Volume 26 - No. 09 - 2017 pp. 5520 - 5687
Fresenius Environmental Bulletin
SPECIAL ISSUE OF 5th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT, ENGINEERING, PLANNING AND ECONOMICS (CEMEPE) AND SOCIETY OF ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY (SECOTOX)
JUNE 14-18, 2015 IN MYKONOS ISLAND GREECE GUEST EDITOR IN CHIEF ANTIGONI ZAFIRAKOU, ARISTOTLE UNIVERSITY OF THESSALONIKI
Official Journal of: GUEST EDITOR IN CHIEF: - MESAEP - Mediterranean Scientific Association ANTIGONI ZAFIRAKOU of Environmental Protection e.V. GUEST EDITORS: - IAES - International Academy of ANTIGONI ZAFIRAKOU Environmental Safety FOTINI KEHAGIA KATERINA PAPAOIKONOMOU - SECOTOX - Society of Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 2a/ 2017 pages 1329-1332 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin
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CHIEF EDITOR: MANAGING EDITOR: Prof. Dr. Dr. H. Parlar Dr. P. Parlar Parlar Research & Technology-PRT Parlar Research & Technology Vimy Str.1e PRT, Vimy Str.1e 85354 Freising, Germany 85354 Freising, Germany CO-EDITORS: Environmental Spectroscopy Environmental Management Prof. Dr. A. Piccolo Dr. K. I. Nikolaou 8QLYHUVLWDGL1DSROL³)UHGHULFR,,´ Env.Protection of Thessaloniki Dipto. Di Scienze Chemica Agrarie OMPEPT-54636 Thessaloniki Via Universita 100, 80055 Portici, Italy Greece Environmental Biology Environmental Toxicology Prof. Dr. G. Schuurmann Prof. Dr. H. Greim UFZ-Umweltzentrum Senatkommision ± DFG / TUM Sektion Chemische Ökotoxikologie 85350 Freising, Germany Leipzig-Halle GmbH, Environmental Proteomic Permoserstr.15, 04318 Dr. A. Fanous 04318 Leipzig, Germany Halal Control GmbH Prof. Dr. I. Holoubek Kobaltstr. 2-4 Recetox-Tocoen D-65428 Rüsselsheim, Germany Kamenice126/3, 62500 Brno, Czech Republic Environmental Education Prof. Dr. M. Hakki Alma Prof. Dr. C. Bayat Kahramanmaras Sutcu Imam University Esenyurt Üniversitesi Avsar Kampusu, 46100 Kahramanmaras, Turkey 34510 Esenyurt, Istanbul, Turkey Environmental Analytical Chemistry Prof. Dr. M. Bahadir Lehrstuhl für Ökologische Chemie und Umweltanalytik TU Braunschweig Lehrstuhl für Ökologische Chemie Hagenring 30, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany Dr. D. Kotzias Via Germania29 21027 Barza(Va), Italy Advisory Board Marketing Manager K. Bester, K. Fischer, R. Kallenborn Cansu Ekici, B. of B.A. DCG. Muir, R. Niessner,W.Vetter, PRT-Research and Technology A. Reichlmayr-Lais, D. Steinberg, Vimy Str 1e J. P. Lay, J. Burhenne, L. O. Ruzo 85354 Freising, Germany E-Mail: [email protected] [email protected] Phone: +49/8161887988
5518 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5520-5522 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin
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5519 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5520-5522 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin
PREFACE
The present Special Issue of Fresenius Environmental Bulletin contains selected and revised manuscripts that have been presented at the 5th International Conference on Environmental Management, Engineering, Planning and Economics (CEMEPE) which was held together with the Conference of the Society of Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety (SECOTOX) and took place in Mykonos Island, Greece, from 14-18 June 2015. The conference was organized by the Society of Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety (SECOTOX) as well as the Department of Planning and Regional Development, University of Thessaly, the German Research Center for Environmental Health, Germany, the Sector of Industrial Management and Operations Research, School of Mechanical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, the Division of Hydraulics and Environmental Engineering, Department of Civil Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, and the Food Technology Department, Technological Educational Institute of Thessaloniki. An international board of environmental scientists comprised its scientific community. CEMEPE congresses have grown to be keystone congregations for environmental scientists. They are held on a biennial basis in selected places around Greece, characterized by both natural splendor and cultural significance. The aim of these congresses is to bring together experts from a variety of disciplines from the scientific community, to present and share their research related to environmental issues. The papers that are selected to be published in this Special Issue relate to the most important aspects discussed at the Conference in the thematic areas of Wastewater Monitoring and Management, Water Pollution, Energy and Environment, as well as Transport and Environment. Water and wastewater pollution and management are of utmost importance in the viability of urban environments and planet earth as a whole. Moreover, all human activities consume great amounts of energy, which unreservedly affects the environment. The relationship between economic growth and the protection of the HQYLURQPHQW UHPDLQV FRQWURYHUVLDO 7KH HFRQRP\ UHOLHV RQ SODQHW¶V DELOLW\ WR SURYLGH UHVRXUFHV to cover the SRSXODWLRQ¶VGHPDQGV, whereas at the same time, a healthy environment is a prerequisite for a healthy economy. A viable environment, on the other hand, requires less energy consumption, less transportation, and implicitly less economic growth. Sustainability attempts to bridge today¶VQHHGV with tomorrow¶VVHFXULW\. By sustainability we infer to renewable energy sources, reducing of carbon emissions, protecting environment and keeping the delicate ecosystems of our planet in balance. In short, sustainability aims to protect our natural environment, human and ecological health, while driving innovation and not compromising quality of life. We believe that the subjects contained in this Issue will help researchers, students and practitioners to thrive in environmental science, sustainable engineering management and planning. We hope that the ideas and perspectives will encourage researchers to create more efficient and environmentally friendly systems. We would like to express our heartiest appreciation to all the authors of the papers submitted to the Special Issue, as well as to the Editor of the Journal, Professor H. Parlar, for his help throughout the handling of the manuscripts. Special thanks to the reviewers, for the time and effort they devoted in order to ensure high standards for the submitted manuscripts.
The Guest Editors Antigoni Zafirakou, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki Fotini Kehagia, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki Katerina Papaoikonomou, University of Thessaly
*** Guest Editor in Chief Antigoni Zafirakou, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki
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CONTENTS
ORIGINAL PAPERS E>zd/>^K>hd/KEK&d, ^dhZd &>KtWZK> D/EϳͲ^WKd͕Ϯ' KD dZ/ ^ ϱϱϮϯ Gregory G Kamvyssas, Marios S Valavanides
s>hd/KEK&Z E t> E Z'z^KhZ ^;^K>Z͕t/E͕E/K'^Ϳ ^d>/^, /EzWZh^/Ed, &ZD tKZ< ϱϱϮϵ K&^h^d/E> s >KWD Ed Antonis A Zorpas, Michalis Tsangas, Mejdi Jeguirim, Lionel Limousy, Jose Navarro Pedreno
d ZD/Ed/KEK& > dZKD'E d/WK>>hd/KE/EE/' WZKs/E ;dhZ< zͿ͗WZ >/D/EZzZ ^h>d^ ϱϱϯϳ Mahmut Ali Kalin, Neslihan Dogan-Saglamtimur
&& dK&&>z^,KEdZ/hd/KEdKd, W,z^/>ED ,E/>WZKW Zd/ ^K& D Ed WhD/ Ͳ^ ϱϱϰϮ >/',dt /',dt>>Dd Z/> Neslihan Dogan-Saglamtimur, Ahmet Bilgil, Gamze Yildirim, Tugce Bay, Unal Doguc, Kubra Erkekli
d, WW>/d/KEK&d, DK >K& >>h>ZhdKDd;ͿKEd, /^>EK&^
/Es ^d/'d/KEK& E'/E W Z&KZDE E D/^^/KE^K&E^/ E'/E h^/E'/K'^Ͳ,zZK' ED/ydhZ ^ ϱϱϱϲ Bilge Albayrak Ceper, Mustafa Uysal, Nafiz Kahraman, Selahaddin Orhan Akansu
K^d>/E ,E' d d/KEh^/E'hEDEE Z/>s ,/> ^E/D' WZK ^^/E'd ,E/Yh ^ ϱϱϲϰ Konstantinos Topouzelis, Apostolos Papakonstantinou, Michaela Doukari
KE^dZhd/KE͕ DK>/d/KEE ysd/KEt^d DE' D Ed/E hͬ'Z E/d^WKd Ed/>h^ /EKEZ d ϱϱϳϮ Styliani Papatzani, Kevin Paine
^͛ s>hd/KEK&W,K^W,KZh^Z DKs>/Et^d td Z^d/>/d/KEWKE^hE ZD /d ZZE E ϱϱϴϭ KE/d/KE^ Maria K Gratziou
EhdZ/ EdZ DKs>&ZKDKD ^d/t^d td Zz^d/>/d/KEWKE^dZ dD Ed/EEKZd, ZE'Z ϱϱϴϵ Maria Gratziou, Maria Chalatsi
Dh>d/WhZWK^ ,zZKWKt ZWZK: d^ KEKD/^^ ^^D EdhE Z>/Dd ,E' KE/d/KE^ ϱϱϵϵ Charalampos Skoulikaris, Jacques Ganoulis
d, /DWdK&d, hZEZKE dtKZ<^͛&hEd/KE>EdZ&&/,Zd Z/^d/^KE/ZWK>>hd/KE͗d, ^ ϱϲϬϴ K&d, Ed ZK&d, ^^>KE/
yD/E/E'd, KZZ >d/KEK&EK/^ > s >^t/d,dZ&&/,Zd Z/^d/^/EEhZEZ ͗d, ^ K& ϱϲϭϲ d, ^^>KE/
&KZD/E'd, &ZD tKZ<&KZ^h^d/E> KDDhd/E'dK,/', Z hd/KE͗d, ^ K&d, d ,EK>K'/> ϱϲϮϮ hd/KE>/E^d/dhd/KEK&d, ^^>z͕'Z Nikolaos Gavanas, Anastasios Tsakalidis
D/E/DhD Es/ZKED Ed>Z/d Z/&KZd, Z hd/KEK&/ZWK>>hd/KE Z/s/E'&ZKDWZ/sd dZE^WKZd͗ ϱϲϯϱ WKd Ed/>K&Z&> dZ E t> Renata Dagiliute, Kristina Kersiene, Jurate Zaltauskaite
Es/ZKED Ed>/DWd^K&dhd ^/'E>^KE/Ed ZZhWd dZ&&/&>Kt ϱϲϰϮ Evangelos Mintsis, Georgios Aldaggelou, Georgios Mintsis, Socrates Basbas, Magda Pitsiava- Latinopoulou
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^D>>^> E Z'z^dKZ' ^z^d D^͘^,KZdZ s/ t/Ed, /ZWKd Ed/> Es/ZKED Ed>/DWd ϱϲϱϴ Panagiotis I Kokkotis, Constantinos S Psomopoulos, George Ch Ioannidis, Stavros D Kaminaris
/Eh^dZ/>&hZE ^ͬhZE Z^͘Z s/ tKEd, Es/ZKED Ed>> '/^>d/KE&Kh^/E'KE K ^/'E ϱϲϲϲ Petros Papadatos, Constantinos S Psomopoulos, George C Ioannidis
^/DW>/&/ /^/KED/E'^͗d, ^ K&d, /&KZ ^d ϱϲϳϰ ,Kd >^ dd> D Ed Thomas Psilovikos, Agis Papadopoulos, Kosmas Doukas
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ANALYTICAL SOLUTION OF THE SATURATED FLOW PROBLEM IN 7-SPOT, 2D GEOMETRIES
Gregory G Kamvyssas1,*, Marios S Valavanides2
1Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, TEI Western Greece, GR-26334 Patras, Greece 2Dept. of Civil, Survey & Geoinformatics Engineering, TEI Athens, GR-12210 Athens, Greece
ABSTRACT either analytically or semi-analytically as long as these can be described in typical geometries. The The problem of saturated flow within a homo- solution of problems in more sophisticated or atypi- geneous and isotropic pore formation, confined cal geometries requires the implementation of ap- between two horizontal impermeable planes, under propriate numerical schemes. A collection of prob- 7-spot injection-extraction well pattern is consid- lems treated with various methodological approach- ered. Such well patterns are typically implemented es can be found in [2, 3]. in soil remediation or enhanced oil recovery pro- An equally important physical process, in cesses. Extraction wells (rectilinear sinks) are uni- terms of engineering applications, is the unsaturated formly distributed over the reservoir domain, creat- flow, or immiscible two-phase flow, in porous me- ing a honeycomb pattern of identical hexagons. An dia. Indicative applications can be found in irriga- injection well (rectilinear source) is located at the tion and drainage, i.e. the simultaneous flow of centre of each hexagon. Uniform strength is consid- water and air, and in pollution of aquifers and the ered for all sources. In that context, the flow within associated remediation interventions, water flood- every hexagon can be partitioned into identical ing of oil reservoirs, enhanced oil recovery, CO2 flows in each of the six equilateral triangles. To sequestration etc. i.e. the simultaneous flow of a furnish the analytical expressions for the pressure wetting and a non-wetting phase. The governing and velocity fields, we have to solve an interior equation for unsaturated (or two-phase) flow in Neumann problem for the Laplace equation, con- porous media is produced by extending the conven- sidering that the normal derivative of the pressure is tional Darcy law to the fractional Darcy law, by known on the boundary of the equilateral triangle. introducing the concept of the effective permeabil- To deal with this unconventional geometry (the ity of each phase to account for the hydrodynamic method of separation of variables is not applicable) and capillary coupling observed during the simulta- we implement the new method provided by Dassios neous flow of both phases. Conventionally, effec- and Fokas in [1], whereby the authors study bound- tive permeabilities are treated as functions of the ary value problems for the Laplace, the Helmholtz saturation. Nevertheless, there are many inadequa- and the modified Helmholtz equations in the interi- cies in correctly describing the flow with this ap- or of an equilateral triangle. proach. The recently developed mechanistic model DeProF and corresponding theory for steady-state two-phase flow in porous media [4] has derived a KEYWORDS: universal scaling law for the reduced pressure gra- saturated flow, porous media, 7-spot dient in terms of the actual independent variables of the process, i.e. the local values of the superficial velocity of oil and water [5, 6]. INTRODUCTION Now, with the availability of an explicit scal- ing law describing the process, the associated two- Saturated flow in porous media is a core phys- phase (unsaturated) flow problem can be trans- ical process with many engineering applications, formed into an equivalent one-phase (saturated) mainly related to groundwater management (cap- flow problem. ture zones in pumping wells, salt-water intrusion in To this end any development of analytical so- coastal aquifers, replenishment), seepage analysis lutions for the saturated flow problem in difficult, of dams, discharge of wells near rivers, etc. The non-trivial or atypical geometries, would enhance basic phenomenology of saturated flow is described our capability of understanding the flow response to E\'DUF\¶VODZexplicitly providing a linear rela- various configurations and to design more efficient tion between the superficial velocity (volumetric processes. One such atypical geometrical configura- flowrate intensity) and the field pressure gradient, tion is the 7-spot injection-extraction pattern [2, 7]. whereby the linearity constant is the ratio of the porous medium absolute permeability to fluid (wa- The 7-spot pattern flow equivalence analy- ter) viscosity. A variety of problems can be treated, sis. The case of the 7-spot pattern flow arrangement
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" qp qp
" " "
qi=2qp qi
(a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 1 Modular break-down of a 7-spot pattern well pattern formation (a) Layout of the 7-spot formation RILQMHFWLRQZHOOV ³VRXUFHV´ DQGZDWHUSURGXFWLRQZHOOV ³VLQNV´ ). The honeycomb pattern extends infinitely in both directions. (b) The 7-spot pattern hexagonal building block (c) the modular unit cell (equilateral triangle). within a homogeneous and isotropic porous medi- upon which, when expressed, the Laplace partial um will be considered. A schematic representation differential equation can be separated into two (for of the 7-spot pattern is provided in Figure 1, where- 2D problems) independent ordinary differential by production wells (rectilinear sinks) are uniformly equations. distributed over a reservoir field and create a hon- Nevertheless, the particular case of the Di- eycomb pattern of identical right hexagonal prisms, richlet (or Neumann) problem for the solution of the with lattice constant, " . An injection well (rectilin- Laplace equation within an equilateral triangle can ear source) is located at the axis of each hexagonal be handled in an analytical manner, using the novel prism. If the whole space is filled with these identi- method introduced by Dassios and Fokas [1]. In cal prisms (7-spot modules), then it can be shown their paper Dassios and Fokas manage the so called, (by inductive reasoning) that in the asymptotic ³JOREDO UHODWLRQ´ DQd present a procedure for the limit, the ratio of sources to sinks is ½, i.e. the solution of boundary value problems for the La- number of sinks is twice the number of sources. In place, the Helmholtz and the modified Helmholtz the present work, indicates a point source and equations in the interior of an equilateral triangle. indicates a point sink. Because of the porous medi- So far there have been two applications of the Das- um homogeneity and isotropy and the geometrical sios & Fokas method. In [8], the Laplace equation symmetry, we can postulate that solving the prob- was solved in an exterior non-convex domain which lem in the infinitely extending 7-spot layout (de- is the Kelvin image of an equilateral triangle- sub- picted in Figure 1) is equivalent to solving the prob- ject to Neumann boundary condition, while in [9] lem within an equilateral triangle with impervious Baganis and Hadjinicolaou derive an analytic solu- sides. Suppose the strength of any source (specific tion of the corresponding Dirichlet problem. flowrate or volume flowrate per unit source legth) is Here we present a methodological roadmap qi and, similarly, the strength of any sink is qp. The one has to follow in order to derive an explicit ana- dimensions of both strengths are L2T-1. Because of lytical solution for the sought problem, i.e. interior the 7-spot geometrical symmetry, to find the Neumann problem for the Laplace equation. flowrate per source (or sink) unit length within the isolated equilateral triangle (with impervious sides), STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM volume balance suggests that qi 6 2qp 6 , there- fore 2q q . p i Consider a point source with strength Q at
r3 " 3 , 0 and a pair of sinks with equal strength Analytical/mathematical implications in Q 2 , at positions r 3 6, 2 and triangular geometries. It is well understood that 1 " " 1 2 3 solving analytically the Laplace equation inside a r2 " 3 6 , " 2 . The vectors r , r , r correspond triangle (given any type of Dirichlet, Neumann, to the complex numbers z1, z2, z3, as introduced in Robin or mixed type boundary conditions) is not [1] and define the vertices of the equilateral triangle possible because there is no coordinate system (the length of each side is " , see Figure 2. Follow- matching the triangular geometry configuration ing [1], we denote, also, the sides z2 , z1 , z3, z2
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and z1, z3 , as sides (1), (2) and (3) respectively. considered on the 3 sides of the equilateral triangle, In the interior of the triangle D, the pressure see Figure 2: field assumes the following form [In fact, the pres- sure field incorporates the constant factor, k P , Side (1) with the absolute permeability of the porous § " · Ö k r s ¨ , s¸, N 1,0 medium and P the dynamic viscosity of the fluid] © 2 3 ¹ Q Q Side (2) p r ln r r ln r r 3 1 § s 3 s · § 1 3 · 2S 4S (1) ¨ " " ¸ Ö ¨ ¸ (4) r s ¨ , ¸, N ¨ , ¸ Q © 4 3 2 4 2 ¹ © 2 2 ¹ ln r r q r , r D 4S 2 Side (3) § s 3 s · § 1 3 · ¨ " " ¸ Ö ¨ ¸ where q r is a harmonic function in D , while on r s ¨ , ¸, N ¨ , ¸ © 4 3 2 4 2 ¹ © 2 2 ¹ the boundary wD, as the sides of the triangle are impervious, the normal component of the velocity The first step in implementing the method is field must be zero and the following Neumann the evaluation of the Neumann data condition must be imposed j q s , j 1, 2, 3 , with respect to s , that define the N wp r new functions 0 , r wD (2) wn 2 1 " F k eksq j s ds , j 1, 2, 3 (5) j ³ N Eqn (1) express the contribution of the funda- 2 " 2 mental solution of two-dimensional Laplace equa- tion while eqn (2) yields the Neumann data Next, one has to recover the unknown Di- j j qN s , j 1, 2, 3 on each side of the triangle. richlet data q s , j 1, 2, 3 , on the boundary wD . In [1, Proposition 3.3] the authors establish the so-called Neumann-to-Dirichlet map for the gener- r1 alized Helmholtz equation. In the specific case of Laplace equation we can simplify the result by
N Q/2 straightforward calculations as follows.
T Side 3 Proposition 2.1. Let the real valued function T Q q x, y satisfy the Laplace equation in D , with Side 1 N Neumann boundary conditions (0,0) r3 Side 2 j (6) qN s f j s , j 1, 2, 3 T N
Q/2 whereby the known functions f j satisfy the com-
r2 patibility condition
" 2 >@f s f s f s ds 0 (7) ³ 1 2 3 FIGURE 2 " 2 The fundamental domain D. Then, the Dirichlet data q j s , j 1, 2, 3 can Therefore, we have to solve an interior Neu- be expressed in terms of the known Neumann data mann problem for the Laplace equation and the by the Fourier series well-known compatibility condition (representing N k the mass balance within D) ª 3n º n f« » j j 2iSs 3" 2iSns " (8) q s ¦ « c1 e N k 3n1 »e n f wq r « j 4iSs 3 » dl r 0 (3) c e " N k ³ ¬ 2 3n2 ¼ wD wn where 1 1 2 3 3 2 c c 1, c c a , c c a , must be valid for a solution to exist. 1 2 1 2 1 2 i2S 3 i2S 3 With respect to the same parameter a e , a e (9) and s >@ " 2," 2 , the following set of vector paramet- ric representations, r s , and unit normals, NÖ , are
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3n1 2 ª 2iSs º (10) j N km A n f 3 m1 «c N k e " » mS >@emS 3 1 q j s 1 3n1 (17) ¦ « 3n2 » n f 2iSs « j » where 3" ¬ c2 N k3n2 e ¼
where mS 33i § 3 i 3 · ½ c 1 c 1 1, c 2 c 3 a , c 3 c 2 a , 6 1 2 1 2 1 2 (18) °e cos¨ mS¸F1 km ° ¨ ¸ i2S 3 i2S 3 ° © 6 ¹ ° a e , a e ° mS ° and 35i § · ° 6 3 i 3 ° e cos¨ mS¸F2 km Q 3 (19) ° ¨ 6 ¸ ° N k " B © ¹ m ª mS º ° °(11) 2 m1 mS 8mS «e 3 1 » ° 37i § 3 i 3 · ° ° 6 ¨ ¸ ° « » A e cos mS F3 km ¬ ¼ ® ¨ 6 ¸ ¾ ° © ¹ ° where mS mS mS ° 39i 35i ° ª 33i § 3 i 3 ·º ° 6 6 ° « 2e 6 cos¨ mS ¸» e F1 akm e F2 akm ¨ ¸ « 6 » ° mS mS ° © ¹ ° 3i 33i ° « mS » e 6 F ak e 6 F ak « 35i § 3 i 3 · » ° 3 m 1 m ° 6 ¨ ¸ B « e cos mS »G km mS mS ¨ ¸ ° 35i 37i ° « © 6 ¹ » m 6 6 ° 1 e F ak e F ak ° « mS » ¯ 2 m 3 m ¿ 37i § 3 i 3 · « e 6 cos¨ mS ¸ » « ¨ ¸ » © 6 ¹ 2imS ¬ ¼ (12) mS mS mS k m , m Z ª 39i 35i 3i º (20) 3 6 6 6 " « 2e e e »G akm and ¬« ¼» mS mS mS Fj k , j 1, 2, 3 (13) ª 33i 35i 37i º 6 m 6 6 « 2e 1 e e »G akm are given in [5]. ¬« ¼» We are ready now to apply the above proposi- The harmonic function q r enjoys the classi- tion to the problem at hand. cal integral representation in D DETERMINATION OF THE UNKNOWN DI- ª 1 wq rc º « ln r rc » 2S wnc (21) RICHLET DATA q r « »d rc , r D ³ « » " wD w § 1 · « q rc ¨ ln r rc ¸» In view of (2), straightforward differentiation ¬« wnc © 2S ¹¼» of (1) yields the Neumann data where the integration is taken in the positive direc- 1 3"Q 1 tion, wD wnc denotes the outward normal derivative qN s 4S s2 3 2 4 on wD and dl rc is the line element along each " (14) side. 2 3 3"Q 1 In view of (14) and (17), the above integral qN s qN s 2 2 representation provides the analytical expression for 8S s 3" 4 the harmonic function q r or q x, y and the compatibility condition (7) is satisfied. 3 q x, y " Q u We define the functions 8S " 2 2K x, y,s K x, y,s K x, y,s u 1 2 3 ds 3"Q ³ 2 2 F1 k G k " 2 s 3l 4 8S (15) ª ªE1 x, y,s º º (22) 3 Q « 2 « 2Si » 3n1 » " n f " 2iSs F2 k F3 k G k « « » » N k e 3 E x, y,s e 3" ds 16S ¦« 3n1 ³ « 2 » » n f where « " 2 « 2Si » » « « e 3 E x, y,s » » ¬ ¬ 3 ¼ ¼ 2 " ks ª ªE1 x, y,s º º e (16) « « » » G k ds n f " 2 2Si 3n2 ³ 2 « « » 2iSs » 2 3 N k e 3 E x, y,s e 3" ds " 2 s " ¦« 3n2 ³ « 2 » » n f 2 2Si 4 « " « » » « « 3 » » ¬ ¬ e E3 x, y,s ¼ ¼ Then, the Dirichlet data on each side of the tri- where the functions, angle can be expressed by the series
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2 1 ª§ · º this expression as much as possible. «¨ " ¸ 2 » K1 x, y, s ln x y s «¨ ¸ » 4S ¬© 2 3 ¹ ¼ 2 ª§ 3 · º ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS «¨ " ¸ » (23) ¨ x s ¸ 1 «© 4 3 2 ¹ » K2 x, y, s ln« » 2 This research work has been co-funded by the 4S « § " 1 · » « ¨ y s¸ » European Union (European Social Fund) and Greek ¬ © 4 2 ¹ ¼ QDWLRQDOUHVRXUFHVXQGHUWKHIUDPHZRUNRIWKH³$U 2 ª§ 3 · º chimedes III: Funding of Research Groups in TEI «¨ " ¸ » ¨ x s ¸ 1 « 4 3 2 » RI $WKHQV´ SURMHFW RI WKH ³(GXFDWLRQ /LIelong K x y s © ¹ 3 , , ln« » /HDUQLQJ´2SHUDWLRQDO3Uogram. 4S 2 « § " 1 · » « ¨ y s¸ » ¬ © 4 2 ¹ ¼ The authors have declared no conflict of inter- correspond to the value of the fundamental solution est. of the Laplace equation, while the functions § · 1 ¨ " ¸ ¨ x ¸ 2S © 2 3 ¹ REFERENCES E1 x, y,s 2 § · ¨ " ¸ 2 ¨ x ¸ y s [1] Dassios, G. And Fokas, A.S. (2005) The basic © 2 3 ¹ elliptic equations in an equilateral triangle. § · 1 ¨ " ¸ (24) Proc. R. Soc. A 461, 2721±2748 ¨ x y 3 ¸ 2S © 3 ¹ [2] Muskat, M. (1946) The Flow of Homogeneous E x, y,s 2 2 2 Fluids Through Porous Media. Ann Arbor, § 3 · § 1 · ¨ " ¸ ¨ " ¸ ¨ x s ¸ ¨ y s¸ Mich., J. W. Edwards, In., [c1937], 1st ed. © 4 3 2 ¹ © 4 2 ¹ [3] Bear, J. (1988) Dynamics of fluids in porous § · 1 ¨ " ¸ media, Dover, ISBN 978-0486656755 ¨ x y 3 ¸ 2S © 3 ¹ [4] Valavanides, M.S. (2012) Steady-State Two- E x, y,s 3 2 2 Phase Flow in Porous Media: Review of Pro- § 3 · § 1 · ¨ " ¸ ¨ " ¸ ¨ x s ¸ ¨ y s¸ gress in the Development of the DeProF Theo- © 4 3 2 ¹ © 4 2 ¹ ry Bridging Pore- to Statistical Thermodynam- ics- Scales. Oil & Gas Science and Technolo- correspond to the value of its normal derivative on gy, 67(5), 787-804, sides (1), (2) and (3) respectively. [5] Tsakiroglou, C.D., Aggelopoulos, C.A., Terzi, K., Avraam, D.G., Valavanides, M.S. (2015) Steady-state two-phase relative permeability CONCLUSIONS functions of porous media: A revisit. Interna- tional Journal of Multiphase Flow, 73, 34±42, In order to determine the pressure field for the [6] Valavanides, M.S., Totaj, E., Tsokopoulos, M. case of saturated, 7-spot pattern flow configuration (2016) Energy Efficiency Characteristics in within a porous medium, we presented a methodol- Steady-State Relative Permeability Diagrams ogy for solving this unconventional flow problem in of Two-Phase Flow in Porous Media Journal of an analytical fashion. Petroleum Science and Engineering, 147, 181- We first took into account the hexagonal 201, symmetry and the porous medium isotropy and http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2016.04.039 homogeneity to study the equivalent flow problem [7] Valavanides, M.S., And Skouras, E.D. (2014) within any isolated building block, i.e. an equilat- ³5DWLRQDOVROLWDU\ZHOOVSDFLQJLQVRLOUHPHGLa- eral triangle. WLRQ SURFHVVHV´ Fresen. Environ. Bull. 23(11), Then, we formulated an interior Neumann 2847-2851 problem for the unknown harmonic function q , [8] Baganis G, Hadjinicolaou, M. (2009) Analytic which incorporates the contribution of all sources solution of an exterior Dirichlet problem in a and sinks placed outside the isolated triangle. To non-convex domain. IMA Journal of Applied this end, we have first established the Neumann-to- Mathematics, 74(5), 668²684 Dirichlet map, since the value of the solution on the [9] Baganis G, Hadjinicolaou, M. (2010) Analytic boundary of the fundamental domain is involved solution of an exterior Neumann problem in a into its integral representation. Then, the corre- non-convex domain. Mathematical Methods in sponding integral representation provides an analyt- the Applied Sciences, 33(17), 2067-2075 ical expression of the solution in terms of Neumann and Dirichlet data. In a future work, we need to evaluate the inte- grals in (22), using complex analysis and simplify
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Received: 07.04.2017 Accepted: 21.07.2017
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Gregory Kamvyssas Dept. of Mechanical Engineering TEI of Western Greece GR-26334 Patras GREECE e-mail: [email protected]
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EVALUATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES (SOLAR, WIND, AND BIOGAS) ESTABLISHED IN CYPRUS IN THE FRAMEWORK OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Antonis A Zorpas1*, Michalis Tsangas2, Mejdi Jeguirim3, Lionel Limousy3, Jose Navarro Pedreno4
1Cyprus Open University, Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences, Environmental Conservation and Management, Laboratory of Chemical Engineering and Engineering Sustainability, 33 Giannou Kranidioti St, Latsia, Nicosia, Cyprus 2QSHE Engineering Services, P.O. Box 70784, 3802, Limassol, Cyprus 3Institut de Science des Matériaux de Mulhouse, 3 bis rue Alfred Werner, 68093 Mulhouse, France; 4Department of Agrochemistry and Environment, Miguel Hernández University of Elche. Avda. de la Universidad s/n, 03202 Elche, Alicante, Spain.
