to send out two song dedications per ability to criticize provincial develop- month and two classified ads or an- ment efforts. Any threat to their inde- Building a financial sustainability nouncements per month. Radio Izuba is pendence would further undermine their plan also seeking program sponsorship from financial sustainability, as listeners would 2 The new president of the board, Solange international organizations and non- become disillusioned and other sponsors Ayanone, says that the board is concen- governmental organizations (NGOs), would be wary of apparent alignment trating on financial sustainability. The and is hoping to form a “sister station” with a specific political agenda. station has stepped up efforts to increase relationship with a radio station based program sponsorship, which is working. in a more wealthy country, which might As long as they are financially vulner- New sponsors include a mobile phone consider sending interns to Radio Izuba able, it will be difficult for Radio Izuba company (the United Nations agency for training and work experience. Radio to refuse the province’s money. But to UNIFEM, and the Ministry of Health. Izuba would charge fees for training the accept it without any safeguards to their interns. independence could be a greater risk According to Ayanone, income is start- than not taking it at all. The challenge ing to pick up, staff members are being The province makes an offer for Radio Izuba is to find other sources paid, and the station is functioning more More controversial are some discussions of income and ways of keeping the or less as it should. In 2007 income was that Radio Izuba is having with the province’s money neutral. US$100,000, which a board member provincial administration. The provin- Ryan Hicks is a Canadian journalist com- told us was a big improvement over cial administration has offered to find pleting his Masters degree in Journalism at 2005–2006.5 However, financial sustain- money in its budget to fund the salaries Carleton University in Ottowa,Canada. ability is still a major concern, and the of three permanent employees. This Hicks conducted research at Radio station does not have surplus cash. would represent a big chunk of income and has caused heated debate at the Izuba during an internship at Internews Rwanda in July and August 2008. Community support remains strong. station. The station has 10 paid staff and 20 volunteers. There is also a team of trained “One must be prudent,” says Ayanone, This article is based on interviews with news-gatherers—called points focaux president of the Radio Izuba board, board members, management, and staff (pupils of the eye)—who use cellphones adding that if the province were provid- of Radio Izuba, conducted by Ryan to send in news from different parts of ing 90% of the budget, that would be a Hicks during a visit to the station in the province. The station pays thepoints reason to worry. However, some advisors July 2008. focaux in phone credits, and sometimes to the station say that Radio Izuba is playing with fire and that the province’s pays for their transport to come to the ENDNOTES station and make programs. funding offer, especially because it is 1 “Divisiveness” is the term used in Rwandan linked to salaries, is a move by the prov- media law. Media practitioners and activists The station’s main expenses are salaries, ince to grab the station incrementally. criticize the term for its lack of specificity and which total US$70,000 a year, and the argue that almost anything could be construed license renewal fee, which costs them In Rwanda’s present media climate, as being “divisive.” RWF1,000,000 (Rwandan francs, or journalists say, there are two “lines” that 2 Reporters Without Borders, Worldwide Press US$2,000) a year. Radio Izuba journal- Radio Izuba could follow editorially. Freedom Index 2008. See www.rsf.org (under ists say that their most pressing concern They could either support the govern- Regular reports, then Press Freedom Index). is having funds to carry out their report- ment/RPF or they could focus on a 3 Interview with Radio Izuba staff members, community development agenda and ing tasks; for example, they do not have July 2008. money to pay for transport to chase challenge the government on develop- stories. ment issues. 4 Interview with former Radio Izuba senior staff, July 2008.

The new board has oﬀered some fresh Radio Izuba has already chosen the more 5 Interview with Radio Izuba board member fundraising ideas. One of these is to politically neutral development route. Jules Gahamanyi, July 2008. introduce a membership program called But at times, development is intensely Friends of Radio Izuba (Amis de Radio political, and there are concerns that Izuba). Listeners would pay RWF500 reliance on the province for funding will

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South Africa’s community radio sector was born in the wave of euphoria following Soweto’s the liberation elections that lifted Nelson Mandela and the African National Congress to power in 1994. Today, the sector comprises more than 90 stations broadcasting to diﬀerent geographic, religious, and cultural communities. Most stations have been on 2 “Number One”the air for about 13 years.

Station From the start, sustainability—in particular, ﬁnancial sustainability—has been a serious concern for the sector. Dependent on grants in the early years, most South BY JACOB NTSHANGASE African community radio stations today rely on advertising and program sponsorship for income.

By UN standards, South Africa is a middle-income country. However, most of the wealth is concentrated in urban areas, and it is estimated that more than half the population lives in poverty. Therefore, many community radio stations—particularly those serving rural and disadvantaged communities—struggle to attract advertising.

Jozi FM, based in the urban township of Soweto and broadcasting to its six million residents, is an exception. Earning just over US$635,000 from advertising, program sponsorship, and events (such as concerts) in 2007, Jozi FM covers its costs—and even makes a proﬁt. But as Jacob Ntshangase observes in this study, money isn’t everything—in fact, high earnings are a risk to Jozi FM’s sustainability.

ozi FM broadcasts from studios in The station is held in high regard by atmosphere is inviting and the walls the Khaya Center, which houses other stations, because of its financial are covered in posters of musicians a collection of small and me- success. Bringing in about ZAR5 mil- and bands, advertising schedules, and dium-sized businesses in Dube, lion (5 million South African rands, or photographs of events that Jozi FM has a wealthy suburb of the huge US$635,000) in 2007 (mostly in adver- organized. It is from the photos that Jtownship of Soweto. Soweto, the largest tising revenue), Jozi FM is seen as a win- you get a sense of the station’s popular- township in South Africa, has a turbu- ner among community radio stations. ity and pulling power—the venues are lent and proud history. It was the center Jozi FM also leads the field in terms packed to the rafters. of the 1976 student uprisings that of community radio listenership. The spread like wildfire across the country, national audience research organization, But Jozi FM’s popularity and income sparking a new era in the liberation the South African Advertising Research have not brought it stability. The station struggle that brought about the end of Foundation (SAARF), estimates that has been wracked by crises over the past white rule in South Africa. Jozi FM has 560,000 listeners.2 The sta- six years, including that of community tion has hired a Soweto-based marketing members organizing against the sta- Jozi FM—also known as “Soweto’s agency, which puts these numbers to tion and complaining to the broadcast backyard radio”—is a project of good use, and has successfully branded regulator, ICASA,3 that the station is the Soweto Media Resource Center Jozi FM as Soweto’s “Number One” too commercial. In 2007, a group of (SMRC), a nonprofit organization set station. Sowetans calling themselves “Soweto up in the 1990s to develop and pro- Concerned Residents” and a committee duce alternative and community-based Contrary to expectations, when you organized by the Freedom of Expression media. The SMRC holds the Jozi FM step through its doors, Jozi FM looks Institute picketed the station’s gates. license on behalf of the Soweto com- just like many other community radio munity and runs Jozi FM as one of a stations in South Africa. The furniture The protesters’ main concerns were alle- number of media and media training is shabby, some chairs are broken, and gations of mismanagement of funds and initiatives.1 computers are in scarce supply. But the noncompliance in terms of community COMMUNITY MEDIA SUSTAINABILITY GUIDE 48 o w t n o i t c e s

participation as required by broadcast- A question of ownership? Another school of thought says that it ing regulations. They argued that the is not the legal definitions or principles Some Jozi FM staff and volunteers station’s ownership structures and com- that are the problem, but the ways in believe that the root cause of the is mercial approach presented obstacles to which stations apply them. In many vagueness in the Broadcasting Act and the community’s access to the airwaves communities, stations put out a broad 2 ICASA regulations regarding commu- and therefore to their right to freedom call to listeners to come to the annual nity ownership and control. At present, of expression. general meeting, and those who attend the Broadcasting Act of 1999 states vote as individuals. However, in a com- that the licensee “must be managed and ICASA chose not to investigate the munity as large as Soweto, it is difficult controlled by a board which must be allegations of mismanagement, leaving to apply the principle of community democratically elected, from members those to Jozi FM to handle internally. ownership through individual ballot. of the community in the licensed geo- The Jozi FM board conducted an inves- This is why the SMRC, which holds the graphic area.”7 tigation and several people were sus- Jozi FM license, has chosen a structure pended. Both Jozi FM and ICASA agree based on organizational membership. Community ownership and control are that the matter has been put to rest. All members of the SMRC must be central to the legal definition of com- With respect to the problem of com- organizations representing different sec- munity radio in South Africa. They are munity participation, ICASA ruled that tors (women, unions, youth, business, the principles that make community ra- the National Community Radio Forum and so on) and based in Soweto. Each dio different from public and commer- (NCRF)4 should work with Jozi FM to organization is entitled to send delegates cial radio and give stations their niche. organize an annual general meeting so to the annual meeting. SMRC board However, some stations say that com- that representatives of the community members, who are also on the board munity ownership and control creates could elect a new board for the station, of Jozi FM, are nominated and elected instability, because of the ways in which make proposals regarding structures for from these delegates. boards are formed and constituted. community participation, and elimi- nate confusion regarding the station’s The Jozi FM process is currently accept- The perceived best solution is for the constitution.5 The NCRF called in the able to ICASA. However, some com- laws to be more specific with regard Electoral Institute for Southern Africa munity members are clearly unhappy to clarifying the meaning and limits (EISA) to ensure that the election of with it and do not feel that the station of community ownership. Clarifica- new board members was run properly. represents them. tion should include tighter guidelines for electing boards, so that community Under the watchful eye of the EISA, the groups cannot use what the station re- Too much money? NCRF, and ICASA, Jozi FM called an gards as ill-defined democratic processes A second issue for some is Jozi FM’s annual general meeting in November for their own ends. The main concern wealth. Jozi FM’s huge and diverse 2007. Constitutional issues were settled, here is that some individuals, factions, community of about six million people community participation was reasserted, and groups pack annual general meet- means that there is great potential for and EISA supervised the formation of ings, bussing in supporters in order to income generation. The station takes ad- a new board. After the meeting, EISA vote for platforms that secure specific vantage of this opportunity and operates reported that the election was credible individual or group interests. with a strong commercial ethic, with and fair—an “indication of the will of great success. Some say that people with those who took part in the processes.”6 Some have also lobbied for a more pre- vested interests, or those just wanting cise definition of community participa- a slice of the pie, strategically position The situation has normalized, and the tion. Stations say that the current defini- themselves for jobs at Jozi FM or for newspaper stories about Jozi FM are tion is too vague and works against membership on the Jozi FM board. positive, for a change. But the ques- their financial sustainability. Organizing tion remains: for how long? At the time and managing meaningful community According to Tebogo Pooe, chairman of writing, ICASA had indicated that participation can be expensive, and, of the Jozi FM board and a found- there had been additional approaches some stations argue, the way in which ing member of the station, Jozi FM’s from concerned community members, it is currently understood by communi- income is high because, he said, “the and expressed concerns over potential ties leaves stations open to unreasonable station operates in a very vibrant mar- renewed protests. Opinions still differ demands and creates instability. ket, commercially.” Pooe said that about widely about the causes of the problems. 70% of Jozi FM’s income is purely com-

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mercial advertising, with about 15% Community radio culture tion, ICASA could revoke its license. coming from program sponsorship and At this stage, ICASA has chosen not to One of the most interesting aspects the rest from events such as concerts do so, because, they say, Soweto needs a of this story is that Jozi FM never lost and promotions. community radio station. its status within the community radio 2 sector as a success story. This must be Jozi FM’s business model and market- The Jozi FM crisis has led to multiple considered within the context of coming strategy is built around partnerships stakeholder interventions and substan- munity radio culture in South Africa. with businesses. “We have a commercial tial costs in time and money. But it re- approach. We run promotional cam- mains to be seen whether the interven- The “sector,” as community radio is paigns showcasing the importance of tions have indeed solved the problems. commonly labeled, has its roots in the audiences for commercial support. You era of community mobilization and need to build and sustain relationships Jacob Ntshangase is Executive Director activism during the late 1980s and early with key clients, that is, people who can of the Institute for the Advancement of 1990s, during which the (now ruling) religiously [consistently] advertise on Journalism (IAJ), a Johannesburg-based African National Congress called on the station. Advertisers won’t place ads training institute (www.iaj.org.za). He communities to “make South Africa because of how well the program is writ- began his career in media as a community ungovernable.” Many community radio ten. It’s about the numbers the station radio station manager (Durban Youth practitioners were part of the struggle to delivers,” said Pooe. Radio), later becoming manager of the “liberate the airwaves” from apartheid IAJ community radio training program. Jozi FM’s board and management state control, and a rebellious spirit still Ntshangase is also a member of theUnited have over the years vigorously refuted guides practices in parts of the sector. Nations Development Program (UNDP) allegations that they are too commer- Environmental Development Program cial. With 45 volunteers organized into There is also a lack of understanding Steering Committee and a member of the news, program production, and out- about the role of governance structures, South African National Editors’ Forum. reach teams, they argue that they have a and the sector still suffers from chronic proud record of community participa- governance, management, and financial This report is based on interviews with tion. They are also proud to be able to problems, despite many courses run by board members, management, and pay every volunteer a stipend at the end training organizations and the board staff of Jozi FM and ICASA officials. of the month. Their audience research induction workshops run by the NCRF Thanks also to Franklin Huizies, Chief results, they say, indicate that their when new station boards are elected. Executive Officer of the NCRF, for his listeners want more music. contributions. When the sector was launched in 1995, Too much advertising? donor funding was abundant. The funding often came without strict financial ENDNOTES Tebogo Pooe’s comments point to a reporting requirements. At the time, 1 Jozi FM has a website, www.jozifm.co.za. At third issue—the extent to which the most stations were staffed by young peo- the time of writing, the site was under con- station can (and does) rely on a single ple, many of them first-time employees struction. source of income: advertising. This who did not have experience in man- 2 November 2008 SAARF community radio reliance, some argue, makes the station aging donor partnerships or running audience measurements (RAMS). See www. less concerned with community pro- finance departments. Donor support saarf.co.za under RAMS (radio), then Radio gramming, or the kind of development has since diminished. Today, the sector Listening: Community. programming that comes with program depends on advertising; program spon- 3 The Independent Communications Authority sponsorship rather than advertising. sorship; and government campaigns for of South Africa (www.icasa.org.za). income. Jozi FM is famous, for example, for its 4 The NCRF www.ncrf.org.z( a) is the main Cheaters program, on which the station community radio station association in South Although financially successful so far, Africa. Jozi FM is a member of the NCRF. publicly exposes extramarital affairs and ongoing problems at the governance invites people to the studio to confront 5 Jozi FM had more than one constitution and level clearly threaten Jozi FM’s sustain- one another. The program has a huge it was unclear which one was then actually ability. In the worst-case scenario, if listenership and is a great commercial governing the station. the community cannot impress upon success, but arguments continue over 6 EISA Jozi FM Report, 2007. the station’s board the need for greater whether the program has any communi- community accountability, financial 7 Broadcasting Act 4 of 1999, Chapter V1 (3). ty development value or is just worthless transparency, and community participa- tabloid programming. COMMUNITY MEDIA SUSTAINABILITY GUIDE 50 o w t n o i t c e s

Desi Radio 1062 AM aims to use poetry, music, and writing to unite London’s Punjabi Diverse Sources community, whose members come from all parts of South Asia. Located in studios in of Funding Keep the busy London suburb of Southall, the station has no trouble attracting advertising. But regulations in the United Kingdom restrict the amount of advertising income that 2 community radio stations can earn, so Desi Radio must diversify its income streams. the Five Rivers Although they are upset about the legal cap on advertising—and say they could do a Flowing Strongly lot better without it—station members agree that the need to tap a variety of income sources both enriches their station and strengthens their community links. BY TUPUR CHATTOPADHYAY Tupur Chattopadhyay visited Desi Radio to ﬁnd out more.

