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Notes

CHAPTER ONE

1. Benjonson, ed. C. H. Herford and Percy and Evelyn Simpson (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1938) 6, 198-9. 2. The Sense of History in Greek and Shakespearean Drama (New York: Columbia University Press, 1960) p. 83. In addition to Driver's, another study which does provocatively confront this issue is Ricardo Quinones's The Renais• sance Discovery of Time (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972). Each of these has played an important role in the development of my argument, but each seems to me to consider Shakespeare in terms of rigid (and oddly polarized) notions about the perception of time in the Renaissance. Driver finds a Shakespeare who imaginatively embraces the 'Judea-Christian ordering of history' and sees in his art the fullest expression of 'the dramatic tradition of Christian culture'. Quinones turns the other way. He sees a Shakespeare reflecting the secularization of ideals that Burckhardt (called by Quinones 'our premier Renaissance historian') and others have found to characterize the Renaissance. Quinones focuses on Shakespeare's search for 'values of continuity' and argues 'that at the heart of the Shakespearean argument of time is the father-son link of generation'. 3. See V. A. Kolve, The Play called Corpus Christi (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1966) pp. 57 -100; Rosemary Woolf, The English Mystery Plays (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972) pp. 54 -76; and chapters one and three of Peter Travis, Dramatic Design in the Chester Cycle (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982). 4. A Woorke concerning the trewnesse of the Christian Religion, trans. Sir Philip Sidney and Arthur Golding (London, 1589) Sig. 16'. 5. Though obviously the Middle Ages do not suddenly give way to a suc• ceeding era, new habits of mind and modes of perception do emerge, however fitfully, to justify our idea of the Renaissance. The idea of time provides one of the clearest and most important test cases, and the literature on the subject is appropriately substantial. In addition to Quinones's book, useful studies include G. F. Waller, The Strong Necessity of Time (The Hauge: Mouton, 1976); Georges Poulet, Studies in Human Time, trans. Elliott Coleman (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1956) pp. 3-18; Erwin Panofsky, 'Father Time', Studies in Iconology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1939) pp. 69-94; Douglas Bush, Prefaces to Renaissance Literature (New York: Norton, 1965) pp. 65-90; Carlo Cipolla, Clocks and Culture 1300-1700 (London: Collins, 1967); S. K. Heninger, Jr., Touches of Sweet Harmony (San Marino: Huntington Library, 1974) pp. 201-37; David A. Roberts, 'Mystery to Mathe·

174 Notes 175 matics Flown: Time and Reality in the Renaissance', Centennial Review 19 (1975) 136-56; D. C. Muecke, 'Aspects of Baroque Time and The Revenger's Tragedy', in Shakespeare and Some Others, ed. Alan Brissenden (Adelaide: University of Adelaide Press, 1976) pp. 104-22; and Sarah Hutton, 'Some Renaissance Critiques of Aristotle's Theory of Time', Annals of Science 34 (1977) 345-63. 6. Others, of course, have chosen a different approach and have usefully examined the philosophical implications of Shakespeare's treatment of time. Fredrick Turner's Shakespeare and the Nature of Time (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971) is primarily concerned with, in the words of the subtitle, 'Moral and Philosophical Themes in Some Plays and Poems of '. See also Soji Iwasaki, The Sword and the Word (Tokyo: Shinszki Shorin, 1973) which, by way of Renaissance iconographical traditions, focuses on the idea of time in Richard Ill, , and King ; Wylie Sypher's The Ethic of Time (New York: The Seabury Press, 1976), which relates Shakespeare's con· sciousness of time to the understanding of time 'in our current science, philo· sophy, and ethic'; and three essays by Zdenek Stribrny in consecutive numbers of Shakespearejahrbuch 110-12 (1974-6) on 'The Idea and Image of Time' in the early histories, 'Shakespeare's Second Historical Tetralogy', and and . 7. Ortega y Gasset suggestively considers the question of what makes a fiction 'capable of coping with present reality' in his Meditations on Don Quixote, trans. Evelyn Rugg and Diego Martin (New York: Norton, 1963) pp. 135ff. 8. Quoted in T. W. Baldwin, William Shakespere's Five-Act Structure (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1947) p. 66. 9. Comeille et Ia dialectique du heros (: Gallimard, 1963) p. 268. 10. The locus classicus for the distinction is, of course, Lessing's Laocoon ( 1766). Some of the critical implications of the issue are raised in Joseph Frank's well-known essay, 'Spatial Form in Modern Literature', first published in Sewanee Review 53 (1945) 221-40, 433-56, 643-53; and in the response to Frank's essay, including Walter Sutton's 'The Literary Image and the Reader', JAAC 16 (1957) 112-23; Jan Miel, 'Temporal Form in the Novel', MLN 84 (1969) 916-30; and three essays, including one by Frank himself, in vol. 4 (1977) of Cn'ticallnquiry. 11. Dramatic Structure (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971) p. 25. 12. 'The Heresy of Plot', English Institute Essays, 1951, ed. Alan S. Downer (New York: Columbia University Press, 1952) pp. 44-69. 13. The quoted phrases are from Dante's letter to Can Grande, though the distinction may be traced at least back to the fourth century and Evanthius' De Fabula. See Paul Wessner's introduction to Commentum Terenti, 2 vols. (Leipzig: Teubner, 1902-5). In the English Renaissance these were also the common terms of distinction. Consider Webbe's account in his Discourse of English Poetry (1586).

There grewe at last to be a greater diuersitye betweene Tragedy wryters and Comedy wryters, the one expressing onely sorrowfull and lamentable Hystories, bringing in the persons of Gods and Goddesses, Kynges and Queenes, and great states, whose partes were cheefely to expresse most miserable calamities and dreadfull chaunces, which increased worse and 176 Notes

worse, tyll they came to the most wofull plight that might be deuised. The Comedies, on the other side, were directed to a contrary ende, which, beginning doubtfully, drewe to some trouble or turmoyle, and by some lucky chaunce alwayes ended to the ioy and appeasement of all parties [Elizabethan Cn'tical Essays, ed. G. Gregory Smith (1904; rpt. London: Oxford University Press, 1967) I, p. 249]. 14. See chapter three of Heinrich Wolflin, Princrples of Art History, first published in 1915 and first translated into English by M.D. Hottinger (London: G. Bell and Sons, 1932). 15. I hope it is clear that these are not evaluative but purely descriptive terms. A work is not intrinsically better for being either open or closed. Two essential studies of the nature and significance of artistic closure are Barbara Herrnstein Smith's Poetic Closure (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968) and Frank Kermode's The Sense of an Ending (New York: Oxford University Press, 1967). 16. For one such examination see Frank Manuel, Shapes of Philosophical History (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1965). 17. Confessions, XI, 14, trans. R. S. Pine-Coffin (Baltimore: Penguin, 1964) p. 264. Cf. Pascal's remark about 'time' in Opuscules: 'Qui le pourra definir.1 et pourquoi l'entreprendre, puisque tous les hommes, concoivent ce qu 'on veut dire en parlant de temps, sans qu 'on le designe davantage'. 18. The Decline of the West, trans. Charles Francis Atkinson (New York: Knopf, 1926) p. 122. 19. Confessions, XI, 20, p. 261. Similarly, Luther writes, 'What the philo• sophers say is true: "The past is gone; the future has not yet arrived; therefore we have, of all time, only the now. The rest of time is not because it has either passed away or has not yet arrived"'. Works, ed. Jaroslav Pelikan (St Louis: Concordia, 1956) 13, 100-1. 20. Confessions, XI, 24, p. 272. 21. Confessions, XI, 27, p. 276. 22. Confessions, XI, 11, p. 261. 23. Quoted by Manuel, p. 8. 24. Driver, p. 7. Though I disagree with his conclusions, I have, in these last two paragraphs, made much use of Driver's discussion, pp. 6-8. 25. See David Riggs. Shakespeare's Heroical Histon·es (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1971) pp. 34-61. 26. Tillyard, p. 171. For similar views see Cairncross's introductions to the new Arden editions of the three Henry VI plays (London: Methuen, 1957, 1962, 1964); M. M. Reese, The Cease of Majesty (New York: StMartin's Press, 1961), pp. 165-206; and Irving Ribner's revised edition of The English History Play in the Age of Shakespeare (London: Methuen, 1965) pp. 99-106. 27. Tillyard, p. 185. 28. A. L. French, 'Henry VI and the of Richard II', ES, 50 (1969), Anglo-American supplement, p. xxxvii; Brockbank, 'The Frame of Disorder: Henry VI', Early Shakespeare, ed. John Russell Brown and Bernard Harris (London: Edward Arnold, 1961) p. 98. See also H. M. Richmond, Shakespeare's Political Plays (New York: Random House, 1967) p. 45; and James Winny, The Player King (London: Chatto and Windus, 1968) p. 20. 29. Sir John Bourchier, Lord Berners, preface to The Chronicle of Froissart Notes 177