ABSTRACT geopolitical risks), safe (no accident risk, e.g. an oil spill) and they can be mainly supplied even in rural Cyprus is an island whose energy production is remote areas [1]. Their development will satisfy all almost completely dependent on imported parameters of the sustainable energy having on mind hydrocarbon fuels. Its electricity production sector is future trends, financial, environmental and social more than 80% depended on oil products while the aspects [2]. It is well known that RES contributes to remaining 20 % are covered by imports of coal (5%) the reduction on fossil fueO¶VDQGPLWLJDWLQJFOLPDWH and by renewable energy sources (15%). However, change and are used as a sustainable energy renewable energy sources and more specific solar, production tool. wind, and biogas are not always without any Until now, there is a gap of data regarding the negative impacts to the environment and the society. impact of the RES project that had been established Environmental impact assessment is necessary to be and operated in the holistic approach of Sustainable done before a RES established in order to estimate, development (SD). Sustainable development is control and minimized any impact to the ³development that meets the needs of the present environment before the construction of those parks. without compromising the needs of future There is absence of data regarding the impact of the JHQHUDWLRQVWRPHHWWKHLURZQQHHGV´ The definition renewable energy sources project that had been of Sustainable Development given by Brundtland in established and operated since now although there 1987 is the most common used by authors, are several data before the installation. This paper researchers and other related to concept of focuses on the evaluation of three RES projects that sustainability [3]. The idea of «sustainable had been established and operated the last years, development» was born in 1713 when Carlowitz covering the full range of exploited renewable edited the first book on forest sciences [3]. He argued energy sources in Cyprus. Thirty-two parameters in that timber would be ³DV LPSRUWDQW DV RXU GDLO\ the holistic approach of the Sustainable bread´ DQGWKDWLWVKRXOGEH³used with caution in a Development framework had been used; and using way, that there is a balance between timber growth the multi-criteria analyses method TOPSIS those DQG OXPEHULQJ´. This would allow forever a parks were evaluated. The final results indicated FRQWLQXRXV SHUSHWXDO XVH ³For this reason, we that, the photovoltaic park is more efficient in the VKRXOGRUJDQLVHRXUHFRQRP\LQDZD\WKDWZHZRQ¶W holistic approach of Sustainable Development than suffer scarcity [of timber], and where it is lumbered wind park and the biogas unit and is consider to be we should strive for young growth at its place´>@ more acceptable from the citizens. This paper focuses on the evaluation of three RES projects that had been established and operated the last years, covering the full range of exploited KEYWORDS: RES in Cyprus. Furthermore, the paper answers in Renewable Energy Sources, Environmental Impacts, one main research question; which one (of the RES: Multi-Criteria Analysis, Sustainable Energy, Analytical solar, wind, biogas) runs more effectively in the Herocray Process framework of sustainability in Cyprus under warm climate conditions.
INTRODUCTION RES IMPACTS RES (renewable energy sources) are sustainable (due to decarbonisation of the economic RES are directly connected to a numeral of growth produced by them), secure (refrain from positive impacts (in society, environment and
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economy). However, as indicated by Abbasi and the main negative impacts includes: toxicity to Abbasi [5], RES may present some negatives, humans, photochemical oxidant formation, including social and environmental aspects [6]. formation and exploitation of particulate matters Wind turbines for example are noisy and can become (PM 2.5, PM10), radiation, terrestrial acidification, dangerous for wild birds [7]. Kansas developed a eutrophication, fresh, ecotoxicity, agricultural and comprehensive guidance document to help wind urban land occupation, natural land transformation power project stakeholders as they consider potential but also water, fossil and metal depletion and impact project sites in the state. Among the impacts that to climate change and ozone depletion. Moreover, Kansas guidance document suggests should be Buratti et al. [14] indicated that emissions from considered: land use, noise management, natural and biogas unit may include carcinogens and non- biological resources, visual impacts, soil erosion and carcinogens and respiratory organics and non- water quality, safety, cultural, archaeological, and organics. paleontological impacts, socio-economic, public The social aspects of RES are also very service, and infrastructure impacts, as well as public important as it is not easy to convince local interaction considerations [8]. On the other hand, population due to many suspicions and negative wind turbines present significant positive impacts as expectations about this type of applications in their they do not need water and they do not produce any neighbourhood [15, 16]. carbon dioxide emission according to Saidur et al. [7]. Technological developments according to Tampakis et al., [9] have allowed wind energy to RENEWABLE ENERGY IN CYPRUS STATE become a major energy source, which can question OF THE ART the use of fossil fuel and be considered as the main solution for achieving the goals set. More over Cyprus which became member of the European according to the same report indicated a positive Union in 2004 has equal population of up to 862000 attitude from the majority of the population in [17]. Cyprus power system operates in isolation and Europe and the US regarding wind energy, and the for electricity production used to rely totally on expansion of wind power. imported fuels such as, heavy fuel oil and diesel [18, Negative impacts of photovoltaic (PV) power 19]. Although from 2011-2013, a reduction of power generation include mainly impacts to land use (large production was noted, a demand growth is also areas are required for central systems and reduction predicted for the next years expecting to reach more of cultivable land), visual intrusion, impact to than 1165 MW in 2022 [20]. The yearly CO2 aesthetics, impact on ecosystems (applicable to large emissions are equal to 10397 Kg/capita, higher than PV schemes), use of toxic and flammable materials the EU 27 average which is 8180 Kg/capita. Some (during construction of the modules) and slight researches indicated that in the exclusive economic health risks from manufacture, use and disposal [10]. zone of the island may exist significant Moreover Chiabrando et al. [11] mentioned that the hydrocarbons reserves (although those were not yet most significant negatives impact are the loses of been verified are estimated to be approximately 6-8 land as they cannot be used for production of energy billion barrels or higher) [21]. and agricultural at the same time, countryside Cyprus has a remarkable RES as it is one of the destruction, landscape optical and or visual pollution leading countries in the world utilizing solar water (which is consider to be very subjective indicator), heaters with estimated area of flat plate solar the interference with fauna and flora, the collectors covering a total area of 560000 m2, which microclimate change, the presents of the corresponds to approximately 0.86 m2/ inhabitant electromagnetic fields as well as the impacts (noise, [18]. The last 5 years RES exploitation has been dust mostly) during the construction phase. imported in Cyprus energy production system. The Furthermore, according to Holdren et al. [12] PVs, target is up to 13% of the total island energy unusually includes toxic substances as production to be derived from RES by the end of manufacturing while wind power presents more 2020 [22]. often accident hazard from blade failures and Solar, wind and biomass energy seem to be a toppling towers, bird and insect kills, fall hazard solution for the island energy system isolation and during maintenance, interference with imported fossil fuel dependency. Different statistical electromagnetic communications, aircraft analyses [17, 19] have indicated that all parts of the navigation hazard, chemical, electrical and explosive island enjoy sunny climate. The island is exposed to hazards from storage batteries and noise. sunlight radiation on average 9.8 h in December and Additionally, biomass includes dust emissions from 14.5 h in June, and the annual solar potential can agricultural and human activities, high quantities of reach up to 2500 KWh/m2 for two-axis tracking water use (where irrigation is required), pollution systems [19]. Moreover, the wind potential is from pesticides, herbicides, solid/sludge residuals between 150 and 250 MW [23]. Although high wind from conversion processes, ecosystem effects of potential is not typical in Cyprus, several areas are mono culture etc. Poeschl et al. [13] indicated that identified as having annual mean values of wind
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speeds more than 5 m/s at 10 m height. Those the environment, public health, quality of life and locations are situated in the southern coastal zone of work conditions during the: (a) construction, (b) the island and in some locations in the mountains operation, (c) maintenance and (d) demolition of the [18]. Biodegradable wastes, consists of the projects. It is also required to assess the biodegradable fraction of municipal solid waste, compatibility of the project with the government sewage sludge, solid and liquid agricultural residues policies and the project area land use. Furthermore, as well as solid and liquid wastes from food it must also assess and examine the project impacts industries [24]. The potential energy that could be on several other parameters including the impact on produced by those wastes is estimated to be 114-700 the: public infrastructures, road traffic, daily life and million m3, depending on the method used [25]. convenience of the area residents, rural land and sea 185031 KW of total renewable energy power activities, monuments and architecture heritage, were established on the island and connected to the existent buildings and infrastructure stability, natural grid by the end of 2013. More specific (Figure 1 and and structured environment including aesthetic and ELRPDVV ELRJDV XQLWV RI Ȁ: WRWDO optical pollution, landscape and natural sources, SRZHU39V\VWHPVRI Ȁ:WRWDOSRZHU flora and fauna, water (surface and underground), 57 PV systems on public buildings, oIȀ:WRWDO rivers, soil, navigation, microclimate and climate SRZHUDQGILYH ZLQGSDUNVRIȀ:WRWDO change, coasts, sea environment, etc. power were established and operated [26]. The total production by the end of 2013 was 25949741 KWh electric powers. MATERIAL AND METHODS
Renewable Energy Sources Evaluation. The most relevant methods used for the evaluation of RES include different multi-criteria analyses methodologies [28, 29, 30, 31] using a range of criteria, usually covering the technical, economic and environmental aspects [28]. Since the economic feasibility of RES projects is also significant, evaluation using only economic methods is another approach [19]. Sustainability indicators [32] like cost of electricity generation, greenhouse gas emissions and energy pay-back time have been used in order FIGURE 1 renewable based electricity generation technologies Cyprus implemented RES % per units to be assessed by using data obtained from the literature [33]. Other sustainability indicators used for renewable energy sources evaluation are the price of generated electricity, greenhouse gas emissions during full life cycle of the technology, the availability of renewable sources, the efficiency of energy conversion, land requirements, water consumption and social impacts [32].
Assessment Method. Multiple criteria in the framework of sustainability that affect the success implementation of a RES project must be analysed and taking into account [31]. The three RES projects FIGURE 2 used in this research have been licensed, constructed Cyprus implemented RES % by power and already run for at least 5 to 6 years. During their licensing procedure EIA studies was prepared and evaluated and each one was licensed with specific EIA IN CYPRUS REGARDING RES PARKS environmental terms and conditions in order to minimize their impacts to the environment especially EIA requirements in Cyprus are regulated by during the construction process but also during the the Law 140(I)/2005 [27]. The law requires EIA for operation and demolition phase. Regarding this, the a number of project types, in order to be licensed. main research question that arised was which one of This obligation also applies for biogas unit, wind the RES projects is more effectively in the park and PV parks but only if the capacity is higher framework of sustainability in Cyprus. Moreover the than 100 KW. EIA estimate all the negative and paper aim to examined (a) if the EIA study was positive impacts of a project including the impacts to effectively prepared covering all the environmental
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aspects, (b) if the environmental terms/conditions set final operation performance of each project versus to were sufficient to prevent impacts and (c) what are its designed e.g. KS1, number of new job places their impacts in the framework of sustainability required for the project operation / number of job during the operation and until the end of their life. places prescribed during the EIA; or indicators The evaluation criteria can be summarized in representing the project operation performance e.g. four categories, i.e. technical, environmental, social KS2, number of accidents and incidents / number of and economic [34]. Those categories cover the years of project operation, etc. pillars of sustainability but it is crucial to add the institutional dimension also [35]. Institutional TABLE 1 dimension covers the details regarding the Evaluation Criteria satisfaction of the established policies and legislation Code Economic Criteria Code Environmental Criteria including also the interactions between the KT1 Project KE1 Water consumption governmental and non-governmental organizations implementation KT2 Energy yield KE2 CO2 emissions involved in the decision making as expressed by the conservation terms set from the EIA committee which evaluate the KT3 Subsidy yield KE3 Air pollution EIA study for each project and in which participate KT4 Investment yield KE4 Sewage representatives of both governmental and non- KT5 Electrical grid burden KE5 Solid waste KT6 Maintenance cost KE6 Land impacts (roads) governmental organizations. prevention Code Social Criteria KE7 Land use impacts Technique for Order Preference by prevention Similarity to Idea Solution (TOPSIS) Method. KS1 New job places KE8 Noise impact prevention The principle behind TOPSIS method is quite KS2 Accidents and KE9 Flora and fauna impacts incidents prevention simple. An ideal solution is formed as a composite KS3 Neighbour KE10 Cultural heritage and of the best performance value exhibited by any complaints monuments impacts alternative for each attribute and the negative-ideal prevention solution is the composite of the worst performance KS4 Compensational KE11 Visual field impacts values. The chosen alternatives should be as close to payments prevention the ideal solution as possible and as far from the KS5 Social economic KE12 Electromagnetic impacts negative-ideal solution as possible [31]. TOPSIS compensation prevention method has been developed by Hwang and Yoon KS6 Social positive impact KE13 Microclimate impact [31] during 1981 and includes an ideal solution prevention determination [31, 36]. According to San Cristóbal Code Institutional Criteria KE14 Fuel saving Mateo [31] TOPSIS method consists of six basic KI1 Licensed deviations KE15 Ground impact prevention steps which includes: (i) normalized decision matrix KI2 Deviations to KE16 Smell, dust etc calculation; (ii) weighted normalized decision authorities prevention matrix calculation; (iii) the ideal and negative-ideal requirements and solutions determination; (iv) separation measures licenses KE17 Traffic impact prevention calculation; (v) relative closeness to the ideal KE18 Material recycle solution calculation and (vi) preference order ranking. The alternatives are ranked by sorting the Criteria weighting. There are a number of * relative closeness value (C j) calculated for each one methods for determining the weights varying on the in decreasing order and according to the method the ZD\WKH\SURFHVVGHFLVLRQPDNHUV¶YLHZV>@ solution is the alternative which is the best ranked For this research the proposed method by by Saaty (maximum) by the measure. [28, 37] was used. According to San Cristóbal Mateo [31] when AHP is applied, all the criteria are Assessment Criteria. The criteria to be used in compared pair-wise with respect to specific criteria Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) analysis for the in the direct level. evaluation of the three RES projects arising from the components of sustainable development are Projects under study. The three different RES classified into four main categories (Table 1). Each (Figure 3) projects under study were: (i) wind energy basic category consists of a number of ZDV UHSUHVHQWHG E\ D ZLQG SDUN RI Ȃ: environmental, economic, social and institutional installation power, operating since January 2012, (ii) sub criteria (Table 1). For the comparative solar energy which was represented by a PV park, evaluation a pair wise evaluation were used. with installation power 150 KW, operating since The criteria (Table 1) represent the projects October 2011 and (iii) biomass by a biogas performance and since different projects with a electricity production unit, with installation power variation of characteristics and values referring to Ȁ:RSHUDWLQJVLQFH6Hptember 2010. different time periods have to be compared, they have been formed either as indicators to show the
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The terms and conditions include the necessary measures for most of the environmental impacts of RES projects as have been mentioned in the literature [8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14]. Based on the AHP methodology the pairwise comparison matrix for the determination of the criteria weights was specified by accepting that social and environmental criteria are obviously more important than the economic followed by the institutional criteria which are more important than the economic. Social and environmental criteria are FIGURE 3 equal and the institutional criteria are less important Projects under study than the social and environmental. Table 3 indicated the rate pf each criterion.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS TABLE 3 Criteria Weights The initial EIA studies (for all the examined Criteria Code Weight Criteria Code Weight RES project) were totally prepared according to the Economic 0.039 Environmental 0.215 requirements of the National Law (175(I)/2005) [27] KT1 0.003 KE1 0.017 and after their evaluation from the Department of KT2 0.005 KE2 0.043 Environment a number of environmental terms and KT3 0.002 KE3 0.020 KT4 0.019 KE4 0.004 conditions were set to minimize their impacts during KT5 0.009 KE5 0.004 the contraction and operation as presented in Table KT6 0.001 KE6 0.005 2. Institutional 0.531 KE7 0.011 KI1 0.133 KE8 0.015 TABLE 2 KI2 0.398 KE9 0.009 Environmental Terms regarding the KE10 0.006 construction and operation phase of the Social 0.215 KE11 0.005 KS1 0.096 KE12 0.006 examined parks as given by the examination of KS2 0.052 KE13 0.005 the EIA law KS3 0.021 KE14 0.017 PV Park Wind Park Biogas Unit KS4 0.028 KE15 0.003 Visual field and Ground impact Sewage handling KS5 0.010 KE16 0.005 glare impacts prevention terms terms KS6 0.008 KE17 0.008 prevention terms KE18 0.032 Accidents and Accidents and Solid waste incidents incidents handling terms The collected data developed three quantitative prevention terms prevention terms Ground impact Noise impact Accidents and groups, each one for each project, including the prevention terms prevention terms incidents values of the criteria. The calculations following the prevention terms six steps of TOPSIS method for the three alternatives Flora impacts Flora and fauna Smell, dust etc. data groups, applying the determined criteria prevention terms impacts prevention terms prevention terms weights, were made and the relative closeness value * Smell, dust etc Land use impacts Ground (and (C j) which for the PV park was 0.693, for the wind prevention terms prevention ground water) park was 0.402 while for biogas unit was 0.274 impact prevention (Figure 4). The TOPSIS indicated that the most terms Noise impact Visual field Solid waste efficient RES (according to what criteria were set) prevention terms impacts handling terms was the PV park followed by wind park and biogas prevention terms unit. Solid waste Traffic impact Traffic impact The examined RES projects indeed have handling terms prevention terms prevention terms Sewage handling Solid waste Air pollution negative environmental impacts, just as it is widely terms handling terms prevention terms stated in the literature for RES and their exploitation Visual field projects [5, 8, 10]. At the same time the examined impacts RES projects presented with positive impact on the prevention terms Noise impact development of new job positions. This is consider prevention terms to be an important finding, especially if this is compared with other research which indicated that Those terms and conditions covered the there is no clear result about whether RES has construction, operation and demolition phase of each positively or negatively effects on employment [38]. project but since the demolition phase cannot be The projects ranking is fairly interesting. The evaluated at the moment, in the table are included nomination of the PV park as the nearest to the ideal only these regarding the construction and operation. solution is also supported and from other researchs
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[39, 40]. However, Varum, et al., [33] rank wind The use of multiple criteria decision making parks as the most suitable and applicable solution methodologies for the promotion of RES comparing with other RES. through funding schemes in Cyprus, A review. Energy Policy. 38: 7783±7792. [3] Voukkali, I., Loizia, P.,Zorpas, A.A. (2014). Definitions of Sustainability, In: Sustainability Behind Sustainability, Ed: Zorpas, A.A., Nova Science Publisher, New York, pp1-6 [4] Keiner, M. (2005). History Definitions and models of sustainable development. ETH e- collection [5] Abbasi, S.A., Abbasi, N. (2000). The likely
FIGURE 4 adverse environmental impacts of renewable TOPSIS ranking results energy sources. Applied Energy. 65: 121-144. [6] Kettl, K-H., Niemetz, N., Sandor, N., Eder, M., The energy production from waste has been Narodoslawsky, M. (2011). Ecological Impact noted that it is interesting for Cyprus [25]. Besides a of Renewable Resource-Based Energy unit using biogas from waste, as the project was Technologies. Ashdin Publishing, Journal of accessed, has a notable environmental benefit by Fundamentals of Renewable Energy and contributing to the solid waste and wastewater Applications. 1: [online] Available at: environmentally friendly management. Cyprus has a
[10] 7VRXWVRV ȉ )UDQW]HVNDNL ȃ *HNDV 9 The solar energy exploitation seems that should (2005). Environmental impacts from the solar be in priority promoted in Cyprus. The island has a energy technologies. Energy Policy. 33: 289± strong solar energy potential and although other 296. renewable sources can also be further developed, [11] Chiabrando, R., Fabrizio, E., Garnero, G. solar energy projects are an efficient choice, (2009). The territorial and landscape impacts of although Cyprus has a quite high solid waste per photovoltaic systems: definition of impacts and capita index and maybe a waste to energy strategy assessment of the glare risk. Renewable and concept could be also very promises solution due to Sustainable Energy Reviews. 13: 2441±2451. the limited space of land. Since the obligation of [12] Holdren, J.P., Morris, G., Mintzer, I. (1980). Renewable Energy Projects for compensation Environmental aspects of renewable energy payments to local communities, today is effective to sources. Ann. Rev. Energy. 5:241-291. wind parks only, it is suggested that, these could be [13] Poeschl, M., Ward, S., Owende, P. (2012). implemented to all kinds of RES. Environmental impacts of biogas deployment -
Part II: life cycle assessment of multiple
production and utilization pathways. Journal of
Cleaner Production 24: 184-201.
[14] Buratti, C., Barbanera, M., Testarmata, F., REFERENCES Fantozzi, F. (2015). Life Cycle Assessment of organic waste management strategies: an Italian [1] Menegaki, A.N. (2012). A social marketing mix case study. Journal of Cleaner Production. 89: for renewable energy in Europe based on 125-136. consumer stated preference surveys. Renewable [15] Kaldellis, J.K., Kapsali, M., Katsanou, E. Energy. 39: 30-39. (2012). Renewable energy applications in [2] Theodorou, S., Florides, G., Tassou, S. (2010).
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Greece²What is the public attitude? Energy Sector Management 5(2):271 ± 286. Policy 42: 37±48. [30] Ramana, A.S., Chidambaram, L., Kamaraj, G., [16] Pasqualetti, M.J. (2011). Social barriers to Velraj, R. (2012) Evaluation of renewable renewable energy landscapes. The Geographical energy options for cooling applications. Review. 101(2): 201-223. International Journal of Energy Sector Mana- [17] Cyprus Statistical Services 2011 gement 6(1):65 ± 74. [18] Koroneos, C., Fokaidis, P., Moussiopoulos, N. [31] San Cristóbal Mateo, J.R. (2012). Multi-Criteria (2005). Cyprus energy system and the use of Analysis in the Renewable Energy Industry. renewable energy sources. Energy 30:1889± London, Springer. 1901. [32] Inglezakis, J.V., Zorpas, A.A. (2014). [19] Poullikkas, A. (2009). Economic analysis of Environmnetal Indicators. In Sustainability power generation from parabolic trough solar behind Sustainability, Eds Zorpas AA, Nova thermal plants for the Mediterranean region - A Science Publisher, NY pp 17-34. case study for the island of Cyprus. Renewable [33] Varun Prakash, R., Bhat, I.K. (2009). Energy, and Sustainable Energy Reviews 13(9): 2474± economics and environmental impacts of 2484. renewable energy systems. Renewable and [20] TSO-C. Long term forecast of maximum total Sustainable Energy Reviews 13:2716±2721. electric power (MW) for years 2013 -2022; [34] Zorpas, A.A., Voukkali, I., Inglezakis, V. 2014. [online]. Available at :
5535 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5529-5536 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin
Received: 07.04.2017 Accepted: 21.07.2017
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Antonis A Zorpas Cyprus Open University, Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences, Environmental Conservation and Management, Laboratory of Chemical Engineering and Engineering Sustainability, 33 Giannou Kranidioti St, Latsia, Nicosia, Cyprus
Email: [email protected] [email protected]
.