Radio Desi volunteers dance at weddings to generate income for the station.

ne would most definitely think in 1978–1979. What brought matters of the Punjab as the vast plains to a head was the Indian government’s in the northwest of South Asia, attack on the Golden Temple, the holi- divided in 1947 into India and est of the Sikh shrines, in 1984. The Pakistan. But there is a corner aftermath of the attack was one of the Oof the Punjab in the United Kingdom, darkest phases in the modern history where some 200,000 Punjabi speaking of India—the assassination of Prime people live in West London. Broad- Minister Indira Gandhi and large-scale casting from the heart of this diaspora anti-Sikh riots. community is Desi Radio, a community radio station defined by a strong sense Although the formation of the radio of community identity and a commit- station may have been triggered by ment to promote the Punjabi language, violent events, the content of the radio music, and culture. is far from political or religious. Ideas about space and homeland in Southall London’s Punjabi community first are thoroughly flexible, and second and started talking about the potential of ra- third generations of Punjabi immigrants dio to build community unity way back today see themselves as a cohesive part

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of English society. At the same time, Amarjit Khera, a director of the station a number of small enterprises in our area. they are still able and willing to retain and a full-time volunteer, explained Very many of the businesses that do or their distinctive flavor as Punjabis. their programming policy: “We are desperately wish to advertise with us are Radio Desi is therefore careful to cater here to provide information. Without small, very local and sometimes fragile, to Punjabi immigrants from both sides information one is lost.” The primary they are also very definitely part of the lo- 2 of the India–Pakistan border, and music broadcast languages are Punjabi and cal community…. and other programming is rarely catego- English. Programming includes health, rized as “Muslim” or “Hindu.”1 with two doctors coming in every week, The Community Media Association has family welfare, consumer advice, local also been lobbying Ofcom to lift the cap The station’s name, Desi, is derived from council issues, and events in South Asia on advertising.4 One strategy they are the Punjabi word Des, meaning a specif- that will affect Punjabi people living using is to calculate the value of volun- ic space or homeland. For Desi Radio, in the United Kingdom. The station’s teer time. They estimate Desi Radio’s this place is the Land of the Five Rivers, cultural programming focuses on poetry volunteer time as being worth £201,700 Panjab. The station says that its aim is and music, and in line with their aim to (about US$312,636) a year. The CMA “to analyze our practices and heritage unite all Panjabi people, they are careful argues, and Desi Radio agrees, that and so ensure a better understanding of to steer clear of religion and sensational- volunteer time should be added to their the Panjabi culture and traditions.”2 ism in political reporting. overall income. This would significantly increase the amount of advertising the Radio Desi received its license in 2002, Desi Radio’s business model station could accept. when, under intense pressure from the At present, Desi Radio’s financial community media sector and despite backbone is the funds they receive from Desi Radio will consider itself com- protests from the commercial and training and advertising. pletely financially sustainable only when public broadcast sectors, the broadcast all volunteer time is taken into account, regulator, Ofcom, granted 15 commu- Advertising and they are able to pay staff. nity radio stations “pilot” licenses.3 Desi Radio was one of them. Ofcom regulations cap the income that community radio stations can generate The station is a project of the Punjabi from advertising at 50% of their total Center, which aims to promote Punjabi income. Although reaching this target culture in Southall. Desi Radio is the is a dream for most community radio Center’s biggest project. The Center— stations, this is not so for the extremely and therefore Desi Radio—is governed popular Desi Radio, who say that ad- by a board of five directors. Community vertisers are queuing up to buy airtime. members are invited to quarterly meet- The station’s marketing department ings to give advice, guidance, and feed- argues that the cap on advertising not back to the Center’s board and the radio only hinders Desi Radio in its quest for management team, and the Punjabi financial sustainability, but also jeop- Center reports back to the community ardizes small businesses in their area, through its annual general meetings. because they cannot use Radio Desi’s airwaves to reach out to customers. Welcome to Desi Radio Desi Radio has not done formal audi- Broadcasting 24 hours a day on 1602 ence research, but they use UK census In a recent letter to Ofcom, Radio Desi AM in West London and around the world via the World Wide Web. figures as a guide and claim a listener- argued: ship of about 156,000—the number of At Desi Radio we are in the enviable and We aim to present Panjabi ideas, Punjabi speakers in their coverage area. concepts, and ideals to our listeners They believe that they reach all of these rare position of being approached by small, local businesses that are attracted to Desi through a variety of poetry, writings, people—and many more, because they and music. We are also seeking to Radio’s success, targeted programming and also stream their programs through their improve links with other communi- website (www.desiradio.org.uk), which no doubt our low cost advertising…. Desi ties within West London to reflect the gives them a global audience. has to turn business away and may have cultural diversity of the area.5 unwittingly contributed to the demise of

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Training Diverse, difficult to manage— process and granted licenses to 145 community stations. See www.ofcom.org.uk. Desi Radio has built up an impressive but it works track record as a training station. The The funding sources are diverse and 4 The Community Media Association is the representative body for community media in training programs are supported by the sometimes difficult to manage, but the United Kingdom. Members include com- 2 UK Learning & Skills Council (LSC) Desi Radio’s management say that even munity radio and television and community- and the European Social Fund (ESF) at if they are allowed to bring in more based Internet projects. See www.commedia. around £50,000 (US$155,000) and a money from advertising, they’ll keep up org.uk. smaller grant from the London Devel- their community fundraising efforts. opment Agency. 5 From Radio Desi’s website, www.desiradio.org. They believe that community fund- uk. raising—especially the wedding danc- The main training program consists of ing—is what really markets the station an 18-week radio production course and generates the community support that is offered twice a year. Desi Radio needed to keep the sound of the Five also runs a media training initiative Rivers flowing strongly. for youths aged 10–18, in addition to providing shorter radio “taster” courses Tupur Chattopadhyay was employed as for young people, senior citizens, and a researcher for the Internews Commu- women. Involvement of women in nity Media Sustainability Guide while the radio station is remarkable—many studying at London’s School of Oriental Asian women with no prior experience and African Studies. She recently com- with radio or even with using a comput- pleted her master’s degree in Post National er volunteer their time and gain skills Communication and is currently working and experience. for a television news channel in Mumbai, India . Cultural services Desi Radio’s most unique income gen- This article is based on interviews con- eration activity—and the most fun—is ducted by Tupur Chattopadhyay at Desi dancing at weddings. A team of 10 Radio’s premises in Southall, London, in talented women—all volunteers—have June 2008. adapted traditional Punjabi wedding dances to Punjabi weddings in Britain. The station offers the team as a rental ENDNOTES 1 The Partition of India at the end of British rule service to weddings and women’s events; in 1947 split the province of Punjab between there, they perform the Jago, a women’s India and Pakistan. The mostly Muslim folk dance. The troupe charges £250 western part of the province became Pakistan’s (about US$388) for a girl’s wedding and Punjab province; the mostly Sikh and Hindu £300 (about US$465) for a boy’s wed- eastern part became India’s Punjab state. Parti- ding. The discrimination in price, says tion led to mass migrations of Hindus and Ms. Khera, is simply to encourage the Sikhs living in the west to India and Muslims families to hire them even for the girl’s living in the east to Pakistan. Thousands of people were killed in intense intercommunal wedding. In good years, the station has violence that accompanied the Partition. raised over £12,000 (about US$18,600) through dancing at weddings. 2 The station’s objectives are set out on its website, www.desiradio.org.uk.

Grants 3 Ofcom is the independent regulator and The balance of funding comes from competition authority for the UK communications industries, with responsibilities across grants and donations from individuals, television, radio, telecommunications, and trusts, and foundations. wireless communications services. A couple of years after issuing the ﬁrst community radio pilot licenses, Ofcom opened up the licensing

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Community media have a special role to play in post conﬂict situations: bringing “It’s your baby people together, discussing diﬀerences, and promoting peace. Radio Gbafth in Mile 91, —it needs food” Sierra Leone, is one of several community stations in Sierra Leone that have taken on the role of peacemakers as the country rises to the challenges of reconstruction after 2 10 years of civil war, which ended in 2002. BY BILL SIEMERING Started by a rebel soldier of the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) who sought forgiveness from the government, Radio Gbafth began in secret. Today it broadcasts in the open, but the situation in Sierra Leone is not easy for radio stations, which struggle with poor funding, scarce advertising, and unreliable electricity. Bill Siemering discusses Radio Gbafth’s struggles to become sustainable and provide programming that meets the needs of the people. Financial sustainability is a problem, and the station must educate its community about ownership.

fter a decade of civil war, 75% of Sierra Leoneans live on Mission statement: To give voice to less than two U.S. dollars a the poor and marginalized, to gain day, and one in four people is “food-poor,” meaning that they access to information and education Acannot afford a basic diet, according to through radio pertaining to their own the World Bank. Youth unemployment welfare and development. is rife in the country. Two-thirds of the population is illiterate and unemployment hovers at 70%. Among the the work of Talking Drum Studio, and unemployed are a individuals dedicated to using radio for large pool of youth peacemaking. and excombatants who could take up Ahmed Muckson Sesay was a rebel who arms again. High wanted to be a bridge between the rebels unemployment rates and the government. With this in mind, and low expectations he wrote to the government asking of a better future forgiveness and permission to form an are a major cause of organization for excombatants to work instability in West for peace. After the government granted Africa.1 his request, he formed the Organiza- tion for Peace and Reconstruction and This is the context of Development (OPARD). The aim of Radio Gbafth, Mile the organization was to transform rebels 91, Sierra Leone. into peacemakers. Hassan Koroma, Manager Radio Gbafth, Mile 91 Radio Gbafth is located in the sprawl- Sesay worked with the Talking Drum ing trading center called Mile 91, on Studio (TDS), a media production unit the road between the capital, Freetown, dedicated to conflict resolution.2 TDS and the second-largest city, Bo. Mile makes radio plays and current affairs 91 was on the border between rebel programs focusing on peace and recon- and government held territories during ciliation in several countries in Africa the civil war. The station’s origins stem that are struggling with conflict or its from the combination of this location, aftermath. In Mile 91, TDS recorded

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interviews with rebels and messages • Spider Web, which has introduced and international sources into local from children who had escaped from a character called the Spider, who languages. the rebels, urging those still with the tackles serious topics with a light • Two programs by and for women, rebels to meet with their families and touch. The Spider deals with health, one of which deals with women’s return. Ahmed believed that a radio sta- farming, and health issues such as health and safer sex, advising girls to 2 tion in Mile 91 could play an important litter and trash. He promotes clean-up use condoms to avoid pregnancy and role in peacemaking in Sierra Leone. campaigns—for example, the Spider sexually transmitted diseases. The will call attention to dirty areas in other, Woman in the House, discusses During the war, the town of Makeni in the market or along the roads and the responsibility of men towards Sierra Leone’s Northern Province was within a few days, the citizens will their wives and children, and discour- captured by the rebels. A local radio have cleaned it up. The Spider has also ages violence against women. station, Radio Mankeneh, relocated explored contentious and sensitive • Radio Gbafth also agrees to broadcast to Mile 91 to escape destruction back topics like early marriage and violence sponsored programs if the topics are home. In Mile 91, Radio Mankeneh against women. relevant. These include coverage of provided training and guidance to the the anti-corruption commission and new station. “Mankeneh” means “hid- the Special Court for Sierra Leone, den” in Krio,3 which described the sta- which tries people who have commit- tion at that time. When the planners in ted serious crimes under international Mile 91 looked for a name for the new humanitarian law since 1996. station, they decided on the opposite concept, and named it Radio Gbafth, which means “open.” The station monitors audience response to programs and conducts informal fo- Sesay is the chair of the board of direc- cus groups and surveys. If a program is tors; the manager is Hassan Yamba Ko- not having a social impact, it is removed roma. Koroma also has personal reasons from the schedule. to work for peace: the rebels killed his mother. Koroma is an enthusiastic ad- Children at Mile 91, Sierra Leone, the heart of Radio Gbafth’s Support from the community listenership community. vocate for community radio. Like many The station was built from the ground of the 16 other staﬀ members, he is a • Local council members come on the up by donations of time and supplies schoolteacher and takes no salary from air for Waytin Daie Bi (What Is Hap- from the community. The community the radio station. pening?). The focus is on develop- donated the land for the station, young people made the bricks, and artisans Programming that makes a ment, on explaining how local council money is generated and spent, as well built and painted it. In 2003 Koroma diﬀerence as on the responsibility of citizens in met with the local chiefs and other Radio Gbafth is on the air from 7:00 decentralization. Youth monitor local stakeholders and they agreed to collect a.m. to 11:00 a.m. and then again from council events and talk of how to money from citizens for the station. 4:00 p.m. to 11:00 p.m. Programs are move from destruction to construc- developed through focus groups with tion. Teachers, youth, and pastors went house-to-house and collected 1,000 listeners, and Radio Gbafth takes great • Takaran, a program to promote leones (33 U.S. cents) from every care to ensure that community needs are quality education through panel house. However, that approach did not met. Programs include: discussions with teachers, pupils, and continue in subsequent years. Hassan parents, is aired twice a week. • Tatasu, which means “it is ours” explained why: in Temne.4 Tatasu focuses on local • Learning Zone, on which secondary music, local sounds, and messages school teachers present instructional “One very interesting thing about com- sent to loved ones and relatives. It is programs and lectures three times munity radio is the word ‘community.’ one of the most popular programs, a week to coincide with the school Sometimes it means ‘it is ours,’ ours drawing callers from far and wide. timetable, so that students can listen in the sense that is the community’s When people identify where they are while in class. own radio. But looking at the (commu- calling from, the station learns about • Salone in the News, which translates nity’s) responsibility in keeping up sus- its coverage area. news from local weekly newspapers tenance is very challenging, because the COMMUNITY MEDIA SUSTAINABILITY GUIDE 55 o w t n o i t c e s

community needs more education. They The average monthly expenses are about dia studios with ethnically diverse teams of need more education [to learn] that the 5 million leones (US$1,625) and the journalists and producers. Programs aim to radio you are listening to is your baby, average monthly income is 3,255,000 stimulate national dialogue on critical issues. but as a baby, it needs food. So this is leones (US$1,059). The Yoni Com- 3 Krio is the lingua franca throughout Sierra our challenge.”5 munity Bank extends a line of credit so Leone, where there are 23 languages. 2 that the station can keep operating until 4 Temne is a tribal language spoken as a first As an alternative way to raise funds from sponsorship grants are received. language by nearly a third of the population, the community, Radio Gbafth organizes located mainly in the north. the annual Radio Gbafth Festival, which Power in the partnership takes place around New Year’s Day. The 5 Interview by Grant Fuller, Makeni, Sierra The largest single expense is for fuel to Leone, August 19, 2008. Grant Fuller is a three-day festival includes music, soc- run the generator and the motorbike volunteer consultant based in Sierra Leone. cer, and other games. It has proven to that reporters use to go out and cover be a good way to promote the station, stories. These two items consume about provide entertainment, and raise funds. 600 liters (about 158 gallons) of fuel a After expenses, the station earns about month. At 4,300 leones (US$1.40) a 4,611,000 leones (US$1,500) from the liter, this expense totals about 2,580,000 festival. leones (US$840) a month. To reduce this cost, Koroma plans to move the sta- Dedications are aired on Mondays tion to a new location near the Africell and Fridays and generate (307,400) mobile phone company, which will let leones (US$100) a week during peak Radio Gbafth use their generator for times (January through March—there electricity in return for advertising. are fewer dedications in the rainy season, because transport is so dif- The new location is also more central. ficult and business is reduced). Many Radio Gbafth will offer photocopying radio stations earn money by accepting services to the community as another dedications and greetings from listeners source of income. The community has through phone calls and letters. Radio once again donated the land and many Gbafth takes this one step further: a will donate their labor to build the new salesman travels throughout the com- premises. munity and records greetings on a mini-disk recorder, charging 500 leones Bill Siemering is the president of Develop- (about 16 U.S. cents) per greeting, ing Radio Partners, a nonprofit that sup- giving truth to the words, “the Voice of ports local radio in developing countries. the People,” which are painted on the Developing Radio Partners grew out of outside wall of the station. Bill’s experience since 1993 working with the Open Society Institute in South Africa, Other sources of income include Mozambique, and Mongolia, among other sponsorship of programs and advertis- countries. Bill was the first director of ing. Coverage of the Anti-Corruption programming at National Public Radio in Commission brings in 1,537,000 leones the United States. (US$500) every three months; the Special Court for Sierra Leone brings in 227,480 leones (US$74) a month, ENDNOTES when in session; the National Lottery 1 UN Office for West Africa Report, December pays 156,770 leones (US$51) a month 2005. for advertising; and Celtel pays 101,440 2 Talking Drum Studios is a project of the inter- leones (US$33) a month. Advertise- national NGO Search for Common Ground, ments vary by the season, and the sta- which uses media (radio, print, television, and tion does not accept ads for tobacco or other media) as a tool for building peace and alcohol, because they are destructive to creating opportunities to transform conflict. the health of the people. Talking Drum Studios includes multime-

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Capacity to forge and maintain partnerships is vitally important to sustainability. Sustainability Jean Fairbairn explores a unique partnership between a local radio station and the international coffee industry. This example of partnership also points to two other often- Through neglected but crucial sustainability issues. The first is affordable listening: if listeners 2 cannot afford batteries for their radio receivers, they cannot listen to programs and the Partnerships: station will not be able to reach its entire potential audience. The second is ensuring A Lasting Cup of that producers of programs have access to high-quality specialist information that they can pass on to their listeners. The Coffee Lifeline project in Rwanda has found innovative Coffee solutions to both problems.