(London: David Nutt, 1901) p. 3. 30. The Union of the Two Noble Fam11ies of Lancaster and York (London, 1550, facsimile reprint, Menston, : Scholar Press, 1970) Sig. D3• reign of Edward IV (reigns separately foliated). 31. Robert Ornstein also calls attention to the provisional context of the Hall quotation in his Kingdom for a Stage (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972)p.16. 32. Hall, Sig. D3•. 33. Ed. Lily B. Campbell (1938; New York: Barnes and Noble, 1960) p. 198. 34. The Dramatist and the Received Idea (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968) p. 113. 35. See A. L. French, ' and Henry VI', ES, 49 (1968) 425-9. 36. 'Discourses on , 11', The Prince and Other Works, trans. Allen Gilbert (Chicago: Packard, 1941) p. 295. 37. The English History Play in the Age of Shakespeare, p. 103. 38. Ad Lucilium epistulae morales, XXIV, 26. 39. The True Order and Methode of Wryting and Readyng Hystories (London, 1574) Sig. C2'. 40. An Apology for Actors (London, 1612) Sig. B3'. 41. An Apology for Actors, Sig. B4'. 42. For a full discussion of these issues see David Riggs, Shakespeare's Heroical Histon·es, pp. 1-61. 43. Pierce Pennilesse His Supplication t(J the Divell, quoted from corrected Works, ed. R. B. McKerrow (1904: Oxford: Blackwell's, 1958) I, 212. 44. This, of course, is the thesis of Da~id Riggs in Shakespeare's Heroical Histon·es, passim. 45. Shakespeare's Heroical Histon·es, p. 110. 46. The most convenient summary of this material is available in the DNB. 19, 319-24. Both Hall and Holinshed acknowledge the existence of this son from Talbot's first marriage, relating his death in 1460 fighting for his king at Northampton. The Earldom of Shrewsbury, in fact, remained in the senior male line of the Talbot family until the death of Bertram Arthur Talbot in 1856. 47. The Complete Works of Shakespeare (Chicago: Scott, Foresman, 1951) p. 207. 48. 'The Domineering Female in I Henry VI', Shakespeare Studies, 2 (1966) 56. 49. 'The Domineering Female in I Henry VI', p. 57. 50. Poetics, 1450b, trans. Gerald Else (1967, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1970) p. 30. 51. Tragedy and the Theory of Drama (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1961) pp. 45-6. 52. Feeling and Form (New York: Scribners, 1953) p. 366. See also Quinones, pp. 363-5. 53. The Business of Criticism (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1959) p. 41. 54. Poison, Play, and Duel (London: Routledge, 1971) p. 38. 55. Feeling and Form, p. 351. See also Quinones's Renaissance Discovery of Time, pp. 361-5. 56. The Sense of an Ending (Oxford: Oxford University· Press, 1968) p. 89. 57. The Recurring Miracle (Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska 178 Notes

Press, 1969) p. 7. 58. John Fletcher, The Faithful Shepherdess, preface, The Works of Francis Beaumont and john Fletcher, ed. Arnold Glover and A. P. Waller (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1906) 2, 322. 59. In Memoriam, cxxviii. 60. 'Shakespeare's Henry VIII: History as Myth', SEL, 6 (1966) 243. 61. Shakespeare: The Dark Comedies to the Last Plays (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1971) p. 94. The material Foakes quotes is from Guarini. 62. See Marvin Herrick, Tragicomedy (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1955) pp. 16-63. 63. Philip Edwards, in 'Shakespeare's Romances: 1900-1957', Shakespeare Suruey, 11 (1958) 15, writes, 'That Shakespeare's last plays are "romances" "in the restricted and historical sense of the word", as Petit puts it, does not seem to be a matter for doubt'. For a dissenting view, see T. Childress, 'Are Shakespeare's Last Plays Really Romances?', Shakespeare's Late Plays, ed. Richard C. Tobias and Paul G. Zolbrod (Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1974) pp. 44-55. 64. 'Shakespeare and the Idea of the Future', UTQ, 25 (1966) 227. 65. Shakespeare's Dramatic Art (London: Methuen, 1972) p. 143. This suggests that Richard III, whose ending does precisely this may usefully be considered a romance instead of a history or (proto·) tragedy. See below, chapter seven. 66. Time, Tide, and Tempest (San Marino: Huntington Library, 1973) p. 44. See also Tom F. Driver, The Sense of History in Creek and Shakespearean Drama, p. 181. 67. Validity in Interpretation (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1967) Chapter 3; Claudio Guillen, Literature as System (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1971) esp. pp. 107-34; Marcelin Pleynet, 'La poesie doit avoir pour but ... 'Theorie d'ensemble (Paris: Seuil, 1968) pp. 94-126. 68. Rosalie Colie, The Resources of Kind (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1973); see also Colie's Shakespeare's Living Art (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974). 69. The phrase is Guillen's and is quoted by Colie in The Resources of Kind, p. 7. 70. The Seconde Tome of Homilies (London, 1595) Sig. ff5v.

CHAPTER TWO

1. Palladis Tamia (1598), in Elizabethan Cn"tical Essays, ed. G. Gregory Smith, 11, p. 318. 2. Untitled review of Irving Ribner's English History Play in the Age of Shakespeare, Shakespeare Studies, 3 (1967) 317. 3. '"Tragical·Comical-Historical-Pastoral": Elizabethan Dramatic Nomen· clature', BJRL, 43 (1960) 85. Nicoll does not observe that the edition of 1631 calls the play A Wittie and Pleasant Comedie. 4. Shakespeare's Use of Learning (San Marino: Huntington Library. 1953) p. 11. 5. Laurence Michel, ed. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1949) p. 156. Notes 179

6. The Exempklry Lives ... of Nine the most Worthy Women of the World (London, I640) Sig. **3'. 7. Shakespearean and Other Studies, ed. Helen Gardener (Oxford: Clarendon Press, I969) p. 2. 8. (London, I59I) Sig. 04'. 9. 'The Idea of History in Marlowe's Tamburkline', ELH, 20 (I953) 251. IO. (London: Chatto and Windus, I944). For some of the weaknesses of Tillyard's theory see Henry Asgar Kelly's Divine Providence in the Engklnd of Shakespeare's Histones (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, I970). II. Wilson, Shakespearean and Other Studies, p. 4. I2. The Works of , ed. R. B. McKerrow (I904; rpt. Oxford: Blackwell's, I958) 1. 2I2. I3. The Pklys ofJohn Marston, ed. H. H. Wood (Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, I935) II, 5. I4. The Dramatic Works of , ed. Fredson Bowers (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, I955) 11, 497. I5. The Idea of the Humanities (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, I967) II. 59. I6. The English History Pkly in the Age of Shakespeare (rev. ed.; London: Methuen, I965) p. 7. I7. In addition to Tom Driver's comments in the Sense of History in Greek and Shakespearean Drama, esp. pp. 69-ll5, see the remarks of John Elliott, Jr. in his review of Ribner's book in Shakespeare Studies, vol. 3 (I968). In a suggestive sentence, he surmises that the. importance of the interaction of historical material drama may lie as much in 'the relationship between the form of history and the form of drama as in the content and purpose of either' (p. 3I7). In an article reflecting many of the assumptions of this review ('History and Tragedy in Richard II', SEL, 8 (1968) 253-72), Elliott becomes one of the few who argues for recognizing the unique dramatic form of the history play. His sense of the structure, however, is dependent upon its ability 'to dramatize the political issues' (p. 27I) contained in the historical material. Harold Toliver, in his ', the Prince, and the History Play', SQ. 16 (I965) 63-80, also sees the history play as 'a fresh dramatic form', but he, like Driver in his discussion of Richard Ill, conceives of it in terms of its 'moral patterns designed to bring out the providential guidance, the "meaning" of history' (p. 65). For reasons that I hope will become clear, none of these approaches seems to me to be entirely satisfactory, but each has been influential in the development of my argument. I8. Driver, p. 82. For some discussion of the metaphysical implications of the shapes of history see Erich Auerbach, Mimesis, trans. Willard R. Trask (I953; Princeton: Princeton University Press, I968) esp. pp. 3-49; and Frank E. Manuel, Shapes of Philosophical History. I9. The Pkly Called Corpus Christi, p. 122. 20. Irving Ribner, 'The Morality Roots of the Tudor History Play', Tuklne Studies in English, 4 (I954) 2I-43; A. P. Rossiter, ed., Woodstock: A Moral History (London: Chatto & Windus, 1946) pp. 6-IO. 21. Ribner, 'The Morality Roots of the Tudor History Play', p. 42. 22. Ibid., p. 22. 23. David J. Leigh, 'The Doomsday Mystery Play: An Eschatalogical Morality', MP, 67 (1970) 2I7. 180 Notes