5536 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5537-5541 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin
DETERMINATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC POLLUTION IN NIGDE PROVINCE (TURKEY): PRELIMINARY RESULTS
Mahmut Ali Kalin, Neslihan Dogan-Saglamtimur*
Department of Environmental Engineering, Engineering Faculty, Omer Halisdemir University, 51240, Nigde, Turkey
ABSTRACT of EM fields or radiation. Wireless and radio com- munications, power transmissions, or devices in The electromagnetic (EM) pollution can lead to daily use such as smartphones, tablets, and portable performance degradation in electronic devices or computers expose people to EM pollution every day. systems. EM pollution has been categorized as a new EM fields and/or EM radiation, as EM pollution, af- form of environmental pollution. In this preliminary fect various elements of the environment, among study, so as to detect EM pollution emitted from which all living organisms should be considered in some important base stations in Nigde province, the first place. Therefore, it becomes very important measurements carried out with mobile equipment to appropriately determine the nature and related -Spectran RF&EMF Hand Held Spectrum Analyser side effects of EM pollution. Every day, living or- Set (Pro 3) with a frequency range of 1 Hz to 9.4 ganisms are exposed to different types of EM pollu- GHz- were made in three main categories including tion. However, all of them can be well characterized changes of electrical field, magnetic field and EM by their physical parameters such as type (electric, power. Measurements were performed near the base magnetic, EM), frequency, and intensity/power >3@. stations that are located in three certain areas includ- EM pollution that consists of electric field and ing the NigGH&DVWOH
5537 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5537-5541 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin
located at three selected areas in central district of reading. The base station locaWHGLQ Ă ď FIGURE 1 MF comparisons between indoor (a) and out- door (b) areas based on measurements taken from base station located in 100 m away from As an example of EF measurement, base station PHOTOGRAPH 1 located near the Fire Department of Nigde was cho- a) Spectran RF&EMF Hand Held Spectrum An- sen in the study. Measurements, ranging from alyser Set (Pro 3) (Spectran HF 60105 and Spec- 1.25x10-3-6.27x10-2 and 2.07x10-4-5.70x10-2 V/m, tran NF 5035 HyperLog), b) Spectran HF-60105 done at 0 m and 10 m from the base station were MobileSpectrum Analyser shown in Figure 2. The Nigde Castle area was chosen for compar- isons of height difference in MF, EF and EM power. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION It was determined that MF, EF and EM power showed decreasing trend when altitude is increasing In this preliminary study, the measurements for (Figure 3), varied from 3.57x10-4 to 1.53x10-4 A/m, MF, EF and EM power, given under three main 4.74x10-1 to 4.99x10-2 V/m and -95.578 to -92.529 headings, were carried out from specified locations dBm. ( 5538 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5537-5541 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin FIGURE 2 EF measurements made near the base station lo- cated in the Fire Department area in 0 m (a) and 10 m (b) distances TABLE 1 Uncontrolled Response in Public Living Space to GSM900 and DCS1800 Systems [15] Limit values for 900 MHz ICNIRP* IEEE/FCC** EF 41.25 V/m - MF 0.111 A/m - Limit values for 1800 MHz ICNIRP* IEEE/FCC** EF 58.33 V/m - MF 0.157 A/m - (*ICNIRP: The International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) **IEEE: Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, FCC: Federal Communications Commission (USA) TABLE 2 Turkish uncontrolled response standards (limits) for EM pollution [15, 16] Component Base Station Frequency of EM Pol- 900 MHz 1800 MHz lution Limit values for single equip- ment Limit values for environment Limit values for single equip- ment Limit values for environment EF 3 V/m 41.25 V/m 14.47V/m 58.34V/m MF 7 A/m 0.111 A/m 0.038A/m 0.157A/m FIGURE 3 TABLE 3 EF, MF and EM power comparisons made be- Comparison of EM pollution results obtained tween two points being different in height (low from this study and other studies in the litera- level: a, c, e, high level: b, d, f) 50 m away from ture the Nigde Castle area Studies in the lit- EF MF EM power erature (V/m) (A/m) (dBM)/ Power density (W/m2) CONCLUSION g]JPúet al. <4 - - (2010) [17] This preliminary study focuses on changes in dHUH]FLDQGùHNHU <1 - - (2010) [4] height, distance and indoor and outdoor conditions for EM pollution. EM pollution components that are Kapucu et al. - - -60 dBm (2011) [14] MF, EF and EM power were determined to decrease &DQVÕ]DQG.XUW 4.68 0.0124 0.058032 W/m2 when height and distance (in indoor areas) increased, (2012) [18] respectively. ICNIRP applies a safety factor of 10 to 2.07x10-4- 3.14x10-7- This study -95.578 to 4.74x10-1 1.53x10-4 -92.529 dBm derive occupational exposure limits, and a factor of 5539 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5537-5541 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin 50 to obtain the guideline value for the general pub- Fine, H.A., Black, P.M., Loeffler, J.S. And lic. Therefore, in the electromagnetic frequency Linet, M.S. (2001) Cellular-telephone use and ranges, the maximum levels we might experience in brain tumors. N. Engl. J. Med. 344, 79-86. the environment or in our home are at least 50 times [8] Repacholi, M.H. (2001) Health risks from the lower than the threshold level at which first behav- use of mobile phones. Toxicology Letters 120, ioural changes in animals become apparent [19]. In 323-331. this study, EF and MF values have been found below [9] Auvinen, A., Hietanen, M., Luukkonen, R. And the national and international standards (more than Koskela, R-S. (2002) Brain tumors and salivary 100 times lower) which suggest that no harm should gland cancers among cellular telephone users. be caused by EM pollution on living organisms Epidemiology 13, 356-359. around these base stations in Nigde (Turkey). The [10] Christensen, H.C., Schüz, J., Kosteljanetz, M., study will be continued in all base stations to deter- Poulsen, H.S., Thomsen, J. And Johansen, C. mine EM pollution of this city. (2004) Cellular telephone use and risk of acous- tic neuroma. American Journal of Epidemiology 159, 277-283. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS [11] Lahkola, A., Salminen, T. And Auvinen, A. (2005) Selection bias due to different participa- Authors thankfully acknowledge comments tion in a case-control study of mobile phone use and suggestions raised by Prof. Dr. Sefa ERTÜRK, and brain tumors. Ann. Epidemiol. 15, 5, 321- 3URI'U0XVWDID,ù,.$VVLVW3URI'U.XWDOPÕú 325. *h0hù$VVLVW3URI'U 5540 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5537-5541 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin Conferences, Electrical Electronics and Com- puter Engineering (ELECO), Bursa, Turkey, 454-458. [19] Electromagnetic Fields (EMF), Available from: http://www.who.int/peh- emf/about/WhatisEMF/en/index4.html Received: 07.04.2017 Accepted: 21.07.2017 CORRESPONDING AUTHOR Neslihan Dogan-Saglamtimur Department of Environmental Engineering, Engi- neering Faculty, Omer Halisdemir University, 51240, Nigde, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] [email protected] 5541 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5542-5550 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin EFFECT OF FLY ASH CONTRIBUTION TO THE PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CEMENTED PUMICE-BASED LIGHTWEIGHT WALL MATERIAL Neslihan Dogan-Saglamtimur1,*, Ahmet Bilgil2, Gamze Yildirim1, Tugce Bay1, Unal Doguc1, Kubra Erkekli1 1Department of Environmental Engineering, Engineering Faculty, Omer Halisdemir University, Nigde, 51240, Turkey 2Department of Civil Engineering, Engineering Faculty, Omer Halisdemir University, Nigde, 51240, Turkey ABSTRACT Pumice concrete blocks, which are used in Interior Anatolian Region of Turkey, can be classified in the In this study, using CEM I and CEM II type ce- second category. Volcanic pumice that is a natural ments in different mixing ratios, pumice-based light- lightweight aggregate with vesicular structure and weight wall material with the contribution of fly ash found in granulated form have been used in the pro- (FA) was produced so as to evaluate the likely use of duction of lightweight concrete, in particular they this waste material in the construction sector. Physi- can be found in the Mediterranean area (Italy, Tur- cal and mechanical properties were determined in key, Greece, and Spain) [7, 12-14]. Pumice aggre- the samples. This study consists of two stages. In the gate concrete mixture design has special characteris- first stage, pumice in 0-4 mm size was used as coarse tics from the viewpoint of mixing water content. Due aggregate. The average axial compressive strength to high water absorption capacity of pumice aggre- (ACS) values of samples obtained by using only gates, the total mixing water requirement of pumice pumice were 9.2 and 11.7 MPa for Bims Concrete concrete mixture can be extremely high, causing an 40 (BC40) and BC80 in CEM I, 5.05 and 10.6 MPa increase in water/cement (W/C) ratio [16]. for BC40 and BC80 in CEM II, respectively. In the Fly ash (FA) is the major solid waste and coal- second stage, FAs were added (25, 50, 75 and 100% combustion by-product having inherent heterogene- in weight) as fine aggregates. The ACS values of ous property, porous particle structure and higher samples obtained by using FA additive in different amorphous content [17-19]. Besides the environ- ratios ranged from 4.15 to 5.2 MPa for BC40 in CEM mental benefits of waste disposal and CO2 sequestra- I, 3.0 to 3.45 MPa for BC40 in CEM II, respectively, tion [20, 21], FA improves workability, reduces heat on the other hand, they ranged from 7.4 to 8.7 MPa of hydration and thermal cracking in concrete at for BC80 in CEM I, and 4.9 to 6.8 MPa for BC80 in early ages and improves mechanical and durability CEM II, respectively. Turkish and European (TS- characteristics of concrete especially at later ages EN) standards were used to do experiments and in- [22, 23]. It has been used as replacement for cement terpret the results. [14, 24-27] in lightweight concrete. Volcanic pumice and FA are pozzolanic materials because of their re- action with lime liberated during the hydration of ce- KEYWORDS: ment [28]. Referring to buildings, lightweight con- environment, construction, fly ash, lightweight wall mate- crete can be used in structural frames and marine rial, pumice, reuse, waste structures [29], but it proves to be more suitable for wall system structures, where the local ductility de- mand (in seismic zones) and the required strength of INTRODUCTION the materials are reduced. It has been found that, by using volcanic pumice, satisfactory concrete, from In the literature, there are a number of studies 30 to 40% lighter than normal concrete can be man- on pumice, lightweight concretes, heat insulation on ufactured [30, 31]. building material and optimization of bricks [1-6]. In Since pumice is abundantly found in Turkey, Turkey, due to catastrophic earthquakes and energy this material might be used as an additive in light- saving policy, producing building materials with weight wall material applications or as a precaution lightweight, high strength and heat insulation and against magnesium sulphate attack [32]. This study noise retention properties has been an important is- was carried out in Turkey and many experiments on sue for the last two decades [7-10]. the effects of FA to physical and mechanical proper- Lightweight concrete manufactured either from ties of cemented pumice-based lightweight wall ma- natural or artificial aggregate is classified into three terial were done. categories according to its strength and density [11]. 5542 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5542-5550 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin TABLE 1 Chemical analysis of the pumice and the FA Chem- To- SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO TiO2 K2O MgO P2O5 SO3 Na2O Other ical tal Pumice % 72.02 14.58 1.72 0.84 -- 3.45 0.65 -- -- 5.68 1.06 100 Fly ash % 58.05 21.23 6.73 5.76 1.22 1.80 1.71 0.20 0.15 -- 3.15 100 FIGURE 1 Sieving analysis of the pumice FIGURE 2 Sieving analysis of the FA MATERIALS AND METHODS concrete construction and production stated in Turk- ish Standards (TS) 3234 [34]. Obtained granulo- Pumice. In this study, FA and pumice are used metric distributions are given in Figure 1. Com- as filling materials3XPLFHIURP1HYúHKLUSURYLQFH pacted dry unit weight (UW) of the pumice used in 3 is the source of material we use in our experiments. this study is Jp=0.62 g/cm . Its chemical analysis is Pumice deposits in this region spread from Avanos given in Table 1. to Derinkuyu. The thickness of the pumice in the re- gion varies from 1 to 20 m. Basalt, diabase and ob- Fly ash (FA). FA used in this study as raw ma- sidian pieces in pumice range from 1% to 3%. Pum- WHULDOZDVREWDLQHGIURPLQWHUQDWLRQDOILUPø6.(1 LFHEHGVH[LVWLQJLQ1HYúHKLUDQGQHDUE\DUHin good Inc. Co. Sugözü Termal Power Plant (located in quality and preferred to use. Grain sizes of pumice in øVNHQGHUXQ7XUNH\ 7KHamount of waste ash in this the neighborhood generally ranges from 1 to 70 mm. plant is 300000 tons/year. This ash was sieved with Pumice is normally found white, gray and cream in 500 μm sieve. Therefore, in this study, FAs whose color, but in the upper levels and altered zones they grain sizes are less than 500 μm were added to gran- are white and yellowish beige in color. The studies ulometric distribution. Granulometric distribution of in the field showed that pumice in the area was found sieved FA was complianced with the rules of Bims good enough in quality to be used in the production concrete construction and production stated in TS of lightweight materials [33]. 3234 [34]; but, considering pumice granulometry, Pumice is obtained from Okçu Concrete and the amount of percentage that passed through 500 (QJLQHHULQJ ,QF &R WKDW RSHUDWH LQ 1L÷GH %RU μm sieve was displaced by the FA. Obtained granu- Mixed Organized Industrial Site. Pumice brought to lometric distributions of the FA are given in Figure the laboratory was sieved with 4 mm square mesh. 2. Oven dried compacted UW of the FA that was 3 After sieving, granulometric distributions of the used in this study was found to be JFA=1.10 g/cm . pumice were complianced with the rules of Bims Chemical analysis of the FA is given in Table 1. 5543 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5542-5550 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin TABLE 2 Sample ratios of the first phase Sample ID Pumice Pumice moisture con- Cement Water (g) W/C Sample by weight (g) tent ratio (%) by weight (g) ratio number 0-0.5 mm 0.5-4 mm 0-0.5 mm 0.5-4 mm CEM I CEM II NP-BC40 72 129.8 4.5 1.6 40 - 70 1.75 9 NP-BC80 72 129.8 4.5 1.6 65 - 77 1.18 9 NC-BC40 72 129.8 4.5 1.6 - 37.5 70 1.87 9 NC-BC80 72 129.8 4.5 1.6 - 62.5 77 1.23 9 In sub-indexes, P and C indicate CEM I (Portland) and CEM II type cements, respectively. Other indexes represent the percentage of FA ratio. FIGURE 3 Standard and adjusted sieving analysis of the pumice Cement. Two types of cement were used in this These samples are the base samples of this study. study. One of them is CEM I 42.5 R type Portland Mixing calculations were used to obtain samples in Cement. This cement having the strength class of accordance with TS 3234 Bims concrete standards LV SURGXFHGE\ dø06$ Inc. Co. Portland ce- [34] that were used in Bims block production. CEM ment is the most commonly used cement for a wide I and CEM II types of cements were used as binders. range of applications that cover dry-lean mixes, gen- Obtained parameters from these samples became the eral-purpose ready-mixes, and even high strength base for the second phase. Samples were produced pre-cast and pre-stressed concretes. Another one is in size of 40x40x160 mm. Sample ratios were sum- CEM II /A-/ dø06$6XSHU%LPV W\SH3Rrt- marized in Table 2. land Calcareous Cement. This cement type is de- Since the granulometric distribution of the VLJQHGDQGSURGXFHGDOVRE\dø06$,QF&RIRUHV pumice brought to the laboratory was not in con- pecially Bims manufacturer. It is a building material formity with TS 3234 [34], the granulometric distri- with high heat and noise isolation performance, fire bution of the pumice to be used to produce samples and earthquake resistant, light, economic, healthy was made to conform to the standard by sieve anal- and environment friendly properties and it is used in ysis and it was given in Figure 3. The mixture calcu- the building interior and exterior walls as an alterna- lation was made with pumice as shown in Figure 3. tive to brick and gas concrete [35]. These cements Since the sample mixture calculation was made on are manufactured to comply with the requirements the weight basis, it was taken into account in this TS EN 197-1 standard [36] and CE marked under the study. In the mixture calculation, the amount of mix- European Union system of conformity evaluation ture required for 1 m3 molded and compressed sam- which provides independent third party certification ples was calculated. By using linear proportion for of product conformity. The initial and the final set- mixing calculation of 1 m3 sample, the sample ting time were determined as 210 and 265 minutes weights were determined in 40x40x160 mm mold for CEM I and 510 and 550 minutes for CEM II ce- and the amount of material required for 1 sample ments. Compacted dry UWs of these cements were production was given in Table 2. 3 found to be JCI= 1.35 and JCII= 1.40 g/cm , respec- As stated in the introduction part, pumice has tively. high water absorption capacity. Therefore, for Bims block production in damped materials in 3% ratio, Method. This study consists of two experi- W/C ratio recommended in TS 3234 [34] is about mental steps. In the first phase, according to mixing 1.10 for BC40 and 1.15 for BC80. In this study, cal- design, only pumice-based BC40 and BC80 (Abbre- culations were made within this ratio. However, viations used in Turkey for Bims Concrete types. 28- since the sample contains too much fine material in day compressive strength values of these concrete its production, the wetted surface area increases. In types are 4 MPa (40 kgf/cm2) and 8 MPa (80 the study, the W/C ratio was not sufficient due to the kgf/cm2), respectively) samples were obtained. pumice's inherent effect and the excess mixture 5544 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5542-5550 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin TABLE 3 Sample ratios of the second phase Sample ID FA by weight Pumice Cement Water (g) W/C Sample num- (g) by weight (g) by weight (g) Ratio ber 0-0.5 mm 0-0.5 mm 0.5-4 mm CEM I CEM II BC40 NP4-25 20.2 54.7 129.8 40 -- 70 1.87 9 NP4-50 40.2 36.5 129.8 40 -- 73 1.95 9 NP4-75 60.1 18.2 129.8 40 -- 77 2.05 9 NP4-100 80.3 - 129.8 40 -- 82 2.19 9 NC4-25 20.2 54.7 129.8 -- 37.5 70 1.75 9 NC4-50 40.2 36.5 129.8 -- 37.5 73 1.83 9 NC4-75 60.1 18.2 129.8 -- 37.5 77 1.93 9 NC4-100 80.3 - 129.8 -- 37.5 82 2.05 9 BC80 NP8-25 20.2 54.7 129.8 65 -- 77 1.23 9 NP8-50 40.2 36.5 129.8 65 -- 81 1.30 9 NP8-75 60.1 18.2 129.8 65 -- 85 1.36 9 NP8-100 80.3 - 129.8 65 -- 90 1.44 9 NC8-25 20.2 54.7 129.8 -- 62.5 77 1.18 9 NC8-50 40.2 36.5 129.8 -- 62.5 81 1.25 9 NC8-75 60.1 18.2 129.8 -- 62.5 85 1.31 9 NC8-100 80.3 - 129.8 -- 62.5 90 1.38 9 * In sub-indexes, P and C indicate CEM I (Portland) and CEM II cements, 4 and 8 indicate BC40 and BC80, respectively. Other indexes represent the percentage of FA ratio. ** The values in this table are for only one sample. water was needed to obtain the mixture in paste first experiment into consideration. Samples were (mortar) consistency. In this study, vibrations were produced in size of 40x40x160 mm and the amount used in the molds of the samples and the mixture of water was determined according to slump settling consistency was adjusted to be within the range of values. Sample mixture ratios of used material were 10-15 cm according to slump funnel value used in summarized in Table 3. concrete production. 9 samples were produced for A table type mixer in 5 L capacity was used in the first stage in the study. 3 of them were used to the mixing process during the production of the sam- determine their axial compressive strength (ACS), 3 ples. At one time, mixing samples were prepared so of them were used to determine their physical prop- that 9 samples could be produced. Mixing was done erties, and 3 them were stored as proof samples. by pumice, FA and water, respectively in 1 minute In the second phase, the FA additived samples in the first speed and 3 minutes in the second speed with pumice were produced. Pumice and FA were (totally 4 minutes). Molding of the mixture was selected in 0.5-4 mm and 0-0.5 mm sieving ranges, made according to TS EN 196-1 [37]. respectively. In all BC40 and BC80 samples that Samples produced in both phases were kept in were produced, pumice and FA are used as coarse molds and placed with the help of vibration. 9 items and fine materials, respectively. Mixing calculations were produced from each sample. Samples were kept were used to obtain samples in accordance with TS in molds for 24 h after they were placed. These sam- 3234 Bims concrete standards [34] that were used in ples were taken out from the molds and water cure in Bims block production. The mixture of the samples 23±2 oC temperature was applied. 7 and 28-day produced in the second phase was made in the same ACS, UW, porosity and water absorption percentage way as in the first phase. In sample production, fine (WAP) were determined by using standard experi- materials (FA, 0-0.5 mm in size) in 25-50-75-100% ments. ratios were used to displace the used pumice. When displaced, the cement quantities in the second phase were equal to the cement quantities in the first phase. RESULTS As in the first phase, CEM I and CEM II cements were used as binders in each sample. The granulo- Experimental studies were done on the samples metric distribution of the FA was not improved, the that were produced from both phases. Samples that FA was only displaced in % ratios. The coarse mate- were produced in the first phase processed in the rial ratio was fixed with the first phase by taking same conditions and 7-day and 28-day ACS, UW, pumice in 0.5-4 mm size. In this study, it was exam- porosity and WAP of them were summarized in Ta- ined whether the FA, which is waste in environment, ble 4. UWs of the samples are in oven dried condi- could be used in the production of lightweight wall tion. material, and the mechanical and physical properties were compared with products containing 100% pum- ice. Obtained parameters were evaluated taking the 5545 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5542-5550 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin TABLE 4 ACS, UW, porosity and WAP values of the samples considering FA mixing ratios ACS for CEM I (MPa) ACS for CEM II (MPa) UW Porosity WAP Sample ID 7-day 28-day 7-day 28-day (g/cm3) (%) (%) NP-BC40 3.1 9.2 - - 0.65 38.4 43.3 NC-BC40 - - 2.1 5.05 0.64 38.6 43.1 NP-BC80 6.0 11.7 - - 0.85 36.3 41.3 NC-BC80 - - 5.7 10.6 0.84 36.5 41.6 NP4-25 2.35 5.2 - - 0.90 38.1 53.5 NP4-50 2.0 4.8 - - 0.92 37.6 52.7 NP4-75 1.9 4.6 - - 0.95 36.8 52.8 NP4-100 1.45 4.15 - - 0.97 36.7 52.6 NC4-25 - - 1.18 3.45 0.91 38.7 41.6 NC4-50 - - 1.09 3.30 0.94 38.4 40.9 NC4-75 - - 1.03 3.05 1.07 39.2 40.3 NC4-100 - - 0.90 3.0 1.16 39.1 40.0 NP8-25 4.0 8.7 - - 0.98 31.3 46.0 NP8-50 4.15 8.4 - - 1.00 31.5 47.3 NP8-75 3.85 8.1 - - 1.05 33.5 51.7 NP8-100 3.35 7.4 - - 1.18 34.8 53.8 NC8-25 - - 4.25 6.8 0.94 38.3 53.3 NC8-50 - - 3.74 5.7 0.96 38.8 53.4 NC8-75 - - 3.25 5.5 1.02 38.0 42.8 NC8-100 - - 3.07 4.9 1.09 37.2 41.1 FIGURE 4 According to FA mixing ratio, the changes of ACS values of the samples with CEM I for BC40 (4 MPa) and BC80 (8 MPa) FIGURE 5 According to FA mixing ratio, the changes of ACS values of the samples with CEM II for BC40 (4 MPa) and BC80 (8 MPa) For strength tests, samples were first tested by which mixing designs were made with CEM I ce- loading at the required load speed limits in accord- ment with the addition of FA as fine material. Alt- ance with the procedures specified in TS EN 772-1 hough significant pressure losses were observed in [38], and the ACS of the relevant group was found the samples of FA additive, 100% FA additive sam- by taking the arithmetic mean of the obtained values. ples provided the values of the target ACS values. The ACS values obtained from this study were given According to TS 3234 standard [34], for BC80, alt- in Table 4 and plotted in Figure 4 and 5 according to hough FA additive leads to significant pressure the type of cement used. losses in the samples with which mixing designs According to TS 3234 standard [34], for BC40, were made with CEM I cement, target ACS value ACS tests were conducted on the samples with was provided. 5546 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5542-5550 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin FIGURE 6 According to FA mixing ratio, the changes of UW values of the samples with CEM I and CEM II for BC40 (4 MPa) and BC80 (8 MPa) FIGURE 7 According to FA mixing ratio, the changes of porosity values of the samples with CEM I and CEM II for BC40 (4 MPa) and BC80 (8 MPa) FIGURE 8 According to FA mixing ratio, the changes of WAPs values of the samples with CEM I and CEM II BC40 (4 MPa) and BC80 (8 MPa) According to the same standard [34], for BC40, UWs of the samples were determined according to the ACS tests which were applied to FA additive TS EN 772-13 [39]. For this, dry UWs of the samples were carried out on the samples obtained by CEM II were determined first. UWs were calculated by tak- cement mixing design. Based on the obtained data, ing the arithmetic mean of these 9 samples. As can the values under the target ACS were observed in the be seen in Figure 6, samples with 100% pumice ad- FA additive samples. On the other hand, for BC80, ditives that were produced by CEM I and CEM II ACS losses were seen in FA additive samples ob- cements in BC40 and BC80 lightweight concrete tained by CEM II cement mixing design. classes had the lowest UWs. In the samples produced The UWs of the samples in Table 4 that were by Isken FA additive in displacement with pumice, changed according to the ratio of FA additive was as the proportion of fine material increased in mixing shown in Figure 6. In this figure, the effects of dif- samples UWs increased. The reason for this was that ferent mixing ratios on samples were shown. The the UW of the FA was more than the pumice. The 5547 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5542-5550 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin proportion of FA fine material was increased linearly BC40), respectively, 11.7 and 10.6 MPa for CEM I in samples produced with each different FA mixture. and CEM II (to BC80), respectively. The increase in UWs of the obtained samples was 4. 28-day maximum ACS values were obtained also considered to be close to the linear. Each sample as 5.2, 4.8, 4.6, 4.15 MPa and 3.45, 3.3, 3.05, 3.0 was in the lightweight building class, although the MPa for the samples of CEM I+25-50-75- UWs varied. 100%FA+pumice for BC40 and CEM II+25-50-75- The calculated value of WAP ratio of the pro- 100%FA+pumice for BC40, respectively. It was duced sample was also evaluated as the apparent po- seen that the samples complied with BC40 could be rosity of the material and the percentages of the po- obtained if FA additive samples were produced with rosities were determined according to TS EN 772-4 CEM I cement. This leads to the conclusion that FA [40]. The porosity of the samples in Table 4 plotted is suitable in construction technology when it is used into graphics and given in Figure 7. In this figure, the with CEM I. In this study, CEM II cement was not porosities of the samples produced with CEM I, thought to give the same conclusion, but it could be CEM II and fine material (Isken FA) according to the used for constructive lightweight material. BC40 and BC80 lightweight concrete class did not 5. 28-day maximum ACS values were obtained change very much and the results were close to each as 8.7, 8.4, 8.1, 7.4 MPa and 6.8, 5.7, 5.5, 4.9 MPa other. However, it can be said that the porosity of the for CEM I+25-50-75-100%FA+pumice samples (to samples produced with pumice is higher. This is due BC80) and CEM II+25-50-75-100%FA+pumice to the fact that mixed samples containing FA are very samples (to BC80), respectively. It was seen that the fine and that the pumice fills the pores. However, the samples complied with BC80 could be obtained if porosity of the samples produced with CEM II ac- FA additive samples were produced with CEM I ce- cording to BC40, and the samples with 25% and 50% ment, but the samples complied with BC80 could not FA additives are different from the other samples. be obtained with CEM II cement. It was concluded The WAPs of the samples were found to be in that FA is suitable in construction technology and accordance with TS EN 771-1 [41]. They are given lightweight material when it is used with CEM I ce- in Table 4 and plotted in Figure 8. They were the ment. lowest in samples produced with CEM I and CEM II 6. UWs of the samples were 0.65 g/cm3 for cement in 100% pumice addition according to BC40 pumice+CEM I (to BC40), 0.64 g/cm3 for pum- and BC80 lightweight concrete classes. Despite the ice+CEM II (to BC40), 0.85 g/cm3 for pumice+CEM fact that the pumice had higher water absorption ca- I (to BC80) and 0.84 g/cm3 for pumice+CEM II (to pacity than the FA, the result was reverse. A complex BC80), respectively. relationship was formed in the WAP of FA-additive 7. UWs of additive samples were 0.90, 0.92, samples. It is difficult to interpret these results ac- 0.95 and 0.97 g/cm3 for CEM I+25-50-75- cording to cement quantities and FA ratios. 100%FA+pumice (to BC40) and 0.91, 0.94, 1.07 and Depending on the FA ratio, measurements 1.16 for CEM II+25-50-75-100%FA+pumice (to made on the samples indicated a shrinkage tendency BC40). According to the results, samples can be as- at negligible level (ranging from 0.01% to 0.03%). sessed in lightweight building material status. Since there is a very high value (0.23 W/mK) in TS, 8. UWs of additive samples were 0.98, 1.00, no study could be done to improve the thermal con- 1.05 and 1.18 g/cm3 for CEM I+25-50-75- ductivity value. In this study, no calculation was 100%FA+pumice (to BC80) and 0.94, 0.96, 1.02 and done for cohesion. 