BY JEAN FAIRBAIRN offee farmers in Rwanda are benefiting from a unique partnership between a local radio station, an international foundation, and coffee roasters in the CUnited States. The partnership was initiated by Peter Kettler, a trader in the specialty coffee industry based in Madison, Wisconsin in the United States. Kettler explained his reasons for starting the project: “I was struck by the fact that coffee farmers—the people at the beginning of the supply chain—could not afford to eat, while customers in cafés in the United States were paying US$3.50 for a cup of speciality coffee,” he said. “If coffee farmers don’t see coffee farming as a viable means of making a living, what will happen to the rest of the supply chain?”

It was with sustainability of the global coﬀee industry in mind that Kettler began exploring ways of improving the

lives of coffee farmers. Two things im- LINDA CULLEN mediately stood out: first, many coffee Coffee farmers listen to programs in the fields, using Freeplay growers were not consistently using Foundation’s wind-up and solar-powered Lifeline Radio. farming methods that would produce good-quality coffee; second, farmers fee changes every three minutes,” said were unaware of coffee prices and were Kettler. “Prices were being broadcast on thus often cheated by buyers. national radio, but messages were not getting to farmers, because they did not There are more than 500,000 cof- have radios or could not afford batteries. fee farmers in Rwanda, and coffee is So the people buying the cherries [raw Rwanda’s primary export, followed by coffee seeds] could—and did—take tea and bananas. “The price of cof- advantage of the farmers’ ignorance.”

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Sustainable listening through agreed that SPREAD should sponsor (Bright Future), which is presented renewable energy a coffee-focused radio program to be by one of Radio Salus’s most popular broadcast on a local radio station. The presenters, Emma-Claudine Ntireng- Kettler approached the Freeplay Foun- station, Radio Salus, is based at the Na- anya. Using guidelines that emerged dation, an international charity that tional University of Rwanda, which is from focus group discussion with coffee 2 distributes wind-up and solar-powered located conveniently right next door to farmers, Ntirenganya compiles Imbere radios to provide sustainable access to SPREAD’s offices in the town of Butare Heza into a 30-minute program that information and education to people in Rwanda’s Eastern Province. includes international news about coffee in need.1 The Freeplay Lifeline radio that she finds through Internet research, was especially developed for use in rural Radio Salus (broadcasting frequencies: an interview with someone from the conditions. It is robust, can withstand 97.0 and 101.9) is owned by the univer- Rwandan coffee sector, health issues, dust and heat, and has powerful speak- sity. Originally set up as a training sta- and a children’s story. ers for group listening. The Lifeline tion for journalism students in the late radio costs nothing to use, because it is 1990s, it was one of the first nonstate The radio program is being sponsored powered through renewable energy. stations to be granted a license after the for the next two years through a dona- 1994 genocide, in which some 800,000 tion by the United States–based com- The Freeplay Foundation and Kettler people were killed. After the genocide, pany Green Mountain Coffee Roasters. formed the Coffee Lifeline project and all media in Rwanda, but particularly The donation covers Radio Salus’s costs, the partners set about raising funds radio, were tightly controlled, because of including airtime, the presenter’s salary, from coffee companies to purchase the role played by Radio Milles Collines and administration. Actor Tom Hanks, Lifeline radios to distribute to coffee in encouraging the mass slaughter of the Freeplay Foundation’s U.S. “ambas- farmers. It was difficult in the begin- ethnic Tutsis by ethnic Hutus. The gov- sador,” funded more Lifeline radios for ning. “But once I started presenting the ernment that has held power since 1994 listeners—almost 450 have been distrib- project as a supply chain investment as at first refused to license nonstate radio uted so far. opposed to a charity, then doors started stations, using Radio Milles Collines as opening,” said Kettler. an example of how radio could foment Coffee Lifeline recently conducted interethnic violence. Under pressure surveys and focus groups with farm- InterAmerican Coffee, a specialty cof- from the international community to ers to find out whether they liked the fee importer based in Houston, Texas, liberalize the media environment, the programs and whether they were useful. funded the initial pilot project, which government began taking steps to open “From the responses, we were able to included 60 radios. Soon, money for the airwaves in the late 1990s. Radio determine that even in its short history, radios started flowing in from coffee Salus went on the air in 2005.2 Imbere Heza has become the voice for roasters. By 2006, more than 130 had coffee in Rwanda,” said Kettler. “Sev- been distributed to coffee cooperatives Station manager Aldo Havugimana eral farmers said that they were able to working with PEARL (Partnership describes Radio Salus as a “univer- expand their farms based on the agro- to Enhance Agriculture in Rwanda sity–community” station. According to nomic information they heard, and one through Linkages), an NGO helping Havugimana, Radio Salus trains about farmer said he was able to put an addi- Rwandan coffee farmers improve their 60 students a year, during which they tion onto his house due to the increased crops. also gain work experience. As time has revenue he had received. A number of gone by, programming has broadened farmers said that their neighbors were The second phase of the Coffee Lifeline to include the wider community and now planting coffee trees after seeing project was to create information that Radio Salus’s program schedule today how profitable coffee farming could be.” coffee farmers would value. PEARL includes a variety of news, entertain- closed in 2006, but some of its work ment, and information programming. Future programs will include the jour- is being carried on by a new NGO, The station’s signal can be heard across ney of a Rwandan coffee cherry from SPREAD (Sustaining Partnerships to the entire country and in neighboring the farm to the washing station and enhance Rural Enterprise and Agribusi- Burundi. from there to the supermarket or café. ness Development), which operates “Most farmers don’t know what happens with funding from USAID. SPREAD’s Program sponsorship to their crop once it leaves the washing director, Dr. Tim Schilling, saw the station—just as most coffee drinkers benefits of radio education for coffee SPREAD, Radio Salus, and Coffee Life- have very little idea of how the coffee cooperatives and private farmers and line have developed a weekly program for coffee farmers called Imbere Heza gets into their cup!” COMMUNITY MEDIA SUSTAINABILITY GUIDE 58 o w t n o i t c e s

The Coffee Lifeline project is now be- moment the website went live. “The ing evaluated. The project is financially farmers are listening and they like the sustainable at present through support program,” she said. from Green Mountain and other coffee traders in the United States. However, There are concerns thatImbere Heza 2 Kettler is keen to find other sources for may come to an end if there is no the longer term. further funding for Radio Salus’s costs. However, according to Ntirenganya, Ultimately, Kettler hopes that the pro- Coffee Lifeline has planted a seed gram will be funded by Rwandan coffee that will grow whether or not fund- cooperatives, which are slowly starting ing is available: “Even if Imbere Heza to become profitable. “We would like is discontinued as a program through the program to become part of Rwanda’s lack of funds, I will continue to weave internal coffee economy, so that it is coffee information into my programs. internally driven and the partnership is The website will make it easy for me to a direct one, between the radio station do this. Imbere Heza has made me more and the community of coffee farmers.” aware of the issues facing coffee farmers, and a lot of our listeners are coffee Coffee Lifeline on the Web farmers or members of coffee farmers. After the evaluation, the intention is to The program is good for the station and expand Coffee Lifeline to other coun- good for the farmers, so the demand tries. As part of this expansion, Kettler is there and we must respond,” said has raised funds from another coffee Ntirenganya. importer, Volcafe Speciality Coffee, to develop a website, www.coffeelifeline. 3 ENDNOTES org. The website will inform the public 1 Fairbairn identified the Coffee Lifeline as an about the Coffee Lifeline project and example for the guide while employed by the invite donations. But its main function Freeplay Foundation. The Foundation www.( will be to provide vital information freeplayfoundation.org) continues to support about coffee prices, farming methods, the Coffee Lifeline project. and other issues relevant to coffee 2 Radio Salus has a website, whose address is farmers in Rwanda and other coffee- www.salus.nur.zc.rw. Unfortunately, “adminis- growing countries. Program producers trative problems” with the website meant that like Ntirenganya will be able to use the it was not functional at the time of writing. website to find up-to-date information 3 The website was under construction at the to pass on to their listeners. Ntirenganya time of writing. said that she was looking forward to the

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Media for Development (MFD) is a nonprofit organization based in London that uses The Road from media to reach, engage, and empower communities in the United Kingdom and Community internationally. Like many nonprofits, MFD struggles with the concept of financial sustainability—and how to reduce its dependence on donors. Jean Fairbairn visited 2 Service to Social MFD to find out about how an innovative prison-based community television program Enterprise provided MFD with the key to becoming financially sustainable.

BY JEAN FAIRBAIRN

Trainees at Media For Development’s T.I.M.E. project learn a variety of television skills.

hen Media for Devel- Tired of being fully supported by opment’s Chief Execu- donors, in 2006 MFD began looking tive, James Greenshields, seriously at other ways of generating defines financial sustain- income. Two prison-based community ability “as having sufficient media projects have shown them a way Wreserves to see you through the next six forward: months,” he is taking a realistic view of what it means to be a medium-sized, Radio Wanno is a community radio mostly donor-funded media support broadcast and training unit in HMP agency based in London.1 Wandsworth, a men’s prison in the Wandsworth area of London.2 MFD There are literally thousands of grant- trains prisoners in all aspects of radio makers in the United Kingdom, includ- management and programming and ing individuals, family foundations prisoners broadcast live and prepro- and trusts, community and corporate duced programs through the prison’s in- donors, and large international agencies. cell broadcast system. Training is accred- However, there is intense competition ited through the state education system, for funds for media support, and fund- so when the prisoners are released, they raising is time-consuming and draining bring to their new lives valuable work for an organization whose 11 staff mem- experience and recognized qualifications bers are primarily project implementers in different aspects of media and radio. and media producers.

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The Media House at HMP Downview, from the prisons, the projects are fully A social enterprise a women’s prison based in Sutton in self-sustainable. Inside Job Productions is run as a Surrey, has a prisoner-led television social enterprise—a business that is run channel. With MFD support and train- “We were clear at the outset that we primarily for social rather than financial ing, prisoners produce programs for could only support the two projects 2 gain. James sees himself as a social en- a channel called T.I.M.E. (Television for 18 months, and then the prisons trepreneur, “an individual who identifies Information Media Education), which would have to find resources if they social challenges and applies the skills is broadcast over the prison’s in-cell TV wanted us to play a role. At end of 18 and attitudes of an entrepreneur to ad- system. T.I.M.E. provides a mixture of months, we signed an agreement with dress those issues. Commercial entre- programs, including debate, interviews both prisons for payment for a full-time preneurs want to make money; social with prison staff, life stories of prisoners, MFD media for development manager, entrepreneurs want to improve people’s and entertainment. Like Radio Wanno, costs relating to running the radio and lives. I am comfortable with risk; oppor- the Media House is both a community tunistic; I love ideas and difficult social media and a training unit, providing ac- challenges and how to address them.” credited training and work experience. The unit accepts commissions from “Helping people grow and change” the prisons to make training films and “We have men and women going into also contracts to make films, CDs, further and higher education—which and videos for other NGOs and chari- is the meaning of media for develop- ties. The unit’s principles are develop- TV stations, and a contribution to core ment. We are helping people grow and mental, promoting communications, costs of MFD. The costs of the tutors change,” said Greenshields. involving community, and developing are paid for by the Learning and Skills people—but it also makes a profit: “We Council.”3 Although it was difficult to convince the employ graduates from courses run by prisons of the value of the projects at the Media House at Downview as pro- The projects provide what prisons want, first, the partnership is now blossoming. duction assistants on all commissions, said Greenshields: “Prisons are set tar- According to James, prison education giving them valuable media and small gets by government to provide prisoners normally leans towards literacy and nu- business experience. The prisoners come with qualifications and engage prisoners meracy and was not attracting students, to our offices on day release and return in meaningful activities. Radio Wanna because prisoners are sometimes too to prison in the evening.” and T.I.M.E. not only do this; they also proud to “go to school.” MFD took a improve communications in a commu- different approach. A flexible, nimble structure nications-poor environment. Prisons are competitive for good publicity and good Taking a social enterprise approach had “We ask for a certain amount of literacy press, and these projects have attracted implications for MFD’s structure, said and numeracy, but we can weave it positive publicity. They also look good Greenshields: “We are not a charity— into other skills—administration and when inspectors come around—they are you cannot be a charity and be entre- using computers, working as a group, memorable.” preneurial. If you are a charity in the better communications, and improved United Kingdom, you need a particular self-esteem. This is more attractive to T.I.M.E. has had another significant structure and a board. I know that when prisoners.” After training, prisoners can spinoff for MFD. The Downview prison we come up with an idea we need to work at T.I.M.E. or Radio Wanna, and community television project led MFD move—not wait for the next quarterly are paid according to prison rates. MFD to consider creating a television produc- board meeting. We are a company lim- dedicates a full-time professional project tion unit that would operate outside the ited by guarantee—a nonprofit structure manager to each of the two prison proj- prison walls, leading to the creation of which ensures we can remain flexible, ects, and training is contracted out to Inside Job Productions, which is a pro- nimble, and low on bureaucracy. But further education institutions. duction unit run from MFD’s London our profits go back into the organization offices and staffed by a combination of and its projects.” For the first 18 months, the project was MFD personnel and women prisoners funded by a combination of donations on day release. The aim is to build on There are disadvantages to not being a and gifts of products and services from the talent and creative energy generated charity: “We lose out on tax exemptions the prisons. Today, through support through T.I.M.E. and there are certain pots of money you

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cannot access. But even this is starting sustainability of MFD and are funding to change, with the development aid us with that in mind. They have, for ex- sector increasingly realizing you don’t ample, funded salaries of senior people need to be a charity to institute social to work with the prisons project—this change,” said Greenshields. frees me up to think about diﬀerent 2 directions for the organization.” In 2008, Inside Job Productions was still operating with some grant support, Greenshields made another point about but through commissions it was already donor relationships: “The money can be contributing to the core running costs focused on the relationship you develop of MFD, allowing MFD to develop new with individuals in a donor agency. projects without grant support. Green- Donors need to trust—they have to shields added, “While we will always like you. But I always know where the recognize the value of donor support in power lies. I am the one who always starting MFD, and donor loyalty, we properly responds to emails. They are have become tired of being wholly grant the ones who have the money. If they funded. We took Inside Job Produc- behave badly, I’ll be the one who turns tions to donors and made this clear. the other cheek. That is the price of We said with a grant of £250,000 over power imbalance. Where there is a three years we could develop the unit to proper partnership, things are diﬀerent.” the point where it could substantially fund all our operations. We received the money on the basis that it would help ENDNOTES MFD become sustainable—and we are 1 Media for Development has an informative website, www.mediafordevelopment.org.uk. starting to move in that direction.” 2 HMP stands for “Her Majesty’s Prison.”