24. Robert A. Potter, 'The Idea of a Morality', Research Opportunities in Renaissance Drama, 13-14 (1970-1) 239-47. 25. For a convenient and more complete summary of the alternative theories of the general Resurrection, see Leigh, MP, 67 (1970) pp. 221-3. Leigh, however, committed to his thesis that the Doomsday pageant is the source of the morality play, does not see that the evidence of his appendix suggests the radical discontinuity of the two forms. If anything, the existence of two distinct exegetical traditions reinforces the strong case for seeing the Cycles and the moralities as independent and roughly contemporary dramatic developments. 26. See especially Bale's Image of Both Churches (London, 1548?). 27. David Riggs, Shakespeare's Heroical Histon'es (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1971) pp. 29-32. 28. ll. 2675-6, ed. Barry B. Adams(San Marino: Huntington Library, 1969) p. 147. 29. 'Figura', trans. Ralph Manheim, Scenes from the Drama of European Literature (New York: Meridian, 1959) p. 59. 30. The Third Volume of Chronicles (London, 1587) Sig. 7M8V. Sig. 704v. 31. Kelly, Divine Providence in the England of Shakespeare's Histon'es, esp. pp. 109-60. 32. 'Epistle-dedicatory' to The Civile Wars, in The Complete Works in Verse and Prose of Samuel Daniel, ed. A. B. Grosart (London: The Spenser Society, 1885) II, 6. 33. Daniel, Works, II, 6. 34. Christian Rr~e and Christian Drama in the Middle Ages (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1965) p. 290. 35. 'The Providential Theory of Historical Causation in Holinshed's Chronicles: 1577 and 1587', TSLL, 1 (1959-60) 275. 36. A. L. French, 'Henry VI and the ghost of Richard II', ES (Anglo-Amer. Supp.) 50 (1969) xxxvii-xliii. 37. Among French's articles, in addition to the one cited in n. 36, are: Joan of Arc and Henry VI', ES, 49 (1968) 425-9; and 'The World of Richard III', Shakespeare Studies 4 (1968) 25-39. Sanders' book is The Dramatist and the Received Idea (Cambridge: C.U.P., 1968), and Ornstein's is A Kingdom for a Stage (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972). 38. The Fools of Time (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1967) p. 15. See also Clifford Leech, 'Shakespeare and the Idea of the Future', UTQ, 35 (1966) 213-18 and Wolfgang Clemen, Shakespeare's Dramatic Art (London: Methuen, 1972) esp. pp. 124-46 which were originally presented as the Shakespeare lecture for the British Academy in 1966. 39. Three Plays of Shakespeare (New York: Harpers, 1909) p. 64. 40. Dover Wilson writes that the murder of Woodstock is 'a minor strand in the texture of the play' in his New Cambridge edition of Richard II (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1939) p. lxviii. A. P. Rossiter is prominent among those who hold that an audience is to supply the missing information. See his Angel with Horns (London: Longmans, 1961) pp. 23-39. 41. 'Richard II and the Woodstock Murder', SQ. 22 (1971) 343. French, like Rossiter (see fn. 40), argues for the necessity of an audience to bring with it knowledge of the historical events the plays treats. 42. Fools of Time, p. 14. Notes 181

43. All references to The Troublesome Reign are taken from the edition of E. B. Everitt, Six Early Plays Related to the Shakespeare Canon, Anglistica 14 (1965), and they will be cited by line number in the text. 44. Others have noticed this fact about the first scene but have tended to treat it as an indication of Shakespeare's uncharacteristic dramatic failure in the play. See, for example, Robert Ornstein, A Kingdom for a Stage (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972) p. 88. Peter Saccio has pointed out to me that Buzz Goodbody's production of for the RSC in 1970 made this implied anterior time explicit on the stage by supplying lines from The Troublesome Reign to fill in the 'gaps'. 45. 'KingJohn and Problematic Art', SQ, 21 (1970) 28. 46. Patterns in Shakespearian Tragedy (London: Methuen, 1960) p. 44. 47. 'Shakespeare's King John and its Source: Coherence, Pattern, and Vision', Tulane Studies in English, 17 (1969) 52, n. 2; p. 71. 48. See, for example, IV.iii.60-72 and v.ii.S-39. 49. (London, 1597) Sig. I6'. 50. Adrien Bonjour, 'The Road to Swinstead Abbey', ELH, 18 (1951) 271. Gunner Boklund, in an essay entitled 'The Troublesome Ending of King John', Studia Neophilologua 40 (1968), has argued in terms similar to my own that 'it is with the insecure foundations of national harmony and national success that the "troublesome ending of King John" is ultimately concerned' (p. 180). 51. (London, 1587) III, Sig. SP. 52. Though no record survives of an Eli~abethan performance of KingJohn, its post Restoration stage history reveals that the role of Henry has traditionally been played by a woman or a child. See Arthur Colby Sprague, Shakespeare's Histon'es (London: Society for Theatre Research, 1964) pp. 22-3. 53. In point of fact, only George III and Victoria ruled for a time longer than Henry's fifty-six years, but throughout Henry's reign was deeply troubled and under constant strain. Pressured by debts and dissension, Henry complained, according to Matthew Paris, 'I am deceived on all sides. I am a mutilated and diminished king'. 54. 'Richard's Divided Heritage in KingJohn', Essays in Cn'ticism 12 (1962) 235. 55. M. M. Reese, The Cease of Majesty (New York: StMartin's Press, 1961) p. 278. 56. Though see chapter three, below, for a discussion ofthe nature of Henry's success and understanding of time.

CHAPTER THREE 1. Maurice Evans, Spenser's Anatomy of Heroism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970) p. 29. See also Paul]. Alpers, The Poetry ofThe Faerie Queene (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1967) pp. 334-69. 2. KingJohn, v.vii.67-9. 3. England in the Late Middle Ages (8th ed.; Baltimore: Penguin, 1972) p. 122. 4. (New York: John Day, 1967) p. 225. 5. The Meaning of Shakespeare (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951) p. 218. 182 Notes