1.09 g/cm3 for CEM II+25-50-75-100%FA+pumice (to BC80). They were complied with BC80; compare to BC40, a negligible increase was seen. According DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION to the results, samples can be assessed in lightweight building material status. In this study, possibility of using FA that is 9. In the study, no obvious differences were VROLG ZDVWH REWDLQHG IURP ø6.(1 ,QF &R LQ FH seen between porosity and WAP for each mixture mented pumice-based lightweight material produc- obtained by each sample. However, necessary atten- tion was investigated. Following results were tion and measures should be taken when they use in reached from experimental findings: wet places in the occurrence of frost. 1. Materials passed from 4 mm sieves were used in the production of pumice based lightweight wall material complied with BC40 and BC80. CEM ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I and CEM II cements were used as binder in both mixing. Durable construction material complied This study was supported by the Turkish Scien- with the TS were produced from each mixing ratios. tific and Technical Research Council (TUBITAK), 2. No deformation and cracks in the obtained project grant no. 1139B411402723. Authors samples were observed. DFNQRZOHGJHdø06$,QF&RIRUSURGXFHURICEM 3. 28-day maximum ACS values are obtained I and CEM II Cements (especially Dr. Adnan as 9.2 MPa and 5.05 MPa for CEM I and CEM II (to GÜVEN, manager of this factory), Department of 5548 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5542-5550 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin Civil Engineering of Omer Halisdemir University [12] Sari, D. and Pasamehmetoglu, A.G. (2005) The for laboratory conditions, Center of Application and effects of gradation, admixture on the pumice Research for Industrial Raw Material and Building lightweight aggregate concrete. Cement and Materials of Omer Halisdemir University, editors Concrete Research 35, 36-42. and referees for comments, Prof. Dr. TePHO 2÷X] [13] Cavaleri, L., Miraglia, N. and Papia, M. (2003) DQG9H\VHO 5549 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5542-5550 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin Surrey Univ. Press, Great Britain. ͒ units by cold water absorption. Turkish Stand- [27] Berry, E.E. and Malhotra, V.M. (1980) Fly ash ards Institution (TSE), Ankara, Turkey. for use in concrete-a critical review. Journal of the American Concrete Institute 77, 8, 59-73. ͒ [28] Jackson, N. (1983) Civil Engineering materials. 3rd ed. Macmillan Press, Hong Kong. [29] Clarke, J.L. (2002) Structural lightweight aggre- gate concrete. Blackie Academic& Profes- Received: 07.04.2017 sional, London. Accepted: 21.07.2017 [30] Campione, G., Miraglia, N. and Papia, M. (2001) Mechanical properties of steel fibre rein- forced lightweight concrete with pumice stone CORRESPONDING AUTHOR or expanded clay aggregates. Materials and Structures 34, 201-210. Neslihan Dogan-Saglamtimur [31] Hossain, K.M.A. (1999) Performance of vol- Department of Environmental Engineering, Engi- canic pumice concrete with special reference to neering Faculty, Omer Halisdemir University, high rise composite construction. In: Proceed- Nigde, 51240, Turkey ings of the International Conference on Innova- tion in Concrete Structures: Design and Con- e-mail: [email protected] struction, Dundee, Scotland, UK, 365-373. [email protected] [32] Kabay, N., Tüfekçi, M.M., Kizilkanat, A.B. and Oktay, D. (2015) Properties of concrete with pumice powder and fly ash as cement replace- ment materials. Construction and Building Ma- terials 85, 1-8 [33] dHYLNEDú $ and øOJQ ) (1997) Türkiye SRP]D\DWDNODUÕQÕQMHRORMLVLYHHNRQRPLVL,Q Isparta Pomza Sempozyumu, Isparta, Turkey, 13-19. [34] TS 3234 (2005) Mining, placing, curing, mix design and methods of testing of pumice con- crete. Turkish Standards Institution (TSE), An- kara, Turkey. [35] CIMSA (2015) Difference-creating solutions in the need-specific products and services, cement ready-mixed concrete aggregate. [36] TS EN 197-1 (2012) Cement-Part 1: Composi- tion, specification and conformity criteria for common cements, Turkish Standards Institution (TSE), Ankara, Turkey. [37] TS EN 196-1 (2016) Methods of testing cement- Part 1: Determination of strength. Turkish Standard Institute, Ankara, Turkey. [38] TS EN 772-1:2011+A1 (2015), Methods of test for masonry units- Part 1: Determination of compressive strength. Turkish Standards Insti- tution (TSE), Ankara, Turkey. [39] TS EN 772-13 (2002), Methods of test for ma- sonry units ± Part 13: determination of net and gross dry density of masonry units (except for natural stone. Turkish Standards Institution (TSE), Ankara, Turkey. [40] TS EN 772-4 (2000) Methods of test for ma- sonry units-Part 4: Determination of real and bulk density and of total and open porosity for natural stone masonry units. Turkish Standards Institution (TSE), Ankara, Turkey. [41] TS EN 772-21:2011 (2011) Methods of test for masonry units-Part 21: Determination of water absorption of clay and calcium silicate masonry 5550 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5551-5555 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin THE APPLICATION OF THE MODEL OF CELLULAR AUTOMATA (CA) ON THE ISLAND OF SKIATHOS, GREECE Fani Samara*, Stavros Sakellariou, Stergios Tampekis, Dimitrios Triantakonstantis, Olga Christopoulou Department of Planning and Regional Development, University of Thessaly, 38334 Volos, Greece ABSTRACT to explore a wide range of fundamental theoretical dynamics and development issues [12]. The CA is a CA models are systems consisting of blisters - modeling approach of open, complex, self-organized tesserae which interact in a simple manner even systems that emphasize the ways in which local de- though they exhibit a complicated behavior. These cisions are an incentive for the development of models can produce very complex structures and can global standards [14]. be used for exploration of an expanded spectrum of A CA is a self-operated mechanism that pro- fundamental dynamics and development issues. It is cesses the information, so with logic functions and an approach for modeling of open, complex and self- carries out the next step after applying the data, organized systems and emphasizes the ways in which is received from the outside surroundings, un- which local decisions can lead to the creation of der the guidance of the orders under which planned global standards. A CA model is a discrete dynamic [6]. In a CA model, the space is divided into normal system in which space is divided into regular territo- cells. The state of the cell is determined from the cell rial cells and time progresses in discrete steps. Each itself and the state of the neighboring cells is deter- cell in this system receives a state. The state of each mined by temporally previous steps through a series cell is updated in accordance with local rules, for ex- of local and defined transformation rules. The state ample, the state of a cell of a given moment depends of all cells is updated simultaneously. The overall on its situation and the situation of adjacent cells in behavior of the system is determined by the com- the previous time step. In this paper, we used the the- bined effects of all local transformation rules [10, 7]. matic maps of 1996 and 2007 for the island of Ski- A CA model is composed of five essential char- athos for making the forecast for 2020. From the pre- acteristics. These are: diction, it was concluded that in 2020 in the island of i. The grid is the area where a CA is evolving Skiathos there would be an increase of urban areas with time. In the first CA grid was dimensional, so it and a reduction of the crop areas, the grasslands and served mainly linear phenomena, such as the model- the forest areas. These results would be useful for the ing of congestion [2]. In the modeling of urban ex- spatial and environmental Planning of the island. pansion and land use grids CA is usually two-dimen- sional. However, there are grids and omega-dimen- sional but they mainly serve other applications. KEYWORDS: ii. The state, which determines the character- Cellular Automata Model, Skiathos, thematic maps, fore- istics of the system. Each cell can take only one state cast. at any time through a series of statements. In CA- based urban models, the state of the cells may repre- sent the types of land use, whether the use is urban INTRODUCTION or rural, or something else. Still can represent other features of an urban area such as social population The science of CA is not new, it was first pro- groups (immigrants or natives) [8]. posed by the physicist Stanislaw Marcin Ulam in the iii. The concept of the neighborhood, which 1940s and used by John Von Neumann to investigate has to do with a set of cells that interact with each the self-reproduced systems. other after a question. In a two-dimensional space, The application of CA in geographic modeling there are two basic types of proximity. The first is was first proposed by Tobler, and first-applied in a the proximity of four cells which has made the von residential structure by Batty and Yeh & Li [1, 9, Neuman Neighborhood and is from north, south, east 15]. But the Pioneers in CA urban expansion were and west neighbors of a cell in a question and the Clarkeetal, Couclelis and Clarke & Gaydos [3, 4, 5]. second is the neighborhood MOORE eight cells con- The cellular automata are systems consisting of sisting of neighbors specified by von Neuman with cells which interact with each other in a simple man- the additional North-West, North-east and South- ner and exhibit a total of complex behavior. These west direction. models can lay complicated structures and are used 5551 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5551-5555 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin iv. The transformation rules determine the be- (3) Model Development. We used artificial havior of cells through their evolution in time and neural networks to create the dynamic transition decide on the future conditions of the cells based on maps which would be introduced in the model of cel- a set of defined rules. In a strict CA, these transfor- lular automata. mation rules formulated proposals IF, THEN, ELSE, Five parameters were used in neural networks: in a neighborhood standard to easily enable them to Neighborhood: size 2 (ie. 5x5 = 25 cells) assess their results. In this sense the transformation Learning rate, momentum and max itera- rules can replace traditional mathematical functions tions number (0.1, 0.05, 1000). These parameters de- models operated by procedures based on rules [1]. fine the neural network training process. Large learn- v. The time, which determines the temporal ing-rate and momentum leads to rapid learning. dimension of a CA. The state of all cells is updated Small learning-rate and momentum provides slow simultaneously in all repetitions over time. How- but more stable learning. The stability has to do with ever, this limitation can be eliminated if the CA the large variations in the graph. model functioned in different time speed for differ- Hidden levels: we defined one hidden layer ent cells [11]. with 10 nodes - neurons. (4) Simulation. The simulation was achieved METHODOLOGY by cellular automata. The cellular automata take ac- count of the original map, the factors affecting land Study area. The island of Skiathos belongs to use changes and the model developed in the previous the territorial unity of the northern Sporades and the paragraph. The cellular automata operate as follows: capital is the city of Skiathos. It is 2.4 miles from the The simulator takes the transition probabil- coast of southern Pelion and 4 miles from Skopelos. ities and calculates the number of cells that have The area is about 49,89 Km2 while the length is 12 changed. Km and the width is 9 Km. Within the administrative The simulator calls the cellular automata boundaries of Skiathos island the smaller islands of model and adds the original map land use and varia- Tsougria, Small Tsougrias, Repio, Aspronisi, Mara- bles. gos and Arcos are included. The population of the The model scans the cells and calculates the island, in 2011, was 6.088 and the density was transition probabilities in each class. 122people/km2. The simulator creates a mesh level "cer- A large part of the island is covered by wood- tainty": each cell defines the difference between the land and the rest of the island is dominated by olive two largest probabilities of lattice transition levels. trees. Around the island there are about seventy (70) The simulator creates a mesh with the most beaches. The town of Skiathos is connected with the probable transitions: the cells are transition classes islands of Skopelos and Alonissos, Volos, Ag. Kon- with the highest probability of transition. This mesh stantinos and Evia, via the trade - Passenger port. It level auxiliary level to the next step. also has air connection through the National Airport For each class of transition, the simulator is which is located in the northeastern part of the island. looking to mesh with the most potential transitions Administratively the Municipality of Skiathos is part the number of cells with the greatest change. of the Magnesia Region of Thessaly. Following the above procedure the cellular au- tomata give the result of the simulation for a repeti- Method. For the implementation of the model tion (iteration). Applying and second iteration, the the following steps have been made: result of the simulation will be used as initial land i. Data input use map. In each iteration, therefore, the previous ii. Analysis of land use change simulation is used as initial state land use. iii. Model Development iv. Simulation (5) Provision. Using the model developed v. Provision above, we created a forecast for 2020. The prediction was performed using the structure of the above (1) Data input. The data entered was: land use model in which to investigate land use change maps of 1945 and 1996, the distance from roads, the dis- were used in 1945 and 2007. tance from the coastline and the distance from the main road. Due to the high correlation between dis- tance from the main road and the distance from the RESULTS coastline, the distance from the main road was not involved in the model. The changes of land uses are very important and can be observed in the Figure 1, 2, 3 and 4. In (2) Analysis of land use change. The land use the next chart we are comparing land uses from the changes were determined by comparing the two the- last year that there were data (2007) with the land matic maps of 1945 and 1996. uses that result from the model. 5552 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5551-5555 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin FIGURE 1 Land uses area FIGURE 2 Land uses in Skiathos Island for the year 2007 FIGURE 3 Land uses in Skiathos Island ± Simulation of the model 5553 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5551-5555 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin FIGURE 4 Land uses in Skiathos Island ± Prediction 2020 From the Figure 1, an important increase in ur- More specifically, restrictions could be recom- ban areas and a reduction in forests can be observed. mended to avoid environmental damages and to pro- As it can be concluded, the burned area was not tect the less developed areas from a rapid and uncon- taken into account. These results are presented more trolled development. analytically in the next thematic maps. The result of the simulation (2 replications) was compared with the actual map of 2007 and gave ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 93.88% accuracy rate with Kappa 0.901. Finally, in the thematic map below, we can see This research has been co-financed by the Eu- the land uses prediction for the year 2020. ropean Union (European Social Fund ± ESF) and Differences in land uses between the thematic Greek national funds through the Operational Pro- maps of simulation and the prediction were very gram "Education and Lifelong Learning" of the Na- small. This means that we achieved great precession. tional Strategic Reference Framework (NSRF) - Re- search Funding Program: Thales. Investing in knowledge society through the European Social CONCLUSIONS Fund. In the application of the model there are some limitations. For example, in the model we could not insert economic or demographic data but only spatial REFERENCES data. So in the prediction for 2020, we could not cal- culate the effect of the economic crisis. [1] Batty, M. (1997) Cellular automata and urban The CA model is a very useful tool in order to form: a primer. Journal of the American Plan- make predictions. Using the simulation we can see ning Association, 63, 266±74. the model procession. As we can see from our re- [2] Benyoussef, A., Boccara, N., Chakib, H. and sults, the application in our model is very good. The Ez-Zahraouy, H. (2001) Traffic Flow in a 1D procession of the model is improving with the use of Cellular Automaton Model with Open Bounda- indicators. In our case study, we can note the in- ries. Chinese Journal of Physics, 39(5), 428-440 crease of urban areas due to the increase of popula- [3] Clarke, K.C., Hoppen, C. and Gaydos, L. (1997) tion and the number of tourists. On the other hand, A self-modifying cellular automaton model crop areas, grassland and forest areas were reduced. model of historical urbanisation in the San Fran- As we noticed and before the human factor like burn, cisco Bay Area. Environment and Planning B, GRHVQ¶WWDNe into consideration in the prediction. The 24, 247±261. results of the paper can be used for the spatial plan- [4] Clarke, K. and Gaydos, L. (1998) Loose-cou- ning of the island of Skiathos. pling a cellular automation model and GIS: The results of the research can be used in the longterm urban growth prediction for San Fran- development of a suitable master and spatial plan. sisco and Washington/Baltimore. International 5554 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5551-5555 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin Journal of Geographical Information Science, approach to the evolution of urban land-use pat- 12(7), 699±714. terns. Environment and Planning A, 25, 175± [5] Couclelis, H. 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Environment and Planning, A 27, 1647±65. [9] Tobler, W.R. (1979) Cellular geography, In: Philosophy in geography, Gale, S. and Olsson, G. (eds.), Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publishing Com- Received: 07.04.2017 pany, 379-86. Accepted: 21.07.2017 [10] Torrens, P.M. (2000) How cellular models of urban systems work. WP-28, Centre for Ad- vanced Spatial Analysis (CASA), University CORRESPONDING AUTHOR College, London. [11] Uljee, I., Engelen, G. and White, R. (1996) Fani Samara Ramco Demo Guide, Workdocument CZM-C Department of Planning and Regional Development 96.08. The Hague: Coastal Zone Management University of Thessaly Centre, National Institute for Coastal and Ma- 38334 Volos ± GREECE rine Management. [12]White R. and Engelen G. (1993) Cellular autom- E-mail: [email protected] ata and fractal urban form: a cellular modelling 5555 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5556-5563 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin INVESTIGATION OF ENGINE PERFORMANCE AND EMISSIONS OF AN SI ENGINE USING BIOGAS-HYDROGEN MIXTURES Bilge Albayrak Ceper*, Mustafa Uysal, Nafiz Kahraman, Selahaddin Orhan Akansu Erciyes University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering, 38039 Kayseri, Turkey ABSTRACT (SOx), carbon monoxide (CO) and unburned hydrocarbons (UHC). These emissions have some Currently, fossil fuels such as petroleum, negative environmental impacts that are both local QDWXUDOJDVDQGFRDOPHHWPRVWRIWKHZRUOG¶VHQHUJ\ and global. Moreover, in the recent years, air quality demand. However, combustion products of these has become a severe problem in many countries, and fossil fuels, such as carbon monoxide (CO), carbon the interest to replace fossil fuels with renewable and dioxide (CO2), oxides of sulfur (SOx), and oxides of sustainable energy fuels has increased for reducing nitrogen (NOx), hydrocarbon (HC), toxic metals and CO2 and other harmful emissions. This has also ashes cause many environmental problems and forced researcher studying on internal combustion posing hazardous effect for the world. The limited engines to reduce emissions. In this regard, a way for fossil fuel resources and toxic emissions exhausted improvement in emission emitted from internal from internal combustion (IC) engines have pushed combustion engines is alternative fuels use such as research to focus on alternative fuels. In this study, biogas and hydrogen. Biogas is a good renewable combustion and emission performance gaseous fuel, and is produced by the anaerobic characteristics of an IC engine were experimentally digestion of cow dung, non-edible seed cakes, investigated for different mixtures comprising of 70- animal waste, food waste, agricultural waste, 80-100% biogas (65% CH4 and 35% CO2) and 30- municipal waste, sewage sludge, 20-0% H2 by volumetric. The fuel mixtures consisted etc. [2,3]. Biogasconsists primarily of methane of 15% H2 and 85% biogas content of 65% (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) and may have small CH4+35% CO2, 60% CH4+40% CO2 and 55% amounts of hydrogen sulfide (H2S), moisture CH4+45% CO2, were also investigated to determine and siloxanes. Although biogas is an alternative fuel its effect on performance and emissions. to fossil based fuels for IC engines, it has a drawback Experimental studies were carried out in Ford 1.8 L, in flame stability due to a high level of CO2 in its four strokes, four cylinders, water cooled SI engine. content. This means that a part of the combustion Experimental studies were performed at different heat is absorbed by CO2 which has a high heating engine speeds (1500, 2000, 2500 and 3000 rpm) for value, which causes to reduce flame speed different excess air ratios in the range of 1.0 to 1.4 propagation in a cylinder. Huang et al. [4] conducted with 0.1 increments. For all mixtures, it has been experiments in a single cylinder SI engine using found that CO and CO2 emissions and maximum simulated biogas. They found that the presence of pressure decrease with the increase of excess air CO2 in biogas can reduce NOxemissions; ratios. The highest torque and power values were nevertheless, this results in lower cylinder pressures. obtained at 15% H2-85% biogas content of 65% Engine power and brake thermal efficiency were CH4+35% CO2 mixtures. It can be concluded that the reduced as compared to other gaseous fuels and the addition of biogas could result in an improvement in level of unburned HC emission also increased. They the combustion parameters. have reported that increasing the compression ratio is an effective way to improve the performance of biogas fuelled engine when CO2 is present. Ceper et KEYWORDS: al.[5] numerically investigation on biogas fueled Biogas-Hydrogen mixture, Internal Combustion Engine, spark ignition engine. They studied at 8.5, 10.0, 11.5 Emissions, Cylinder Pressure. compression ratio and constant nominal speed of 1500 rpm. They concluded that at biogas combustion, higher compression ratio should be INTRODUCTION preferred. Jung and et al. [6] experimentally studied on performance and NOx emissions of a biogas- Fossil fuels supply nearly 80% of world energy fueled turbocharged internal combustion engine. demand [1]. Burning of fossil fuels has been always They clarified that the brake power, brake thermal associated with nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur oxides efficiency, and NOx emissions increased as the 5556 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5556-5563 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin CH4content or the boost pressure increased. hydrocarbon levels were seen. There was no increase Numerous research result data suggest that it is in nitric oxide emissions due to the use of retarded possible to increase the compression ratio as an ignition timing and the presence of carbon dioxide. effective means of improving the performance of On the whole 10% hydrogen addition was found to biogas fuelled engine when CO2 is present in biogas. be the most suitable. Rakopoulos and Michos[14] Moreover, the brake mean effective pressure and have experimentally studied closed cycle simulation brake thermal efficiency values increases steadily code of an SI engine operating on biogas±hydrogen with compression ratio up to a critical value of 13:1. mixtures of variable composition is used for However, the higher the compression ratio causes application of second-law analysis. The main focus greater NOx emission. This results from the higher is on the demonstration of the spatial distribution of maximum combustion temperature with the higher FRPEXVWLRQLUUHYHUVLELOLW\¶VLQVLGHWKHEXUQHGJDV compression ratio. The effects of compression ratio during the combustion process for the various on total hydrocarbon emissions are almost same as hydrogen fractions examined. This is revealed by the that of NOx with the higher compression ratio use of a multi-zone thermodynamic model, in producing more unburnt hydrocarbon. Experimental combination with a quasi-dimensional combustion results indicate that the presence of carbon dioxide model. Ceper et al. [15] experimentally analyzed on (as in the case of biogas) lowers the NOx emission, cylinder pressure for H2/CH4 mixtures at different but since lower cylinder pressure result, engine loads. They studied on a four-stroke spark-ignition power and thermal efficiency are reduced and the engine operating on natural gas-hydrogen blends of level of UHC is increased [7-10]. 0, 10, 20 and 30% at full load and 65% load for Another way to cope with problems in a biogas different excess air ratios. They stated that while the fuelled IC engine is the addition of hydrogen(H2). excess air ratio increases, CO and CO2 emission Hydrogen has long been considered to be an ideal values decrease. Park et al. [16] investigated the alternative to fossil-fuel systems [11]. Today, effect of EGR on the combustion and emissions hydrogen is being used in many applications, characteristics of the biogas and hydrogen mixture. especially, hydrogen has been added to the fuel to They concluded that repositioning the discharge reduce the engine's emissions and to improve the ORFDWLRQ LPSURYHG WKH WKHUPDO HI¿FLHQF\ DQG WKH engine performance. Leung and Wierzba[12] have maximum tolerable EGR rate increased because of investigated the effect of hydrogen addition on the VSDWLDO DGYDQWDJHV VXFK DV UHODWLYHO\ VKRUW ÀDPH flame stability of CH4-CO2 mixtures that are of propagation lengths and high electrode temperatures. typical biogas composition for a simple fuel jet This paper focuses on determining the effect of discharging into a co-flowing air stream. It was the change in the content of biogas and hydrogen found that biogas has extremely low stability limits DGGLWLRQ UDWH RQ WKH HQJLQH¶ SHUIRUPDQFH DQG and over a very narrow range of co-flowing velocity emissions at different excess air ratio. Tests were in comparison to methane. In the current test conducted on a four cylinder spark ignition engine at configuration, biogas also requires much larger wide open throttle (WOT). During the test, in nozzles in order for the flame to be stabilized, and its cylinder pressure traces, emissions, the output power stability is very sensitive to slight changes in the co- of the engine were recorded for each mixture. The flowing velocity making it as a very poor fuel for combustion characteristics were also analyzed with practical applications. Thus, with the addition of the heat release rates obtained from the first principle hydrogen, significant increases in the blow off limits of thermodynamics. were observed, and the range of co-flowing velocity values for allowing the flame to stabilize is also greatly extended. Moreover, with the addition of EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND TEST hydrogen, the flame stability limits of this fuel PROCEDURE mixture become much less sensitive to changes in their composition. Furthermore, the flame stability The experiments were performed on a Ford 105 limit of biogas exhibits non-linear behavior with hp, 1796cc, four cylinders, four-stroke, and spark- respect to the hydrogen concentration in the biogas. ignition (SI) gasoline engine. The engine Porpatham and et al.[13] investigated biogas fuel specification is given in Table1.The engine was with hydrogen in a spark ignition engine at a constant linked to a Cussons-P8601 brand hydrokinetic speed at different equivalence ratios to study the dynamometer to measure brake power and torque effects on performance, emissions and combustion. (Fig. 1). The in-cylinder pressure values were Hydrogen significantly enhances the combustion recorded using AVL type 8QP500C water cooled rate and extends the lean limit of combustion of piezoelectric pressure transducer. A Sun MGA 1500 biogas. There is an improvement in brake thermal type exhaust gas analyzer was used to measure CO, efficiency and brake power. However, beyond 15% NO, CO2, HC and O values. During the tests, the hydrogen, the need to retard the ignition timing to temperature of cooling water was maintained at 80 control knock does not lead to improvements at high oC. The ignition timing is also 19oBTDCfor all cases. equivalence ratios. Significant reductions in The experiments were carried out at different 5557 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5556-5563 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin engine speeds in the range of 1500 to 3000 rpm with and 80% biogas. When the hydrogen fuel is added 500 rpm increment for each excess air ratio and into biogas, engine power values increase. biogas hydrogen blend. The brake thermal efficiency Fig. 2b shows the variation of brake power with value was calculated utilizing brake power measured different excess air ratios and CO2 percentages in from the dynamometer and the fuel consumption biogas (45% to 40% and 35%). It can be seen that using the mass flow meter, as follows: there is an increase in the brake power output as ౘ expected with a reduction in the CO2 concentration ɻƚŚс (1) ுೠ at 2500 and 3000 rpm. The maximum power values were obtained as approximately 15.2, 20.8, 26.4 and where, P is brake power, H is low heating b u 27.3 kW at 65% CH4+35% CO2 mixture. Brake value of a fuel blend, and mf is mass follow rate. power peaks with slightly leaner mixtures than the Heat release rate analyses for combustion stoichiometric mixtures. 