MFD have been lucky with donors, in 3 The Learning and Skills Council is a publicly that they have been able to build the funded body in the UK that plans and funds kind of relationships that foster ﬁnan- quality education for people outside univer- cial sustainability. “The donors we don’t sities. Its aims are to improve skills among know that well aren’t interested. But young people and adults and to improve the donors working with Inside Job are education and training delivery. interested in the impact on ﬁnancial

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The assumption behind all public broadcasting is that broadcasters need additional Listener- support to produce information and cultural programs that may not attract a Supported commercial-size audience. Like public radio stations, community radio stations are driven by service missions. We have focused on how communities support radio 2 Public Radio stations in some of the poorest countries. Bill Siemering looks at how public radio is in the United supported in the most affluent country in the world. ublic support is one of the locally originated programming, that is, States defining features of public programming produced by nonprofes- radio everywhere. Public radio sional program makers and disc jockeys receives some or all of its fund- (rather than syndicated programs). On BY BILL SIEMERING ing from the public, directly average, local programming on commu- Pfrom voluntary donations, through nity stations constitutes 65%–95% of license fees, or as state subsidies raised the schedule, in contrast to 35% on the through taxes. This is true because the large public radio stations.2 The major- assumption behind all public broadcast- ity of public radio stations (including ing is that broadcasters need additional stations self-described as community support to produce information and radio) are licensed to either a commu- cultural programs that may not attract a nity nonprofit organization or a college commercial-size audience. or university. National Public Radio’s Mission Statement In the United States, public radio sta- Self-defined community radio The mission of NPR is to work in tions receive a combination of dona- There is no simple definition of a com- tions, license fees, and subsidies from partnership with member stations to munity radio station in the United taxes, plus corporate and foundation States. The National Federation of create a more informed public—one 1 underwriting. The U.S. legal system Community Broadcasters (NFCB),3 challenged and invigorated by a deeper distinguishes only two categories of formed in 1970 as an umbrella organi- radio: commercial and noncommercial. understanding and appreciation of zation for community radio stations, has There is no distinction between public declared these key values: events, ideas, and cultures. To accom- and community stations, which both fall into the noncommercial category. plish our mission, we produce, acquire, • Localism Falling into the broad noncommercial and distribute programming that meets category, community radio stations in • Encouraging collaboration the highest standards of public service the United States are regarded as public • Providing quality public service radio and are therefore eligible for pub- • Diversity of media ownership and in journalism and cultural expression; lic funding. diversity in operations and program- we represent our members in matters ming There is a very active community radio of their mutual interest; and we provide • Cultural preservation movement in the United States. These satellite interconnection for the entire are public radio stations which, in the • Empowering people with information public radio system. absence of any legal distinction, describe • Building community themselves as community radio stations. (www.npr.org/about/nprworks.html) In practice, the line between public Not all community radio stations radio stations and those self-described uphold these same values and not all as community stations is blurred. What are members of the NFCB. The core of makes community stations distinct what are regarded as community stations within the broad public radio land- are those serving rural areas, Native scape is that they broadcast to smaller American reservations, Latino commu- and more distinct audiences, they have nities and other ethnic minorities. smaller budgets and broadcast more

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Community stations often have a The CPB was also mandated to create butions. Therefore, programming must variety of both on-air and in-commu- a national network to connect public be significantly different from commer- nity outreach projects. For example, stations, and so National Public Radio cial radio and of high quality, so that one station in a community of 5,000 (NPR) was formed as a nonprofit orga- listeners are motivated to give. people held 10–15 discussion groups nization that would make and distribute 2 about community issues that informed news, current affairs, and cultural pro- Stations devote an average of 30 days a a weekly radio program, called First gramming. Using grants from the CPB, year to on-air fundraising. Fundraising Thursday Conversations.Other stations public radio stations pay fees to broad- drives generally go on for a week, during sponsor local music festivals, organize cast NPR programming. Stations are which announcers create a number of citizen journalism programs, and engage not obliged to broadcast NPR program- 10-minute breaks each day within the with Diaspora populations. ming and take it only when they believe regular programming and remind listen- it is of value to their listeners. ers of the unique qualities and values Broadcasting began in the United States of noncommercial radio and that it is as noncommercial educational radio NPR does not own any stations, but is “listener-supported public radio.” Con- at the University of Wisconsin. The a membership organization. Most of the tributions increase by about 40% when station initially targeted the university, NPR board of directors are elected from incentives, such as CDs, coffee mugs, but demand was such that they even- the pool of public radio station manag- and books are offered in exchange for tually included programs for farmers, ers. This means control comes from larger donations. The range of giving per educational programs for rural schools, the bottom up. In this sense, public listener ranges from 1 in 6 to 1 in 10. university lectures, and classical music broadcasting in the United States is very in their schedule. different from the British Broadcasting Because many public radio listeners are Corporation (BBC) and other European well educated and influential, and have At first, commercial radio networks also public broadcasters, which own and relatively high incomes, they are an ideal produced educational, cultural, and operate stations and are supported by target for the corporate support that is information programs; the NBC Sym- mandatory license fees. given through underwriting announce- phony Orchestra, conducted by Arturo ments, such as, “Programming is made Toscanini is one of the best examples of Listener-supported public radio possible with a grant from Barnes and 5 this commitment to the arts by com- Initially, fewer than 100 radio stations Noble booksellers.” In 2009, NPR mercial radio. However, as time went by, met the CPB criteria for grant support. anticipates generation of 40% of its this kind of programming gave way to The number of stations has grown—as income from stations (payment for pro- more profitable entertainment program- have their operating costs. Now there grams broadcast); 28% from corporate ming, highlighting the need for and the are 860 stations receiving CPB grants sponsorships; 15% from gifts and grants special role of noncommercial radio. to pay for NPR programming, Through (including foundations, individuals, and these stations, NPR programming the CPB), and the balance of 17% from Creation of a grant structure reaches 26 million people weekly.4 investments and other interest, and With the advent of educational tele- rental of studios, equipment, and office vision—an extremely expensive me- On average, CPB funds now account space, and product sales, including dium—the need for additional funding for 16% of a station’s budget (with a books, calendars, radio receivers, and recorded radio shows, as advertised on to support broadcasting became neces- low of 6% and a high of 21%). How- 6 sary. In 1967 the Corporation for Public ever, stations that specifically serve rural the NPR website. Community stations Broadcasting (CPB) was created as a and minority communities, including earn up to 30% or more from under- way of distributing government funds African-American, Native American, writing. without government interference in Latino, and multicultural licensees programming. Through this system, the receive higher funding from the CPB, in The system has its downside U.S. Congress makes grants to the CPB some cases, as much two-thirds of their Stations are stronger with these diver- and the CPB then distributes funds to budgets, because listeners don’t have the sified sources of funding. Relying on public radio and television stations. The financial resources to provide support. listeners for half their income forces support is intended for production of producers, both locally and nation- local programming and to enable the Roughly half of the income (45%–55%) ally, to deliver high-quality program- acquisition of national programming by for the majority of public radio stations ming. But there is a downside to this local stations. comes from listeners’ voluntary contri- source. For example, news and public

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affairs listeners are the largest contribu- Bill Siemering was the first NPR directors—and their musical preferences do tor of programming. Siemering wrote the not include solo piano, violin, or vocal original mission for NPR and with NPR music, so these forms of music were staff, developed the program All Things eliminated from playlists. Gradually, in Considered. He is a member of the 2 many stations, news and public affairs Community Media Sustainability Guide programming pushed out classical mu- Advisory Committee. sic altogether, leaving only a few public radio stations that carry classical music.

Coordinated donor support ENDNOTES 1 Underwriting is similar to advertising. The In correspondence, Paul Kaiser, chair of main diﬀerence is that underwriting tends the African Studies Center at the Uni- to be more factual and informative: there are versity of Pennsylvania, wrote: restrictions on qualitative and comparative statements, such as claiming to be “better,” What is not sustainable in the United “cheaper,” “the best,” and so on. States is indeed expected to be sustainable 2 Ginny Berson, vice president of NFCB, in everywhere else. For any initiative to be conversation with the author, August 26, sustainable, there needs to be a number of 2008. shareholders with a stake in the outcome to 3 See the NFCB website, www.nfcb.org. complement an organizational goal of self- suﬃciency. International donors, govern- 4 See the NPR website, www.npr.org, under the ment, civil society, and private sector are About NPR section. 7 essential partners here. 5 This is an example of “underwriting”: it simply notes the sponsor, without comparing the Public radio in the United States, and sponsor or its products to anyone or anything the programming network, NPR, would else. not have grown this successfully without 6 NPR CFO Jim Elder, in email correspondence its government support through the with the author, February 2009. CPB. And as noted previously, this sup- 7 Email to author, April 2, 2003. port can still constitute up to two-thirds of the income for stations serving the poor. If this is the case in the relatively wealthy United States overall, the ac- complishments of stations described elsewhere in this guide are all the more remarkable.

Given the proven value of local radio with limited resources to achieve the development goals of improving health, agriculture, and livelihoods, holding public oﬃcials accountable, and strengthening civil society, the need for coordinated donor action to support the sector is obvious.

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Since 2001, when a United States–led military intervention drove out the Taliban, Balancing Afghanistan’s media scene has begun to change. Under the Taliban regime, which ruled Afghanistan through a rigid and extreme interpretation of Islamic Sharia law, the Continued Aid media were strictly controlled. The Taliban banned television, renamed the state radio 2 network as Radio Voice of Sharia, and devoted airtime mostly to religious programs with a Public and oﬃcial propaganda. Service Mission After the toppling of the Taliban regime, a period of reconstruction and democracy in a Competitive development saw international aid pour into Afghanistan. With support from USAID in 2002, the international media development agency Internews launched an Market ambitious media assistance project that has seen the creation of a network of 37 radio stations broadcasting to communities throughout Afghanistan. As part of this BY JEAN FAIRBAIRN project, Internews created Salam Watandar, a program production unit that produces quality current aﬀairs and development programming for broadcast by the network of stations.

A resident of Qarabagh with his radio. Radio Qarabagh is one of Salam Watandar’s network of 37 radio stations.

From the start, Internews emphasized the ﬁnancial sustainability of both Salam Watandar and the network’s stations. Afghanistan today still struggles with the legacy of decades of civil war, including poverty, land mines, poor infrastructure, and ongoing insurgency by the Taliban.

Jean Fairbairn discussed with Internews and Salam Watandar staﬀ some of the issues facing Salam Watandar and the network of stations as they seek a sustainable business model in Afghanistan’s still unstable environment.

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matters of local concern, and invite community leaders and residents to discuss local issues. Community orientation and participation were and are still central to the Internews project in 2 Afghanistan. Recent changes to the law mean that today stations can be licensed to community associations, which own and manage them.

As part of its sustainability plan, In- ternews based its selection of stations on three main criteria: assessment of the station’s leadership, community focus and engagement, and location and potential audience. To be selected, owners of stations had to demonstrate community support, for example, in the form of donations of land or housing for the station and transmitter, or a local Years of conﬂict in Afghanistan have left communications infrastracture devastated. Radio Qarabagh’s post box is located council’s pledge to pay some expenses or next to Qarabagh Bazaar so that listeners can easily drop oﬀ letters with messages for the station to broadcast. Qarabagh is in Kabul province license fees.

ince the launch of its media de- it works. From the start, therefore, busi- Support for each station included velopment assistance program in ness development for Salam Watandar technical advice, broadcast and produc- Afghanistan in 2002, Internews and the radio stations was central to the tion studio equipment, portable field has established 37 community Internews implementation strategy. The recorders and microphones, a 150-watt radio stations in the country, model is one of interdependence: to FM transmitter, a 30-meter tower and Sreaching an estimated 12 million Af- generate income, Salam Watandar must a generator to power the station and ghans (about 35% of the population). have access to the stations’ airtime, and transmitter during power outages. In for the stations, Salam Watandar is a addition, Internews provided grants to In 2003, Internews set up Salam reliable source of high-quality interna- cover salaries and some operating costs Watandar, an independent radio pro- tional and local news, information, and for the first six months, with the size gram production unit in Kabul. Salam entertainment programming catering to of the grant contingent upon the size Watandar’s role is to produce qual- local audiences and a source of ongoing and capacity of the station. Internews ity development and democracy pro- development support. also continues to provide management, gramming to be aired by the network broadcast, and journalism training. of stations. Today, Salam Watandar Sustaining the stations broadcasts 14 hours of programming The stations sign a Memorandum of For the Afghanistan project, Internews each day. The programming includes Understanding (MoU), agreeing that provides support and resources to 37 documentaries and interviews produced Internews retains ownership of the local radio stations. These stations each by Salam Watandar staff and music and equipment for the initial broadcast have the character of a community content from external sources, including period and is obliged to provide techni- station, with a focus on local program- independent producers and the indi- cal, training, and other support for 12 ming and local participation. Because vidual stations. The stations receive the months. In return, the stations must Afghan media laws until recently shows through standard digital televi- comply with quality broadcasting restricted holding of broadcast licences sion satellite decoders and rebroadcast requirements, keep proper financial re- to individuals rather than companies or them over local transmitters.1 cords, report regularly to Internews, and associations, many of the stations in the broadcast Salam Watandar’s news and Internews network are privately owned. One of the Internews Network’s core current affairs programs during during However, all the stations in the network goals is to leave behind sustainable local peak listening hours. have a strong local orientation, report media entities in the countries in which COMMUNITY MEDIA SUSTAINABILITY GUIDE 67 o w t n o i t c e s

Salam Watandar markets the programs Salam Watandar is responding to the Different expectations and the stations’ airtime to advertisers. new situation by stepping up efforts to According to Jon Nyswonger, the The stations receive the programming obtain commercial advertising, with Internews business planning advisor in for free and Salam Watandar pays the some success. The following table shows Afghanistan, the relationship between stations a percentage of the advertising the shift from noncommercial (NGO, 2 Internews and the stations is “finely income to cover airtime used to broad- political development) funding to com- balanced.” He said, “The expectations of cast the programs. mercial sources. the two parties (Internews and the sta- Sustaining Salam Watandar Salam Watandar’s Income and Expenditure Salam Watandar was created as both a 2005 2006 2007 production unit and a training unit- Business Earned targeting a specific information need Directly From in the postconflict stabilization period % % % following the war. The intention was to provide news and information tailored NGOs Community 97.20% 44.73% 18.88% to local audiences, and to create local ownership and capacity in Afghanistan’s Commercial Sources 2.80% 55.27% 81.12% information market. 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% For Salam Watandar, sustainability is Figures provided by Salam Watandar, June 2008 complex and layered. Over the past five years, Salam Watandar has trained and tions) are different. Internews set up the worked with dozens of journalists who Income distribution stations with the aim of them becoming are now part of Afghanistan’s thriving In accordance with the MoU that independent and they are—that is, they media scene. In this way, and through Internews signs with its network of sta- are expected to build their revenue base the programs it creates and broadcasts, tions, Salam Watandar must distribute in the market and keep the money. But Salam Watandar has contributed to de- a percentage of its total income among many of the stations seem to believe veloping and embedding public service the network of stations. At present, that Internews should be responsible for media in Afghanistan. The challenge for Salam Watandar’s programs are broad- ongoing financial support. Salam Watandar is to be able to develop cast on 37 stations, including the sta- a business model that generates suffi- tions set up with Internews assistance. “One of the constant battles has been cient income to survive as an institution revenue sharing. Stations have asked that continues to contribute to develop- Salam Watandar distributes 68% of many times for a greater share of the ing and promoting media democracy. its total advertising income among the advertising revenue and Internews has stations. The balance of 32% is split obliged by increasing the percentage Initially, income generation was not a between Salam Watandar (22.7%) and that the stations receive. Unfortu- problem. This was so partly because of Internews (9.09%) to cover overhead nately, at the same time as the percent- the 2004 and 2005 elections, for which costs. age shared with stations increased, millions of dollars were spent by the the advertising revenue declined. As international aid community (USAID, Salam Watandar uses a simple income a result, the stations were receiving a United Nations Development Program, distribution system for the stations, di- larger percentage of the pie, but the pie and others) on public outreach and de- viding them into tiers of large and small was smaller and stations did not see an mocracy and voter education program- stations. Stations with an estimated increase in the amount of money they ming. However, after the elections, this audience of more than 100,000 people received.” income stream dried up. At the same receive a higher percentage of advertis- time, the Afghan media sector—and the ing income than those with fewer than The revenue from Salam Watandar competition—was growing, including 100,000 listeners. provides variable income for the sta- the emergence of commercial televi- tions that broadcast the programs, but sion and additional commercial radio it is difficult for Internews to establish stations. precise numbers, because stations do not regularly provide Internews with