6. The anonymous play. The Famous Victories of Henry V, makes these same omissions in dealing with the reign. 7. The treason of Grey, Scroop, and Cambridge is here the exception that proves the rule. Cambridge's enigmatic hint of a 'motive' other than the 'gilt of France' is left undeveloped, the dynastic controversy is ignored, and the treason is viewed as a military device of the French designed solely 'To hinder our beginnings' (n.ii.l87). 8. Historically, three sons of Charles VI, Lewis, John, and Charles, successively became Dauphin during the period covered by the play. Shakes• peare compresses all three into a single, nameless 'Dauphin'. 9. Chronicles, 3. Sig. 3I8v-3K2v. 10. Shakespeare: From Richard II to Henry V (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1957) p. 177. We must also notice that these contradictions are (as the edited text for Olivier's film version of 1944 makes clear) present in the play itself and not merely the result of considering Henry V in the light of the Henry IV plays. Cf. Moody Prior, The Drama of Power (Evanston: North• western University Press, 1973) pp. 314-17. II. Chronicles, 3 Sig. 3Gl'. 12. Henry V, ed. Dover Wilson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1947) pp. xx-xxi. 13. This reading of the first scene was advanced over sixty years ago by Gerald Gould, 'A New Reading of Henry V', The English Review, 29 (1919) 42-55. 14. , i, 550. C. H. Hobday notes that 'that word for is decisive' in his 'Imagery and Irony in Henry V', Shakespeare Survey. 21 (1968) IIO. 15. Chronicles, 3, Sig. 3Gl'. In Hall, as in Shakespeare, the Dauphin's insult occurs at the opening of the Leicester parliament. 16. Campbell, Shakespeare's Histories, pp. 263-4. 17. In addition to Campbell, pp. 270-1, see also Irving Ribner, The English History Play in the Age of Shakespeare, p. 187; M. M. Reese, The Cease of Majesty, p. 324; Dover Wilson's New Cambridge Henry V, p. xxiii; and J. H. Walter's New Arden Henry V (London: Methuen, 1954) pp. xxii-xxiii. 18. ', Henry V, and the Tudor Monarchy', The Morality of Art, ed. D. W. Jefferson (London: Routledge, 1969) p. 73. 19. 'Prince Hal, Heni-y V, and the Tudor Monarchy', p. 72. 20. New Arden Henry V, p. xxii. Ralph Berry's chapter on Henry V in The Shakespearean Metaphor (London: Macmillan, 1978) pp. 48-60, effectively challenges this view. 21. Holinshed, Chronicles, 3, Sig. 2D3v. 22. See, for example, the comment of Dover Wilson in the New Cambridge Henry V: 'it seems odd that Shakespeare did not make it more explicit, until we remember that he meant to avoid anything that casts doubt on the legitimacy of Henry V' (p. l40n). See also Karl P. Wentersdorfs 'The Conspiracy of Silence in Henry V', SQ 27 ( 1976) 264-87, which looks closely at the political issues raised by the scene. 23. For an alternative reading of this scene, see James Winny. The Player King, pp. 184-6. Winny argues that the rapid 'transformation of outlook' from Henry's 'shocked depression' to his 'happy assurance' of success indicates a fundamental contradiction at the heart of the play. Norman Rabkin sees these Notes 183 contradictions everywhere, sees them indeed as the very pattern in the carpet. In 'Rabbits, Ducks, and Henry V', SQ 28 (1977) 279-96, he argues that the play serves as an example of 'complementarity' in which the contradictions reveal that the 'inscrutability of Henry V is the inscrutability of history'. 24. Holinshed reports that 'The souldiors were ransomed, and the towne sacked, to the great gaine of the Englishmen' (3, Sig. 3G3v). 25. See Dover Wilson's New Cambridge Henry V, p. 150n; and J. W. Walter's New Arden edition of the play, p. 66n. 26. Holinshed writes that Henry sent word to Harfleur 'that except they would surrender the towne to him the morrow next insuing, without anie condition, they should spend no more time in talke about the matter. But yet at length through the earnest sute of the French lords, the king was contented to grant them truce untill nine of the clocke the next sundae, being the two and twentith of September; with condition, that if in the means time no rescue came, they should yeeld the towne at that houre, with their bodies and goods to stand at the kings pleasure'. Chronicles, 3, Sig. 3G3v. 27. See Robert Ornstein, A Kingdom for a Stage, p. 189. 28. The Weak King Dilemma in the Pkly. p. 175. Manheim, however, views the speech not as evidence of Henry's moral absolutism but as evidence of his profound Machiavellianism. It is a bit of 'play• acting' designed to create an 'image for himself which if he keeps in fact will assure his success' (pp. 175-6). For a criticism of this view, see pp. 69-70. 29. Henry Kelly, in contrast to the position I take, argues that perhaps we are not meant to be disturbed by Henry's evasion. Williams, he writes, 'speaks as if Henry has completely answered his argument, and we are perhaps to assume that the objection which Henry answered was implicit in Williams' mind at the close of his speech' (Divine Providence in the Engklnd of Shakespeare s Histories, p. 239n). The assumption that Henry is a mind-reader seems, however, far less convincing than the assumption that he deliberately chooses to answer a different argument than Williams presents. 30. The contrary, of course, has usually been argued. See for example M. M. Reese, The Cease of Majesty, p. 330; 'The soldiers' blunt questioning moves Henry to a further examination of his conscience, and when he is alone he contemplates the terrible responsibilities of his office'. 31. See Robert Ornstein's A Kingdom for a Stage, p. 196. 32. Shakespeare obviously needed no source for Henry's factitious use of 'peace' in the speech, but he could have found in The Annales of , which did serve as a source for Henry V, the complaint against the Romans under Agricola: 'To take away by maine force, to kill and to spoile, falsely they terme Empire and gouemment: When all is waste as a wildernesse, that they call peace' (trans. Richard Greneway, London, 1598, Sig. R5v). 33. The quoted phrases are used by Spenser in his letter 'To the Right noble, and Valorous, Sir Walter Raleigh knight', The Poetical Works of Spenser, ed. J. C. Smith (1909; Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1964) 486. 34. Manheim, The Weak King Dilemma in the Shakespearean History Pkly, p. 169. In addition to Manheim's chapter (pp. 167 -82), see also Robert B. Parker, 'The Prince and the King: Shakespeare's Machiavellian Cycle', Revue des Langues Vivantes, 38 (1972) 241-53; and Michael Goldman (though he does not explicitly invoke Machiavelli), Shakespeare and the Energies of Drama 184 Notes

(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972) pp. 58-73. 35. S. C. Sen Gupta, Shakespeare's Historical Plays (London: Oxford University Press, 1964) p. 146. Herbert R. Coursen, Jr. also claims that 'morality subserves policy', in 'Henry V and the Nature of Kingship', Discourse 13 (1970) 288. 36. Erasmus, Proverbes or Adagi'es, trans. Richard Taverner (London, 1569) Sig. G6'. 37. Chronicles, 3, Sig. 3G5'. 38. II. 1168-73. Chief Pre-Shakespearean DraTTW., ed. J. Q. Adams (Cambridge, Mass.: Houghton Mifflin, 1924) p. 616. 39. Chronicles, 3, Sig. 3G6'. 40. The Union of the Two Noble ... Families, Sig. d2'. 41. Holinshed, Chronicles, 3, Sig. 3G6'. See also Hall, Sig. d2'. 42. The Union of the Two Noble ... Families of Lancaster and York, Sig. d2'-•. 43. See Paul Jorgensen, Shakespeare's Military World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1956) pp. 89-90. 44. The DraTTW. of Power (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1973) pp. 340-1. See also Joanne Alteri, 'Romance in Henry V', SEL 21 (1981) 223-40. 45. Ideas of Greatness (New York: Barnes and Noble, 1971) p. 103. More skeptical responses to the final scene may be found in Marilyn Williamson's 'The Courtship of Katherine and the Second Tetralogy', Cn"ticism 17 (1975) 326-34; and Ornstein's A Kingdom for a Stage, pp. 198-9. 46. The Union of the Two Noble ... Families, Sig. AI •-•. 47. Even when Henry is aware of time's passage he finds no significant loss. The body may fail, he tells Kate, but 'a good bean ... shines bright and never changes, but keeps his course truly' (v.ii.l57-63). And in his claim of being unhandsome, he concludes that 'the elder I wax the better I shall appear', since 'old ... age can do no more spoil upon my face' (v.ii.222-4).

CHAPTER FOUR

1. The Decline of the West, trans. Charles Francis Atkinson (New York: Knopf, 1929) p. 130. 2. The Decline of the West, p. 122. 3. Rosencrantz and Guildenstem are Dead (New York: Grove Press, 1967) p. 72. 4. See Being and Time, trans. John Macquarrie and Edward Robinson (New York: Harper and Row, 1962) sec. 61-71. 5. 'A New Theory of Tragedy: a Description and Evaluation', Educational Theatre journal, 8 (1956) 297. The 'New Theory' of the title is that of Susanne Langer in her Feeling and Form (New York: Scribner, 1953) pp. 351-66. 6. Fools of Time (Toronto; University of Toronto Press, 1967) p. 3. 7. 'Four Exposures', The Quarry (New York: Oxford University, 1967) p. 25. 8. '"" and the Pattern of Shakespearian Tragedy', Shakespeare Studies, 21 (1968) 39. 9. (1904; rpt. New York: StMartin's, 1969) p. 146. Notes 185

