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This report contains the collective views of international groups of experts and does not necessarily represent the decisions or the stated policy of the United Nations Environment Programme, the International Labour Organization, or the World Health Organization. Environmental Health Criteria 221 ZINC First draft prepared by Drs B. Simon-Hettich and A. Wibbertmann, Fraunhofer Institute of Toxicology and Aerosol Research, Hanover, Germany, Mr D. Wagner, Department of Health and Family Services, Canberra, Australia, Dr L. Tomaska, Australia New Zealand Food Authority, Canberra, Australia, and Mr H. Malcolm, Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, Monks Wood, England. Published under the joint sponsorship of the United Nations Environment Programme, the International Labour Organization, and the World Health Organization, and produced within the framework of the Inter-Organization Programme for the Sound Management of Chemicals. World Health Organization Geneva, 2001 The International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS), established in 1980, is a joint venture of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the International Labour Organization (ILO), and the World Health Organization (WHO). The overall objectives of the IPCS are to establish the scientific basis for assessment of the risk to human health and the environment from exposure to chemicals, through international peer-review processes, as a prerequisite for the promotion of chemical safety, and to provide technical assistance in strengthening national capacities for the sound management of chemicals. The Inter-Organization Programme for the Sound Management of Chemicals (IOMC) was established in 1995 by UNEP, ILO, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, WHO, the United Nations Industrial Development Organization, the United Nations Institute for Training and Research, and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (Participating Organizations), following recommendations made by the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development to strengthen cooperation and increase coordination in the field of chemical safety. The purpose of the IOMC is to promote coordination of the policies and activities pursued by the Participating Organizations, jointly or separately, to achieve the sound management of chemicals in relation to human health and the environment. WHO Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data Zinc. (Environmental health criteria ; 221) 1.Zinc − analysis 2.Zinc − toxicity 3.Occupational exposure 4.Environmental exposure 5.Risk assessment I.Series ISBN 92 4 157221 3 (NLM Classification: QD 181.Z6) ISSN 0250-863X The World Health Organization welcomes requests for permission to reproduce or translate its publications, in part or in full. Applications and enquiries should be addressed to the Office of Publications, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, which will be glad to provide the latest information on any changes made to the text, plans for new editions, and reprints and translations already available. ©World Health Organization 2001 Publications of the World Health Organization enjoy copyright protection in accordance with the provisions of Protocol 2 of the Universal Copyright Convention. All rights reserved. The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the World Health Organization concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or of certain manufacturers’ products does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by the World Health Organization in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. Errors and omissions excepted, the names of proprietary products are distinguished by initial capital letters. Computer typesetting by I. Xavier Lourduraj, Chennai, India CONTENTS ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH CRITERIA FOR ZINC PREAMBLE ............... .........................................................xi ABBREVIATIONS...... ......................................................xxii 1. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS....................................... 1 1.1 Identity, and physical and chemical properties.............. 1 1.2 Analytical methods........................................................ 1 1.3 Sources of human and environmental exposure............ 1 1.4 Environmental transport, distribution and transformation .... .......................................................... 2 1.5 Environmental concentrations ....................................... 3 1.5.1 Human intakes.................................................. 4 1.6 Kinetics and metabolism in laboratory animals and humans......... .......................................................... 4 1.7 Effects on laboratory animals ........................................ 5 1.8 Effects on humans ......................................................... 6 1.9 Effects on other organisms in the laboratory and field.............. .......................................................... 8 1.10 Conclusions ........ .......................................................... 9 1.10.1 Human health ................................................... 9 1.10.2 Environment ................................................... 10 2. IDENTITY, PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES, AND ANALYTICAL METHODS ............... 11 2.1 Identity ............... ........................................................ 11 2.2 Physical and chemical properties ................................ 11 2.2.1 Zinc metal....................................................... 11 2.2.2 Zinc compounds ............................................. 14 2.3 Analytical methods...................................................... 18 2.3.1 Introduction .................................................... 18 2.3.2 Sampling and sample preparation .................. 18 2.3.3 Separation and concentration ......................... 21 2.3.4 Detection and measurement ........................... 22 iii EHC 221: Zinc 3. SOURCES OF HUMAN AND ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE ............... ........................................................ 29 3.1 Natural occurrence ...................................................... 29 3.2 Anthropogenic sources................................................ 31 3.2.1 Production levels and processes..................... 31 3.2.1.1 Production levels ............................ 31 3.2.1.2 Production processes ...................... 32 3.2.2 Uses ....... ........................................................ 33 3.2.3 Emissions during production and use............. 36 3.2.3.1 Emissions to atmosphere ................ 37 3.2.3.2 Emissions to aquatic environment.................................... 38 3.2.3.3 Emissions to soil............................. 40 3.2.4 Emissions during combustion of coal and oil, and refuse incineration ............................. 41 3.2.5 Zinc releases from diffuse sources ................. 41 3.2.5.1 Releases from atmospheric zinc corrosion ................................. 41 3.2.5.2 Releases from sacrificial zinc anodes..................................... 42 3.2.5.3 Household zinc emissions............... 42 4. ENVIRONMENTAL TRANSPORT, DISTRIBUTION AND TRANSFORMATION ................................................. 44 4.1 Transport and distribution between media .................. 44 4.1.1 Air.......... ........................................................ 44 4.1.2 Water and sediment ........................................ 46 4.1.2.1 Fresh water ..................................... 47 4.1.2.2 Seawater.......................................... 48 4.1.2.3 Wastewater...................................... 49 4.1.2.4 Groundwater ................................... 49 4.1.2.5 Sediment ......................................... 50 4.1.3 Soil ........ ........................................................ 51 4.2 Bioavailability .... ........................................................ 55 4.2.1 Factors affecting bioavailability ..................... 55 4.2.2 Techniques for estimation............................... 56 4.3 Biotransformation........................................................ 56 iv 4.3.1 Biodegradation ............................................... 56 4.3.2 Bioaccumulation............................................. 57 4.3.2.1 Aquatic organisms .......................... 58 4.3.2.2 Terrestrial organisms....................... 59 5. ENVIRONMENTAL LEVELS AND HUMAN EXPOSURE . ........................................................ 66 5.1 Environmental levels................................................... 66 5.1.1 Air.......... ........................................................ 66 5.1.2 Precipitation.................................................... 69 5.1.3 Water ..... ........................................................ 70 5.1.3.1 Fresh water ..................................... 70 5.1.3.2 Seawater.......................................... 74 5.1.4 Soil ........ ........................................................ 77 5.1.5 Sediments and sewage sludge ........................ 82 5.1.6 Aquatic and terrestrial organisms................... 84 5.1.6.1 Aquatic plants and animals............. 84 5.1.6.2 Terrestrial plants and animals ......... 85 5.2 General population exposure....................................... 86 5.2.1 Air.......... .......................................................
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