35 characteristic were also calculated from the cylinder 2000 rpm pressure values using the first law of thermodynamics as follows: The heat release rate 30 was calculated using the first law of thermodynamics 25 as given in [17], as follows: ĚY ɶ Ěs ϭ ĚW ĚY 20 Śƌ с W н s н ǁ (2) Ěɽ ɶͲϭ Ěɽ ɶͲϭ Ěɽ Ěɽ 15 Power [kW] where, Q is heat release,J is specific heat ratio Biogas 10 20% H2 +80%Biogas 30% H +70%Biogas (cp/cv), T is the crank angle, P is cylinder pressure 2 and V is cylinder volume. 5 0 11.11.21.31.4 Excess Air Ratio FIGURE 2A Variation of power values versus EAR at 2000 rpm for different hydrogen ratio. Fig. 3a shows the brake thermal efficiency (BTE) values versus the EAR for different hydrogen ratio (0, 20 and 30%), constant biogas mixture (65% FIGURE 1 CH4 + 35% CO2) and 2000 rpm. Increasing EAR Experimental setup values, brake thermal efficiency values are almost 1-Engine Chassis, 2- Hydrokinetic Dynamometer, 3- constant. However, the maximum values were Engine, 4- Engine Cooling Unit, 5- Air Tank, 6- obtained at 20% H2. Addition of small amount Control Unit, 7-Main Fuel Tank, 8-Regulator, 9- hydrogen improved the combustion. In the case of Fuel Select Key, 10-Fuel Tank 11-Mass Flow Meter, higher than 20% hydrogen, volumetric efficiency 12- Exhaust Gas Analyzer decreased. Therefore, brake thermal efficiency values decreased. TABLE 1 Fig. 3b shows the brake thermal efficiency Specification of the test engine (BTE) values versus the EAR for different engine Specifications value speeds and biogas mixtures. When CO2 fraction in Bore 80.6 mm biogas mixtures increased, brake thermal efficiency Stroke 88 mm Cylinder volume 1796 cc values decreased. This is due to the fact that more Compression ratio 10:1 amounts of fuel are needed to generate same power Max. Engine speed 5950 d/d output with the increase in a CO2 fraction. The peak Power (DIN) 77 kW, 105 PS brake thermal efficiency values were obtained at Torque (DIN) 153 Nm, (4000 d/d) 65% CH4+35% CO2 mixtures at all engine speed. The maximum brake thermal efficiency was obtained nearly as 13.5, 15, 18 and 15% at 1500, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 2000, 2500 and 3000 rpm respectively. With the addition of hydrogen to biogas, the brake thermal Performance and emission parameters. efficiency values increased compared to pure biogas. Fig. 2a shows the brake power values versus the For 2000 rpm, brake thermal efficiency was EAR for different hydrogen ratio (0, 20, and 30%), maximum as 15% and 12.5% between 1.0 and 1.1 constant biogas mixture (65% CH4 + 35% CO2) and EAR at 15% H2+85% biogas and 65% CH4+35% 2000 rpm. The maximum values of brake power CO2 mixtures respectively. have been obtained at 1.15 EAR value and 20% H2 5558 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5556-5563 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin 28 28 + %LRJDV + %LRJDV USP %LRJDV USP 24 24 %LRJDV &+ &2 %LRJDV &+ &2 20 20 %LRJDV &+ &2 16 16 3RZHU >N:@ 3RZHU >N:@ %LRJDV %LRJDV &+ &2 12 12 %LRJDV &+ &2 %LRJDV &+ &2 8 8 11.11.21.31.411.11.21.31.4 ([FHVV $LU 5DWLR ([FHVV $LU 5DWLR 28 28 24 24 + %LRJDV USP 20 20 + %LRJDV USP 16 16 3RZHU >N:@ 3RZHU >N:@ %LRJDV &+ &2 %LRJDV &+ &2 12 12 %LRJDV &+ &2 %LRJDV &+ &2 %LRJDV &+ &2 %LRJDV &+ &2 8 8 11.11.21.31.411.11.21.31.4 ([FHVV $LU 5DWLR ([FHVV $LU 5DWLR FIGURE 2B Variation of power values versus EAR at 1500, 2000, 2500 and 3000 rpm for different contents of biogas. 32 2000 rpm 28 24 20 16 12 8 Biogas Brake Thermal Efficiency [%] 20% H2 +80%Biogas 4 30% H2 +70%Biogas 0 11.11.21.31.4 Excess Air Ratio FIGURE 3A The BTE values versus the EAR for different hydrogen ratio (0, 20 and 30% H2) Fig. 4 shows the CO2 emission values versus the stoichiometric mixture. Thus, the increase in the excess air ratio at different biogas and hydrogen excess air ratio decreases the CO2 emissions due to mixtures and different engine speeds. It was noticed proper mixture dilution. At the lean mixture that with the increase of CO2 values in the mixture, combustion, the bulk quenching leads to a sharp CO2% emissions increase. While the methane decrease in CO2. When the hydrogen fraction content of biogas decreases the carbon-dioxide increases, CO2 values increase. In this figure, it can content increases. This indicates the necessity of be seen that the combustion characteristic was adding hydrogen with high energy content. It can improved. also be seen that CO2 emission gets its peak value at 5559 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5556-5563 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin 20 20 + %LRJDV + %LRJDV USP %LRJDV USP %LRJDV 18 18 %LRJDV &+ &2 %LRJDV &+ &2 16 %LRJDV &+ &2 16 %LRJDV &+ &2 %LRJDV &+ &2 %LRJDV &+ &2 14 14 12 12 10 10 %UDNH 7KHUPDO (IILFLHQF\ >@ %UDNH 7KHUPDO (IILFLHQF\ >@ 8 8 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 ([FHVV $LU 5DWLR ([FHVV $LU 5DWLR 20 20 + %LRJDV USP + %LRJDV USP 18 18 16 16 14 14 12 12 %LRJDV &+ &2 %LRJDV &+ &2 10 10 %UDNH WKHUPDO (IILFLHQF\ >@ %LRJDV &+ &2 %LRJDV &+ &2 %UDNH 7KHUPDO (IILFLHQF\ >@ %LRJDV &+ &2 %LRJDV &+ &2 8 8 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 ([FHVV $LU 5DWLR ([FHVV $LU 5DWLR FIGURE 3B BTE values versus EAR at 1500, 2000, 2500 and 3000 rpm for different biogas ratio 17 17 + %LRJDV %LRJDV + %LRJDV USP 16 USP 16 15 15 14 14 13 13 >@ >@ 12 12 &2 11 &2 11 10 10 %LRJDV 9 %LRJDV &+ &2 9 %LRJDV &+ &2 %LRJDV &+ &2 %LRJDV &+ &2 %LRJDV &+ &2 8 8 %LRJDV &+ &2 7 7 11.11.21.31.4 11.11.21.31.4 ([FHVV $LU 5DWLR ([FHVV $LU 5DWLR 14 2000 rpm 13 12 [%] 2 11 CO 10 Biogas 9 20% H2 +80%Biogas 30% H2 +70%Biogas 8 11.11.21.31.4 Excess Air Ratio FIGURE 4 CO2 emission values versus excess air ratio for different biogas and hydrogen compositions 5560 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5556-5563 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin 1.0 1.0 + %LRJDV + %LRJDV USP %LRJDV USP 0.8 0.8 %LRJDV &+ &2 %LRJDV &+ &2 0.6 0.6 %LRJDV &+ &2 %LRJDV &2 >@ %LRJDV &+ &2 &2 >@ 0.4 0.4 %LRJDV &+ &2 %LRJDV &+ &2 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.0 11.11.21.31.4 11.11.21.31.4 ([FHVV $LU 5DWLR ([FHVV $LU 5DWLR 2.0 2000 rpm 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 CO [%] 0.8 Biogas 0.6 20% H2 +80%Biogas 30% H2 +70%Biogas 0.4 0.2 0.0 11.11.21.31.4 Excess Air Ratio FIGURE 5 Variation of CO emission versus EAR at 2000 and 3000 rpm for different biogas ratio 50 100 50 100 + %LRJDV + %LRJDV %LRJDV &+ &2 45 90 %LRJDV &+ &2 USP 45 USP 90 40 80 40 80 35 70 35 70 30 60 30 60 ($5 ($5 25 50 25 50 20 40 20 40 +55 > -GHJ@ +55 >-GHJ@ 15 30 15 30 &\OLQGHU 3UHVVXUH >%DU@ &\OLQGHU 3UHVVXUH >%DU@ 10 20 10 20 5 10 5 10 0 0 0 0 560 600 640 680 720 760 800 840 560 600 640 680 720 760 800 840 &UDQN $QJOH >'HJUHH@ &UDQN $QJOH >'HJUHH@ 50 100 + %LRJDV %LRJDV &+ &2 45 USP 90 40 80 35 70 30 60 ($5 25 50 20 40 +55 >-GHJ@ 15 30 &\OLQGHU 3UHVVXUH >%DU@ 10 20 5 10 0 0 560 600 640 680 720 760 800 840 &UDQN $QJOH >'HJUHH@ FIGURE 6 Cylinder pressure values versus crank angle for different biogas compositions and excess air ratios at 2000 rpm. 5561 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5555-5562 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin Fig. 5 illustrates the CO emission plotted 2000 rpm. against the excess air ratio at different engine speed x In the case of small amount hydrogen and different biogas mixtures. CO emissions slightly addition up to 20% into biogas, improvements in the decreased with the increase in EAR. At excess air combustion parameters were determined. ratios larger than 1.0, CO remains at a very low level regardless of the mixture concentration and engine speed. It was also observed that the CO ABBREVIATIONS concentration of 65% CH4+35% CO2 mixture is comparatively high near to stoichiometric excess air ATDC after top dead center ratio level. The insufficient oxygen is responsible for BTDC before top dead center this increasing trend. While excess air ratio values CAI controlled auto ignition were increased, CO values have exponentially CH4 methane decreased. When EAR values have less than 1.2, CO CI compressed ignition values have high values. The minimum values of CO CO carbon monoxide were obtained less than 1.2 of EAR. CO2 carbon dioxide EGR exhaust gas recirculation Combustion parameters. Fig. 6 shows the HRR heat release rate pressure values versus crank angle at different Hu low heating value of a fuel blend biogas mixtures and different excess air ratios (1.0, NOx nitrogen oxide 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3) at 15% H2+85% Biogas and 2000 Pb brake power rpm. As seen in this figure, the peak pressure values SI spark ignition decrease with increased EAR. The peak pressure SOx sulfur oxides values are obtained nearly between 10o-15oATDC UHC unburned hydrocarbons and 36, 37 and 38 bar for 45, 40 and 35% CO2 mf mass follow rate mixtures at EAR=1.0 respectively. Generally, the O excess air ratio engine can reach the highest efficiency when T crank angle o maximum pressure occurs at 10-15 ATDC. The J specific heats ratio cylinder peak pressure values are gradually Kth thermal efficiency decreasing with the increasing of carbon dioxide into the mixture. Heat release rates with a lean mixture and also with nearly stoichiometric mixture are seen ACKNOWLEDGEMENT in Fig. 6. The heat released rises with reduced CO2 concentrations in the biogas at 2000 rpm. The authors are grateful for the financial support of the Unit of the Scientific Research Projects of Erciyes University (project no: FBY-12- CONCLUSIONS 3947). Experimental studies on the performance, combustion and emission characteristics of different REFERENCES H2+ Biogas mixtures were investigated in an SI engine. The main results are summarized as follows. [1] Lee J. (2010) A Study on Performance and x The maximum power value was obtained Emissions of a 4-stroke IC Engine Operating on 65% CH +35% CO mixtures at 3000 rpm. 4 2 Landfill Gas with the Addition of H , CO and x The brake thermal efficiency (BTE) 2 Syngas, Master Thesis, Department of Earth and increase with the addition of hydrogen. With the Environmental Engineering (HKSM) Fu Foun- increase of CO amount, BTE is decreased. Power 2 dation School of Engineering and Applied and thermal efficiency reduced for leaner mixtures. Science Columbia University in the City of New x The maximum power and BTE was York . obtained with 20% H2 + 80% Biogas. [2] Jingura R.M., Matengaifa R. (2009) x The emissions of CO decreased with the Optimization of biogas production by anaerobic increasing engine speed. Especially, when running digestion for sustainable energy development in with lean fuel mixtures, the CO emissions were low Zimbabwe. Renew Sustain Energy Rev, 13, and did not change with the CO2 fraction in the 1116-1120. biogas. [3] Barik D., Murugan S. (2014) Investigation on x CO and CO2 emissions values decrease combustion performance and emission charac- with increasing H2 percentage. teristics of a DI (direct injection) diesel engine x With the increasing of EAR, cylinder fueled with biogasediesel in dual fuel mode, pressure values decreased at all engine speed and Energy, 72, 760-771. biogas mixtures. The heat released rises with the [4] Huang J., Crookes R.J. (1998) Assessment of reduction in CO2 concentrations of biogas content at simulated biogas as a fuel for the spark ignition 5562 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5555-5562 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin engine, Fuel, 77 (15), 1793±01. [5] Albayrak Ceper B., Aydin K., Akansu S.O., and Kahraman N. (2012) Numerical simulation and Received: 07.04.2017 experimental studies of a biogas fueled spark Accepted: 21.07.2017 ignition engine, Energy Education Science and Technology Part A-Energy Science And Research, 28(2), 599-610. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR [6] Jung C., Park J., Song S. (2015) Performance and NOx emissions of a biogas-fueled turbo- Bilge Albayrak Ceper charged internal combustion engine, Energy, Erciyes University, Faculty of Engineering, 86, 186-195. Department of Mechanical Engineering, 38039 [7] Huang J., Crookes R.J. (1998) Assessment of Kayseri, Turkey simulated biogas as a fuel for the spark ignition engine, Fuel, 77 (15), 1793±01. e-mail: [email protected] [8] Huang J., Crookes R.J. (1998) Spark-ignition engine performance with simulated biogas: a comparison with gasoline and natural gas. J Inst Energy, 71(489), 197±203. [9] Shashikantha S., Parikh P.P. (1999) Spark ignition producer gas engine and dedicated compressed natural gas engine-technology development and experimental performance optimization. SAE paper no.1999-01-3515, USA. [10] Crookes R.J. (2006) Comparative bio-fuel performance in internal combustion engines. Biomass Bioenergy, 30, 461±8. [11] Viditha V., Rao M.V., Srilatha K., Himabindu V., Yerramilli A. (2013) A study on metal organic framework (MOF-177) synthesis, cha- racterization and hydrogen adsorption de- sorption cycles, Int. J. Energy and Environ- ment, 4(1), 127-132. [12] Leung T., Wierzba I. (2008) The effect of hydrogen addition on biogas non-premixed jet flame stability in a co-flowing air stream. Int J Hydrogen Energy, 33, 3856-62. [13] PorpathamE., RameshA., NagalingamB. (2007) Effect of hydrogen addition on the performance of a biogas fuelled spark ignition engine, Int. J Hydrogen Energy, 32 (12), 2057±65. [14] Rakopoulos C.D., Michos C.N. (2009) Gene- ration of combustion irreversibilities in a spark ignition engine under biogas±hydrogen mixtu- res fueling. Int. J Hydrogen Energy, 34, 4422- 37. [15] Albayrak Ceper B., Akansu S.O.,and Kahraman N. (2009)Investigation of cylinder pressure for H2/CH4 mixtures at different loads, Int J Hydrogen Energy, 34(11), 4855-4861. [16] Park J., Park S., Kim C., Lee S. (2012) Effects of EGR on performance of engines with spark gap projection and fueled by biogas±hydrogen blends, Int J Hydrogen Energy, 37, 14640±648. [17] Stone R. (1999) Introduction to Internal Com- bustion Engines, Third Edition. Society of Automotive Engineers Inc., Warrendale, 641 pp. 5563 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5564-5571 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin COASTLINE CHANGE DETECTION USING UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLES AND IMAGE PROCESSING TECHNIQUES Konstantinos Topouzelis1,* Apostolos Papakonstantinou2, Michaela Doukari1 1Department of Marine Sciences*, School of the Environment, University of the Aegean, University Hill, 81100 Mytilene, Greece 2Department of Geography, University of the Aegean, University Hill, 81100 Mytilene, Greece ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION One of the most important linear features on the Coastal management requires knowledge on HDUWK¶V VXUIDFH LV FRDVWOLQH WKXV WKH GHWHFWLRQ DQG large amount of data on a certain buffer zone of monitoring of coastline is critical. The study of coastline. In relative small scales, coastline detection coastal system processes and coastal zone environ- is relative easy when satellite images with infrared mental management requires the information about band are used. However, once there is a need for a coastlines and their changes. In this study, a method- detailed coastline map the need on specific line de- ology that extracts coastline efficiently by pro- scribing the relative sea status is extremely im- cessing high-resolution orthophotos derived by portant. In addition, when there is beach erosion or UAV is presented. The photogrammetric UAV- extreme waves/waves in an economically wealthy based remote sensing approach reveals high-resolu- area the risk assessment on the beach erosion is get- tion digital surface models of coast. These models ting more than important [1]. were derived from accurate and dense 3D point Coastal erosion requires rapid, correct and up- clouds, which are used for the 3D representation of to-date information on small movements. Remote the coast and can be used for calculating the erosion sensing is a key technology in such problems and up events of the study area. The methodology examines to now is one of the most effective tool to detect and the capabilities of the integration of UAV data ac- monitor coastlines. Scope of the present paper is to quisition, GIS, remote sensing, and 3D visualization. find the differences in the coastline of a very touristic Method applied in the Eressos beach, a very touristic beach in Lesvos island, Greece during a certain pe- sandy beach with large face, on Lesvos Island, riod of 6 months. Coastline detection is based in very Greece. Eressos beach is threatened by erosion high resolution orthophoto maps coming from the which is clearly shown in the results. In addition, use of UAV with a normal RGB camera. several features representing previous sea states Satellites have an increased role in such meas- were successfully determined in orthophoto map. urements due to improved spatial and spectral reso- The difference between the two acquisitions re- lution. However, satellite images are not able to vealed specific areas with erosion and sand move- monitor movements in a small scale due to inherit ment. Finally, the composition of 3D representation limitations. On the contrary, unmanned aerial vehi- and the orthophoto map exposed vectors represent- cles (UAVs), are able to provide extremely high res- ing new beach characteristics e.g. erosion crests, olution images at low cost but in a limited area [2]. berm zones and sand dunes. Vectors accuracy de- The use of drones the last years have exploded be- pends on the beach complexity. In conclusion, cause of their agility and quality to image an area 8$9¶VGDWDUHYHDOVXFKLQIRUPDWLRQLQVSDWLDOUHVR with high end products. They deliver digital images lution which permits the study of coast changes with with spatial (1-5cm) and temporal resolution supe- extreme confident. Applications include coast man- rior of satellite imagery, on demand, and most im- agement, port installations and coastal energy pro- portant economically than the high resolution satel- jects. lite images [3±5]. Coastline is defined as the line that forms the boundary between land and the sea and its detection KEYWORDS: in very high resolution includes several discontinui- UAV data acquisition; coastal management; aerial photo; ties. The exact definition of coastline (or the zone Structure from Motion; image processing; 3D visualiza- defining the coastline) should be clearly given. The tion. four typical beach zones include the swash zone i.e. the area where the land which is alternately covered and is exposed by wave run-up and the sea waves crack into the beach (wet part in a sandy beach), 5564 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5564-5571 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin beach face i.e. the sloping section that is exposed to weight, manual functions and programing capabili- the swash of the waves, wrack line i.e. the highest ties through open source custom software. The open reach of the daily tide and the wave run-up and berm access Mission Planner v1.25 software used for i.e. the almost horizontal dry portion of the coast monitoring the UAV and setup the flight missions with usually sand dunes. In the present study, the [6]. coastline is detected as the upper limit of the swash Acquisitions acquired in two time frames, one zone (or the upper limit of the wet beach area). in the end of spring on 06/05/2015 with very calm sea state and one during winter time on 19/11/2015 after a large storm with high coastal waves. The time MATERIALS AND METHODS to collect a single set of photos was 12 minutes (us- ing one battery for each flight). Additionally, the Study area. Lesvos is the third larger Greek is- flights were planned in a such a way to cover all the land located in the Northeastern part of Hellenic ter- beach face with the decided resolution. ritory (Figure 1). Eressos beach is large a sandy beach of approximately 4km length affected by large north waves. It has a typical profile with swash zone, beach face, and big bern with sand dunes. It is af- fected by erosion since the southern part is losing its width during the winder north storms. The last dec- ade the southern part has been reduced of more than 10 meters. UAV System Data Collection. The main sur- veying device was a UAV «quad-copter» Iris+ for the acquisition of very high-resolution aerial images of the study area and a Canon 130 camera. The UAV system is a Vertical Take-off and FIGURE 2 Landing (VTOL) configuration with autonomous ca- Iris+ UAV system used for data acquisition. pability to take off to land and to do programmed mission using predefined ground control points with specific coordinates (Figure 2). The airborne system Each acquisition planned using the same flight consists of the airframe the motors the actuators parameters (Figure 3). It total 530 images acquired power system and the motors. Its configuration in- with 80% overlap in-track and 80% cross-track side- cludes the Pixhawk autopilot system, a GPS and lap. The UAV flight at 100m height above sea cap- compass, a 3-axis gyroscope, an accelerometer / turing a photograph every 3.5 seconds with nadir di- magnetometer, a barometer and a ground station te- rection. Most of the images was selected for further lemetry radio. The take of payload capacity was 0.4 processing. The ground resolution of the images was kg and each flight time was approximately 15 2.96 cm and each image had a size of 4608x3456 minutes. Also, UAV controlled from a remote con- pixels. Prior to the survey missions georeferenced trol within a 2.4 GHz frequency band. mobile targets used as ground control points (GCP) The Canon ELPH 130 compact camera used as in the ground using the RTK-GPS Topcon HiPer II. survey camera. It was selected because of the light- The targets were placed between the breaker zone and the upper beach. FIGURE 1 Study area. 5565 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5564-5571 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin TABLE 1 Workflow of the used methodology. DSM Ortho GSD X RMSE Y RMSE Z RMSE RMSE Flight Resolution (cm/pix) (m) (m) (m) (m) (cm/pix) Eressos 2.34 4.68 0.0408 0.0389 0.00404 0.187 All the targets measured 29.7 cm 42 cm (A3 Methodology allows a generation of a very detailed size) and were designed in a black and white pattern, orthophoto, and 3D model of the case study area and having circles with a 3-cm radius in each target cen- coastline visualization in both time frames. ter. The GCPs error statistics for the Eressos survey Structure from Motion (SfM) and multi-view mission are summarized in the following Table 1. stereopsis (MVS) techniques, where used as meth- The use of 14 GCPs in the Eressos survey had ods able to produce very detailed 3D geoinformation as a result an RMSE of 0.187 (m). The achieved ac- from UAV captured unstructured aerial images. SfM curacy met the requirements of the authors for creat- and MVS algorithms were used to detect image fea- ing highly detailed 2D/3D visualizations and for de- ture points in each image and match them through fining coastal variations and dissimilarities in beach the total of images captured from the UAV system. profile, which was the main focus of this study. These matches produce a sparse point cloud as a ba- sis of the generation of the scene geometry repre- sented as dense point cloud [10±13]. The SfM pro- cedure derivatives consisting of a set of points, which are containing X, Y, Z information addition- ally with the color information derived from photo- graphs. These SfM outputs lying on an internal arbi- trary coordinate system, thus must be transformed to real-world coordinates [10]. Finally, the dense 3D point cloud and the total of images used could be meshed to create i) a 3D mesh of the geometry ii) high-resolution orthophotos, iii) Digital Surface Models (DSM) as well as iv) Digital Terrain Models (DTM). FIGURE 4 Workflow of the used methodology. FIGURE 3 UAV Survey auto mission lines (above) and After the production of the orthophoto maps, overlap in-track and cross-track side-lap for coastline was manually digitized in the wet zone e.g. image acquisition (bellow). the upper limit of the area of the extreme wave run up of the beach for both cases. Also, a 3D compari- son performed using DSM comparison of the created Methodology. The acquired images were the models. Images were analyzed though geographic basis for the coastline detection measurements and 3D modelling of the coastal systems. The workflow object based image analysis [7±9] for breach zone of the used methodology is presented in Figure 4. identification. 5566 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5564-5571 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Orthophoto maps cannot be processed with the classical remote sensing pixel based classification UAV-based remote sensing bridges the gap in methodologies e.g. nearest neighbor, for coastline scale and resolution between ground observations detection because spectral representatives are very and imagery acquired from conventional manned similar for the different classes and no infrared band aircrafts and satellite sensors. The computer vision was available. On the contrary manually digitation SfM and MVS techniques supplement the need for of the coastline in such resolution considered the accurate geodata for 2D and 3D analysis. The UAV- most appropriate method. SfM derived products that enable change detection Coastline detection in orthophoto maps with and landscape erosion analysis for coastal zones pos- spatial resolution of some centimeters is much de- sible in various spatial and temporal scales. pendent on the beach complexity. In cases with sim- ple structure, i.e. sand beach with large face, the de- tection of swash zone and beach face can be achieved with high accuracy. However, in compli- cated cases where the beach is a mixture of compo- sition like shingles with various sizes, dead algae, tree shadows and erosion gaps detection of coastline is becoming difficult. Digital surface models can help in the determination of vectors describing beach characteristics. From the two DSMs, we created profiles and topographic transects are extracted using the 3D An- alyst® ArcGIS extension in the form of profile length/elevation (Figures 6-8). From the orthophotos the position of the coastline is derived, since it is clearly detectable as the line between the sea and the shore. The coastline was digitized manually in FIGURE 5 ArcGIS. In Figure 9 the subfigure A depicts the two Eressos coast orthophoto with contour isolines coastlines and their differences along the study area. of 0.5 and 1m. The spatial resolution of the The difference between the coastlines obtained orthophoto map releases the high degree of on 6th May and 19th of November 2015 reveals sig- detail achieved with the use of UAV-SfM nificant change detection in the study area (Figures methodology 6-11), where the largest difference of the cost line is close to 6 m. Most of the sand face was removed from the western part of the beach revealing a large An example of the generated orthophoto is rock beneath the sand (Figure 10). shown in Figure 5. Eressos coast orthophoto with From both surveys two orthophoto maps pro- contour lines of 0.5m, DSM of swash zone, wrack duced and with the use of a GIS system the maxi- lines, and berm zone are clearly shown. The quality mum and minimum shoreline evolution are calcu- of the orthophoto map releases the high degree of de- lated. The shoreline evolution profile is depicted in tail achieved with the use of UAV-SfM methodol- the Figure 8 where the maximum distance between ogy. Not only coastline is very clearly detected but the two shorelines is 5.37 m and the minimum 0.42 also very small height variations such as small rocks m. and small benches in the beach are visible over the The difference between the coastlines obtained whole extent of the mapped area. The derived data on the two surveys reveals the biggest erosions in the products enable detailed 2D and 3D analysis thus western and eastern parts of the study area when in change detection or landscape development analysis the material deposition in the central part is close to for larger areas is possible. The high resolution and 1 m. precision of the derived orthophoto maps and 3D vis- Additionally, for the study of material alloca- ualisations cannot be achieved from satellite da- tion two transects of the coastline are selected (Fig- tasets. Also, the LIDAR high resolution data prod- ure 9, subfigures B and C). Between the two surveys ucts as are not yet available for areas such as our the wet-dry line retreated, causing a lowering of the study areas. Thus the UAV-based data acquisition beach profile. In Figures 6 and 7 the beach profile provides a valuable alternative for mapping and for both surveys is depicted and is clear the signifi- monitoring of coastal zones detection and erosion as cant change of the coastal morphology. However, well as other environmental applications [14]. In the change of the costal morphology is not clear if it high resolution orthophoto maps several important is due to seasonal variation or erosion phenomenon. beach characteristics are visible in contrary to high resolution satellite images. 