On Bradley's assumption about 'the other tragedies', see below. 10. 'Shakespeare and the Stoicism of Seneca', Selected Essays (New York: Harcourt, 1911) p. 211. 11. Othello uses the two words thirty times. He speaks twenty-four of the play's fifty-seven uses of 'heaven' and six of the play's twelve uses of ''. 12. See the suggestive essay by Madeline Doran, 'lago's "if": An Essay on the Syntax of Othello', The Drama of the Renaissance, ed. Elmer Blistein (Providence: Brown University Press, 1970) pp. 69-99. 13. See, for example, S. L. Bethel, 'Shakespeare's Imagery: The Diabolic Images in Othello', Shakespeare Survey, 5 (1952) 62-80; Paul Siegel, 'The Damnation of Othello', PMLA, 68 (1953) 1068-78; and Whitaker, The Mirror up to Nature (San Marino: Huntington Library, 1965) p. 253. Of course, Robert West (see note 14), Sylvan Barnet and Laurence Michel (see note 20) among others have effectively challenged the assumptions of these critics. 14. 'The Noble Man', Proceedings of the Bn'tishAcademy, 41 (1955) 191. See also Robert West, Shakespeare and the Outer Mystery (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1968) p. 125; and Edward Hubler, 'The Damnation of Othello: Some Limitations on the Christian View of the Play', SQ 9 (1958) 295-300. 15. 'Of the sort of Dramatic Poem which is call'd Tragedy', in The Student's Milton, ed. F. A. Patterson (New York: Appleton-Century, 1930) p. 405. 16. Quoted in Bernard Weinberg, A History of Literary Cn'ticism in the Italran Renaissance (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961) 2, p. 757. I am grateful to my colleague Harry Schultz for disfussing this question with me and pointing out this reference. See also T. W. Baldwin, Shakespere's Five-Act Structure (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1947), esp. pp. 312-32. 17. The Knower and the Known (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974) p. 251. 18. 'Everyman and the Parable of the Talents', The Medieval Drama, ed. Sandro Sticca (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1972) p. 69. 19. See Robert Potter, The English Morality Plily (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1975) pp. 6-29. 20. Tragedy Is Not Enough, trans. K. W. Deutsch (Boston: Beacon, 1952) p. 38. For more extensive discussion of this issue see Sylvan Barnet, 'Some Limitations of a Christian Approach to Shakespeare', ELH, 22 (1955) 81-92; and Laurence Michel, 'The Possibility of Christian Tragedy', Thought, 31 (1956) 403-28. 21. Kolve, 'Everyman and the Parable of the Talents', p. 94. 22. The opposite, of course, has been often urged. See, for example, Roger L. Cox, Between Heaven and Earth (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1969). On other grounds, Stephen Booth has recently also challenged the ability of tragedy to reach a decisive close in a provocative essay 'On the Greatness of ' in Twentieth Century Interpretations of 'Kr'ng Lear', ed. Janet Adelman (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1978) pp. 98-111. 23. Robert Heilman, Tragedy and Melodrama (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1967) pp 160, 161. The emphasis is mine. See also Herbert Weisinger's study, Tragedy and the Paradox of the Fortunate Fall (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1953) esp. pp. 19-30. For Weisinger, the fortunate fall is 'the ideological backbone' of tragedy. 24. Shakespearean Tnrgedy, p. 146. 186 Notes

25. Hibbard, '"Othello" and the Pattern of Shakespearian Tragedy', p. 39. 26. Shakespearean Tragedy, p. 241. 27. See chapter one, pp. 26-7. 28. The Moral Vision ofJacobean Tragedy (Madison and Milwaukee: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1965) p. 235. 29. The Renaissance Discovery of Time (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972) p. 364. See also Clifford Leech, 'Shakespeare and the Idea of the Future', UTQ, 35 (1966) 221. 30. The Tragic Vision (1960; rpt. The Johns Hopkins University Press: Baltimore and London, 1973) p. 4. 31. See Frederick Turner, Shakespeare and the Nature of Time (Oxford: Clarendon, 1971) pp. 128-45; Francis Berry, The Poet's Grammar (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1958) pp. 48-57; and Tom Driver, The Sense of History in Greek and Shakespearean Drama (New York: Columbia University Press, 1960) pp. 143-54. 32. De casa diaboli, 10. Quoted by Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 1, Q.63, a3. Tertullian claims that 'every sin is to be traced back to impatience' ('Patience'). 33. Shakespeare's Mature Tragedies (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1973) p. 232. 34. Shakespeare's History Plays (London: Chatto & Windus, 1944) p. 357. Ricardo Quinones, in The Renaissance Discovery of Time, makes the same point, linking the two plays and seeing Macbeth's 'imponant relationship with the histories' (p. 359). 35. See chapter one, pp. 28-32, and chapter six, passim. 36. Lawrence Danson, Tragic Alphabet (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1974) p. 141. Though this is a common claim, no one seems to ask ifthis 'form', in which, as Danson writes, 'we stand at the still point and can see the providential order within which Fate takes its apparently capricious course' (p. 138), is a tragic form. 37. The Dramatist and the Received Idea, p. 258. Bernard McElroy writes that ''s cautious politics' dominate the end of the play, 'and they loom much smaller in our imagination than the bloody criminal whom they supplant', Shakespeare's Mature Tragedies, p. 216. 38. Holinshed traces the Stuart line back to . He writes that escaped to Wales where he fathered an illegitimate son. The son, Walter, fled Wales for Scotland after killing a man in an argument over his bastardy. In Scotland, Walter rose to the position of Lord Steward, which became an hereditary post. A descendant of Walter, also named Walter, married Margery Bruce, daughter of King Robert Bruce. Their son, King Robert II, was the first of the Steward (i.e. Stuart) kings. See Chronicles, 2, Sig. p2•-p3'. 39. Sir Philip Sidney, A Defence of Poetry, ed. J. A. Van Dorsten (London: Oxford University Press, 1966) p. 45. 40. See Robert Heilman, 'The Criminal as Tragic Hero: Dramatic Methods', Shakespeare Survey, 19 (1966) 12-24. 41. See McElroy, Shakespeare's Mature Tragedies, pp. 206-37. 'The most terrible thing about [Macbeth's] tragedy is that he goes to it with his eyes wide open, his vision unclouded, his moral judgment still in perfect working order' (p. 218). 42. Our Naked Frailties (Berkeley: Universit_y of California Press, 1971) p. 66. Notes 187

43. C. G. Clark, 'Darkened Reason in "Macbeth"'. Durham University journal, 22 (1960) 13. 44. McElroy, Shakespeare's Mature Tragedies, pp. 222-5. 'He is not really persuaded; rather. as at several other junctures in the play. he wilfully dis· regards his own better judgment ... '(p. 224 ). See also Sanders. The Dramatist and the Received Idea, pp. 286-7; and a suggestive essay on the play by A. P. Rossiter in Angel with Horns (New York: Theatre Arts, 1961) esp. p. 215. 45. Shakespeare's Mature Tragedies, p. 219. 46. Shakespeare: The Great Tragedies, Writers and Their Work No. 133 (London: Longmans, 1961) p. 35. 47. Tragic Alphabet, p. 122. Soji Iwasaki makes a similar point using the same sentence of Boethius in The Sword and the Word (Tokyo: Shinozaki Shorin, 1973) p. 151. 48. The Dramatist and the Received Idea, p. 275. 49. T. McAlindon, Shakespeare and Decorum (New York: Barnes and Noble, 1973) p. 136. 50. An'osto, Shakespeare, and Comeille, trans. Douglas Ainslie (New York: Holt, 1920) p. 229. 51. 'Shakespeare's Tragic Villain', in Shakespeare's Tragedies, ed. Laurence Lerner (Baltimore: Penguin, 1963) p. 190.

CHAPTER FIVE

1. Ed. W. J. Harvey (Baltimore: Penguin, 1965) p. 890. 2. See Erwin Panofsky, Studies in Iconology (1939; New York: Harper, 1962). The conflation was noted by the German philologist Friedrich Max Muller in The Science of Language, rev. ed. (London: Longmans, 1880) 1, 21. 3. v.vi.l03-6. Quoted from Five Restoration Adaptations of Shakespeare, ed. Christopher Spencer (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1965) p. 272. All quotations from Tate's play are taken from this edition and cited by act, scene, and line number. 4. Letters of Spin'tual Counsel, ed. T. G. Tappert (London: SCM Press, 1955) p. 32. 5. See Fritz Sax!, 'Veritas Filia Temporis', in Philosophy and History, ed. R. Klibansky and H. J. Paton (New York: Oxford University Press, 1962) pp. 197-222. 6. Sax! discusses 'the woodcut on pp. 203-6, as does Samuel Chew, The Pilgn'mage of Life (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1962) p. 19. See also Edward Hodnett, English Woodcuts 1480-1535 (2nd ed., Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1973) fig. 232. 7. Mary Tudor's confidence in the inevitable triumph of her Catholic cause is revealed in her use of the motto Ven'tas Filia Temporis; and, of course, Protestants reappropriated it with the accession of Elizabeth, as the procession the day before her coronation makes clear. 8. See William Elton, King Lear and the Gods, esp. chapter eleven, 'Irony as Structure', pp. 329-34; and Michael Goldman, Shakespeare and the Energies of Drama (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972) pp. 98-108. 9. Bradley is perhaps the first of the many who have recognized the 'irony of 188 Notes this collocation'. See Shakespearean Tragedy, p. 272. 10. Consider also Menecrates' comment in Antony and :

We, ignorant of ourselves Beg often our own harms, which the wise pow'rs Deny us for our good: so we find profit By losing of our prayers. (n.i.5-8)