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financial information. The absence of forces, and the nascent local advertising according to Farivar, is the lack of an information also means that Internews market in smaller cities and towns. advertising culture in Afghanistan. “The cannot currently say with confidence lack of an advertising culture means how many of the stations that it has Via the network, Salam Watandar has there is tough competition for advertis- helped set up are financially sustainable. an estimated audience of 7.5 million ing in a limited market. Advertisers do 2 Internews argues, however, that the fact people in 22 provinces from 37 radio not realize the value of advertising, and that the stations are still on the air and stations. The stations’ audiences are the do not want to advertise. Advertising is still broadcast Salam Watandar and their keys to Salam Watandar’s sustainability. also interesting from the listeners’ point own programming suggests that they are of view—most financially viable. viewers couldn’t really distinguish Access to a limited pool of between a TV resources commercial and The unhappiness of some stations with a TV program, their “slice of the pie” is a concern to and they actually both Internews and to Salam Watandar, watched TV com- said Nyswonger. “From the Internews mercials for their side we would like stations to play the content.” programming they are required to play. In keeping faith with advertisers on the Farivar estimates network, we have employed an outside that about 80%– monitoring service to listen to the sta- 90% of advertis- tions and to report back on what they ing is by banks, are playing. The information from the telecommunica- monitoring service shows that occasion- tions companies ally stations are off air or are airing local and construction programming rather than airing the Radio listener, Afghanistan. Salam Watandar’s network of 37 stations reaches over 12 companies. Busi- Salam Watandar’s broadcast.” million Afghans. nesses are slowly starting to adver- A “strange and unknown” Similarly, the stations depend on Salam tise consumer products. “The big guys Watandar’s ability to secure internation- do realize the value of advertising and commercial market al and national advertising, which they will flood the airways, but other com- Internews has dedicated significant could not access on their own. mercial advertisers are almost nonexis- resources to business development tent. There have been no real attempts over the years, including international One of the challenges for Salam Watan- to adapt our Western commercial model program managers and advisors, in- dar is that it is struggling to establish a to the Afghan context. We use the same ternational marketing officers, finance reliable audience in some major cen- techniques imported and used by for- personnel, and local station–based busi- ters. In Kabul, Internews supported eign-run media agencies in Kabul. There ness development officers. In a planning the establishment of Radio Watandar, is some local adaptation in terms of document aimed at addressing Salam but they do not regularly play Salam creativity and creative content, but not Watandar’s future, Internews refers to Watandar’s programs or advertisements. in the way the airtime is sold.” Afghanistan’s “strange and unknown” In Kandahar, Salam Watandar’s partner commercial market and “the ever-chang- station broke away from the network Reliance on donors ing media environment” and increasing and stopped broadcasting the programs. Farivar is very conscious of Salam media competitors.2 In this document, Watandar’s dependence on funding Internews points to the challenge of Lack of an advertising culture from USAID, and he argues that full identifying accurate pricing for advertis- Masood Farivar, manager of Salam financial sustainability is not really ing in the absence of accurate monitor- Watandar, discussed some of the ob- possible for Salam Watandar. “I would ing information, the bias towards public stacles that Salam Watandar will have to define financial sustainability as Salam information and sponsored programs overcome if it is to become financially Watandar becoming largely indepen- that are driven by aid and development sustainable. One of the main problems, dent through advertising revenue, but budget priorities rather than by market

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not wholly. Salam Watandar is not a Challenging times millions of dollars and our programs are commercial radio station; we are more put together by 25 people.” Salam Watandar (and the stations on like a nonprofit company. We are not which they air their programs) compete in the business to make money. We for listeners with Afghan services of take commercial adverts to support our ENDNOTES 2 international broadcasters, including the operations but not beyond that. 1 From studios in Kabul, the signal is uplinked BBC, Voice of America (VOA), and Ra- via the Russian AM-1 satellite to Milan, where dio Liberty. They also compete with the it is multiplexed into a DVB (Satellite TV) “While I think it is important to go national broadcaster, Radio-TV Afghan- bouquet and retransmitted on the Hot Bird after every available dollar for Salam istan, and other local broadcasters with 6 satellite. Hot Bird 6 reception equipment is Watandar, we should also try to limit a commercial mandate. A complicating cheap and readily available in Afghanistan. that if it compromises our editorial factor is that Salam Watandar has long independence. Salam Watandar has 2 Internews internal report, Salam Watandar, sought to pitch its programming to less- Future. Document provided by Internews complete editorial independence right educated and less-wealthy audiences as Afghanistan in June 2008. now. Internews doesn’t interfere with part of a public service mandate. Salam what we put on air, and that is how it Watandar will therefore have to work has been all along. Content should not hard to attract advertisers interested in be dictated by any sponsor or advertiser. an audience with disposable income. We have to be careful against a back- drop of government agencies and spon- At present, Salam Watandar has 25 sors and advertisers not knowing and full-time staff creating programming; respecting the firewall between editorial two full-time staff working for Tanin, and business.” their program distribution unit, and 12 provincial stringers who send in news Monitoring the stations stories. Although Internews is at present Salam Watandar has contracted an agen- handling the financial management and cy to monitor the broadcasting of Salam human resource issues, the long-term Watandar programming. “They monitor plan is for Salam Watandar to take over 20 stations at a time and send us daily, these functions. weekly and monthly reports to make sure the partner stations do abide by “It is a difficult time, but I like a chal- the MoU, and broadcast the programs lenge, a job with a very long job descrip- uninterrupted,” said Farivar. tion. My goal is to raise the quality of Salam Watandar content and also to This is an expensive operation: “It is make it stand on its feet, and then I am very important for us to monitor broad- done with my mission,” said Farivar. casts. The monitoring has had a good impact—the stations were not all that “We have talented people and it is a diligent broadcasting Salam Watandar. great program making unit. It is very This is another discussion—dealing valuable. At the gathering of station with the stations, trying to get them managers I gave a presentation and my to broadcast Salam Watandar regu- message to them was—Internews decid- larly—there are some stations that want ed to set up the program unit because to slip in local adverts during our peak local stations do not have resources to hour programs, and we have tried to produce programs. I demonstrated this stop that. The big problem is that they with sound clips and they all agreed, are obliged to broadcast during peak and confirmed the value of Salam hours and they argue that we have taken Watandar. A couple of station manag- away from them their golden time, and ers say when we are on air no one wants that this has made it difficult for them to listen to VOA, BBC, and the others. to find adverts and air them during off- That’s what I get a kick out of because peak hours.” those programs are put together with

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The first community radio stations started in Latin America in the 1940s, when Bolivian Sustaining the miners created stations and funded them from their own wages. Today, it is impossible Intercontinental to say accurately how many community stations are broadcasting on the continent; Radio Communication estimates vary from 4,000 to 10,000. One reason why it is so difficult to take a census 2 is that some countries do not yet have legislation that recognises community radio, System (SICR) so forms of radio vary. The community sector embraces pirate stations, community- oriented commercial stations, religious stations, educational stations, NGO stations, BY BRUCE GIRARD and campus-based stations. Another reason why it is so hard to count stations is that they are vulnerable to repression—numbers ebb and flow depending on the nature of the government in power.

Networks and associations play an important role in sustainability of individual stations and of whole community radio sectors. Latin America is home to several networks that operate on national, regional, continental, and intercontinental levels. In the following two studies, Bruce Girard examines two Latin American networks.

The ﬁrst study describes the Intercontinental Radio Communication System, which is known by its Spanish acronym, SICR. The SICR is a complex and high-quality program production unit that reaches some 270 stations in Central and South America. How does it do this on a lean budget of US$250,000 a year?

The second study shows how Peru’s national community news and information network, Coordinadora Nacional de Radio (CNR), connects distant and rural communities, reverses the traditional ﬂow of news from the capital to the countryside, and helps ﬁnance its members.

he Latin American Association for Radio Education (known as ALER, which is short for Asociación Latinoamericana de Educación Radiofónica) was founded in 1972 by eighteen educational radio stations. The stations, all associated with the Catholic Church, were inspired by a model pioneered by TRadio Sutatenza, the world’s ﬁrst community radio station. Established by a young Catholic priest in a remote rural community in Colombia in 1947, Radio Sutatenza was an educational radio station that focused on teach- ing formal skills, especially literacy and mathematics. Listeners were organized into informal classes and met in the mornings or evenings at neighborhood houses to listen to the programs and discuss their lessons. Sutatenza also broadcast religious programs, but its educational work was what made it stand out, and that eventually led to the creation of dozens of similar stations throughout Latin America.

Like Radio Sutatenza, ALER originally promoted formal education and the Catholic Church, but during its almost four decades of history, it has evolved into an association of community radio stations committed to the social, political, and cultural development of the region and to the participation and empowerment of poor and marginalized communities. Perhaps the most important change took place when ALER formally changed its status from an association of “Catholic/Christian” radio

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stations to one of “Christian and/or SICR has two main components: Comprehensive coverage through humanist” stations, opening up to sta- technological infrastructure and radio thematic networks tions that shared its social justice goals production. SICR was conceived as a participatory whether or not they were connected project that would be able to call on with the Catholic Church. Technical infrastructure 2 the collective knowledge, talent, will, At the heart of SICR’s technical in- and technical capabilities of a large and ALER now has 118 members in 17 frastructure is a satellite network with diverse team of producers, journalists, Latin American countries, including na- ground stations for uplinking programs correspondents, and others, in Latin tional community radio associations in from nine countries (Argentina, Bolivia, America and around the world. These the Dominican Republic, Guatemala, El Colombia, Ecuador, El Salvador, Gua- dozens of collaborators are organized Salvador, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecua- temala, Paraguay, Peru, and Venezuela). into the following specialized networks. dor, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, and Argen- The ground stations serve as national tina. The association is located Quito, content aggregators, delivering program- Continental News Network Ecuador, and its 25 staff members ming to the network from the national The oldest and largest of the thematic concentrate on five strategic projects. associations as well as from individual networks is the Continental News Net- In terms of both budget and staff, the stations. Intercontinental Radio Communica- work (Red Informativa Continental). It draws on 50 correspondents in 18 coun- tion System (or SICR, which stands for At the receiving end are 270 satellite tries to produce three daily editions of Sistema Intercontinental de Comunicación receivers in South and Central America. its flagship news program, Contacto Sur Radiofónica) is the most important of Of these, 120 are part of ALER member (broadcasting at 7:00 a.m., 12:00 p.m., these strategic projects. The other four stations and networks and the rest are and 4:00 p.m.), and two weekly news strategic projects are: part of nonmember stations. analysis programs, La Ronda Informativa Latinoamericana and Buscando América. • The political communication proj- In addition to its satellite network, ect involves an ongoing process of re- SICR makes extensive use of the In- The Continental News Network is flection and evaluation of the cultural ternet. SICR programming is available coordinated from Quito, but edito- and political role of each community worldwide as a live audio stream from rial decisions are decentralized, with radio station and network, ensuring www.aler.org and its principal programs correspondents actively participating the relevance of their objectives and can be downloaded in MP3 format. The in structuring the daily news agenda as practices. Internet is also used by correspondents well as in the network’s ongoing evalua- • Through its focus on sustainability filing reports and sound bites (actuality) tion and planning. ALER helps member stations and via FTP when they are not able to use networks develop their own social, one of the satellite uplink stations. financial and institutional structures This involvement is one of the network’s strengths. Not only does it make for and practices. SICR’s production system comprises a sound and well-informed editorial network of digital studios with connec- • Training and research have been key decisions, but it also inspires a level of tions to the satellite or the internet. The strategic activities since the early days commitment to the project that is es- main production facilities are in ALER’s of the association. The area includes sential to its sustainability. SICR does Quito headquarters, with additional fa- a regional network of experts from not pay Continental News Network cilities placed in corresponding stations the region who develop, test, and correspondents. Some are employed by and national community radio associa- implement methodologies and course ALER member stations; their reports are tions. materials. the members’ contribution to a project • Policy and legislation that enable to which they are institutionally com- According to ALER, SICR’s network free and democratic communication mitted. is the largest and most powerful in the have been identified as a key priority region, giving the association and its for the region. ALER’s policy work Correspondents who are not associated members unprecedented political and seeks to influence public policies with members volunteer their reports social influence. regarding broadcasting, access to for many practical reasons, such as the information and communication training opportunities offered at bi-an- technologies, and the democratization nual meetings and also because of a of communication. personal and political commitment to

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the project and a desire to be part of a municators from 25 radio stations in 6 contribute the content for hundreds of uniquely Latin American and alternative countries3 with territory in the remote hours of programming. Without the news service. areas of the Amazon River and the volunteer contributions of hundreds of rainforest are involved in the Intercul- radio stations and individuals, SICR’s Kiechwa Satellite Network tural Amazonian Radio Network. In budget would be much higher. 2 The Kiechwa Satellite Network (Red addition to continent-wide distribution Kiechwa Satelital) comprises 35 radio of cooperatively created productions in- Another important contribution to producers in Bolivia, Ecuador and cluding news, radio theater, and health keeping costs low is SICR’s strategic Peru. The network’s name is a fusion campaigns, the Amazon network helps cooperation with the Dutch interna- of “Quechua” and “Kichwa,” which stations develop communication strate- tional broadcaster, Radio Nederland, are indigenous languages with similar gies and provides otherwise unavailable which has provided free satellite receiv- roots.1 Network programming promotes training to hundreds of isolated journal- ing antennas and decoders for 270 Latin intercultural communication, collabo- ists and radio producers. American stations, including ALER’s ration, and reflection. The Kiechwa 120 members, enabling them to receive Network is unique in its approach to Special campaigns and events SICR and Radio Nederland services for decentralization. Not only do produc- In cooperation with its members and free. Once again the strategy has mul- ers participate in editorial decisions, associations such as AMARC, SICR tiple objectives: not only is SICR able to planning, and evaluation, but every few organizes special coverage of themes have more of an impact by making its years the network center moves to a new and events of particular interest to material available to additional stations, radio station in one of the three partici- the region. Special coverage has been but as the relationships develop, some pating countries. extended to global events such as the of them eventually become members of World Social Forum and to local events ALER. Migration and Communication Network with regional impact, including national Of course, cost reduction is only one The Migration and Communication meetings on communication rights and environmental issues, for example. part of the equation. Equally important Network (Red Migración y Comuni- is how the contributions of hundreds of cación) deals with migration in a series SICR also lends its production capacity community radio journalists and pro- of intercontinental and interactive ducers committed to a Latin American 2 and infrastructure to national and con- programs. Callos y Guatita, one of the and alternative radio network differenti- programs produced by this network, is tinental campaigns on a variety of social themes. Special programs and public ates and adds value to SICR’s offering. broadcast live simultaneously on several This content in turn makes it valuable radio stations in Ecuador and Spain. service announcements are produced, distributed, and broadcast on local to ALER’s members, most of which Using satellite audio, audio streaming are small stations with limited produc- over the Internet, and the telephone, the stations, often in collaboration with specialized international agencies such tion capacity and which count SICR’s program links Ecuadorians at home and quality alternative programming as an in Spain. Topics for discussion include as the United Nations Environment Program (UNICEF), or with the sup- important contribution to their own immigrant rights and discrimination as sustainability. well as providing a forum for exchang- port of national development agencies and NGOs. ing news between resident and diaspora Although US$250,000 is a small communities. The program has also Secrets to SICR’s sustainability amount of money for a radio network of taken up campaigns, succeeding, for the size and scope of SICR, it is a mas- example, in exposing financial institu- The first secret to SICR’s financial sive commitment for ALER, accounting tion practices that took more than 20% sustainability has been to keep its costs for 10 of the 25 staff members working of the value of the remittances sent by down. It is the largest network of its in the Quito office. Fully 85% of SICR’s migrants to their families in Ecuador. type in the region, with high levels of budget is financed by projects from complexity, quality, productivity, and foreign donors. Only 5% comes from Intercultural Amazonian Radio impact, yet it operates with an annual member contributions; 10% comes Network budget of less than US$250,000. The from the sale of production and distri- The Amazon region provides the theme key strategy for keeping its budget low is bution services. Increasing revenue from and the location of one of the newest providing a high-quality service specifi- production and distribution services, networks, the Intercultural Amazonian cally tailored to the needs and interests such as producing and distributing Radio Network. More than 80 com- of its members, who in turn freely audio material for health and human COMMUNITY MEDIA SUSTAINABILITY GUIDE 73 o w t n o i t c e s

rights campaigns, has been identified as a priority, but donor support will con- Peru’s CNR: tinue to be essential to SICR’s sustainability for years to come. A Decentralized Network 2 ALER is committed to SICR for a num- BY BRUCE GIRARD ber of reasons. Among these is the value of the information and communication service’s contribution to Latin America’s With a population of 29 million spread and 27 production centers that produce development and democratization. out over an area that is twice the size of programs for broadcast on both member SICR is also appreciated for its contri- Germany and that encompasses a coast- and nonmember stations. bution to the sustainability of ALER al desert, the Andes mountain range and of its member stations. (with peaks of nearly 7,000 meters), and Production centers are usually NGOs tropical rainforests, Peru faces enormous that produce radio programs for As ALER’s highest-profile activity, SICR communication obstacles. Radio plays broadcast on one or more radio sta- is a constant reminder to funders and a key role in helping to overcome these tions. Some production centers are local members of the value of the association. obstacles. In addition to 2,000 licensed groups that are unable to get their own This translates into more committed radio stations, there are hundreds of radio station for such reasons as because members, essential to the sustainability unlicensed broadcasters. they are in a city where no frequencies of a membership-based organization, are available. Others produce programs and into funder support for SICR’s and The vast majority of the stations are for syndication to a number of stations. ALER’s other activities. private and commercial. Most visible In both cases, the programs may be among these are a handful of national broadcast on community or commer- For members, SICR is a source of high- networks, each sending their centrally cial stations, but the NGOs share the quality programming and international produced programming to dozens of democratic and participatory principles news that as individual stations they repeater stations in the interior of the of community radio. could not produce. This programming country. Listeners of these stations know supplements local production, helping more about the traffic conditions and Three areas of work stations build and maintain a commit- weather in Lima than about events in CNR has three main areas of work:, ted listenership and advertising base. their own town. impact and public opinion, capacity development, and economic sustainability. Turn the dial a little and you’ll find hundreds of tiny stations, most little In the area of impact and public more than a computer hooked up to opinion, CNR operates a national a transmitter, pumping out a constant network news service. In contrast to fare of cheap music and canned chat. the rest of Peru’s national news services, Among this commercial cacophony are which focus on events in Lima, CNR about 200 community radio stations prioritizes events in the interior. In its that provide local programming to decentralized model, CNR member sta- primarily rural audiences. Peru’s com- tions produce news and programs that munity stations are diverse, ranging are then sent to Lima and packaged for from stations with 20 or more paid staff national distribution. Of the 49 mem- members broadcasting to entire prov- ber stations, 22 receive CNR’s program- inces to entirely volunteer-run stations ming by satellite; most of the rest access with signals that do not travel beyond it via the Internet. the limits of their tiny village. Programming includes two daily na- Founded in 1978, the Coordinadora tional newscasts, regional newscasts for Nacional de Radio (CNR) is one of the north, south, and Amazon regions, Latin America’s oldest and most active a national daily one-hour program of community radio associations. CNR has analysis and interviews, a half-hour na- 76 members, including 49 radio stations tional sports program, a weekend news