5567 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5564-5571 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin Beach profile (Transect 1) Beach Profile (Transect 2) 2 3 1,5 2 1 1 0,5 0 Elevation (m)Elevation 0 Elevation (m)Elevation 0 5 10 15 19 24 29 34 39 44 49 54 0 2 4 7 9 111315182022242729313335 Distance (m) Distance (m) 06/05/15 19/11/15 06/05/15 19/11/15 FIGURE 6 FIGURE 7 Beach profile for Transect 1. With blue color is Beach profile for Transect 2. With blue color is the 6-5-2015 survey and with orange colour the the 6-5-2015 survey and with orange color the 19-11-2015 survey 19-11-2015 survey Shoreline Evolution 6 5 4 3 2 Distance (m) 1 0 Distance Profile along coastline FIGURE 8 The shoreline evolution profile along the coastline from west to east. CONCLUSIONS for the 3D representations. The low UAV flying height and speed improves coastline definition and The study area of Eressos beach chosen since it the used SfM technique can capture complex shapes is gradually eroding due to extreme winds and wave allowing for the very detailed representation of conditions. The erosion on these sections of coast- coastal features such as hollows, small sand dunes as lines may not be visible via traditional change detec- well as swash zone and beach face. tion techniques. In this paper, we used the UAV- The results indicate that the coastline detection SFM technique to generate accurate 3D geo-visuali- can be very effective using UAVs with extreme con- zation of the study area to detect and visualize fident. Specific coastline area changed after an ex- coastal changes over time. As UAVs provide a plat- treme wind-wave event for almost 6m. This result is form for close-range aerial photography using small crucial for costal management and the methodology sensors can become a useful tool for researchers to can be routinely used for risk assessment in a such spatial and temporal coastal observation and envi- touristic place. The georeferenced 3D model and the ronmental monitoring as well as monitoring erosion point cloud derived with accuracy of 0.9-1.9 cm and in coastal zones. This study applies SfM and MVS the orthophoto with 3 cm spatial accuracy from the techniques, thus combining computer vision algo- quadrotor flying at 100 m AGL. rithms, to imagery acquired from a quad-rotor UAV 5568 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5564-5571 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin FIGURE 9 Subfigure A depicts the difference between the two timestamps of coastlines. The base orthophoto produced from the 06-05-2015 UAV survey. Subfigures B & C presenting transects 1 & 2 for estimating morphology changes. Subfigure D doastline evolution in the East part of the study area. FIGURE 10 From the coastline change the morphology of the sand face has changed revealing a large rock beneath the sand. 5569 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5564-5571 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin FIGURE 11 Largest coastline change detection in the western part of the Esessos Beach with almost 6m difference in the beach face. In conclusion, the UAV-based aerial image ac- REFERENCES quisition provides the required spatial resolution and temporal repetition to map and monitor natural [1] Kolednik, D. (2014) Coastal Monitoring for coastal phenomena and changes. SfM and MVS Change Detection Using Multi-temporal Li- techniques, combining photogrammetry and com- DAR Data. puter vision image processing techniques can be [2] Yastikli, N., Bagci, I. and Beser, C. (2013) The used to automate the detection procedures and to cre- Processing of Image Data Collected by Light ate in-situ measurements with very large spatial UAV Systems for GIS Data Capture and Updat- cover. ing. ISPRS - Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote In addition, it can be concluded that the availa- Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci., XL-7/W2, 267±270. bility of Digital Surface Models (DSM) at high spa- [3] Harwin, S. and Lucieer, A. (2012) Assessing the tial resolution and vertical accuracy can have im- accuracy of georeferenced point clouds pro- portant role in scientists interested in the two or duced via multi-view stereopsis from Un- three-dimensional reconstruction of the environ- manned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) imagery. Re- ment. Specific vectors i.e. coastline, swash zone, mote Sens., 4, 1573±1599. wrack lines, berm crests, swash limits and berm ar- [4] Verhoeven, G., Taelman, D. and Vermeulen, F. eas can be detected. Most of those vectors are result (2012) Computer Vision-Based Orthophoto of the wave run-up in different time frames. Coastal Mapping of Complex Archaeological Sites: The geomorphologists that require accurate topographic Ancient Quarry of Pitaranha (Portugal-Spain). information of the coastal systems can perform reli- Archaeometry, 54, 1114±1129. able simulation of coastal erosion. Coastal manage- [5] Mancini, F., Dubbini, M., Gattelli, M., Stecchi, ment, port installations and coastal energy projects F., Fabbri, S. and Gabbianelli, G. (2013) Using are areas of interests of such methodology. unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) for high-reso- lution reconstruction of topography: The struc- ture from motion approach on coastal environ- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ments. Remote Sens., 5, 6880±6898. [6] DIY Drones http://diydrones.com/ (accessed The present study was conducted within the May 27, 2015). framework of the ERABEACH project, co-funded [7] Topouzelis, K., Karathanassi, V., Pavlakis, P. (85%) by EEA GRANTS, 2009-2014, and the Public and Rokos, D. (2007) Detection and discrimina- Investments Program (PIP) of the Hellenic Republic tion between oil spills and look-alike phenom- (15%). ena through neural networks. ISPRS J. Photo- The authors have declared no conflict of inter- gramm. Remote Sens., 62, 264±270. est. 5570 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5564-5571 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin [8] Karathanassi, V., Topouzelis, K., Pavlakis, P. [14] '¶2OHLUH-Oltmanns, S., Marzolff, I., Peter, K.D. and Rokos, D. (2006) An objectͲoriented meth- and Ries, J.B. (2012) Unmanned aerial vehicle odology to detect oil spills. Int. J. Remote Sens., (UAV) for monitoring soil erosion in Morocco. 27, 5235±5251. Remote Sens., 4, 3390±3416. [9] Topouzelis, K. and Kitsiou, D. (2015) Detection and classification of mesoscale atmospheric phenomena above sea in SAR imagery. Remote Sens. Environ., 160, 263±272. [10] Mathews, A.J. and Jensen, J.L.R. (2013) Visu- alizing and quantifying vineyard canopy LAI Received: 07.04.2017 using an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) col- Accepted: 21.07.2017 lected high density structure from motion point cloud. Remote Sens., 5, 2164±2183. [11] Westoby, M.J., Brasington, J., Glasser, N.F., CORRESPONDING AUTHOR Hambrey, M.J., Reynolds, J.M. (2012) ³6WUXF ture-from-0RWLRQ´ SKRWRJUDPPHWU\ $ ORZ- Konstantinos Topouzelis cost, effective tool for geoscience applications. Department of Marine Sciences Geomorphology, 179, 300±314. School of the Environment [12] Dellaert, F., Seitz, S.M., Thorpe, C.E. and University of the Aegean Thrun, S. (2000) Structure from motion without University Hill correspondence. Proc. IEEE Conf. Comput. Vis. Mytilene, Lesvos, 81100 ± GREECE Pattern Recognition. CVPR 2000 (Cat. No.PR00662), 2. E-mail: [email protected] [13] Ewfw, F., Spera, M.G., Nocerino, E., Menna, F. and Nex, F. (2014) State of the art in high den- sity image matching. Photogramm. Rec., 29, 144±166. 5571 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5572-5580 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin CONSTRUCTION, DEMOLITION AND EXCAVATION WASTE MANAGEMENT IN EU/GREECE AND ITS POTEN- TIAL USE IN CONCRETE Styliani Papatzani1,2,*, Kevin Paine2 1Greek Ministry of Culture, Directorate of Restoration of Medieval & Post-medieval Monuments, Tzireon 8-10, 11742, Athens, Greece, Country 2Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, University of Bath, BA2 7AY, Bath, UK ABSTRACT and rubble resulting from construction, remodelling, repair, and demolition of buildings and infrastructure Construction, demolition and excavation waste (bridges, ports, pavements, etc.) as well as disaster (CDEW) of private and public works comprises one debris, soil and turf [2]. Since 1991, C&DW has been of the largest waste streams in the European Union. recognised by the European commission as one of It is maintained that, on average, 750 million tonnes the six main waste streams, which were investigated of CDEW are produced every year. In Greece alone, XQGHU WKH ³SULRULW\ ZDVWH VWUHDPV SURJUDPPH´ In almost 4 million tonnes of CDEW are generated per the report produced seven years later by Symonds annum. In the present paper, the legislative back- Group ltd, definitions were clarified, economic and ground associated with the manage-ment of CDEW administrative obstacles to re-use and recycling were is initially presented, followed by the advancements summarized and best practice guidance/recommen- achieved concerning its implementation in the EU dations for the demo-lition, renovation and recycling and Greece in two periods before and after the con- sites, as well as construction and road maintenance struction boom linked to the 2004 Olympic games. sites were presented [2]. Since then, a number of reg- Furthermore, attention is focused on current progress ulations have been developed and guidance pub- made in recycling CDEW during the construction of lished within the EU with which member states are reinforced concrete structures. It is confirmed that required to conform. In Greece, the adaptation of na- recycled aggregates and recycled concrete aggre- tional legislation to Community law started at a slow gates can be effectively re-reused in structural con- pace [3], but has recently started to gain momentum crete applications, while pulverized concrete dust [4]. In this paper the progress observed during the can potentially be introduced as a supplementary ce- last decade in adopting the legislative formwork is mentitious material into the concrete mix. Finally, reviewed and suggestions are proposed. Further- the usage of nanoparticles in recycled aggregate con- more, with respect to concrete design/ construction, crete is expected to open new markets in the near fu- the technical barriers which have been overcome are ture. discussed in both non-structural and structural appli- cations. Present work reviews the potential benefits stemming from the use of crushed aggregates in con- KEYWORDS: crete design. Reviewing the latest advances in recy- CDEW; EU-legislation; recycled-aggregates; marble cled concrete science, it can be concluded that in slurry; nanotechnology. spite of their shortcomings (e.g. associated with some of their material properties) recycled aggre- gates (RA) and recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) INTRODUCTION can be effectively incorporated in concrete design without compromising structural performance re- The waste stream generated by the construction quirements set by the relevant standards. Finally, the and demolition industry is classified DV³construction advancements achieved in nanotechnology can also and demolition waste´ (C&DW), with an annual, av- contribute to the industrial expansion of engineered erage production of 750 million tonnes [1]. Recently, recycled aggre-gate concretes. this definition has expanded, incorporating also ex- cavation waste. More speci-fically, construction demolition and excavation waste (CDEW) includes materials generated from construction, demolition LEGISLATIVE BACKGROUND UNTIL 2005 and excavation activities emerging from transporta- tion, building, and land clearing industries. CDEW In the EU until 2005. After WWII significant are generated by building and packaging materials quantities of rubble from the destroyed infrastructure 5572 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5572-5580 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin had to be dealt with. This lead to the evolution of the Ministerial Decision, 69728/824/96 signing the be- concept of recycling demolition wastes. The rubble ginning of the consideration of C&DW management was, then, first used for the production of RA [5]. as a separate waste stream. However, until 1998, nei- Furthermore, the FRQVWUXFWLRQ ERRP LQ WKH ¶V ther fiscal policies nor legislation on the manage- brought about an increase in the C&DW, which was ment of the separate waste stream of C&DW were mainly used for landfill. Indicatively, as shown in implemented. In fact, still in 1999, in the study by Figure 1 Spain and Luxembourg used over 90%, Symonds group [2], there were no data for C&DW C&DW for back- filling, while Ireland and Italy used generation and management in Greece. approximately 60%. Only a few of the then 15 mem- The framework on the management of C&DW ber-states (Austria, Germany, Denmark, Italy, Ire- was set by the Law 2939/2001. This comprised a land and the Netherlands) started adopting recycling milestone, given that the construction boom before by 1999, while Denmark and the Netherlands were (and shortly after) the 2004 Athens Olympic Games also using incineration (Figure 1) [2]. Adding to the was affecting C&DW generation in the entire coun- cons-truction boom, the shortage of natural aggre- try and not only in the capital. With the introduction gates lead to an increase in recycling rates in this first of this law, the ³national organization of alternative reports. Nonetheless, this is the point in time when management of packaging and other waste´ was also EU classified C&DW as one of the main waste established. All laws and ministerial decisions on streams. It has been estimated that by 2004 C&DW waste management and responsibilities of authorities generated approximately 450 million tonnes per year by the year 2005 are discussed in [3]. [6] hence reaching 49% of the then total waste gen- eration at that time [7]. The management of C&DW generation and disposal became, therefore, impera- ADVANCES WITHIN A DECADE; 2005-2015 tive and in-depth investigations started towards the formation of a legislative framework to address the In the EU between 2005 and 2015. Following issue. the construction boom in the early 2006, the eco- nomic crisis caused a reduction in civil engineering works, after 2009 [8]. Still, according to Eurostat CDEW comprise one third of the total waste produc- tion in EU by 2010. When comparing percentages of recycling of CDEW amongst EU countries, it is in- teresting to also note who is pro-ducing the most. In fact, as shown in Figure 2, France and Germany pro- duced in 2010 over 50% of the total CDEW quanti- ties in the EU [8]. It is understandable, therefore, that in waste framework directive (WFD), priority was given to prevention, re-use and recycling of CDEW. As stated in the Environmental Policy context RIWKH(XURSHDQ&RPPLVVLRQ ³(QYLURQPHQWDFWLRQ programmes have helped shape EU environment FIGURE 1 SROLF\VLQFHWKHHDUO\ V´+RZHYHUWKHPRVWUH C&DW management in the ¶V [3] (data col- cent legislation relating to CDEW directly or indi- lected from [2]). rectly is presented below: Initially in June 2008, an EU Decision on the Fifty-seven EU directives and decisions related public procurement for a better environment was es- to CDEW and hazardous waste management were tablished. Moreover, new recycling targets for con- enforced by the EU Commission by 2005 and are an- struction demolition and excavation waste CDEW alytically presented by Papatzani [3]. A number of were set in November 2008 with the waste frame- best management practices were aimed to achieve work directive (WFD) enforced in 2008. broader acceptance of the use of recycled aggregates. Then, B\0DUFKLWZDVGHFLGHGXQGHU³$ Such measures included; (i) limiting or even abolish- resource-efficient Europe ± Flagship initiative of the ing the use of landfills, (ii) applying taxes on natural (XURSH6WUDWHJ\´WKDWDPLQLPXPRIUH aggregates, (iii) sorting of CDEW at source or in the cycling by weight of CDEW by 2020, is explicitly recycling stations and (iv) developing of codes and required within the EU-28. standards. Lately, the strategic initiative of the Low Car- In Greece until 2005. Compliance with EU bon Economy Roadmap of the 7th programme, legislation on hazardous materials and solid waste adopted in late 2013, running to 2020 and entitled management had started taking place with the Joint ³/LYLQJZHOOZLWKLQWKHOLPLWVRIRXUSODQHW´LVUH lated to the CDEW management, since low carbon 5573 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5572-5580 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin FIGURE 2 EU-28 Construction and Demolition Waste generation in 2010 ± elaborated data collected by Eurostat [8]. concretes can be delivered containing such materials, other provisions, regulating the market of environ- as discussed in the third part of this paper. mental services, creating a framework for energy savings in the public domain and setting the corner- In Greece between 2005 and 2015. In May stone for the development of the energy market. 2011 a working committee was commissioned by the In practice, though, significant quantities of Technical Chamber of Greece in order to report the CDEW generated by both public and private works current status of the CDEW legislation and manage- are not being recycled, notwithstanding Law ment in Greece [4]. However, since then, several 4042/2012 (after Directive 2008/99/EC) on the pro- amendments have been signed by the Greek parlia- tection of the environment through criminal law. For ment as shown in Table 1 presented below. example, old paving slabs produced by road resur- facing works (Figure 3) or demolition waste emerg- TABLE 1 ing from re-design of flats and apartments. Given the Amendments of older legislative actions taken in economic crisis and the subsequent decline in the Greece construction of new buildings, the rehabilitation, Legislative action Amendment strengthening and redesign of existing buildings is Joint Ministerial Decision By Ministerial Decision expected to increase the quantities of CDEW pro- 24944/1159/2006 (after Di- 146163/2012 on the duced. rective 91/156/EEC): on the waste management of terms and limitations of the health units and Ministe- hazardous waste management rial Decision 8668/2007 on the adoption of the national hazardous waste management Joint Ministerial Decision By Joint Ministerial De- 21017/84/2009 cision 4229/395/2013: conditions on the estab- lishment and operation of enterprises undertak- ing demolition works, asbestos or materials containing asbestos re- moval works Joint Ministerial Decision - 36259/1757/E103/2010 on the FIGURE 3 terms, conditions and schedules Road resurfacing works with the collaboration for alternative excavation and of Governmental entities ± pavement tiles and CDEW management concrete substrate ± SKRWRVE\DXWKRUV¶SULYDWH Law 3854/2010 (after - 2006/32/EU) adding excavation collection wastes to the construction and demolition waste stream One of the major issues to be highlighted is the necessity to differentiate materials straight at the It should be noted that Law 3854/2010 source, rather than mixing wood, bricks, tiles and amended Law 2939/2001 on measures to improve glass in lumps. Such condition still comprises com- energy efficiency in end-use energy services and 5574 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5572-5580 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin mon practice, as shown in Figure 4, in most rehabil- EN 13748-1 and EN 13748-2 standards. It is esti- itation/redesign construction sites. Therefore, further mated that 130,000 square meters of agglomerated education should be enforced and strict regulation stone pavement was placed in Heathrow Terminal 5. and monitoring is necessary, until the recycling cul- Moreover, there are approximately 30 industrial ture is implemented. units in EU producing such products (approximately 20 million square meters on a yearly basis), there- fore, comprising markets for further recycling of marble and stone C&DW [9]. The marble slurry is typically reused in Greece for the production of marble-based plaster and other additives. One final use emerges by the mixing of marble slurry with soil to restore marble quarries. RECYCLING CDEW IN CONCRETE As natural resources are being depleted and the recycling targets are set high, the need for incorpora- tion of high amounts of CDEW in the production of FIGURE 4 new construction materials increases. The main ma- Private entities - Significant demolition waste terials produced by CDEW are aggregates; recycled generated from the rehabilitation of old houses± aggregates (RA) from bricks, stones and marbles or SKRWRVE\DXWKRUV¶SULYDWHFROOHFWLRQ recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) from reinforced or prestressed concrete. Apart from benefiting con- crete industry, as shown in this section, cement in- dustry can also potentially profit from CDEW, by in- corporating pulverized concrete as pozzolanic ce- ment replacement. Along with the environmental benefit, significant financial gains can be achieved by construction industries which can make two-fold savings; from the recycling of CDEW for use as con- crete aggregates and from the avoidance of fines re- lated to CO2 emissions and low recycling rates. For this, significant research has been focused on the ef- fects of the use laboratory controlled crushed con- FIGURE 5 crete in the past three decades [10]. This section con- Private entities - Marble processing factories ± tains advancements (i) of cement science, (ii) of con- broken remains and marble slurry± photos by crete science and design and of production and test- DXWKRUV¶SULYDWHFROOHFWLRQ ing of (iii) non-structural and (iv) structural members with the use of RA and/or RCA. An interesting show case pertains to the waste produced by the processing of marble (cutting and Cement science and RA / RCA. Although the shaping), which in Greece, dates back to the millen- cost of separating concrete solids from clay bricks in nia (Figure 5). The yearly production of marble frag- recycling plants renders the process impossible, so ments and slurry waste ranges between 360 tonnes far there has been only one publication, by Liu et al. (low season) to 720 tonnes (high season) per fac- [11], on cement pastes made of hybrid recycled dust tory/production plant [personal communi-cation, of concrete solids and clay bricks, as a supplemen- February 11, 2016] The fragmented pieces of marble tary cementitious material (SCM). In this paper, the can be crushed to produce aggregates or can be pro- pozzolanic activity of recycled clay brick powder or cessed (mixed with additives, fillers, pigments and demolished concrete solids dust produced by the re- other materials) and used in mosaic type of paving or cycling factories has been reviewed and justified the cladding surfaces, also known as engineered or ag- necessity for research on hybrid dust used as SCM. glomerated stones. The agglome-rated stones are Indeed, Liu et al. examined the chemical and mineral produced in accordance with definitions given in EN composition of the hybrid powder, as well as the 14618 E2 - 2009. There are thirteen EN standards for thermogravimetric performance and microstructure the testing of physical and mechanical characteristics of mortars in which cement was replaced by 30% of of the agglomerated stones (EN 14617.01, this recycled powder. It was confirmed that the poz- 14617.02E2, 14617.04 - 14617.13 and 14617.15). zolanic activity is relative to the concrete/clay brick Furthermore, distinction should be made for engi- ratio. For this, the clay brick content and the replace- neered stones made with Portland cement as the binding agent. Their use and testing is governed by 5575 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5572-5580 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin ment percentage should be controlled for target spe- and 35% blast furnace slag), (b) fine sand and (c) cific strength and consistence. Mortar samples made crushed basalt rock and 0% or 100% RCA for a of cement and hybrid powder at 30% cement replace- standard slump of 80 ± 15 mm. Water absorption and ment at water to binder ratio of 0.5 were tested for carbonation rates were found similar for both natural strength and were also Atomic Force Microscopy and crushed aggregate concrete samples [10]. probed at the nanoscale. With the help of nanotech- (iii) chloride conductivity, oxygen permeability nology, a representative region containing one hy- and water sorptivity were less favour-able as the brid particle and one fine aggregate (sand) was com- quantity of RA increased, but improved with curing pared with another region with no hybrid particle or time for concrete disks of 68 mm diameter and 25 ± fine aggregate, whose main constituent is the C±S± 2 mm thickness made of (a) CEMI, (b) fine sand and H gel. The stiffness of the first region is significantly (c) crushed granite rock and 0%, 50% or 100% recy- lower than that of the second region. A weaker bond cled aggregate at 0.5 water to cement ratio, tested for of C±S±H gel around the hybrid powder was ob- durability at 3, 7, 28 and 56 days [5]. It was also served. The interfacial transition zones (ITZ) around concluded that cracks induced by the crushing of the fine aggregates and hybrid powder was measured RCA increased the diffusion, permeation and ab- to be weak with similar modulus. Further research on sorption character-istics of RAC. This hypothesis the effect of the packing density of the hybrid pow- was neither verified by a comparative study of scan- der on the hydration reactions and products and the ning electron microscopy studies on samples of the durability of the pastes is suggested. granite rock and recycled aggregates, as well as he- Finally, they reviewed techniques presented to lium pycnometer density and porosity measurements date for improving the properties of RCSs. They dis- nor crosschecked with consistence or mechanical tinguished: (i) the incorporation of mineral admix- strengths tests. tures, assisting mainly as fillers at various scales, (ii) (iv) early age consistence and compressive the coating of RCAs to seal the inherent cracks and strength of concrete produced with RA at 28 days is pores and (iii) the modification of the mixing process similar to those of concretes produced with natural (two stage, double mixing). coarse aggregates. Water absorption and pore vol- ume increased, whereas the carbo-nation depth de- Concrete science and design with RA / RCA. creased as the amount of RA in-creased. 39 different The physical and mechanical properties of recycled concrete mixes consisting of (a) blended Portland ce- aggregates (RA) and recycled concrete aggregates ment (containing 65% Portland cement and 35% (RCA) have been recently reviewed by Behera et al. blast furnace slag), (b) fine sand and (c) crushed [12] and Silva et al. [13] with respect to their use in granite rock and 0%, 20%, 50% or 100% fine or recycled aggregate concrete (RAC). Behera et al., in coarse recycled (concrete or masonry) aggregate for addition, reviewed the green state properties; con- a constant consistence by slump test were compared sistence, wet and bulk density and water absorption in this study [16]. with respect to the size, shape, surface texture of the (v) water absorption, carbonation depth and RCA. Furthermore, they reviewed studies on the chloride penetration of the concrete samples in- hardened state RAC properties; compressive creased with higher fine RCA replacement, after strength, split tensile strength, flexural strength, dry- studying concrete specimens containing 30% or ing shrinkage, modulus of elasticity, creep, and bond 100% fine RCA, CEM I and 70% or 0% river sand strength with respect to water binder ratio of the for- and coarse aggregate at a water/cement ratio of about mulation, engineering and physical properties of 0.4, variations accounting for the great water absorp- RCA used in concrete design. Finally, studies on the tion of the crushed aggregates [17]. These results micro-structure or RAC were discussed showing the were related to the inherent properties of the recycled effect the effectively two interfacial transition zones aggregates, which being more porous caused a sub- (of the RCA and of the new concrete around the sequent increase in the open porosity of the concrete. RCAs) have on the strength and porosity of RAC. It was concluded that low replacement recycled ag- In the review published by Papatzani and Paine gregate concrete can indeed be used for structural [14] more studies expanding from 1999 to 2015 have purposes and that higher replacement could be feasi- been discussed, showing that: ble with blended binders. (i) adjustment to the water/cement ratio can (vi) RCA can be incorporated in concrete mix compensate for strength losses at higher RCA con- design irrespective of their constituents (unbound tents [15]. The mix design contained coarse and fine stone, crushed concrete, crushed brick) and source RCA. and eliminated the relating technical barriers [17]. (ii) compressive and splitting tensile strength Paine and Dhir also provided a critical review of the up to 365 days of samples made of RCA did not results of research on recycled aggregates originat- show reductions compared to those consisting of nat- ing from crushed concrete, crushed brick or unbound ural aggregates for the same slump. The tested con- stone. A performance-related approach was devel- crete was made of (a) 100% Portland or blended oped after designing concrete mixes and casting and Portland cement (containing 65% Portland cement testing specimens containing various combinations 5576 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5572-5580 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin of the three recycled aggregate constituents. It was carbonation [19] can be expected if a number of pa- concluded that an envelope of feasible concrete rameters are not taken into account. Lastly, lower mixes could be developed by imposing four require- bulk density is also reported [12]. ments in the various combinations of RA constitu- As for the hardened recycled aggregate concrete, the HQWV D /RV $QJHOHVFRHIILFLHQW E SDUWLFOH use of over 50% RCA by mass lowers the compres- GHQVLW\ NJP3 F ZDWHU DEVRUSWLRQ sive strengths and doubles the carbon-ation for the DQG G GU\LQJVKULQNDJHYROXPH:LWKWKH same water to cement ratio [12], [14]. It is reported satisfaction of these criteria, similar values to those in recent studies that at 100% RCA content the con- delivered by natural aggregate concretes in terms of crete strength decreases about 24% and that the rela- cube strength, static modulus of elasticity, initial sur- tion between density and water absorption is inverse face absorption, carbonation rate, chloride ingress, at higher RCA content [20 21]. Problematic durabil- and drying shrinkage can be achieved as long as the ity impact has also been identified by Lotfi et al. [21 water to cement ratio is adjusted. 