11. For the most comprehensive treatment of Edgar, see Russell A. Peck, 'Edgar's Pilgrimage: High Comedy in King Lear', SEL 7 (1967) 219-g7. See also the discussions on Edgar inS. L. Goldberg's An Essay on King Lear (London and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1974) esp. pp. 115-22. 12. Shakespeare and the Energies of Drama, p. 99. }g. The Great lnstauration, in Francis Bacon: A Selection of his Works, ed. Sidney Warhaft (New York: Odyssey Press, 1965) p. g2g. 14. 'Formalism and Realism in Elizabethan Drama: The Miracles in King Lear', Renaissance Drama 9 (1966) 61-2. See also Bridget Gellert Lyons, 'The Subplot as Simplification in King Lear', Some Facets of King Lear, ed. Rosalie L. Colie and F. T. Flahiff (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1974) pp. g}-2. 15. For the best discussion of the imperfections of human love in the play, see Stanley Cavell's brilliant essay 'The Avoidance of Love', in Must We Mean What We Say (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976) pp. 267-353. 16. Certain Sermons and Homilies Appointed to be Read in Churches (London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1908) p. Ig7. 17. 'A Treaty of Wars', Selected Wn.tings of Fulke Greville, ed. Joan Rees (London: Athlone Press, 197g) p. 59. 18. Shakespearean Romance (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972) pp. 117-18. 19. 'Shakespeare and "The Revolution of the Times'", Tn··Quarterly, 22-2g (1972) 244. 20. Tragedy and the Theory of Drama (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1966) p. 202. 21. Lear in the opening scene is not weak and senile but powerful and pragmatic. He is a king ruling over a unified Britain and a king to whom important princes of Europe sue, yet 'the division of the kingdom' (J.i.g04) has prevented most from responding positively to Lear as a ruler. The examples of Gorboduc, Selimus, and Locn·ne are usually cited along with Matthew 12:25 ('Euerie kingdome deuided against it self, shalbe broght to naught') as proof that an audience is intended to condemn Lear's decision to divide in three his kingdom; yet these might well be balanced by historical parallels to Lear's act by Charlemagne and Charles V and the evidence of Joshua 11 :2g:

So Ioshua took the whole land, according to all that the Lord had said vnto Moses: and Ioshua gaue it for an inheritance vnto Israel according to their porcions through their tribes: then the land was at rest without warre.

The action, then, is not without acceptable authority or precedent, and we must Notes 189

not ignore the fact that neither Kent nor Gloucester expresses any reservations about the abdication. With no male heir, Lear sees the difficulties of succession· and acts decisively so 'that future strife/May be prevented now' (l.i.44-5). See Harry V. Jaffe's suggestive essay 'The Limits of Power', in Allan Bloom's Shakespeare's Politics (New York: Basic Books, 1964) pp. 113-45. 22. And if he measures their love, his predetermined rewards enable the measurement of his. Lear's failure here is not a failure, as some have suggested, to appraise effectively the moral worth of those around him. Kent, unconcerned about the plan to partition the kingdom, is surprised only that it is to be divided equally: 'I thought the king had more affected the Duke of Albany than Cornwall' (l.i.1-2). Gloucester agrees that 'it did always seem so to us' (l.i.3). And as Lear knows his sons-in-law, so too he knows his daughters. It is with whom he plans to live out his life, and as he draws the 'bounds' of each bequest, Cordelia's 'third' - 'more opulent' though presumably no larger - is indicated on the map before she is ever asked to speak. and Albany inherit the northern sections of Britain (Spenser's Gonorill is wedded to 'Maglan king of Scots' and Holinshed says that 'Albania' is 'now called Scotland'), and Cornwall are granted the southern sections (which must include the region still called Cornwall), leaving the rich midlands marked out for Cordelia before she is ever addressed. 23. For useful discussions of the resonance of 'nothing' in the play see Paul Jorgensen, Redeeming Shakespeare's Words (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1962) pp. 22-42; and Rosalie Colie, Paradoxia Epidemica (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1966) esp. pp. 463-81. 24. See Paul Jorgensen's Lear's Self-Discovery (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967). 25. For a discussion of the topic in law and literature in the years 751 to 1327, see Edward Peters, The Shadow King (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1970). 26. 'The Modernity of King Lear', Pacific Coast Studies in Shakespeare, ed. Waldo McNeir and Thelma Greenfield (Eugene: University of Oregon Press, 1966)p.185. 27. Johannis de Caulibus, Meditations on the Life of Christ, ed. I. Ragusa and R. B. Green (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1961) p. 344. 28. Shakespeare Our Contemporary, trans. Boleslaw Taborski (1964; New York: Doubleday, 1966) p. 147. 29. Shakespeare: A Cn'tical Study of his Mind and Art (1872; New York: Capricorn, 1962) p. 268. Cf. Maynard Mack's comment, 'we know it is better to have been Cordelia than to have been her sisters', King Lear In Our Time (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1965) p. 117.

CHAPTER SIX

I. The absence of an antecedent for Lear's 'this' prevents us from knowing for certain what Lear wants us to 'see'. Yet whether he asks all assembled to 'look' in order to show the miracle of her life or the horror of her death, the reality is, of course, that 'she's dead as earth' (v.iii.262). 2. The Faithful Shepherdess, preface, The Works of Francis Beaumont and john Fletcher, ed. Arnold Glover and A. R. Waller (Cambridge: Cambridge 190 Notes

University Press, 1906) 2, 322. 3. Shakespearean Tragedy (1904; New York: StMartin's Press, 1969) p. 271. 4. Grand Mystery of Godliness in Theological Works (London: Joseph Downing, 1708) p. 6. 5. 'New Uses of Adversity: Tragic Experience in ', In Defense of Reading, ed. Reuben A. Brower and Richard Poirier (New York: Dutton, 1962) p. 116. 6. See G. Wilson Knight, The Imperial Theme (1939; rpt. London: Methuen, 1951) pp. 199-262; and Howard Felperin, Shakespearean Romance, pp. 132-9. 7. Shakespeare's , ed. T. J. B. Spencer (Baltimore: Penguin, 1964) p. 277. 8. Shakespearean Romance, p. 134. See also Arnold Stein, 'The image of Antony: Lyric and Tragic Imagination', Kenyon Review, 21 (1959) 586-606; and Janet Adelman, The Common Liar (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1973) passim. 9. See Robert Ornstein, 'The Ethic of the Imagination: Love and Art in ', Later Shakespeare, ed. John Russell Brown and Bernard Harris (London: Edward Arnold, 1966) pp. 31-46; and Phyllis Rackin, 'Shakespeare's Boy Cleopatra, the Decorum of Nature, and the Golden World of Poetry', PMLA, 87 (1972) 201-12. 10. The Imperial Theme, p. 217. 11. The phrase, as used by Milton and Shakespeare, echoes Isaiah 65: 17, 66:22, 2 Peter 3:13, and Revelations 21:1. 12. See chapter two, above. 1!t Others, of course, have made this claim. See, most notably, Clifford Leech, 'The Structure of the Last Plays', Shakespeare Survey 11 (1958) 19-30. Leech's emphasis, however, differs markedly from my own. He holds that the true implication of the open-ends of these plays is 'that repentence is not enough, that "reunion" is a bogus word, that the only finality (within the world around us) is loss' (p. 30). 14. Shakespeare's Tragicomic Vision (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1972) p. 26. 15. I assume, with the editors of the , that Henry VIII is a play by Shakespeare. R. A. Foakes, in his New Arden edition of the play (London: Methuen, 1957), marshalls the arguments for Shakespeare's sole authorship. Since Foakes' edition was first published, Cyrus Hoy, in 'The Shares of Fletcher and his Collaborators in the Beaumont and Fletcher Canon (VII)', SB, 15 (1962), while acknowledging some presence of Fletcher's hand, affirms that Henry VIII 'has its place - and it remains secure when the disintegrators of Shakespeare have done their worst - in a greater canon than the Beaumont and Fletcher one' (p. 76). 16. 'King Henry the Eighth: History and Romance', ES, 48 (1967) 112. 17. Shakespearean Romance, pp. 202-3. 18. New Arden Henry VIII, ed. R. A. Foakes, p. 8. 19. Shakespearean Romance, p. 202. See also Frank Kermode, 'What is Shakespeare's Henry VIII about?', Durham University journal n.s. 9 (1948) 48-55. 20. Irving Ribner, The English History Play in the Age of Shakespeare Notes 191