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and analysis wrap-up program, a weekly listeners would be of interest to national Bruce Girard is director of the Fundación debate program, and in-depth docu- advertisers. Comunica in Uruguay and has mentaries. Via the satellite, CNR mem- more than 20 years’ experience with bers also receive programming from the CNR’s agency represents a network community and alternative media as a Latin American satellite service ALER, of more than 100 stations, including producer, activist, trainer, and researcher. 2 which includes news and analysis from both member stations and stations that He helped set up the World Association of the continent and the world, music and broadcast the programming of produc- Community Radio Broadcasters (AMA- culture, and daily programs in Quechua tion centers. The agency works with RC) and founded Latin America’s first produced jointly by CNR and ALER. commercial advertisers, but the particu- Internet-based radio news service, Púlsar. lar characteristics of CNR’s network, He has published numerous books, articles, In addition to reversing the traditional including for example stations in remote and reports about community media. news flow from Lima to the provinces, rural areas with programming in indig- CNR’s programming seeks to promote enous languages, have made it particu- a pluralistic debate on themes related to larly interesting to government agencies ENDNOTES democracy and development and to en- and NGOs running campaigns about 1 Quechua is spoken in Peru and Bolivia and sure that the issues of decentralization, health, education, or human rights Kiechwa in Ecuador. Although an estimated 10 million people in the region speak one of poverty, peace, and the environment issues. Most of the revenue goes to the the languages, the Kiechwa Network is unique are present on the national public and stations, with CNR charging a small in its transcultural nature. political agendas. commission to maintain the service. 2 The program’s name refers to traditional tripe In the area of capacity development, According to CNR, the agency’s service dishes from Spain (callos) and Ecuador (guatita). For more information on the program, CNR provides training for manage- is especially valuable because it is run see “Callos and Guatita: radio and migration ment, production, and technical staff cooperatively with its member stations, in Ecuador and Spain,” by Luis Dávila and of its member stations to contribute to giving it a unique ability to provide José Manuel López, in Girard, Bruce, The both individual and institutional capaci- specialized advice to clients. One to Watch, FAO, Rome, 2003. Available ties. for download from comunica.org/1-2-watch/ Participatory production service html/download.htm. Finally, in the area of economic sus- 3 The countries are Peru, Colombia, Ecuador, tainability, CNR’s main activities relate CNR has developed a production Bolivia, Brazil, and Venezuela. to advertising and production. It sells service that allows it to harness its 4 The problem is almost universally experienced ads on its own network programming, expertise in radio production and offer by community radio stations outside of major defraying some of the production costs, high-quality production of informa- cities. In South Africa, for example, intermedi- and also has an intermediate advertising tional, cultural, religious, educational, ate agencies take a minimum 35% commis- agency to represent its members in the and commercial programs to a variety of sion, occasionally running as high as 65%. provinces to national advertisers based clients. Productions include advertise- Small, under-resourced and often inexperi- in Lima. CNR also produces radio for enced, community radio stations are at the ments, radio theater, documentaries, mercy of intermediate agencies. external clients from government, civil and complex promotional campaigns. society, and the private sector. CNR’s production facilities in Lima CNR’s intermediate agency was estab- are supplemented by facilities within lished to respond to a problem faced member stations in the regions, giving it by community radio stations located a unique ability to produce programs in outside of major cities—advertisers are a variety of languages and dialects and located in major cities and they find to adapt them to local culture, knowl- it easier to buy time on the national edge, and tastes, thus ensuring that networks than on hundreds of small sta- programs are meaningful and accepted tions. Commercial advertising agencies by local people. As with the services of that represent stations charge exorbitant the advertising agency, CNR’s produc- commissions or simply refuse to rep- 4 tion services are of particular interest to resent community radio stations. As government agencies, NGOs, and other a result, local stations have access only clients with social and developmental to local advertisers, even though their objectives. COMMUNITY MEDIA SUSTAINABILITY GUIDE 75 o w t n o i t c e s

The digital media age is fundamentally changing how news and information are Small Towns created, disseminated, and consumed in the United States and around the world. New tools and platforms have fuelled a decade of explosive growth in online media created Find a Voice by people who are not communications professionals. Ordinary people share their 2 comments, writings, and increasingly, their photos, audio, and video, in formats often Online indistinguishable from those used by well-funded professional media.

BY PERSEPHONE MIEL The reporting of these “citizen journalists” has uncovered political scandals, as in the allegedly political U.S. attorney ﬁrings and brought events like the 2008 protests in Burma to the attention of the world. It has also oﬀered a new way for small communities that lack any kind of professional media to create online media platforms for local news and information. These websites, increasingly common in the developed world, serve many of the same functions as community radio stations and other community media in other countries. Persephone Miel discusses online community media and their business models.

he phenomenal growth of online community media sites. However, they “participatory” media is, in the are easily distinguished from social net- United States, usually associated working sites, also called “social media,” with partisan political invec- (Facebook, MySpace, Friendster, and tive and heated discussions of the like), which are focused on connect- Tcelebrity gossip. However, there is also a ing people, regardless of their geogra- small but significant number of groups phy, for the purpose of social interac- using the new technologies to provide tion. Community news sites are a subset news and information to local commu- of “participatory media,” also commonly nities, much of it created by community called “user-generated content.” Their members themselves. distinguishing feature is a focus on serving a community that is defined by These sites, of which there are likely a geography rather than social links, or few thousand across the country, cover shared interests or identities, like the city council and school board meet- myriad sites serving parents, sports fans, ings, promote local businesses, and offer or video gamers. residents the opportunity to discuss everything from politics to gardening An example of a well-established and tips. Some are run by a single dedicated successful community news site in the volunteer; others have blossomed into United States is the Forum (www.fo- medium-sized businesses with dozens of rumhome.org), which serves the towns employees. of Deerfield, Nottingham, Candia, and Northwood (combined population of Defining community media in a about 16,000 residents) in the state of crowded online space New Hampshire. Founded in 2005 as As there is no government or other a cooperative with seed funding from a accrediting body in the United States foundation grant and the local library, conferring any particular status on news business advice from a local business- websites of any kind and no specific man, and pro bono legal aid, the Forum association or membership organization, focuses on local news and activities. The there is no official definition of online site includes reader-contributed news, fiction, poetry, photographs, cartoons,

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and opinion pieces; anyone can contrib- community news sites, citizen media, The Forum’s mission statement ute, as long as their submissions abide hyperlocal media, and placeblogs. In ad- The mission of The Philbrick-James by simple editorial guidelines. dition, there are thousands more casual individual bloggers who define their Forum is to provide a source for news The Forum was founded in 2005 by for- focus as something other than the com- 2 and current information, and an outlet mer teacher Maureen Mann and several munity or their purpose as primarily other residents she met through political personal, and do not associate them- for the sharing of events, opinion, and activity. The group shared an interest in selves with the citizen news groups, yet creative expression through an interac- creating a nonpartisan, unbiased, and cover local issues with some regularity. tive web-based newspaper supple- timely source of local news. The local news void became apparent in February Other community media founders mented by periodic print issues. An 2004, when the local school newsletter, like Barry Parr, who has built up the easily accessible source of information which doubled as the community bul- Coastsider (www.coastsider.com) in his and a venue for input by the citizenry letin, published the procedure for run- spare time to report on happenings in ning in municipal elections a full month his coastal California town, keep their will encourage community involve- after the deadline to register had passed. distance from the grant-funded groups, ment and identity. Meanwhile, of the 22 local offices open, believing that a commercial model will there were eight for which no one was eventually reward their efforts. Coast- The Forum’s pledge: running at all. sider has grown from a site featuring one person’s writing to include regular • To report the news with accuracy With two part-time paid editors or- submissions from community members and objectivity, and treat people ganizing the contributions of a large and substantial information on local with respect. number of volunteer authors, and one events. • To provide content to help citizens advertising salesperson, the Forum is a make informed decisions about local low-budget nonprofit relying on a mix History of online community media issues. of volunteer labor, small grants and • To facilitate community debate. Most online community sites in the donations, and sales of local ads. In United States were started in the past • To furnish an opportunity for cre response to requests from readers and few years by people who previously ative expression. advertisers, the Forum began “reverse- had no involvement in community • To correct our errors in a timely publishing,” issuing a paper publication media (although an astonishing num- manner based on the online content a few times ber of sites have been created by one- a year. The paper is distributed to local time professional journalists from residents for free, by mail. the mainstream media). However, Although many community websites The Forum’s contributors various pre-Internet forms of commu- have goals and structures similar to the nity media, including low-power FM We are volunteers of all ages. We are Forum, they are far from organized radio, community access cable TV, and long-term residents and newcomers, movements. As a small but much-her- municipal newsletters and other com- alded piece of the citizen journalism munity publications, have also added employed and retired, politically active movement, they have been fêted by online components. Cambridge Com- and apolitical, churchgoers and athe- journalism foundations, new media munity Television (www.cctvcambridge. conferences like WeMedia, university- ists. What unites us is our dedication to org) in Massachusetts has developed an based research centers, and nonprofit extensive web presence to encourage ad- creating a means for open communica- support organizations. These centers, ditional community participation.1 tion with and about our community. many of them funded by the Knight Foundation, offer to a significant core of Professional public broadcasting in the community news sites the basic func- United States is also experimenting We would love your help with this tions of an association. with many new forms of online media, project. Contact news@forumhome. but has usually chosen to create its own Because of the blurring of definitions, projects to solicit viewer and listener org if you are interested in helping with there is a range of terms used by com- contributions rather than reach out to the work. munity-focused sites to refer to them- existing community-created media. selves: the most common terms are

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Despite the seeming alignment of their In July 2008, Professor Jay Rosen of Grant support and support centers public service mission, the cultural di- New York University (NYU), a long- As these sites multiplied, the Knight vide between the amateur online media time promoter of citizen journalism, Foundation and other groups launched movement and the public broadcasting published a short post on his influential programs to support online citizen jour- community means that it is unlikely that blog pressthink (www.pressthink.org), 2 nalism, usually with small grants to help local public radio and TV stations will attempting to define the term once and launch publications or upgrade tech- become a source of support for commu- for all: nical facilities. A number of resource nity sites that could benefit from their centers appeared, mostly within univer- journalistic and technical expertise. The A Most Useful Definition of Citizen sities that study the citizen journalism Forum, in New Hampshire, is based a Journalism phenomenon and offer various kinds of mere 30 miles (48 km) from the studios It’s mine, but it should be yours. Can we take support to citizen media outlets, from of New Hampshire Public Radio, which the quote marks off now? Can we remove the technical and legal advice to training in has a strong interest in participatory “so-called” from in front? When the people journalism and multimedia production. online media. Yet, three years after the formerly known as the audience employ the The best known of these is J-Lab www.( website was launched, the leaders of press tools they have in their possession to j-lab.org). the two organizations had never met to inform one another, that’s citizen journalism. discuss possible cooperation. — Jay Rosen, www.pressthink.org, July 20082 J-Lab’s mission is to help “journalists and citizens use digital technologies to These media are a natural outgrowth develop new ways for people to partici- of the “civic journalism” (also called The broadest definitions of participa- pate in public life with projects on in- “public journalism”) movement, which tory media include the appearance of novations in journalism, citizen media, gained popularity in the early 1990s and millions of individual blogs devoted to interactive news stories, entrepreneur- aimed to make journalism more respon- personal narratives, hobbies, culture, ship, training, and research and publica- sive to the public. Civic journalism was politics, celebrity gossip, and technol- tions.” (www.j-lab.org). As part of its meant to be less obsessed with neutral- ogy, among many other topics. Among extensive resources for online communi- ity and objectivity and more willing to these, sites appeared that were specifi- ty media, J-Lab maintains a directory of promote civic engagement. These goals cally dedicated to covering local events. citizen news sites around the country. As fed into the explosion of what is usually Some of these, like H2Otown (www. of February 2009, there were 795 sites called “citizen journalism.” For citizen H2Otown.info), in Watertown, Mas- in the database—and J-Lab says that the journalists, the possibilities offered by sachusetts, were created by a single list is far from exhaustive. digital media creation tools, especially local resident frustrated by the lack of the software that launched the blog traditional media or its poor quality, but Another Knight-supported project, format, meant that instead of lobbying feature contributions by any number launched by H2Otown founder Lisa their local newspaper to listen to the of volunteer local authors. Others, like Williams, offers connections and advice community, they themselves could cre- Baristanet (www.baristanet.com), based to the makers of “placeblogs,” which the ate the kind of media they considered to in suburban New Jersey, are primarily site defines as follows: “A placeblog is an be lacking. written by the founder(s)—in this case two former journalists—based on input act of sustained attention to a particular and tips submitted by readers. place over time. It can be done by one person, a defined group of people, or in a way that’s open to community contribution. It’s not a newspaper, though it may contain random acts of journalism. It’s about the lived experience of a place.”