22] in terms of porosity, freeze-thaw and carbonation Another interesting application recently pre- resistance and water and oxygen permeability. If tak- sented, regards the use of fine RCA for self-compact- ing into consideration that no accelerated abrasion ing concrete [18]. Rheology by flow curve test (FCT) tests have been presented on RAC in order to deter- and stress growth test (SGT) in the ICAR rheometer mine the predicted life span of structures made of at 15, 45 and 90 minutes was measured along with RAC, it could be sustained that an upper limit has compressive strength at 3, 7 and 28 days for con- been reached and other solutions should be sought. it cretes. Empirical tests were also performed; slump could be sustained that an upper limit has been flow + T50, V-funnel, J-Ring, L-Box, sieve segrega- reached and other solutions should be sought. tion analysis at 15, 45 and 90 minutes. The mixes with 50% and 100% recycled sand lost their self- Lastly, the use of recycled glass [23] or granulated compacting characteristics at 90 minutes. The mixes foam glass͒[24] as aggregates in concrete design can in which sand was replaced by 20% by recycled sand offer greater recycling potentials, however its review maintained acceptable passing and filling ability and is beyond the scope of this paper. the compressive strength reduced by less than 10%. Lastly, the carbonation behaviour of RAC has Production of non-structural members with been studied by Silva et al. [19] by means of statisti- RA/ RCA. Recycled aggregates (masonry/concrete) cal analyses on carbonation depth of 600 coarse RCA have been recently used in precast concrete products and 360 fine RCA concrete mixes sourced from 10 such as building [25] and paving [26] blocks and studies. The factors affecting carbonation of RAC pavement flags [27]. Soutsos et al. studied the effect were determined; the recycled aggregate replace- of the use of recycled aggregates obtained from ma- ment ratio, the crushing procedure employed for the sonry demolition waste (RMA) and RCA. RMA con- production of RCA, the quality of RCA, the expo- tained higher content of dust than RCA, however wa- sure to different curing conditions and the effect of ter absorption was similar for both. Compressive and the water reducing admixtures. It was concluded that tensile splitting tests performed at day 7 and 28 carbonation depths increase with replacement levels. showed significant variability for replacements of In fact, the use of 100% coarse RCA can double the over 60% coarse RMA or 40% fine RMA. It was carbonation depth with respect to natural aggregate found that no more than 20% of RMA should be used mixes. Fine RCA tend to increase carbonation when for either coarse or fine fractions since it was found compared to coarse RCA. Crushing in several stages, to be unfavourable to mechanical performance. In produces more round RCA and removes some of the addition, the coarse RCA fraction should be limited adhered mortar, leading to lower carbonation depths. to 60% and the fine RCA fraction to 20%. Water ab- It is interesting to note that the strength of the origi- sorption was identified as a limiting parameter [25]. nal material was not correlated with the carbonation Further bibliography is discussed in Rajab et al. depth. In order to produce RAC with similar target [28]. In their study, air-entrained sidewalk concrete strength and carbonation depth to conventional mix containing up to 30% of coarse recycled aggre- mixes it is suggested that either greater amounts of gate or up to 20% of coarse and fine RCA was tested. cement should be used or a lower water to cement Density, consistence, air retention, compressive and ratio retaining cement content. It is acknowledged flexural strength, freeze-thaw resistance and chloride that in this case superplasticizers will also be used. permeability and strengths were tested. Equivalent To sum up, it has been experimentally con- levels of performance were recorded between the firmed that the use of high amounts (over 50% by 30% replacement and a conventional concrete con- mass) of recycled concrete aggregates yields a num- trol mix. The recycled coarse aggregate may have ber of complications for both fresh and hardened created higher hardened air voids and salt surface concrete; With respect to the former, consistence scaling was detected for the 20% coarse and fine drops in some studies [12], while remains similar to RCA replacement. It is noteworthy that the authors that of natural aggregates in others [16], bleeding of this research belong to the Lafarge research and may occur [12] and higher water absorption [16] and development group, a clear indication of the interest 5577 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5572-5580 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin of the industry in the use of RCA. with respect to the effect of mineral additions on re- Still, accelerated abrasion tests should be per- cycled coarse aggregate concrete [20] or even new formed on such elements in order to gain an insight concrete recycling technology [21] in order to over- into the life span of such products. come barriers in high RA usage, there is still a long way to cover until performance based design criteria Production of structural members with are met. Such results can be reversed with the ad- RCA. Several applications of RCA in structural YDQFHPHQWRI³QDQRWHFKQRORJ\´,WVKRXOGEHQRWHG beams, beam-column joints, 2D frames or scaled that the term nanotechnology covers two main structures have been reported in the past, as summa- streams (A) the use of nanoparticles i.e. particles rized in Pacheco et al. [29] and in columns as re- with one or more external dimensions in the size ported in Papatzani and Paine [14]. However, only range 1 nm-100 nm and (B) the use of methods and Pacheco et al. have published results on destructive techniques to study matter at the nanolevel, i.e. sizes testing on full scale recycled aggregate concrete and dimensions below 100 nm. Indeed, no research structures. Four two-floor, 3D frame struc-tures were on nanomodified recycled aggregate concrete has constructed and tested. One was made with conven- been presented up to date. tional concrete (0% coarse RCA), and three at 25%, The addition of nanoparticles in cement, mortar 100% coarse RCA and 100% coarse RCA+high and concrete formulations expands the field of vision range water reducing admixture. The geometry and in research and industry. In fact, nanotechnology is reinforcement layout was exactly the same in all four considered to bring about the next industrial revolu- of them and their design complied with Eurocode 2, tion, since the addition of nanoparticles and observa- 7 and 8. A number of conclusions were drawn the tion of the resulting changes at the nanolevel is a most important of which were that: much promising development. x The use of RCA does not comprise hin- The introduction of nanoparticles in formula- drance to ductile behavior, as long as conventional tions affects hydration, strength, durability and mi- concrete design codes are adopted crostructure in a number of ways, as discussed by Pa- x The performance of the structures made of patzani and coworkers [31]-[36]. Practically nano- RCA can be predicted by finite element analyses particles may play the role of nanofillers, reducing x The use of RCA does not compromise the the nanoporosity within the hydrated paste, nanore- seismic behavior of RAC structures inforcements, increasing the tensile/flexural strength Lastly, a separate study has been recently pub- and consistence of the paste, catalysts and nucleation lished in which recycled aggregate concrete beam el- sites for the reaction products due to their high spe- ements have been designed according to Eurocode 2 cific surface area and the unsaturated bonds on the [30]. It was concluded that a slightly higher nominal surface of the particles and/or highly reactive pozzo- cover is required in order to achieve similar service lanas, consuming Ca(OH)2 to produce additional C± life as for conventional concrete beams. The cross S±H. section also had to be increased to restrain maximum Furthermore, weakness in the interfacial transi- deflection within acceptable limits. tion zone (ITZ) between the aggregate and the ce- ment paste have been identified as core reason for poor performance. Given the physical characteristics of recycled aggregates, creating a compact ITZ when FURTHER CONSIDERATIONS & DISCUS- RCA are used is very demanding. The use of mineral SION additions, is advised to compensate for slump or strength loss, however can complicate the perfor- Most research is focused on the mechanical mance of the concrete formulations even further. Na- properties and durability issues of the resulting con- noparticles, with the abovementioned characteristics cretes, there is still lack of knowledge in the material are expected to strengthen the ITZ, hence more re- characterization of the individual aggregates or pow- search is required. In addition to this, research find- ders. Apart from chemical checks, it would be bene- ings on the microstrructure of RAC suggest that the ficial to carry out density and porosity measurement pores and cracks on the surface of RACs cannot be and scanning electron microscopy analyses, to deter- filled by cement paste, resulting into further weaken- mine the extent of cracking in the crushed samples. ing of the bond between the old ITZ and the new one Furthermore, it could be interesting to investi- [12]. The filling nature of the nanoparticles may as- gate the combined effect of the crushed powders and sist in counteracting this effect, also either directly, UHF\FOHGDJJUHJDWHVLQFRPSRVLWHELQGHUV¶FRQFUHWH or indirectly by the formation of secondary C±S±H mixes, containing significant amounts of supplemen- around the nanoparticles filling the nanosized pores. tary cementitious materials and low Portland cement Lastly, if assumptions as the one made by Liu content. Rate of hydration, water absorption, consist- et al. [11] with respect to the weaker bond of C±S±H ence, rheology and mechanical properties should be gel around the hybrid powder hold, the nanostructure considered. of C±S±H of such paste could be enhanced with the Although some experimental data is provided addition of nanoparticles and assessed by a number 5578 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5572-5580 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin of nanotech experimental methods [27], [28]. Re- Available:http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics search is required to assess these potentials in nano- explained/index.php/File:Waste_generation_by modified recycled aggregate concrete mixes. _economic_activity_and_households,_2010_.p ng. [Accessed: 09-Apr-2015]. [9] Marmaronet. (2016) Marmaronet agglomerated CONCLUSIONS stones. [Online]. Available: http://www. Mar- maronet.com/el/component/encyclopaedia/?tas All in all, legislative and technical barriers in k=item&id=32. [Accessed: 18-Feb-2016]. encouraging the broader use of recycled aggregates [10] Sagoe-Crentsil K. K., Brown T. and Taylor A. (RA) and recycled concrete aggregates such as the H. (2001) Performance of concrete made with absence of a relevant legislative framework and gov- commercially produced coarse recycled ernmental support, the lack of appropriate technol- FRQFUHWHDJJUHJDWH´Cem. Concr. Res., vol. 31, ogy in the recycling facilities, the lack of technical no. 5, pp. 707±712. awareness and relevant standards have been largely [11] Liu Q., Tong T., Liu S., Yang D. and Yu Q. eliminated in recent years. Research has shown that (2014) Investigation of using hybrid recycled there is a significant profit margin can be achieved powder from demolished concrete solids and by recycling CDEW as construction materials, as clay bricks as a pozzolanic supplement for they can be used, apart from road construction in cement. Constr. Build. Mater., vol. 73, pp. 754± structural applications and architectural finishes 763. (claddings, surfacing, mortars) apart from road con- [12] Behera M., Bhattacharyya S. K., Minocha A. K., struction. Therefore, the possibility of fulfilling the Deoliya R., and Maiti S. (2014) Recycled EU 2020 objective of 70% of CDEW being recycled, aggregate from C&D waste & its use in concrete can be considered realistic and achievable if appro- ± A breakthrough towards sustain-ability in priate planning and monitoring take place. construction sector: A review. Constr. Build. Mater., vol. 68, pp. 501±516. [13] Silva R. V., De Brito J. and Dhir R. K. REFERENCES Properties and composition of recycled aggre- gates from construction and demolition waste [1] Bio Intelligent Service. (2011) European suitable for concrete production. Constr. Build. Commission (DG ENV) Final Report Task 2 ± Mater., vol. 65, pp. 201±217. Management of construction & demolition [14] Papatzani S. and Paine K. (2015) Overview of waste. construction and demolition waste legislation in [2] Symonds Group Ltd. (1999) Symonds Group EU and Greece & state of the art on recycling Report to DGXI: Construction and demolition CDEW in concrete. In Fifth International waste management practices, and their Conference on Environmental Management, economic impacts. Brussels, Belgium. Engineering, Planning and Economics [3] ȆĮʌĮIJȗĮȞȒ Ȉ ǻȚĮȤİȓȡȚıȘ ĮʌȠȕȜȒIJȦȞ (CEMEPE 2015) & SECOTOX Conference. țĮIJĮıțİȣȫȞ țĮȚ țĮIJİįĮijȓıİȦȞ ıIJȘȞ [15] Dhir R. K., Limbachiya M. C. and Leelawat T. ǼȣȡȦʌĮȧțȒ DzȞȦıȘ ȂİIJĮʌIJȣȤȚĮțȒ ǼȡȖĮıȓĮ - (1999) Suitability of recycled concrete ǼșȞȚțȩ ȂİIJıȩȕȚȠ ȆȠȜȣIJİȤȞİȓȠ '2, aggregate for use in BS5328 designated mixes. 10.13140/RG.2.1.2749.5442. In Proceedings of the Institution of Civil [4] ǹȞĮıIJĮıȠʌȠȪȜȠȣ Ȃ ǺĮıȚȜİȓȠȣ Ǻ and Engineering, Structures and Buildings, no. 134, ȀĮȡĮȜȒȢ Ȁ ȅȝȐįĮ İȡȖĮıȓĮȢ ȉǼǼ - pp. 257±274. ǹȞĮțȪțȜȦıȘȠȚțȠįȠȝȚțȫȞĮʌȠȡȡȚȝȝȐIJȦȞ [16] Levy S. M. and Helene P. (2004) Durability of [5] Olorunsogo F. T. and Padayachee N. (2002) recycled aggregates concrete: a safe way to Performance of recycled aggregate concrete sustainable development. Cem. Concr. Res., vol. monitored by durability indexes. Cem. Concr. 34, no. 11, pp. 1975±1980. Res., vol. 32, no. 2, pp. 179±185. [17] Evangelista L. and De Brito J. (2010) Durability [6] Rao A., Jha K. N. and Misra S. (2007) Use of performance of concrete made with fine aggregates from recycled construction and recycled concrete aggregates. Cem. Concr. demolition waste in concrete. Resour. Conserv. Compos., vol. 32, no. 1, pp. 9±14. Recycl., vol. 50, no. 1, pp. 71±81. [18] Paine K. and Dhir, R. K. (2010) Recycled [7] Villoria-Saez P., Merino M. del R., Porras- aggregates in concrete: a performance related Amores C. and González A. de S. A. (2011) approach. Mag. Concr. Res., vol. 62, pp. 519± European Legislation and Implementation 530. ͒ Measures in the Management of Construction [19] Carro-López D., González-Fonteboa B., De and Demolition Waste. Open Constr. Build. Brito J., Martínez-Abella F., González-Taboada Technol. J., vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 156±161. I. and Silva P. (2015) Study of the rheology of [8] Eurostat. (2010) Waste generation by economic self-compacting concrete with fine recycled DFWLYLW\ DQG KRXVHKROGV ´ >2QOLQH@ concrete aggregates. Constr. Build. Mater., vol. 5579 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5572-5580 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin 96, pp. 491±501. Inorganic or Organomodified Montmorillonite [20] Silva R. V., Neves R., De Brito J. and Dhir R. Clay Nanoparticles for Blended Portland K. (2015) Carbonation behaviour of recycled Cement Pastes: Effects on Microstructure and aggregate concrete. Cem. Concr. Compos., vol. Strength, in Nanotechnology in Construction 62, pp. 22±32. Proceedings of NICOM5, K. Sobolev and S. P. [21] dDNÕU g ([SHULPHQWDO DQDO\VLV RI Shah, Eds. Springer International Publishing, properties of recycled coarse aggregate (RCA) pp. 131±139. concrete with mineral additives. Constr. Build. [34] Papatzani S., Paine K., and Calabria-Holley J. Mater., vol. 68, pp. 17±25. (2014) The effect of the addition of [22] Lotfi S., Eggimann M., Wagner E., Mróz R. and nanoparticles of silica on the strength and Deja J. (2015) Performance of recycled microstructure of blended Portland cement aggregate concrete based on a new concrete SDVWHV´ May 12-15, International Concrete recycling technology. Constr. Build. Mater., Sustainability Conference. Boston. vol. 95, pp. 243±256. [35] ɉɚɩɚɬɡɚɧɢ C.ɉɷɣɧ Ʉ, and Ʉɚɥɚɛɪɢɹ-ɏɨɥɥɢ [23] Du, H., Tan, K.H. (2014) Concrete with Ⱦ ɉɪɨɱɧɨɫɬɶ ɢ ɦɢɤɪɨɫɬɪɭɤɬɭɪɚ Recycled Glass as Fine Aggregates. Mater. J. ɰɟɦɟɧɬɧɨɝɨɤɚɦɧɹc ɞɨɛɚɜɤɚɦɢɤɨɥɥɨɢɞɧɨɝɨ 111. doi:10.14359/51686446 SiO2 (Strength and microstructure of colloidal [24] Limbachiya, M., Meddah, M.S., Fotiadou, S. nanosilica enhanced cement pastes (In Russian), (2012) Performance of granulated foam glass ɐɟɦɟɧɬɢɟɝɨɩɪɢɦɟɧɟɧɢɟ Cement its Appl.), concrete. Constr. Build. Mater. 28, 759±768. vol. 4, pp. 80±85. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.10.052 [36] Papatzani S. and Paine K. (2017) Inorganic and [25] Soutsos M. N., Tang K. and Millard S. G. (2011) organomodified nano-montmorillonite disper- Concrete building blocks made with recycled sions for use as supplementary cementitious demolition aggregate. Constr. Build. Mater., materials - A novel theory based on nano- vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 726±735. structural studies, Nanocomposites, vol. 3, no. 1, [26] Soutsos M. N., Tang K., and Millard S. G. pp. 2±19. (2011) Use of recycled demolition aggregate in precast products, phase II: Concrete paving blocks. Constr. Build. Mater., vol. 25, no. 7, pp. 3131±3143. [27] Soutsos M. N., Tang K. and Millard S. G. (2012) The use of recycled demolition aggregate in Received: 07.04.2017 precast concrete products ± Phase III: Concrete Accepted: 21.07.2017 pavement flags. Constr. Build. Mater., vol. 36, pp. 674±680. [28] Rajab R., Lotfy A., Sucic A., Morris D. and Lum CORRESPONDING AUTHOR P. (2014) Performance Evaluation of Municipal Concrete Sidewalks using Coarse and Fine Styliani Papatzani Recycled Concrete Aggregate. In May 12-15, Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, International Concrete Sustainability Conferen- University of Bath, BA2 7AY, Bath, UK ce. [29]Pacheco J., De Brito J., and. Soares D. (2015) e-mail: [email protected] Destructive Horizontal Load Tests of Full-Scale Recy- Cled-Aggregate Concrete Structures. ACI Struct. J., vol. 112, no. 6, pp. 815±826. [30] Silva R. V., De Brito J., Evangelista L. and Dhir R. K. (2016) Design of reinforced recycled aggregate concrete elements in conformity with Eurocode 2. Constr. Build. Mater., vol. 105, pp. 144±156. [31] Papatzani S. (2015) Effect of nanosilica and montmorillonite nanoclay particles on cement hydration and microstructure. Mater. Sci. Technol., vol. 32, no. 2, pp. 138±153 [32] Papatzani S., Paine K., and Calabria-Holley J. (2015) A comprehensive review of the models on the nanostructure of calcium silicate hydrates, Constr. Build. Mater., vol. 74, pp. 219±234. [33] Papatzani S. and Paine K. (2015) Dispersed 5580 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5581-5588 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin .,1(7,&02'(/6¶(9$/8$7,212)3+263+25865( MOVAL IN WASTEWATER STABILIZATION PONDS UN- DER MEDITERRANEAN CONDITIONS Maria K Gratziou Laboratory of Hydraulics, Department of Civil Engineering, School of Engineering, Democritus University of Thrace, 67132, Xanthi. ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION Phosphorus removal is one of the most diffi- Wastewater Stabilization Ponds (WSPs) are cult issues to be achieved in natural wastewater natural systems with significant advantages, such as treatment systems according to the opinion of many simplicity, low construction and operating costs and researchers. There is currently no established design high efficiency in organic matter and pathogens to increase phosphorus removal in waste stabiliza- removal [1], [2]. However, phosphorus removal tion ponds (WSPs). This occurs because there are from municipal wastewater by WSPs is poor and no mechanisms for the complete phosphorus re- ranges from 15% to 50% [3-8]. Mara [9] proposed moval by WSPs systems or wetlands. These remov- that the best way to increase the phosphorus remov- al mechanisms depend on the phosphorus form in al from wastewater by WSPs is to increase the the sewage. The present paper exa-mines the phos- number of maturation ponds. Generally, the phos- phorus removal kinetics presented in three full-scale phorus removal is one of the most difficult issues to WSP systems in Greece. The investigated WSP be achieved in natural wastewater treat-ment sys- systems consist of one facultative pond, one or two tems according to the opinion of many re-searchers maturation ponds in series and a limestone rock [10]. There is no existed an established method for filter before the final discharge. The systems treat the wastewater stabilization SRQGV¶ :63V design municipal wastewater and were monitored for a for phosphorus removal up to now. This occurs year for this work proposes. Their average mass because there are no mechanisms for the complete removal efficiency ranged from 16% to 43%. The phosphorus removal by WSPs systems or wetlands kinetic constants of phosphorus removal were de- [11], [12], [2]. These removal mechanisms depend termined based on the first order kinetic model, the on the phosphorus form in the sew-age. Phosphorus Stover-Kincannon model, the Grau second order (P) in wastewater appears almost entirely in the kinetic model, the Kadlec and Knight model and the form of phosphates, which include organic phos- Reed model were used. The models¶ assessment, as phates and inorganic phosphates poly-phosphates well as the accuracy and reliability of the results are and orthophosphate [13]. In wastewater the organic evaluated by comparison with existing real data. phosphorus is about one fifth of the total phospho- Furthermore, the model models better representing rus (TP). At the outlet of WSPs the organic P is one total phosphorus kinetic in the WSP systems is de- third of TP approximately and the inorganic P is termined. The factors influencing the kinetics are two-thirds of TP [2]. Orthophos-phates are availa- also examined. Reed model correlates the best. The ble for biological metabolism with-out further anal- biodegradation rate constant (kTP) of TP ranges ysis. Usually polyphosphates under-go hydrolysis from 0.0030 to 0.0146 md-1. The 1st order kinetic and are converted to orthophosphate form. This model applied to wetlands also gives very good process is usually very slow [14]. Inorganic P is results. According to this model the biodegradation easily consumed by aquatic organisms. Some orga- rate constant ranges from 0.0116 d-1 to 0.0392 d-1. nisms are capable of storing the excess of phospho- The estimated parameters can effectively be applied rus in the form of polyphosphates for future use. in sizing WSPs under Mediterranean or similar cli- Simultaneously, a part of the organic phosphates matic conditions. The constant kTP has a strong pos- constantly disappears in sediments. It is trapped in itive correlation with the removal of TSS. an insoluble form of precipitate [13]. In a WSP sys- tem, phosphorus removal from domestic wastewater is associated with hiring of the algal biomass, pre- KEYWORDS: cipitation and sedimentation. Since the alkalinity municipal wastewater, stabilization ponds, phosphorus increases, during daylight hours, the phosphate is removal kinetics, biodegradation rate constant. incorporated with TSS and precipitates out off wastewater [13], [14]. Several studies in the international literature 5581 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5581-5588 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin suggest that phosphorus removal mechanisms and rological data were recorded. The samples were pathways differ spatially and temporally on a global placed into 1000 (mL) polyethylene bottles and level. Moreover, although a lot of the WSPs design were transferred immediately to the wastewater tools and models have been adopted, there is not laboratory of Serres City [21]. To enhance the range enough information about the dynamics of pollu- and accuracy of the data, each sample was analyzed tants in these systems [15-19]. Lack of such infor- separately twice, implementing methods proposed mation and the fact that the use of these systems is limited in Greece and therefore relevant information TABLE 1 is insufficient, were the impetus for this work. WSP systems: Inflow, total area and volume, The aim of the present research is the determi- loading rates (Current situation) Vamvako- ȃ. Skopos Charopo nation of TP pollutant removal reaction rate; the WSP system fito (V) (N. S.) (Ch) biodegradation rate constants kTP of three full±scale WSPs systems situated in the North part of Greece, Inflow (m3/d) 121 152 137 Total Area treated municipal wastewater, pertaining to local 6016 2112 7415 (m2) conditions. The knowledge of the constant kTP is Total Volume 8311 2827 9921 very useful for the systems¶design. One of the ob- (m3) m2 faculta- jectives was to determine the suitability and useful- 2.65 0.67 1.77 ness of different models, available in the literature. tive/PE m2 matura- 3.86 0.67 5.23 The models were compared by using statistic effi- tion/PE FLHQF\ FULWHULD E\ ZKLFK WKH PRGHOV¶ ILW (adapta- PE: equivalent population tion) and therefore the suitability was evaluated. MATERIALS AND METHODS Study area. The three systems are situated in a lowland area in mainland of northern Greece in latitude ij: 41Ƞ up to 41Ƞ¶1longitude Ȝ: 23Ƞ21ǯ up to 23Ƞ36ǯE and altitude from 14 m to 52, in a Mediterranean climate. The mean monthly air tem- peratures are among 4oC to 29oC with average an- nual temperature equal to 15.2 °C and an average annual rainfall equal to 37.37 mm. The winds in the region are not more than 6 km/h [20]. System of Vamvakofito They treat only domestic wastewater and con- sist of one facultative pond of 2.40 m in depth, one maturation pond (N. Skopos) or two (Vamva- kofito, Charopo) of 1.50 m deep in series and a limestone rock filter before the final discharge for algae filtration. The wastewater discharge becomes through an open channel of 0.75m2 vertical section. The entrance and exit of the wastewater in each pond are from one point respectively, in a diagonal arrangement. Every system has a different total hydraulic retention time (HRT). SkoSRV¶V+57LV 18.6 d for Vamvakofito it is 68.7 d and for Charopo it 72.4 d. The inflow is considered constant for each System of N.Skopos WSPs system and equal to the outflow. Each WSPs system has different design and functional features (Table 1, Figure1). Data. To determinate the TP, BOD5 and TSS concentrations for each system, instantaneous sam- ples were taken from the inflow of the 1st pond and the outflow of the last pond, from October 2006 to September 2007 twice a month at least. On January and June - with the lowest and highest temperature respectively sampling was done with a weekly fre- System of Charopo quency [21]. The samples were collected approxi- mately at the same morning period, while meteo- FIGURE 1 Ground Plan of WSP systems 5582 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5581-5588 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin by the Simplified Laboratory Procedures for kinetic model [17], [28], [32], the Kadlec and Wastewater Examination [22], and considering the Knight model [33-35] and the Reed et al model averages. The inflow and outflow rates were meas- [36], [12]. It is interesting to ascertain whether the ured with handheld electromagnetic flow meter, models, applied on several other occasions, are also with the assumption that wastewater supply was con- DEOH WR EH DSSOLHG LQ :63V¶ 73 removal. In this stant during the day. In parallel, pH values were also study these macrokinetics models were selected to measured by potentiometric method using simulate the TP removal. pH/Cond340i. Daily meteorological data were ob- The first order kinetics model is usually ap- tained from the National Meteorological Service plied to simulate the BOD removal [37]. In the case (NMS). The water temperature was recorded in situ, where the WSPs have a complete mixing flow, the during the days of sampling. general equation with modifications [30] can be The WSPs as open natural systems are sub- written as follows [12]: jected to the laws of nature and are influenced by local weather conditions. Thus their operation and performance are affecting. So, the outflow data (Eq. 2) were corrected by mass balance method, to elimi- In the case where the WSPs have plug flow nate errors from atmospheric precipitation and the equationq 2 is written as [38]: evapotranspiration, as many researchers believe that the mass balance is the most authoritative method to approach mechanisms and parameters that deter- (Eq. 3) mine the performance of natural systems and the Where Cin and Cout are the inflow and outflow changes occurring in these [23-25]. The mass bal- pollutant concentration (mg/L) respectively, t is the ance is described by the general expression [26]; retention time of pollutant in the WSPs, k1, k2 are - mass accumulation is equal to mass input minus the the first order constants of pollutant removal rate (d 1 mass output + mass generation or mass consump- ) for complete mixing flow and plug flow, respec- tion. The water balance estimation des-cribed by the tively. equation 1, uses the principles of conservation of The Stover-Kincannon model [39] which has mass in a closed system. been structured in order to connect the removal rate of one component with its mass load is commonly (Eq.1) used for biological filters, CBR and MBBR sys- Where Q is the wastewater outflow quantity out tems. It has suggested by Khosravi et al [40] in the (m3/d), Q is the wastewater inflow quantity (m3/d), in case of stabilization ponds, having a good adapta- I is the water quantity which enters the system via precipitation (m3/d) and PET is the water quantity tion. After linearization it could be expressed as which is lost from the system via evapotranspiration follows [41]: (m3/d). k = (mg L-1d-1) (Eq.4) The height of precipitation H was obtained 3 rain where U is the maximum removal rate (mg by Hellenic Meteo Service, Bureau of Serres, and max L-1 d-1). the height of evapotranspiration, H was calcu- PET The 2nd order kinetic Grau model [42] was de- ODWHGZLWKFXVWRPL]LQJ7KRUQWKZDLWH¶VPHWKRGGXH veloped for biofilters. It was based on the assump- to the small number of required data for its imple- tion that the removal rate along the installation is mentation, compared to the model of Perman- reduced as the contaminant is passed through it Monteith, which is considered more reliable [26]. [28]. After the integration of the basic 2nd order The Thornthwaite model, accordance with other kinetics equation and its linearization then [30] the researchers, gives a very good estimation of the equation could be