(revised edition; London: Methuen, 1965) p. 289. See also H. R. Richmond, 'Shakespeare's Henry VIII: Romance Redeemed by History', Shakespeare Studies, 4 (1968) 337. 21. Sir Henry Wotton wrote on July 2 of 1613 of the burning of the Globe during 'a new Play called All is True'. This play is certainly Henry VIII, and Wotton's title must be a subtitle or some alternative designation. The fire, Wotton says, began after the entry of 'King Henry making a at Cardinal Wolseys House', which is Act one, scene four, of Shakespeare's play. And Thomas Lorkin wrote to Sir Thomas Puckering on 'this last ofJune 1613 in great hast', of the fire that occurred 'while Bourbege his companie were acting at y' Globe the play of Hen:8'. See Appendix I of Foakes' New Arden edition of Henry VIII, pp. 179-83. 22. See Felperin, Shakespearean Romance, p. 205. For a different notion of this 'truth', see William M. Bailie's 'Henry VIII: A Jacobean History', Shakespeare Studies 12 (1979) 247-66. 23. Shakespeare: The Dark Comedies to the Last Plays (Charlottesville: The University Press of Virginia, 1971) p. 175. See also Paul Bertram, 'Henry VIII: The Conscience ofthe King', In Defense of Reading, ed. Reuben A. Brower and Richard Poirier (New York: Dutton, 1962) 153-73; and Richmond, 'Henry VIII: Romance Redeemed by History', 347-8. 24. Bertram, 'Henry VIII: The Conscience of the King', pp. 170, 172. 25. See John D. Cox's illuminating essay, 'Henry VIII and the Masque', ELH 45 (1978) 390-409; and Lee Bliss, 'The Wheel of Fortune and the Maiden Phoenix in Shakespeare's King Henry the Eighth', ELH 42 (1975) 1-25. 26. See Harry Berger's 'Miraculous Harp: A Reading of Shakespeare's Tempest', Shakespeare Studies 5 (1969) 253-83; and Howard Felperin's 'Romance and Romanticism: Some Reflections on The Tempest and The Heart of Darkness, or When is Romance no longer Romance', in Shakespeare's Romances Reconsidered, ed. Carol McGinnis Kay and Henry E. Jacobs (Lincoln, Nebraska and London: University of Nebraska Press, 1978) esp. pp. 65-9. 27. , of course, uses the phrase to describe the masque, but the masque's image of perfected nature is strikingly similar to 's own utopian vision. 28. Shakespeare Our Contemporary (New York: Anchor, 1966) p. 271.

CHAPTER SEVEN

I. Samuel johnson on Shakespeare, ed. W. K. Wimsatt, Jr. (New York: Hill and Wang, 1960) p. 108. For an interesting approach to 'The problem of credibility' posed by the play, see Alexander Leggatt, 'The of Miracles: An Approach to ', Shakespeare Studies 10 (1977) 191-209. 2. 'Cymbeline and the Nativity', SQ, 13 (1962) 207-1~. See also Homer D. Swander, 'Cymbeline: Religious Idea and Dramatic Design', Pacific Coast Studies in Shakespeare, ed. Waldo F. McNeir and Thelma N. Greenfield (Eugene: University of Oregon Press, 1966) pp. 248-62. 3. Shakespeare's Comedies (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1960) p. 287. Nasworthy's note at the beginning of Act Five, scene five, in his new Arden 192 Notes edition of the play (1955; London: Methuen, 1969) cites Wendell who counts twenty-four discoveries (p. 164), Granville-Barker, in his Prefaces to Shakespeare (1, 512), counts a mere eighteen. 4. See Felperin, Shakespearean Romance, pp. 3-54; and chapters two and six, above. 5. Shakespeare's Tragicomic Vision, p. 62. 6. Shakespeare and the Comedy of Forgiveness (New York: Columbia University Press, 1965) p. 145. 7. This idea is confirmed not only by the structural parallel but also by the insistent theological language that surrounds the love of Posthumus and . See Hunter, Shakespeare and the Comedy of Forgiveness, esp. pp. 147-51. 8. The theological issues raised by Posthumus' search for satisfaction are discussed by Alan Velie, Shakespeare's Repentance Plo.ys (Cranbury, New Jersey: Farleigh Dickinson University Press, 1972) pp. 81-9; Douglas L. Peterson, Time, Tide, and Tempest (San Marino: Huntington Library, 1963) pp. 141-4; and, of course, Hunter in Shakespeare and the Comedy of Forgiveness, pp. 167-70. 9. For a suggestive discussion of clothing and disguise in the play, see John Scott Colley, 'Disguise and New Guise in Cymbeline', Shakespeare Studies, 7 (1974) 233-52. 10. Time, Tide, and Tempest, p. 125. 11. 'A Discourse on Pastoral Poetry', quoted in Harry Levin, The Myth of the Golden Age in the Renaissance (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1969) p. 6. 12. See 'The Oaten Flute', Harvard Library Bulletin, 11 (1957) 147-84. 13. David Young, in his Heart's Forest (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1972), also draws attention to this qualification, but he sees it only as evidence of the play's assertive fictiveness. 14. Frank Kermode focuses on a different edge of the irony in the pastoral scenes. To him they seem 'as if Shakespeare were covertly parodying Fletcher', Shakespeare: The Final Plo.ys (London: Longman, Green, 1963) p. 28. 15. Time, Tide, and Tempest, p. 136. 16. Shakespearean Romance, p. 187. 17. For the relationship of this with Jacobean politics, see Emrys Jones, 'Stuart Cymbeline', EIC 2 (1961) 84-99. 18. 'Beyond Extremity: A Reading of King Lear', TSLL, 16 (1974) 45-64. 19. '"What's past is prologue": "Cymbeline" and "Henry VIII'", Later Shakespeare, ed. John Russell Brown and Bernard Harris (London: Edward Arnold, 1966) p. 228. For another account of the play's marvellous harmonies, see ]. S. Lawry, '"Perishing Root and Increasing Vine" in Cymbeline', Shakespeare Studies 12 (1979) 179-93. 20. The Common Pursuit (1952; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1963) p. 174. 21. Shakespearean Romance, p. 196. 22. Norman Rabkin, Shakespeare and The Common Understanding (New York: Macmillan, 1967) p. 211. Notes 193

CHAPTER EIGHT

I. just how familiar may be seen by looking at G. F. Waller's useful study, The Strong Necessr~y of Time (The Hague and Paris: Mouton, 1976) esp. pp. 9-65. 2. For another account of this parallel, see Robert J. Lordi, 'Brutus and Hotspur', SQ, 27 (1976) 177-85. 3. Sigurd Burckhardt, in Shakespearean Meanings (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1968), argues ingeniously that the anachronistic striking clock is a 'calculated' signal of Brutus' failure to 'take account of the time and the temper of the people' (pp. 3-16). 4. See E. A. J. Honigmann, Shakespeare: Seven Tragedies (New York: Harper and Row, 1976) pp. 30-53; and Moody E. Prior, 'The Search for a Hero injulius ', Renaissance Drama, n.s. 2 (1969) esp. 94-9. 5. Hotspur's tragedy is, of course, embedded in the larger action taken in by the gaze of the history play. 6. Attitudes Toward History (New York: The New Republic, 1937) 1, 52. 7. If is Paulina's tragic counterpart, it is instructive that his last act is to kill his wife, hers to take a second husband. 8. Neither world, however, is completely determined morally. ' repentance is necessary though not sufficient to bring about the happy end, and Othello's fate might have been avoided in spite of his errors if only had found it proper not to 'obey' Iago sometime sooner than she does. Index

Alexander, Nigel, 27 compared to King Lear, 159-60 Antony and Cleopatra, 127-31, 144 Aristotle, 26, 50 Daniel, Samuel, 45, 46, 165 hamartia, 226 Danson, Lawrence, 98 , 23, 154, 170, 173 Dekker, Thomas, 41 Auden, W. H., 7, 80, 169 Dickey, James, 165 Donatus, 8 Bale, John, King]ohan, 44-5, 46 Dostoevsky, Fyodor, 99 Barber, Charles, 63 Doubrovsky, Serge, 7 Barry, Jackson, 8 Dowden, Edward, 121 Benbow, Mark, 46 drama, as history, 3-4 Bevington, David, 25 ethical view of, 18-19, 22 Blundeville, Thomas, 18 medieval, 4-5, 48 Booth, Wayne, 100 dramatic genres, see genres Bradley, A. C., 81, 88, 126 dramatic shape, 7-9 Brockbank, ]. B., 13 Driver, Tom F., 4, 12, 41 Brower, Reuben, 8 Browne, Thomas, 4 Eberhart, Richard, 81 Burke, Kenneth, 171 Eliot, George, 102 Eliot, T. S., 81, 82, 106, 125 Campbell, Lily B., 40 Elizabethan plays, dramatic genres Christian history, 4-5, 29 and, 38-40 Christian salvation, 5 Elliott, John, 38 Clay, James, 80 eternity, time and, 5, 11, 42 Clemens, Wolfgang, 31 Evans, Bertrand, 146 closed form, 9, 26, 79-101 Everyman, 6, 8, 82, 84-5, 86 Comedies, 7, 8, 30, 170-3 comedy, definition of, 8 Famous Victories of Henry V, 61-2, in morality play, 84-5 71 Comedy of Errors, The, 30 Felperin, Howard, 29, 115, 129, 134, Condell, Henry, 37 159, 161 Corneille, Pierre, 7 Fleming, Abraham, 45 Corpus Christi play, 4-5, 9, 41-2, Florio, John, Second Fruites, 39-40 47 Fly, Richard, 160 'perfect romance', 126 Foakes, R. A., 29 Craig, Hardin, 25 Folio editions, 37-8 Crane, R. S., 41 French, editions, 37-8 Croce, Benedetto, 100 French, A. L., 13, 46, 49 Cymbeline, 31, 32, 37, 140, 145-61 Frye, Northrup, 48, 51, 80 194 Index 195