Although these placebloggers tend not to see themselves as journalists or as necessarily serving the community, many of them do provide similar functions. In Flint Expatriates is written in San Francisco by and for former residents of Flint, Michigan. The site features a logo contributed an unusual example, the Flint Expatri- by a loyal reader. www.ﬂintexpats.com ates blog (www.ﬂintexpats.com) by

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San Francisco–based journalist Gordon only covering an area but on serving featuring a very personal style of writing Young, reports from afar on events in the community and including com- and a positive gloss on local businesses. the depressed town of Flint, Michigan. munity participation in some way. The A small but dedicated group of former J-Lab database includes community site Legal issues and current residents of the town uses owners’ answers to a few basic survey 2 Despite the lack of barriers in the the site to keep up with their beloved questions, giving a sense of the typical United States to launching online hometown. Young, who makes his structures. Of the sites that answered publications, citizen journalists have living as a freelance journalist and says a question about their business model, come to realize that even seemingly the site is “a labor of love,” would love 54% defined themselves as “for-profit,” innocuous topics can lead to conflict to be able to devote more time to the 38% chose “informal,” and just over 7% and legal problems. The Citizen Media project. Using the popular online pay- checked “nonprofit.” Law Project offers citizen journalists of ments service Paypal, Young asks readers all kinds, including many community- to make donations of any size in order At the same time, it is clear from J-Lab’s oriented sites, the kind of legal advice to allow him to turn down some of his narrative reports and personal interviews and support that professional journalists other work and spend more time on the that for most sites, the for-profit desig- in media institutions rely on to avoid site. As of this writing, he had raised just nation is a convenient legal structure, lawsuits. The Center provides both over $300, but his enthusiasm for the but not the primary motivation of the online resources and personalized advice project remained undiminished. sites. Only half of the sites reported on legal issues like libel and defamation. having any paid staff at all and most of Recently the Center expanded its work For placeblogs and community news those are likely part-time. Many of the to help citizen media make important sites that—like the Forum—were born sites use only the Google Ads service, decisions on how to register, whether to fill an information vacuum in small which feeds simple text ads to the site as a business or nonprofit organization, communities not previously covered by based on the words in each page, pay- in order to minimize liability. Because traditional media, the lack of competi- ing fractions of pennies for each time U.S. laws on both corporate registration tion means that these media have the readers click on the links offered. Others and journalistic issues like libel are made luxury of defining their success on their have salespeople to solicit local advertis- locally, this required the establishment community’s own terms. The first chal- ing. In either case, the tiny audiences of a detailed state-by-state guide. The lenge for these sites is to create an entity for these sites means that even the most Center’s staff also blog interesting legal that can be sustained by the community. successful of them are unlikely to be cases involving citizen media. This sustenance takes many forms: social taking in more than a couple of thou- reinforcement, volunteer labor, dona- sands of dollars a month in advertising Top-down and commercial forms tions, subscriptions, local advertising, or revenue, with many making far less than even municipal funding. that. Even though there are few examples of small local sites as profitable enterprises, Online media business models Editorial structures the frantic attempts to figure out how to make money online have led many Just as there is a wide variety of online Although the overwhelming major- large traditional media outlets to jump sites serving communities, there is no ity of authors contributing to these on the hyperlocal bandwagon, using single business model that is common community sites are not paid for their their websites to offer audiences the to such sites. With a wealth of free efforts, a surprising 63% of the sites in ability to get and contribute to news at self-publishing tools and platforms, no the J-Lab survey said they had some the neighborhood level. The Washington equipment and no capital investment professional journalists involved. Some Post’s much-touted experiment with are required—just Internet access and sites launched by former journalists, like a separate site to serve a neighboring free time. A new blog can be launched the New Haven Independent (newhaven- county (www.LoudounExtra.com) was quite literally in minutes and main- independent.org) in New Haven, Con- eventually deemed a “hyperlocal flop,”3 tained from any Internet-connected necticut, and the Chi-Town Daily News but the company continues to experi- computer, including a public-access (www.chitowndailynews.org) in Chica- ment with ways to offer readers commu- terminal in a library or Internet café. go, Illinois, stress journalism principles nity-level information. In New Orleans, and edit everything that is published. the Times-Picayune’s site hosts discussion The most clearly defined group of com- Other sites are open to contributions forums (www.nola.com/forums/) for munity news sites is those in the J-Lab from all comers, seeking only to avoid more than three dozen separate districts database, which share a focus on not legal hassles or poisonous rhetoric and in its coverage area, though the level of

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Resources • Center for Future Civic Media www.civic.mit.edu • Citizen Media Center 2 www.citmedia.org • Citizen Media Law Project www.citmedialaw.org • Global Voices www.globalvoicesonline.org • J-Lab www.j-lab.org • Knight Foundation www.knightpulse.org • Knight Digital Media Center (USC Annenberg) www.knightdigitalmediacenter.org In New Orleans, the Times-Picayune’s site hosts discussion forums (www.nola.com/forums/) for more than three dozen • Media Re:public separate districts in its coverage area. Participation varies depending on the issues being discussed. www.mediarepublic.us • Placeblogger www.placeblogger.com activity and the amount of accompany- ability of the organization to identify ing news coverage is quite variable. and meet a strong need for informa- • Pressthink www.pressthink.org tion. In the developing world, there are Challenges facing online media already many examples where—despite Although there is no question that many limited Internet access and many other ENDNOTES online community media outlets in the barriers—extreme information deficits 1 Increasing numbers of community media United States are serving real needs in caused by disaster, conflict or repression organizations in developing countries are also have led to the rapid, innovative, and setting up websites to reach international audi- their communities, they remain fragile. ences. The most successful community news successful use of digital media tools by 4 sites tend to serve relatively homog- local communities. As technology—in 2 journalism.nyu.edu/pubzone/weblogs/press- enous, relatively well-off communities; particular, systems for the distribution think/2008/07/14/a_most_useful_d.html of news to mobile phones—becomes examples of sites serving less privileged 3 online.wsj.com/article/ or more diverse populations are rarer. more common and less expensive, it is SB121253859877343291.html?mod=yahoo_ likely that digitally networked forms hs Also, though some sites thrive based on of community media will spread in the developing world. 4 See the Burning Bridge blog for some ex- the writing talents of their main au- amples. www.ivonotes.wordpress.com thors, others badly want to improve the quality of their work by training their Persephone Miel is a Senior Advisor at contributors in reporting or journalism Internews Network. She was previously a production skills. Finally, though few of fellow at the Berkman Center for Internet the participants are motivated primar- & Society at Harvard University. Her ily by money, many groups are expe- Media Republic project (www.mediar- riencing volunteer fatigue and feeling epublic.org) examines the shifts in the pressure to find more reliable sources of news and information landscape as digital financial support. media comes of age.

The clearest determinant of the success of online community news sites in the United States seems to be the

COMMUNITY MEDIA SUSTAINABILITY GUIDE 80 r e s o u r c e s 81 COMMUNITY MEDIA SUSTAINABILITY GUIDE By presenting studies of six local independent radio radio studies of six local independent presenting By understanding a different the authors propose stations, different studies highlight The of sustainability. management, leadership, including context, factors, human and technical partnerships, programming, community support, research, will, audience capacity, to together they work how and show others, and many sustainability of stations. the overall to contribute The key section key on financial sustainability is the The on guidance which provides business plan outline, and expenditure. planning income Practical guide for reporters on gender-sensitive reporting and tackling gender issues. in plays community radio that Examines the role the value Explores building an effective civil society. the importance and highlights of community radio of of sectorthe community radio for the consolidation and the of democracy, the growth local government, of civil society. rebuilding station, setting up a community radio Guide to and programming, advertising, mission, covering research. Has sections and raising on financial management funds. and maintenance. Basic studio design, operations, Summary made programs Practical guide for journalists on radio Service World for the BBC in Afghanistan women by interview and journalism techniques containing trust, skills. A Survival help designed to for Journalists, Guide physically, mentally, themselves prepare journalists to dangerous for potentially and psychologically assignments. 2006 2005 2008 2005 2002 June 1999 2002 Date published Date January 2006 2007 g 7 l f f g g www.osf.or www.osf.or Open Society Foundation for SouthOpen Society Foundation Africa Martin Sims—Open Society for SA/National Foundation Radio Forum Community Bill Siemering and Jean Fairbairn www.developingradiopartners.or John van Zyl—ABC/Ulwazi John van www.abculwazi.org.za/files/ senseofbelonging.pd for SouthOpen Society Foundation Africa Benita Pavlicevic php?view=article&catid= 314%3Apress-room-news- release&id=3808%3Alive- news-africa-a-survival-guide- for-journalists&option=com_ content&Itemid=10007 AMARC Nick Ishmael Perkins UNESCO www.mediamoz.com/gender/ Gender_course.pd BBC World Service Trust Service World BBC www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/trust/ news/2008/04/080404_news_ resources_awh.shtm News International by Published Safety Institute Centre Press International www.newssafety.com/index. Author and source Developing RadioDeveloping Guidebook on Partners: Sustainability Curriculum for training community radio community radio for training Curriculum managers station Manual Technical Radio Community Community Radio Manual Community Gender-Sensitve Reporting Guide and Radio, Community A Sense of Belonging, SocietyCivil The African Community Radio Station Radio Station Community African The Handbook Manager’s rights and gender issues rights A Survival Africa: News Guide for Live Journalists. Resource Reporting Hour: health, Women’s Afghan

Eastern Africa—Southern / Africa—Southern Africa—South Africa Africa Africa—South (Internationa) Africa—South Africa Africa—South Africa—South Africa Africa—South Africa—South Africa Africa—South Africa—Mozambique Africa Africa Afghanistan Guides & Manuals

Geographic focus Guide to resources / further resources / websites to Guide reading r e s o u r c e s 82 COMMUNITY MEDIA SUSTAINABILITY GUIDE Handbook is divided into six chapters: What Is What six chapters: Handbook is divided into Essential, Human Rights Are Why Radio?, Community What Radio Station, Managing a Community Production Why Radio Journalism Involves, Community Is the Heart to Radio!, and Soul and How of Community Self-Sustainable. Radio Station Community Your Make Provides a list of resources useful to community radio, community radio, useful to a list of resources Provides selecting equipment, issues, funding and legal covering and broadcasting. management, in involved a detailed description of the steps Provides and case studies station, setting up a community radio Sections on sustainability the world. around from particularlythat outside funding and highlight handbook This and advertising. issues of legislation can be used a list of possible options that provides including day-to-day costs, cover to revenue raise to membership fees, donations, sponsorship, advertising, and others. tips creative various Includes fundraising. A guide to such as grants, funds, raise options to about different and underwriting. Although this guide is events, may the information for an American audience, written fit other communities. be adaptable to but much of audience, for a South African Written fit other countries. to can be adapted its content Presents a financial sustainability model developed financial sustainability a model developed Presents Media for Institute the Southern Africa by Aims to (SAIMED). Development Entrepreneurship to in Southern Africa stations assist community radio This inception. sustainable from financially become conducted in Namibia in on research model is based stations. community2002 among six radio in India, legal on community radio Information sustainability issues, issues, technology guidelines, and so on. field experiences, Goes through operators. A manual for communityradio equipment, and practice of community radio, concepts of ethics and codes council, the community and radio and community license, securingconduct, a broadcast on managing Includes a chapter programming. radio citing and sustainabilityfinances of a community radio, finance successful help achieve to pointers several and management. generation tips creative Includes various fundraising. A guide to such as grants, funds, raise options to about different and underwriting. events, April 2008 2001 2007 2003 2007 2004 2002 2008 f 0 f f / f 2 p man.comunica.org/archives/4 prometheusradio.org/media/pdf/ KYRS_Fundraising_Handbook.pd Zyl Van John www.abculwazi.org.za/jsp/ABC_ Ulwazi.js radio-start-up-guide_e.pd and Sonia Restrepo Fraser Colin UNESCO Estrada, www.unesco.org/webworld/ publications/community_radio_ handbook.pd Radio Project Prometheus portal.unesco.org/ci/en/files/ 17593/11014593681Com_radio. pdf/Com_radio.pd prometheusradio.org/content/ view/158/145 Radio Farm Karina Barker, International www.farmradio.org/english/ partners/resources/community- United Nations Development Development Nations United (UNDP) Program Tabling Louie (UNESCO), by Published UNESCO. for Bureau Asia-Pacific Information. and Communication SAIMED or website Soulbeat www.comminit.com/en/ node/18952 Community Radio: The People’s Voice People’s The Radio: Community Fundraising Guide Radio Handbook Community Fundraising for People-Powered Community Community for People-Powered Fundraising Radio Radio Start-UpCommunity Information Community Radio in India: Step by Step by Radio in India: Step Community Radio Do Community to How Radio in Southern Africa Financial Sustainability Financial Community Model for International International International International International India India Africa—Southern Africa—Southern Africa r e s o u r c e s 83 COMMUNITY MEDIA SUSTAINABILITY GUIDE a reference tool for organizations involved in involved for organizations tool a reference a reference resource to guide the reader toward a toward guide the reader to resource a reference Looks at how far USAID goals have been met in far USAID goals have how at Looks Afghanistan. and countries in different of ICTStudies contribution and community for ICTS sustainability. Useful contexts. Provides an overview of participants, policies, an overview of participants, policies, Provides opportunitiessmall media and challenges facing the sector currently. in South Africa of self the development for journalists, Training support international sustaining media outlets, from and efforts bring about change to organizations, of full implementation other things, among through, can lead Agreement, Peace the 2005 Comprehensive in Sudan and provide improvements significant to including increased the people, benefits to tremendous information. to access Looks Radio. Project Trust’s Lees of Andrew Evaluation and finds many methods and organization ALT/PR’s at of its particular to process advantages three-way working. Youth Bank–initiated World study of the Case Outreach Youth Radio as a partCommunity of the Project. Provides an overview of many factors that may come come may factors overview an that of many Provides and daily functioningin the planning play of a into a self-learning for community development; telecenter staffs; for telecenter guide and management tool also materials…; for additional educational search future therefore of as a guide for trainers or development, telecenter ten into Handbook is organized The staffs. telecenter modules. audio ministries, and of radio A report the director by looks that Methodist Communications, United in sustaining of UMC the contribution specifically at community media in Africa. 10 perspective of ICT usage across a comparative Takes of ICT and reflects usage on the values countries African in financial sustainability. October 2005 2005 2004 2007 September January 2007 2003 June 2006 2005 t a f f m m

f f m www.panos.org.uk/PDF/reports/ ICT_poverty.pd siteresources.worldbank. org/INTEAPREGTOPSOCDEV/ Resources/502632- 1163365702511/PNG_YuTokRadio_ report.pd USAID http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/ PDACF383.pd (SDC / IICD) London Panos www.ned.org/cima/cima-sudan_ report.pd Mary Harford, Nicola Metcalf, Leo DFID Myers, www.andrewleestrust.org/radio. ht Bank World Looking_at_community_radio_ in_Africa.ht www.researchictafrica.ne Thorne Karen Hadland, Adrian www.hrcpublishers.ac.z Hayne Spencer CIMA, Mike Hickcox Hickcox Mike www.umc.org/site/c.gjJTJbMUIuE/ b.1857989/k.4B88/Analysis_ Royal D. Colle and Raul and Roman Colle D. Royal University Cornell www.ip.cals.cornell.edu/commdev/ handbook.cf

