Hunters in Transition the Northern World
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Hunters in Transition The Northern World North Europe and the Baltic c. 400–1700 ad Peoples, Economics and Cultures Editors David Kirby (London) Jón Viðar Sigurðsson (Oslo) Ingvild Øye (Bergen) Piotr Gorecki (University of California at Riverside) Steve Murdoch (St. Andrews) Volume 63 The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/nw Hunters in Transition An Outline of Early Sámi History By Lars Ivar Hansen and Bjørnar Olsen LEIDEN • BOSTON 2014 Cover illustration: Reproduced after Knud Leem: Beskrivelse over Finnmarkens lapper, deres tungemaal, levemaade og forrige avgudsdyrkelse, Copenhagen 1767, image provided by the Tromsø University Museum, Tromsø. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Hansen, Lars Ivar, 1947– Hunters in transition : an outline of early Sami history / by Lars Ivar Hansen and Bjornar Olsen. pages cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-90-04-25254-7 (hardback : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-90-04-25255-4 (e-book) 1. Sami (European people)—History. 2. Sami (European people)—Hunting. 3. Sami (European people)—Ethnic identity. I. Title. DL42.L36H36 2013 948.0049457—dc23 2013036181 This publication has been typeset in the multilingual “Brill” typeface. With over 5,100 characters covering Latin, IPA, Greek, and Cyrillic, this typeface is especially suitable for use in the humanities. For more information, please see www.brill.com/brill-typeface. ISSN 1569-1462 ISBN 978-90-04-25254-7 (hardback) ISBN 978-90-04-25255-4 (e-book) Copyright 2014 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands. Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Global Oriental, Hotei Publishing, IDC Publishers and Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. 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CONTENTS Acknowledgements ........................................................................................ vii List of Figures ................................................................................................... ix 1 Introduction .............................................................................................. 1 2 Changing Views on the Origins of the Sámi ................................... 9 3 Economic Specialization and Ethnic Consolidation: Northern Hunting Societies in the Iron Age and Early Middle Ages ......... 39 4 Colonization, Contacts and Change, 1200–1550 ............................. 141 5 State Integration and Sámi Rights ca. 1550–1750 ........................... 229 6 Missionaries and Shamans: Sámi Religion and the Campaign Against it .................................................................................................... 313 Epilogue ............................................................................................................. 351 Chronology ........................................................................................................ 355 Table of Relations ........................................................................................... 357 Bibliography ..................................................................................................... 361 General Index ................................................................................................... 383 Index of Personal Names .............................................................................. 395 Index of Place Names .................................................................................... 398 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Several persons and institutions have contributed to this book. Professor John M. Weinstock translated an early draft of the manuscript into English and the Norwegian Research Council funded the translation. The Department of Archaeology and Social Anthropology and the Department of History and Religious Studies, both at the University of Tromsø—The Arctic University of Norway, have also contributed economically to the publication. We thank Malin Ims and Astrid Marie Mellem Johnsen for an excellent job with the indexes, Janet Bately and The Viking Ship Museum, Roskilde, for permission to reproduce Bately’s translation of Ohthere’s Voyages, and Várjjat Sámi Musea for providing photos from Noaidečearru and Ceavccegeađgi. LIST OF FIGURES 1. S. Nilsson’s comparative juxtapositioning of skulls found in Stone Age graves with newer skulls of Swedes (“Goths”) and Sámi (“Lapps”) .................................................................................... 13 2. Knives and spear points typical of “the slate culture” ................... 15 3. Grave goods from warrior burial dating to the first half of the third century ad at Bø, Engeløy, Steigen .................................... 26 4. Asbestos pottery of Kjelmøy type from Ångermanland and southern Lappland ............................................................................ 41 5. Rim shard from Risvik pottery from Teksmona, Meløy municipality, Nordland ............................................................................ 42 6. Chieftaincies/centre formations in Northern Norway in the Late Iron Age ....................................................................................... 47 7. Excavated slab-lined pit in Mellaneset at Kjølnes, Berlevåg municipality ............................................................................... 58 8. Excavated floor level of dwelling dating to ca. 100 bc at Slettnes, Sørøya, Finnmark ..................................................................... 59 9. The geographical distribution of the slab-lined pits ...................... 64 10. The boundary of the Norse and Sámi settlement area in South Troms during the Late Iron Age/Viking Age ........................ 69 11. The distribution of silver hoards from the Viking Age and early Middle Ages in Northern Norway, seen in relation to the old territorial border between Hålogaland and Finnmork ........... 70 12. Silver hoard from Botnhamn on Senja, Troms ............................... 73 13. Penannular brooches and pendants of eastern origin, typical of Sami grave and sacrificial finds from the late Viking Age and early Middle Ages ....................................................... 77 14. The distribution of known stallo sites in Norway and Sweden .......................................................................................................... 83 15. The stallo houses are often organized in rows, as illustrated by this site map from the investigations in Lønsdalen, Saltfjellet ................................................................................. 85 A. Floor plan showing the division of space in the turf hut/ tent used by one family ........................................................................... 87 16. Hearth row site being excavated at Brodtkorpneset, Pasvik, Finnmark. The site dates to the early Middle Ages ........................ 90 x list of figures 17. The burial site Krankmårtenhögen at Storsjöen, Härjedalen .................................................................................................... 95 18. Map of East Norwegian law districts in the early Middle Ages ................................................................................................................ 99 19. “Lapp cairn” at Ilmolahti, Viitasaari ................................................... 106 20. Scree grave at Čiesti/Fugleberget near Mortensnes, Varanger ........................................................................................................ 109 21. Bird-shaped pendants of eastern origin ........................................... 119 22. Bear grave investigated at Gällholmen, Stensele parish, Lappland ....................................................................................................... 122 23. Northern Fennoscandia and Northwest Russia in the early Middle Ages ...................................................................................... 128 B. The Sámi dialect areas ............................................................................ 134 C. “The family tree model” of Finno-Ugric language historical development ............................................................................ 135 D. P. Hajdú’s circle-shaped development model for the Uralic languages ......................................................................................... 137 24. Novgorod’s five administrative districts (“fifths”) and network of fortified strongholds for trade and tax collection ..... 147 25. Fishing villages in Finnmark ca. 1520 ............................................... 156 26. The deserted fishing village Tunes at Magerøya, Finnmark ...................................................................................................... 159 27. The common Swedish-Russian taxation area on Nordkalotten according to the peace treaty of 1323 ....................... 161 E. The East Sámi siida areas with individual family areas shaded ................................................................................................ 169 28. Trapping