Gardner, Helen, 27, 83 Hunter, Robert Grams, 147 genres, 7, 32-3, 37-41, 48, 171, Hutchison, Harold, 58 173, passim Goddard, Harold, 58 Jacob and Esau, 38 Goldman, Michael, 110 Jaspers, Karl, 85 Grene, Marjorie, 84 Johnson, Samuel, 145 Greville, Fulke, 113 Jonson, Ben The Devil as an Ass, 3 Hall, Edward, 13, 15, 16, 72, 74 Vision of Delight, 143 , 26-8, 86, 87, 89-91, Jorgensen, Paul, 97 169-70 , 126, 166-9 Hardison, 0. B., 45 Harris, Bernard, 160 Kelly, Henry, 45 Hartwig, Joan, 133, 146-7 Kermode, Frank, 28 Heidegger, Martin, 80 King]ohn, 51-4,57,73 Heminges, John, 37 King Lear, 80, 86-7, 88-9, 91, 1 Henry IV, 38, 47, 58, 74, 80, 165, 102-22, 125 169 compared to Cymbeline, 159-60 2 Henry IV, 7, 55, 69, 165 Tate's history of, 102-3 Henry V, 49-51, 55, 56-76 Knight, G. Wilson, 130 Henry VI, 12-25, 46, 64 Kolve, V. A., 41, 84, 86, 120 Henry VIII, 133-41 Kott, Jan, 121, 142-3 heroism, 56-7 5 Krieger, Murray, 91 Heywood, Thomas, 18, 39 Kyd, Thomas, 84 Hibbard, G. R., 81, 88 Hirsch, E. D., Jr., 32 Langer, Susanne, 26, 27 historical time, 4, 7, 12, 23, 41-2 Lawrence, D. H., 37 Histories, 11-13, 16, 23. 37-76 Leavis, F. R., 160 compared to Tragedies, 26-8 Leech, Clifford, 31 historiography, Tudor, 13, 43, 45, Leigh, David, 43 46 Levin, Harry, 115 history literary taxonomy, 32 Christian, 4-5, 29 love, 169-73 definition of, 37-42 Love's Labour's Lost, 30 as drama, 34 Luthef, Martin, 104 ethical view of, 17-19, 22 heroism and, in Henry V, 56-75 Macbeth, 28, 32, 63, 91-101 origin of the word, 11-12, 39 McElroy, Bernard, 92, 98 providential, 13-22, 102-3 Machiavelli, 16 salva.tion, 42, 46 Manheim, Michael, 67 secular, 57 Marlowe, Christopher shape, of, 9 Dr. Faustus, 6 time and, 11-12 Edward II, 118 transformed in .Romances, 161 Marsh, D. R. C., 28 history plays, 3-4, 37-42, 48 Marshall, William, 107 Holinshed, Raphael (Chronicles), 13, Marston, John, Wonder of Women, 45, 54, 60, 71-2 41 human suffering, see suffering Mary Magdalene, 42 human time, 41-2 Matchett, William, 54 196 Index

Medieval drama, 4-5, 48 Richard Ill, 13, 58, 63, 93-6 Middle Ages, 41-2 as a Romance, 132-4 Midsummer Night's , A. 3, Riggs. David, 21 30, 33, 89 Romance Milton, John, 32, 83 Corpus Christi play as, 126 Paradise Lost, 56-7, 131, 132, Henry VIII as, 133-41 148-9 Richard III as, 132-4 Samson Agonistes, 113-14 Romances, 28-32, 125-61, 172 Mirror for Magistrates, The, 15-16 and , 26, 32, 79, 89 Moffet, Robin, 146 Rossiter, A. P., 43 morality play, 42-4, 47, 84-5 About Nothing, 29 St. Augustine, 9-11 Muir, Kenneth, 98 St. Paul, 56, 85, 113 Myers, A. R., 58 Saint's play, 42, 51 salvation, Christian, 5 Nashe, Thomas, 18-19, 41 salvation history, 42, 46 Neville, Alexander, 38 Sanders, Wilbur, 16, 46, 94, 99 New Criticism, 8 Seneca, 17 Nicoll, Allardyce, 38 Oedzpus, 38 Servius, 7 Olson, Elder, 26, 116 Shakespeare, William open form, 9 conception of time, 6-7, 23, 25-6, in history plays, 23-6, 51-5, 57-8, 165-9, 173 76, 133 perception of history. 3-4. 6-7. in Romances, 31, 32, 133 23, 55 Orgel, Stephen, 127 literary genres and, 33 Ornstein, Robert, 46, 90 see also Comedies, Histories, Othello, 63, 81-4, 87-8 Romances, Tragedies and compared to The Winter's Tale, individual plays 171-3 Simmons, J. L.. 52 Pen"cles, 31, 126, 141, 165 spatial/temporal reality, 7-10 Peterson, Douglas, 31, 32, 153, 156 Spengler, Oswald, 10, 79, 80 Polybius, 11 Spenser, Edmund Price, J. R .. 52 The Faen·e Queene, 6, 56-7, 146 Prior, Moody. 73 The Shepheardes Calender, 155 providential history, 13-22, 102-3 suffering, 110-13, 127 providential time, 41 - 2 Swinburne, Algernon, 48

Quinones, Ricardo, 5, 191 Talbot play. 18-22 Taming of the , The, 7, 38 Reformation, images of heroism in, Tate, Nahum, History of King Lear, 56-7 102-3 Renaissance Tempest, The, 127, 141-4, 160 literary genres in, 33 quotes from, 31, 49, 61, 90, 140 understanding of time, 5-6 temporal/spatial reality, 7-10 Renaissance history play, 3, 4 Tennyson, Alfred Lord, 28-9 Ribner, Irving. 17, 40, 41, 43, 52 Terence, 29 Richard II, 48-9, 51, 55, 70, 86, Tillyard, E. M. W., 13, 15, 40, 45, 132 93 Index 197 time tragic structure. 26-8 demands of, 23 tragic time, 79-81, 102-7, 113, eternity and, 5, 11, 42 125-6 in Henry V, 75-6 tragicomedy, 28-9 historical, 4, 7, 11-12, 23, 41-2 Traversi, D. A .. 59 in Histories, 11-12, 37-55, 75-6 , 84, 126 human, 41-2 Troublesome Reign of Kingjohn, perceived by the mind, 10-11 51-4 Renaissance understanding of, 5-6 , 30, 144 in Romances, 172 Two Gentlemen of Verona, 150 St. Augustine on, 9-11 sense of in Romances and virtue, 18-19, 22 Comedies, 28-32 shapes of, 3-33 Waith, Eugene, 74 space and, 7-10 Walter, J. H .. 63 subjective experience of, 28-30 Warner, William, Albions England, in Tragedies, 79-81, 102-7, 113, 53 125-6 Whetstone, George, Promos and , 102, 119 , 38 Andronicus, 115 Whitaker, Virgil, 39 Tragedies, 8, 37-9, 48, 79-i22 Wilbur, Richard, 79 closed form in, 79-101 Wilson, Dover, 60, 61 compared to Histories, 26-8 Wilson, F. P., 39, 40 love in, 169-73 Winter's Tale, The, 28, 29-30, 32, time in, 79-81, 102-7, 113, 125-6 125, 133, 137, 140, 141, 144, tragedy, definition of, 8 145 in morality play, 84-5 compared to Othello, 171-3 necessity of human suffering and, Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 10 11-12 Wolflin, Heinrich, 9