ICTS and Large-Scale ReductionICTS Poverty Evaluation of USAID assistance to the Radio to of USAID assistance Evaluation sector in Afghanistan Yu Tok Radio Tok Yu The Contribution of Radio Broadcasting to the to of Radio Broadcasting Contribution The of the Millennium Development Achievement Goals In Southern Madagascar The State of Media in Sudan State The Individual ICT Access in 10 Countries Across Across in 10 Countries Individual ICT Access Africa and Development The Voice: People’s The Small Media of the African State Current Sector. Analysis: Looking at Community Radio Community at Analysis: Looking in Africa and Household E-Index: an African Towards A Handbook for Telecenter Staffs Telecenter for A Handbook South Africa — International Afghanistan Papua New Guinea New Papua Africa—Madagascar Africa—Sudan Africa Africa Africa Evaluations, research reports research Evaluations, International r e s o u r c e s 84 COMMUNITY MEDIA SUSTAINABILITY GUIDE media literacy programs; lays out certain frameworks out certain lays frameworks media literacy programs; in mind when funding donors should keep that media projects. independent Through an examination of the use of ICT in an examination Through on sheds light media development, independent media practice with respect to of current the state and new technologies. development the importance of fostering demonstrate To access of how examples media, provides independent economic, political, has transformed information to can happen when what It shows and social systems. and operate media to independent allow conditions The flourish. Section on Media and the Economy. and on mergers this discussion in figures author frames of value market describes the high of media. He value information, share people with one another to linking fuels of commerce the core at information that stating governed open markets through growth economic author observes the The that pricing. transparent by including among the use of technology, widespread in media expansion has resulted poor, economically of a wider spectrum serve of economic to the interests classes. funders and local between the relationship Studies and the importancejournalists, of donors supporting Deals with the importance of the policy, legal, and Deals legal, with the importance policy, of the the shape, influences that framework regulatory social impacts and sector broadcasting of the content, as a whole. Report of a survey conducted on results by based media sector and funders of public and private CIMA of literature. and a review interviews, implementers, of community in the context Defines development urban and media, dealing both with rural development. aspects local of training Examines the different this training between and the interaction journalists, and the donors. March 2008 March December 2007 February 2008 2008 December 2007 1979 July 2007 f f f l f f f www.ned.org/cima/CIMA-Media_ Support_Organizations_and_ Media_Literacy-Report.pd Ann C. Olson for International (Center CIMA (National Media Assistance)/NED for DemocracyEndowment Media-Report.pd Graves Peter for International (Center CIMA NED (National Media Assistance) for DemocracyEndowment www.ned.org/cima/CIMA- Investigative_Journalism_Report. pd 0004/000440/044035eo.pd for International (Center CIMA NED (National Media Assistance) for Democracy)Endowment www.ned.org/cima/CIMA- Professional_Development- Working_Group_Report.pd for International (Center CIMA (National Media Assistance)/NED for DemocracyEndowment www.ned.org/cima/CIMA-New_ www.digitalculture.org/ broadcasting.htm for International (Center CIMA NED (National Media Assistance) for Democracy).Endowment www.ned.org/cima/CIMA- Community_Radio-Working_ Group_Report.pd UNESCO Berrigan J. Frances http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/ Steve Buckley, Kreszentia Duer, Duer, Kreszentia Buckley, Steve with Seán O´ Siochrú, Mendel, Toby and Mark Raboy, E. Price Monroe Washington Bank, World The Role of Media Support and The Organizations Independent Literacy in Strengthening Public Worldwide Media Development Development and the New Media and the New Development Role in Vital Media’s Independent Opportunities for the Professional of Journalists Development Media Traditional Scaling a Changing Curve: Community Communications: The Role of The Communications: Community Media in Development Community Challenges and Media Assistance Development U.S. Public and Private Funding of Media Funding and Private Public U.S. Broadcasting, Voice, and Accountability Voice, Broadcasting, International International International International International International International r e s o u r c e s 85 COMMUNITY MEDIA SUSTAINABILITY GUIDE Looks at how far the goals of USAID in Central and far the goals of USAID in Central how at Looks includes USAID been fulfilled, have Europe Eastern media sector, of a private the creation for grants to as the key emphasizing financial independence media independence. interest loans, and developing the advertising market and developing loans, interest Examines the impact media, and the of independent as other well as importance of financial sustainability, affect that working. its such as geography, factors, and in the information technologies New especially the Internet, arena, communications is a There been seen as ushering in a new age. have only have such technologies view that mainstream dramatic The implications. than social, rather technical, and these information in by changes brought positive not have however, (ICTs), technologies communication in relations Existing power all of humanity. touched ICTs; of benefits from society the enjoyment determine not gender-neutral. are these technologies hence the impact livelihoods. on rural at of telephones Looks and journalism. the intersection of computing Explores Studies the relation between media law development, development, media law between relation the Studies media for criteria donors, and private government and and building up of information development, resources. aspects sustainability, of financial Examines several such as public service and consumer-centric media, media business skills, programs, situation-specific awareness. and increased democratization, beyond Report an in-depth 2008 Inaugural provides CIMA’s media development international of U.S. assessment and calls upon future efforts, both public and private, and comprehensive, efforts long-term, be more to needs-driven. Section on media sustainability—key in training increasing are recommendations finding research, advertising and market management, low- local partners, available making entrepreneurial September 2003 September October 2007 2004 September 2005 November N.A. May 2007 May June 2007 2008 f f f - CIMA / - f cima f .org/ m ned f DFID, Commonwealth Commonwealth DFID, Organization Telecommunications http://www.ictportal.org.za/ documents/d00004/1-CTO-Study_ Econ_Telephony_Oct2005.pd of Computing College Tech, Georgia www.cc.gatech.edu/events/cnj- symposiu Dan De Luce USAID, ics.leeds.ac.uk/papers/pmt/ exhibits/1481/PNACR756.pd Community_Radio-Working_ Group_Report.pdf BRIDGE, IDS, Sussex www.bridge.ids.ac.uk/reports/CEP- ICTs-OR.pd Media Assistance)/NED (National (National Media Assistance)/NED for DemocracyEndowment www.ned.org/cima/CIMA- Empowering_Independent_Media. pd for International (Center CIMA (National Media Assistance)/NED for Democracy. Endowment www. www.ned.org/cima/CIMA- Legal_Enabling_Environment- Working_Group_Report.pd for International (Center CIMA (National Media Assistance)/NED for DemocracyEndowment CIMA www.ned.org/cima/CIMA- Economic_Sustainability-Working_ Group_Report.pd for International (Center CIMA CIMA (Center for International for International (Center CIMA (National Media Assistance)/NED for DemocracyEndowment Evaluation of the USAID professional media of the USAID professional Evaluation Europe and Eastern in Central program Journalism 3G: The Impact of Technology in Technology ImpactThe of Journalism 3G: the Field The Economic Impact of Telecommunications Telecommunications Impact of Economic The Reduction: and Poverty Livelihoods on Rural in India Communities of Rural A Study Tanzania and Mozambique, (Gujarat), to Development to Gender and ICTs Community Radio: Its ImpactCommunity and Challenges Empowering Independent Media: U.S. Efforts Media: U.S. Independent Empowering Around Media Independent and Free Foster to World the Towards Economic Sustainability Media of the Economic Towards Countries in Developing Enabling an Environment for a Free and for a Free Environment an Enabling Flourish to Media Independent Media Law Assistance: Establishing and Establishing Assistance: Media Law Europe (Central and (Central Europe Eastern) International International International International International International International r e s o u r c e s 86 COMMUNITY MEDIA SUSTAINABILITY GUIDE This paper takes SYN (a community radio licensee licensee (a community SYN radio paper takes This media in Melbourne) as a case study and employs and policy identify ethnography analysis to contemporary challenges facing community media. to approach a different media requires Community which is commonly. than that convergence can be said to have more progressive broadcasting broadcasting progressive more have can be said to But policies than other long established democracies. This is struggling. growth, its rapid despite the sector, as in South community radio Africa paper considers is transforming that media” “citizens’ of an example on interviews It draws mediascape. the country’s 2001 to undertaken during late in South Africa The the sector is facing. that discuss the problems as is considered, and regulation of legislation role that station of a community radio as an example well Social community. disadvantaged serves a severely in historically underdevelopment and economic is seen as a major communities disadvantaged seeks to that of an initiative an example and problem community radio through such communities develop is described. in post- of community radio the evolution Evaluates apartheid a three-tier broadcasting where South Africa, and community—has commercial, system—public, of a state-run the monopoly behemoth, the replaced Corporation. Broadcasting South African 6 on SustainabilityChapter This report concludes that investigations conducted investigations report that concludes This indicate stations radio of different the study through still are stations community radio in general, that on sustainable content producing struggling with of is the lack One of the reasons development. and distinctionunderstanding sustainable what of in the specific especially is, content development also Findings communities. of the different context community radio challenges, despite that indicate programs some efforts making produce are to stations also although they are on sustainable development, with and working identifying with challenges to faced development. for content stakeholders be possible only can democratization that Argues media; report the independent looks at strong, through sustainable strong, creating to of training contribution media/journalism. independent supportcommunity of OSF-SA radio workings History, program. adoption of South Africa’s As a new democracy, It on a global scale. is significant community radio 2007 May 2002 May May 2004 May June 2007 2005 2002 f m f g u n www.abculwazi.org.za/files/ Sharp Sharp Media, Jhb 2003 Zyl John van Prof. by Edited crIntroductio www.cbonline.org.au/3cmedia/3c_ issue3/BarryERennie.pd Anthony A. Olorunnisola Anthony www.personal.psu.edu/faculty/a/ x/axo8/Joburg/manuscript.ht Jean Fairbairn/Open Society Jean Fairbairn/Open for SA Foundation eprints.qut.edu.a www.jeffersoninst.or Panos and AMARC and Panos amarcwiki.amarc.org/upload/ documents/M4SDStudyMay04l.pd Community Radio: The People’s Voice People’s The Radio: Community Era. Radio in the Prosumer Community Community Radio—ParticipatoryCommunity South in Post-Apartheid Communication Africa Transforming the Mediascape in South Transforming Develop to Struggle Continuing The Africa: Radio Community and Eastern Europe and Eastern a Decade Over Voices Community Sustainable Journalism Training in Central Central in Training Sustainable Journalism Content Survey: study report A baseline on Content content/themes sustainable development and in Africa stations of community radio America Central Media for Sustainable Development SustainableMedia for Development Australia Africa—South Africa Africa—South Africa- South Africa Africa- Africa Africa—South Africa Africa—South Books, papers, articles papers, Books, Europe/Eastern and Europe/Eastern Central Comparative: Africa, Africa, Comparative: America Central r e s o u r c e s 87 COMMUNITY MEDIA SUSTAINABILITY GUIDE transfer, as an important sector economic in its transfer, new to point access and as a potential right, own state The technology. and communications information in three-quarters broadcasting radio dominates of is required and sectoral reform economies, the world’s and transparency. governance improve to in order Issues discussed include: sector reforms, ownership support regulation, for community radio convergence and pilot ICT, for the poor to access improve to stations to assess the potential to projects in digital television access. widen Internet to overall sustainability. overall to and activist of women media from the role Highlights community to in their contribution the grassroots media. Society Summit on the Information World The (WSIS)WSIS has opened a new phase in global and global governance governance communication a particularThrough mix of official generally. the identified activities, the process and parallel indicated issues in global communication, problematic deal with them, provided to of views on how the range be possible should and could of what blueprints various of ways and gingerly explored of solutions, in the way paper This dealing with these questions in the future. some of these issues within the changing examines of global governance. framework has a long historyAlthough community radio in South in other and North evolving America, new models are Eurasia. Central to South Africa from parts of the world, reflect the unique stations community roots, to True of each country. and political climate culture, history, in play has an important to Broadcasting role information of promoting in terms development, Interview with Steve Buckley on the potential the potential Buckley on Interview Steve with he defines of community in India, where media though he does not thoroughly; community radio the what he envisages sustainability, talk much about in India. for community radio potential on Nepal—contains a number of definitions by Focus Nepal. AMARC have that although all the communityradios that Finds long-term still on air, started are 10 years in the past remains, trends, current given especially sustainability, uncertain, best an ongoing challenge worst and at at durability of the The majorityfor the vast of stations. do with has much to likely community stations existing “community” being from the social capital they derive including go on air, stations as more however, stations; area, in the same listening multiple community radios they competition, market slip into stations and as more For footing. risk losing their social and organizational in investments the majority of community stations, for commercial than competing rather social capital, or programming marketable more advertising through be the best route appear to power, higher transmission 2007 2004 2000 2008 2008 2008 2007 f e l N Carter Eltzroth, Charles Kenny, Charles Kenny, Carter Eltzroth, Bank World Marc Raboy Marc Journal of Media & Continuum: 18 Vol. Studies, Cultural Siemering William www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/ trust/developmentcommunicatio ns/story/2007/01/070123_india_ radio_trip.shtm nepal.asiapacific.amarc.org/site. php?lang=E Subba Bikram Ian Pringle, UNECSCO, http://portal.unesco.org/ geography/en/files/7991/ 11966615215State_of_ Community_Radio_in_Nepal_ abridged.pdf/State+of+Communit y+Radio+in+Nepal_abridged.pd Piya Kochhar Piya www.thehoot.org/web/home/ story.php?storyid=2966&pg=1&m od=1§ionId=3&valid=tru Broadcasting and Development Broadcasting Radio, Democracy and Development: Evolving DemocracyEvolving Development: and Radio, Radio Models of Community World Service Trust Service World in Global Media Space WSIS as a Political The Governance Building Community Radio Links in India: BBC Building Community Ten Years On: The State of Community Radio of Community State The On: Years Ten in Nepal What Is Community Radio? Is Community What When India Gets Going India When International International International International India Nepal Nepal India r e s o u r c e s 88 COMMUNITY MEDIA SUSTAINABILITY GUIDE marketing. discussion, debate, resources, guides, Training and so on. grants, opportunities, conferences, information. communications Comprehensive on community media and resources Comprehensive and ideas. views, Also news, ICTs. radio in development processes. A main focus A main of the processes. in development radio including financial, sustainability, discussion was and institutional aspectssocial, and the relationship The sustainabilitybetween and social impact. institutional, unless social, that was reached conclusion equally, considered and financial sustainability are are processes sustainable communication long-term communities by and ownership Participation unlikely. sustainability. to is essential Reports on countries. Scanning media in 17 African Context/background. each one. not-for- is a Canadian-based, Radio International Farm in direct partnership working with organization profit in 39 African broadcasters 300 radio approximately poverty fight to and food insecurity. countries is a regional Africa West for Media Foundation The nongovernmental nonprofit, independent, established Ghana. It was based in Accra, organization and the rights defend and promote in 1997 to of the media. freedoms local radio to pages and books relating List of web A brief history of alternative media in radio, video, and video, in radio, media historyA brief of alternative both It includes Web. and activityfilm, press on the and information, and practical approaches theoretical podcasting, including sections on fundraising, to production, access radio publishing, blogging, and more. broadcasting, Roundtable International Third report of the This examines of Expression on Journalism and Freedom perspectives on civil liberties international and press The 11, 2001. of September in the aftermath freedom report questions certain assumptions made regarding democracy toward march country’s inevitabilitya the of case study including an interesting freedom, and press report The Values.” Asian and “Democratization on journalism, to approach pragmatic a more considers building civil society. and media sustainability, an email discussion report; summarizes Four-page id21in early 2006 and focused on by hosted be an discussion aimed to The community radio. opportunity for community media practitioners their share to the world and activists around from of community and views on the role experiences 2008 2003 2006 2 l g g m g l l www.comunica.or www.mediafound.or www.audiencedialogue.net/pmlra. htm www.comminit.co www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/trust/ specials/1552_trust_amdi/page9. shtm www.farmradio.or The Institute of Development of Development Institute The of Sussex University Studies, www.id21.org/communityradio/ finalreport/index.htm Craig L. LaMay Craig www.aspeninstitute.org/site/apps/ ka/ec/product.asp?c=huLWJeMRKp H&b=667387&en=kgJLIQOzF8IKJX OrE7ILJ2PDK7JHJZNJIiLSI1MAJiKOIT NAKlKTK5NQF&ProductID=18061 Kate Coyer, Tony Dowmunt and Alan and Dowmunt Tony Coyer, Kate (Routledge) Fountain Comunica Audience Dialogue Audience Network Initiative Communications The Media Foundation for West Africa West for Media Foundation AMDI Radio International Farm Community Radio for Development Community Civil SocietyCivil Democratic Institute, Sustaining Media, and Institute, Democratic The Alternative Media Handbook Media Alternative The International International International Africa Africa Africa Websites / other resources Websites International Email discussions International International r e s o u r c e s 89 COMMUNITY MEDIA SUSTAINABILITY GUIDE NGO—training, development, advocacy development, NGO—training, advocacy development, NGO—training, production, development NGO –training, production, conflict resolution NGO – training, capacity building NGO – financing, NGO – training, development, advocacy development, NGO – training, – training, of consultants NGO / Association advocacy development, organizational research, news, of development NGO – dissemination development training, on media, democracy / research development Policy and development. advocacy development, Training, NGO - Membership-based service association; provider stations – community radio resource Online information Network Foundations Soros advocacy development, NGO—training, development network development, NGO—training, BBC World Service Trust Archive Trust Service World BBC Fund Loan Media Development on media in conflict/ post conflict information General situations. non- independent, is an Nepal Foundation Antenna dedicated organization, and non-profit governmental of public service in the development broadcasting to Nepal. about funding also a information of resources, Variety journal about media in Southern Africa. / k t g k g m k l r p g r g g t g g g g g www.sfcg.or www.mdlf.or www.internews.f www.iwpr.ne www.icfj.or www.irex.or www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/trus www.ned.or www.mediafordevelopment.org.u www.amarc.or www.comminit.co www.soros.or www.commedia.org.u www.internews.or www.developingradiopartners.or www.panos.org.u http://www.iwpr. net/?p=irr&s=p&o=-&apc_ state=henpar www.afn.org.n www.osisa.or www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/trust/ archive/story/2007/08/070718_ 2007archive.shtm www.mdlf.org/en/mdlf/about_us BBC World Service Trust Service World BBC Ground Common For Search (MDLF) Fund Loan Media Development International/UK Institute for War & Peace & Peace War for Institute International/UK Reporting Kingdom (IWPR), United for Journalists (ICFJ), Center International of America States United Board & Exchanges Research International The Communications Initiative / Drumbeat, / Drumbeat, Initiative Communications The Soulbeat Media Program Network Europe Internews National Endowment for Democracy Endowment National Media for Development AMARC Developing RadioDeveloping Partners Panos / Media Assistance for International Center Commedia—UK association of community association Commedia—UK media Internews Open Space Open Society of Southern Africa Institute web-site Institute of War and Peace Reporting and Peace War of Institute Nepal. Foundation Antennae Media Development Loan Fund Loan Media Development BBC WST BBC International International/USA International/USA International/UK International/USA International/USA International/UK International/France International International International International / UK International International / US International International / UK International International / USA International International / USA International People and organizations People UK Southern Africa / Southern Africa International Nepal International International / E. International Europe International r e s o u r c e s 90 COMMUNITY MEDIA SUSTAINABILITY GUIDE NGO – advocacy, freedom of expression of freedom advocacy, NGO – NGO – advocacy on social media resource Online information ICT solutions assistance, technical NGO – training, development NGO – training, media into critical research Promotes g g g o g g www.firstvoiceint.or www.equalaccess.or www.iamcr.or www.ifj.or www.gfmd.inf www.centerforsocialmedia.or Equal Access Equal for Media and Association International Research Communication Global Forum for Media Development (GFMD) for Media Development Global Forum for Social Media Center American University International Voice First International Federation of Journalists (IFJ) of Journalists Federation International International International/USA International/USA USA International International/Belgium