expressedpy by follow form: water balance for the purposes of this research [27]. The corrected data were fed into mathematical models to calculate the phosphorus kinetic constant (Eq.5) kTP. The parameters of the data statistical analysis where X is the mean biomass concentration in nd were calculated by the use of Microsoft Office EX- the system (mg / L), and k4 is the 2 order substrate CEL 2007. removal rate constant (d-1). The Kadlec and Knight model was developed Kinetics Models and their Evaluation. The for wetlands [33]. It is a combination of the basic kinetics study can be an effective tool for the inves- equation of the plug flow model and the aqueous tigation of the pollutant removal mechanisms and mass balance. As the examined stabilization pond can help the design of WSPs too [28]. Different systems have characteristics similar with wetlands - macrokinetics models have often been used to no sludge removal throughout the years of opera- simulate the removal of various contaminants in the tion and simultaneously a significant growth of self- kinetics study. These typically used models are the sown reeds at the banks of the ponds (Figure 2) - 1st order kinetic model [17], [29-31], the Stover- this model it was assumed that can be used. Kincannon model [17], [32], the Grau 2nd order 5583 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5581-5588 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin OHFWHGGDWDZLWKWKHSUHGLFWHGE\WKHPRGHOV¶HTXD tions values F(Cout). To evaluate model perfor- mance, efficiency criteria are defined as mathemati- cal measures of how well the model simulation fits the available observations [45]. For each WSPs system, the "kTP" values were obtained after the predicted values function optimization. The predict- ed values were generated from the applied models. The used efficiency criteria, in this study, were (i) the coefficient of determination R2, defined as the squared value of the coefficient of correlation according to Bravais-Pearson. It provides a measure of how well observed outcomes are replicated by the model, as the proportion of total variation of outcomes explained by the model. The range of R2 lies between 0 (no correlation) and 1.0 (the disper- sion of the prediction is equal to that of observa- tion). ȉhe fact that only the dispersion is quantified is one of the major drawbacks of R2 and if it is con- sidered alone it is advisable to take into account additional information which can cope with that problem. (ii) The Nash-Sutclife efficiency E. The range of E lies between 1.0 (perfect fit) and - $Q FIGURE 2 efficiency of 0 (E = 0) indicates that the model pre- General view of WSP systems where be ap- dictions are as accurate as the mean of the observed parent the plants growth data, whereas an efficiency less than zero (E < 0) occurs when the observed mean is a better predictor The Kadlec and Knight model is written as in than the model or, in other words, when the residual the equation 6: variance (described by the numerator in the expres- sion above), is larger than the data variance (de- (Eq.6) scribed by the denominator). Essentially, the closer - Where k5 is the first-order kinetic constant md the model efficiency is to 1, the more accurate the 1 and C* is non-zero background (mg/L). Q is the model is. (iii) The unitized risk or coefficient of input flow rate (m3/d), $LVWKHSRQG¶VVXUIDFH P2). variation CV that is defined as the ratio of the The values of C* for wetlands, according Kadlec standard deviation ı to the mean ȝ. It shows the and Knight [33], are among 0.02 to 1. In this re- extent of variability in relation to the mean of the search, the value of C * was examined in the range population. CV measures are often used as quality of 0.1 to 1. This model describes better the removal controls for quantitative laboratory assays. The of pollutants, as they cannot be reduced to zero in closer to zero CV value is the better the fit. The wetlands or in the ponds, due to the subsequent combination of the above criteria gives more infor- release of pollutants from the ponds into the treated mation about the efficiency of used equations. water. The non-zero background concentration rep- For the statistical and mathematical data anal- resents in more realistic way the pollutants resulting ysis the Microsoft Office EXCEL 2007 was used. from transformation processes within the sediments and from the interactions between the sediments and the wastewater. The main reason of these pro- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION cesses is the production of organics from the de- composition of organic materials and the endoge- The pH values ranged from 6.76 to 8.22 and nous autotrophic processes [43], [44]. TP load concentrations at the entrance of the WSPs The Reed model [36] is applied usually to ranged from 2.10 mg/L to 14.60 mg/L. The average simulate the TP removal in wetlands [12] and has values of pH, the concentrations of TP, input and the following expression: output in mg/L measured in three WSP systems and TP removal rate are presented in Table 2. The SRQGV¶ temperature ranged from 5 oC to 30 oC and it or , (md-1) (Eq.7) was similar in all the three systems with an average temperature of 16.3 + 9.7. The TSS and BOD re- Where C , C are the WSPs inflow and out- 5 in out moval efficiency are shown in Table 3. flow TN concentration (mg/L) respectively, Q is the input flow rate (m3G $LVWKHSRQG¶VVXUIDFH>P2]. 7KHPRGHOV¶HYDOXDWLRQ was assessed by com- paring the real observed values Cout of WSPs col- 5584 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5581-5588 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin TABLE 2 to the models mentioned above and the reliability The pH means value, inflow-outflow TP concen- coefficients of each model R2 and E, are presented trations, efficiency in Tables 4, 5, 6. WSPs pH ȉȇ mg/L) Effi- system cien- n In- Out- In- Out- Taking into account all the statistic criteria cy 2 flow flow flow flow % (R , E, CV) for evaluating the suitability of models Vamva 34 7.47+ 7.63+ 6.50+ 3.51+ 44.83 for all the three WSP systems, the simple model of kofito 0.32 0.30 2.42 1.38 Reed gives the best results for "kTP" expressed in ȃ 34 7.03+ 7.08+ 3.55+ 2.67+ 23.55 md-1. Every WSPs system, as a separate ecological Skopos 0.40 0.32 0.78 0.48 system, operates with different rates. The kTP values Char- 34 7.29+ 7.39+ 4.51+ 3.49+ 22.32 -1 opo 0.24 0,24 1.32 1.00 of the three systems ranged among 0.0030 md to 0.0146 md-1 EDVHG RQ WKH 5HHG¶V PRGHO DQG DUH n: number of samples within the limits described in the literature. The values of k referred to TP removal in wetlands TABLE 3 ranging from 0.0027 to 0.033 md-1 according to The Mean Efficiency of ǺȅD5 and ȉSS removal Kadlec and Knight [33]. So, for Vamvakofito WSPs WSPs Vamvako -1 ȃSkopos Charopo system kTP value is 0.0112 md , for N. Skopos system fito -1 WSPs system kTP value is 0.0146 md while for ǺȅD5 removal 64.95 43.47 49.66 Charopo WSPs system the kTP proposed value is -1 (%) equal to 0.0030 md . The first order kinetics model TSS is quite reliable too. The kTP values obtained from removal 60.01 36,83 17.18 this model for plug flow are for the Vamvakofito (%) WSPs system equal to 0.0392 d-1, the N. Skopos system equal to 0.0145 d-1 and for the Charopo one TABLE 4 0.0116 d-1. Vamvakofito WSPs. - biodegradation rate con- There is a significant positive correlation be- stant kTP tween the kinetic coefficient kTP and TSS removing Model 1st order 1st Stover- 2nd Kadlec Reed with a coefficient of determination R2 more than Com- order Kincan- order - plete Plug non Grau Knight 0.91 (Figure 3). mix. flow flow d-1 d-1 mgL-1d-1 d-1 md-1 md-1 kTP 0.0546 0.0392 1.7933 0.0643 0.0112 0.0112 R2 0.829 0.797 0.849 0.829 0.849 0.849 E 0.949 0.966 0.948 0.927 0.974 0.974 CV 0.565 0.445 0.690 0.572 0.018 0.016 TABLE 5 N.Skopos WSPs. - biodegradation rate constant kTP Model 1st order 1st Stover- 2nd Kadlec - Reed Complete order Kincan- order Knight mix. flow Plug non Grau flow d-1 d-1 mgL-1d-1 d-1 md-1 md-1 0.0166 0.014 13.497 0.020 0.0146 0.0146 k TP 5 0 FIGURE 3 R2 0.823 0.813 0.928 0.823 0.928 0.928 E 0.982 0.990 0.994 0.919 0.997 0.997 Correlation between the kinetic coefficient kTP CV 0.481 0.477 1.014 0.524 0.0377 0.0358 and TSS removing TABLE 6 Charopo WSPs. - biodegradation rate CONCLUSION constant kTP Model 1st order 1st Stover- 2nd Kadlec - Reed Complete order Kincan- order Knight Each of the WSP systems has different charac- mix. flow Plug non Grau flow teristics and behavior, due to its complicated and d-1 d-1 mgL-1d-1 d-1 md-1 md-1 multi-parameter ecosystem. Hence, every WSPs 0.0130 0.011 6.370 0.0153 0.0030 0.0030 k system as a separate ecological system operates TP 6 R2 0.653 0.648 0.687 0.653 0.687 0.687 with different rates. To estimate the kinetics coeffi- E 0.960 0.978 0.981 0.979 0.981 0.981 cient (kTP) the Reed model, proposed for wetlands, CV 1.022 0.999 8.110 1.130 0.0275 0.0270 gives the best results in the case of WSPs too. Knowing the appropriate kTP the Reed model can The k values of the total phosphorus biodegra- be used to estimate the WSP area requirement, giv- dation rate constant, as generated from the mathe- en the TP concentrations in the input and output of matical simulation of the measurements, according WSP and the daily flowrate. This knowledge im- 5585 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5581-5588 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin proves the WSPs system design under Mediterrane- 42(10±11), pp. 35±42. an conditions. The first order kinetics model is quite [6] Ghazy M.M.E., El-Senousy W.M., Abdel- reliable too. The kTP values of the three systems Aatty A.M., Kamel M. Performance evaluation ranged among 0.0030 md-1 to 0.0146 md-1 and of a waste stabilization pond in a rural area in among 0116 d-1 to 0.0392 d-1. The proposed val- Egypt (2008) American Journal of Environ- ues are within the limits described in the literature. mental Science, 4(4), pp. 316±325. In particular for Vamvakofito WSPs system kTP [7] Camargo Valero M.A., M. Johnson, T. Mather, value is 0.0112 md-1, for N. Skopos system kTP D.D. Mara. Enhanced phosphorus removal in a value is 0.0146 md-1, while for Charopo WSPs waste stabilization pond system with blast fur- system the kTP proposed value is equal to 0.0030 nace slag filters (2009) Desalination and Water md-1. The kTP values obtained from 1st order ki- Treatment, 4, pp. 122±127. netic model for plug flow gave for the Vamvakofito [8] Mburu N., Tebitendwa S.M., Bruggen J.J.A., WSPs system a kTP value equal to 0.0392 d-1, for Rousseau D.L.P., Lens P.N.L. Performance N.Skopos system equal to 0.0145 d-1 and for the comparison and economics analysis of waste Charopo system equal to 0.0116 d-1. There is a stabilization ponds and horizontal subsurface significant positive correlation between the kinetic flow constructed wetlands treating domestic coefficient kTP and TSS removal (R2 =0.91). wastewater: a case study of the Juja sewage treatment works (2013) Journal of Environ- About the author. Maria K. Gratziou, Dr.- mental Management, 128(C), pp. 220±225. Eng., Associate Professor, Director of Hydraulic [9] Mara D.D. Design Manual for Waste stabi- Sector, Department of Civil Engineering, Democ- lization ponds in India (1997) Lagoon Techno- ULWXV8QLYHUVLW\RI7KUDFH7KHDXWKRU¶VPDMRULVWhe logy International, Leeds. water resources management, technical and eco- [10] Powell N., Shilton A., Pratt S., Usufchisti A. nomic analysis of environmental projects focusing Factors Influencing Luxury Uptake of Phos- on wastewater treatment plants. phorus by Microalgae in Waste Stabilization Ponds (2008) Environmental Science Techno- logy, 42(16), pp.5958±5962. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS [11] Mbwele L.A. Microbial Phosphorus Removal in Waste Stabilisation Pond Wastewater Special thanks to Dr. Maria Chalatsi for sam- Treatment Systems (2006) Thesis from the pling and field measurements, to the Waste- water School of Biotechnology: Royal Institute of Laboratory of Serres City for the technical support Technology, Albanova, Stockholm, Sweden, and to the National Meteo Service for the meteoro- ISBN 91-7179-280-X. logical data. [12] Kayombo S., Mbwette T.S.A., Katima J.H.Y., Ladegaard N., Jørgensen S.E. Waste Stabi- Conflict of Interest. The author confirms that lization Ponds and Constructed Wetlands De- this article content has no conflict of interest. sign Manuel (2004). EAWAG (Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology), Dübendorf, Swiss. www.unep.org/ietc/Portals/ REFERENCES 136/Publications/Water&Sanitation/Pond... [13] Pycha Ch. and E. Lopez. Municipal Waste- [1] Mara D.D. Waste stabilization ponds: Past, water Lagoon Phosphorus Removal (2015) De- present and future (2009) Desalination and Wa- partment of Environmental Protect-ion, State of ter Treatment, 4(1-3), pp. 85-88. Main, U.S.A. http://www.lagoons-online.com/ [2] Hamzeh R. and V. M. Ponce. Design and per- phosphorous.htm formance of stabilization ponds (2014). [14] Lenntech B.V. 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Received: 07.04.2017 Accepted: 21.07.2017 CORRESPONDING AUTHOR Maria Gratziou Laboratory of Hydraulics, Department of Civil En- gineering, School of Engineering, Democritus Uni- versity of Thrace, 67132, Xanthi. e-mail: [email protected] 5588 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5589-5598 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin NUTRIENT REMOVAL FROM DOMESTIC WASTEWATER BY STABILIZATION PONDS TREATMENT IN NORTHERN GREECE Maria Gratziou*, Maria Chalatsi Laboratory of Hydraulics, Department of Civil Engineering, Campus of Democritus University of Thrace, Kimmeria , Xanthi, Greece, 67100 ABSTRACT small wastewater treatment plants that serve rural communities and settlements, due to the economies The paper presents the effectiveness of tree of scale. waste stabilization pond (WSP) systems, operating Waste stabilization ponds (WSPs) are an inex- in Northern Greece, on nutrient removal. The sys- pensive method to achieve good pathogen and or- tems treat only domestic wastewater and consist of ganic pollutant removal [6]. However, for nutrient one facultative pond, one or two maturation ponds removal, such as nitrogen and phosphorous, they and a rock filter before the final discharge for algae have not been very effective. In fact, most operating filtration. Significant differences have been noticed ponds and wetlands remove little phosphorus and among the three systems concerning their concentra- there is no established method for designing ponds tions, as well as their efficiencies. During the estima- for phosphorus removal [7]. Phos-phorus removal tion of mass efficiency, it has been observed that in from municipal wastewater via stabilization ponds is most cases, mass efficiencies were almost identical often poor, ranged among 15-50% [8], [9], [10], to the concentration efficiencies. Yet, this was not [11], [12]. the case during summer months, when there was a Many researchers, in various case studies, pro- drop in mass efficiencies. The three systems were re- vide information about nutrient removal by WSPs in corder to operate smoothly during the study. Moreo- different climatic conditions [13],[14], [15], [16], ver, the correlations between influent ± effluent mass [17], [18]. In Greece, the use of WSP systems and were satisfactory. The correlations between nutrient the research on them is limited; information found in removal, pH, temperature, BOD5, +57SRQGV¶VXU the international literature does not always conform face and area, were investigated. to Greek data, as there are different climatic condi- tions and living standards, affecting the quality and quantity of produced wastewater. KEYWORDS: The research reported herein was held in north- Wastewater, stabilization pond, nutrient removal, nutrient ern Greece. Three full±scale WSP systems, treating mass efficiency municipal wastewater were monitored for approxi- mately three years. Nitrogen and phos-phorus re- moval were estimated. Moreover, the correlations INTRODUCTION between influent ± effluent mass were determined and equations were performed, corre-lating the pol- Domestic wastewater contains high concentra- OXWDQWV¶HIIOXHQWFRQFHQWUDWLRQV&e with the influent tions of both nutrient and pathogens, which can af- concentrations Ci. In addition, the correlations be- fect public health and have harmful impacts on the tween nutrient removal and other parameters, such environment [1], [2]. The Directive of the European as pH, temperature, BOD5, +57SRQGV¶VXUIDFHDQG Union framework (2000/60/EC) requires at least area, were investigated. 75% phosphorus and nitrogen removal, in case of large scale wastewater treatment plants discharges into sensitive aquatic receivers. Current mainstream MATERIALS AND METHODS wastewater treatment techno-logies, such as acti- vated sludge process with nitro-gen and phosphorus All three systems are established in a lowland removal, are very costly in providing satisfactory re- area in the mainland of northern Greece in latitude sults for the growing wastewater problems [3], [4]. ij: 41Ƞ up to 41Ƞ¶ 1 longitude Ȝ: 23Ƞ21ǯ up to The phosphorus removal processes in conventional 23Ƞ36ǯE and altitude from 14 m to 52, in a Mediter- wastewater treatment systems are expensive, energy ranean climate. They treat exclusively domestic consuming and require specialized staff [5]. These wastewater and consist of one facultative pond, one procedures are reliable and reasonable for large sew- (N. Skopos) or two (Vamvakofito, Charopo) matura- age treatment plants, but they are unaffordable for tion ponds and a limestone rock filter before the final 5589 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5589-5598 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin discharge for algae filtration. The bottom and the The outflow data were corrected with the mass walls of the ponds are insulated with compacted balance method in order to eliminate errors from at- clay, in order to avoid losses and leaks in the subsoil. mospheric precipitation and evapotranspiration, Wastewater discharge takes place through an open since many researchers believe that the mass balance channel of 0.75 m2 vertical section, from the upper is the most authoritative method to approach mecha- 0.40 m of the last pond, with the assistance of grav- nisms and parameters that deter-mine the perfor- ity. Every system has different characteristics (Table mance of natural systems and the subsequent 1). Operation of Vamvakofito WSP system began in changes occurring in them [28], [29], [30]. The mass 1989, of N. Skopos in 1980 and of Charopo in 1994. balance is described by the general expression [31]: The systems have been monitored for approximately three years. The climate is classified as dry with de- mass accumulation= mass input - mass output + viation to the semi-humid with surplus of water dur- mass generation or mass consumption (Eq. 1) ing the winter. The average annual temperature is 15.2 °C and the average annual rainfall is 37.37 mm, The water balance estimation, described by the mean peak temperature is 26.3 °C and the mean equation 2, uses the principles of conservation of lower one is 3.9 °C in January. The absolute maxi- mass in a closed system: mum temperature and the lowest rainfalls have ob- ܳ௨௧ ൌܳ ܫW d (Eq. 2) served In July. The winds of the region are not more Where Qout is the wastewater outflow quantity 3 3 than 6 km/h [25]. [m /d], Qin is the wastewater inflow quantity [m /d], I is the water quantity which enters the system via pre- TABLE 1 cipitation [m3/d] and PET is the water quantity lost WSP systems: dimensions, HRT and loading from the system via evapotranspiration [m3/d]. The rates (Current situation) height of precipitation Hrain was obtained by the Hel- WSP sys- Vamvakofito ȃ. Skopos Charopo (Ch) lenic Meteo Service, Bureau of Serres and the height tem (V) (N. S.) of evapotranspiration HPET was calculated by custo- Inflow 121 152 137 (m3/d) mizing the Thornthwaite method [26], [30], due to HRT (d) 68.7 18.6 72.4 the small number of the data required for its imple- F : 1.00-2.40 F : 0.75-2.40 F : 0.80-2.40 Depth (m) M: 0.75-1.50 M: 0.70-1.50 M: 0.70-1.50 mentation, compared to the model of Perman-Mon- Area (m2) 6016 2112 7415 teith, which is considered more reliable [32]. The Volume 8311 2827 9921 Thornthwaite model, in accordance with other rese- (m3) m3 /e.p. 8.9 2.4 9.4 archers, gives a very good estimation of the water m2 /e.p. 6.5 1.8 7.0 balance for the purposes of this research [32]. More- over, the high reliability of the method was sup- ା ି ported by Alkaeed et al [33]. To determinate the TN, N-N+ , N-N2 , TP, BOD5 and DO concentrations for each system, in- From the measured concentrations of nutrients, stantaneous samples were taken from the inflow of in the input (Cin) and in the output (Cout) of the three the 1st pond and the outflow of the last pond, during systems, the removal efficiency of nutrient concen- the years 2006, 2007 and 2012, at least twice a month trations is calculated based on the equation: [26]. The samples were collected approximately dur- Removal efficiency(%)=[Cin-Cout]x100/Cin (Eq. 3) ing the same morning period, when meteorological Having estimated, with the Thornthwaite data were recorded. The samples were placed into method, the height of evapotranspiration HPET and 1000 [mL] polyethylene bottles and were transferred knowing the amount of Hrain precipitation, the immediately to the wastewater laboratory of the City FKDQJHRISRQGV¶ZDWHUOHYHOǻH [cm] can be calcu- of Serres [26]. To enhance the range and accuracy of lated. Multiplying ǻH with the surface of each sys- the data, each sample was analyzed separately twice, tem, the changes in volume ǻV [m3] are estimated. implement-ting methods proposed by the Simplified Dividing ǻV with the number of days of each month, Laboratory Procedures for Wastewater Examination the term ǻV/d [m3/d] is resulting, i.e. the daily [27] and considering the averages. The inflow and FKDQJH RIWKH SRQGV¶YROXPHIRUHDFKPRQWK7KH outflow rates were measured with handheld electro- term ǻV/d is subtracted from the initial daily flow Q magnetic flow meter, with the assumption that and thus results a new term Qǯ. wastewater supply was constant during the day. In Qǯ = Q ± (ǻV/d) (Eq. 4) parallel, pH values were also measured by potentiom- 0XOWLSO\LQJWKHQHZGDLO\IORZ4¶>P3/d] with etric method using pH/Cond340i. Daily meteorolog- the mean of the concentrations [mg/L] ೠశ ೠశభ ଶ ical data were obtained from the National Meteoro- and with the number of days elapsed between sam- logical Service (NMS). The water temperature was pling (ǻt), the final output mass Massout [kg] is esti- recorded in situ, during the days of sampling. mated - with appropriate conversion of units. 5590 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5589-5598 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin TABLE 2 The TN inflow and outflow concentrations in the three WSP systems [mg/L] Max Min Mean STDEV AVEDEV WSPs In Out In Out In Out In Out In Out V* 38.3 4.7 12.6 1.1 24.7 2.95 6.2 1.0 1.2 0.3 N.S 24.3 14.3 20.6 13.9 22.5 14.1 2.6 0.2 1.9 0.2 Ch. 23.5 10.4 22.9 10.2 23.2 10.3 0.4 0.15 0.3 0.1 *V = Vamvakofito, N.S = N.Skopos, Ch = Charopo TABLE 3 ା [The N-N۶ inflow and outflow concentrations in the three WSP systems [mg/L Max Min Mean STDEV AVEDEV WSPs In Out In Out In Out In Out In Out V 30.0 3.3 9.7 0.6 19.5 2.0 5.0 0.8 0.9 0.2 N.S 19.2 10.8 16.2 10.6 17.7 10.7 2.1 0.1 1.5 0.1 Ch. 18.2 8.10 17.9 7.9 18.1 8.0 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 TABLE 4 ି [ inflow and outflow concentrations in the three WSP systems [mg/L۽The N-N Max Min Median STDEV AVEDEV WSPs In Out In Out In Out In Out In Out V 1.0 0.9 0.1 0.1 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.04 0.04 N.S 0.7 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.23 0.21 Ch. 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.06 0.05 ೠశ ೠశభ -3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Massout = Qǯ x ǻt x x 10 (Eq. 5) ଶ In the same way, the input mass Massin [kg] is ା ି estimated too. The TN, N-N+ and N-N2 concentrations differ in the three WSP systems; differences were శ శభ -3 Massin = Q x ǻt x x 10 (Eq. 6) ଶ also recorded for the same system due to the differ- The difference Massin - Massout determines the ent FKDUDFWHULVWLFV RI WKH V\VWHPV¶ LQIORZ LH UHDO variation of mass throughout the study period. Hav- wastewater). However, no significant deviations in ing estimated the input and output mass of nutrients, their concentrations were recorded. Tables 2, 3 and ା ି the mass efficiency is calculated based on the equa- 4 present statistical data for TN, N-N+ and N-N2 tion: inflow and outflow concen-trations. Based on the in- Mass efficiency (%)= [Ȃassin-Massout] x 100/Massin flow concentration measurements, the systems are (Eq. 7) classified as low load. The output concentration measurements are satisfactory compared to values of The parameters of the data statistical analysis similar WSP systems operating in South Europe were calculated for both the concentration and the [34]. ା ି mass of TN, N-N+ and N-N2 , TP, with the use The standard deviations of the output concen- of Microsoft Office EXCEL 2007. The calculated trations are particularly small, indicating that the sys- ା parameters are the maximum observed value (max), WHPV¶ RSHUDWLRQ LV VWDEOH 71 DQG 1-N+ removal the minimum observed value (min), the average efficiencies are considered satisfactory (Table 5), value (mean) of the inflows (in) and the outflows when compared to similar systems operating in sim- (out), the standard deviation (STDEV) and the aver- ilar climatic conditions, but this is not the case for N- ି age value of the absolute deviations from the average N2 removal [34], [35], [36]. The highest TN and Ǥ he performed equa- ାۀ ݔെݔҧڿത(AVEDEV) = ଵ σ] ୀଵ N-N + removal efficiencies were recorded in tions have been evaluated by the coefficient of deter- Vamvakofyto in August 2007 and were 93.21% and mination R2, defined as the squared value of the coef- 95.82% respectively. The performance of TN, N- ା ି ficient of correlation according to Bravais-Pearson. N+ and N-N2 removal was nearly constant over It provides a measure of how well the observed out- the years and during the seasons, with only minor comes are replicated by the model, as the proportion variations recorded. The Vamvakofyto WSP system of the total variation of outcomes explained by the presented by far the best performance for TN and N- 2 ା model. The range of R lies between 0 (no correla- N+ removal, followed by the Charopo WSP sys- ା tion) and 1.0 (the dispersion of the prediction is equal tem. The lowest TN and N-N+ removal efficiency to that of the observation). values (33.08% and 33.48% respectively), were rec- orded during winter period in the N. Skopos WSP 5591 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5589-5598 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin system, when the recorded temperature was at its lowest. Monthly air temperatures ranged from -4 oC to 37 oC and water temperatures from 5 oC to 30 oC. There were no significant deviations in mass re- moval efficiencies compared to the concentration ones (Table 5). In some cases they were almost iden- tical (Figure 1). During the summer period, there was a decrease in mass removal efficiency in relation to the concentration efficiency (Figure 1 and Figure 2), due to the strong evapotranspiration, as a result of increased sunlight and high temperatures. This phe- nomenon was more evident in the case of TN re- moval in the Charopo WSP system. The latter can be attributed to its greater overall surface, compared to N.Skopos: (a) TN the other two systems, which is related to increased ା evapotranspiration and increased TN, N-N+ and ି N-N2 mass in the effluent. In the Vamvakofyto and Charopo systems in particular, negative N- ି N2 removal efficiencies were recorded, due to the ODUJHU SRQGV¶ VXUIDFH )LJXUH 7KH SUHVHQW UH ା search identified that the removal of TN and N-N+ is associated positively to the facultatiYHSRQGV¶UH WHQWLRQWLPHDQGWRWKHUDWLRRIWKHSRQGV¶VXUIDFHSHU m3 wastewater supply too (Table 6), with strong cor- relation R2 (0.974, 0.975 and 0.971, 0.973 respec- tively). This conclusion is supported by the results of other researchers [20, 37]. ି (b) N-N2 Vamvakofito: (a) TN Charopo: (a) TN ି ି (b) N-N2 (b) N-N2 FIGURE 1 :63V\VWHPV¶PDVVDQGFRQFHQWUDWLRQHIILFLHQF\ removal during 2006-07 5592 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5589-5598 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin Vamvakofito: (a) TN Charopo: (a) TN ି ି (b) N-Nଷ (b) N-Nଷ FIGURE 2 Seasonal variation of mass and concentration ef- ficiency (%) on TN (a) and N-NO_3^- (b) re- moval. The pH values, although lower than 8, in more cases (Table 7), indicate positive association with ା TN and N-N+ removal (Table 6), with strong cor- relation R2 (0.946 and 0.947 respectively). It is ob- served that the pH output was slightly increased. This usually occurs due to algal activity, as reported in the literature [38, 39]. The pH values in the three systems never fell outside the proposed ranges (6-9) N.Skopos: (a) TN for the proper functioning of the lagoons [39, 40]. The maximum, mean and minimum inlet and outlet concentrations of TP in three WSP systems are presented in Table 8. The standard deviations of the output is very low (0.48-1.38 mg/L), indicating their stable operation. The average values of output con- centrations are much lower than those of similar sys- tems in Europe [34]. However, the removal effi- ciency of N.Skopos (23.55%) and Charopo (22.32%) systems is much lower than the efficiency recorded in other similar systems [34]. The lowest TP removal efficiencies of N. Skopos and Charopo systems com- pared with Vamvakofito one (44.83%) can be at- tributed to smaller surfaces of facultative ponds ି since Mbwell [41] showed 90% of TP removal in (b) N-Nଷ WSP systems is achieved in facultative ponds. 5593 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5589-5598 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin TABLE 5 ା ି removal۽The mean efficiencies of TN, N-N۶ and N-N TN N-N+ା N-N2ି WSPs Concentration Mass Concentration Mass Concentration Mass V 88.13% 87.52% 90.02% 89.48% 15.53% 11.18% N.S 35.25% 33.83% 35.57% 34.12% 14.36% 12.48% Ch. 54.21% 50.41% 55.27% 51.66% 19.48% 13.02% TABLE 6 ା TN and N-N۶ removal performance in correlation with qualitative and design factors WSP system Vamvakofito ȃ. Skopos Charopo )DFXOWDWLYHSRQGV¶ HRT (d) 43.89 13.64 28.75 pH 7.63 7.08 7.39 3RQGV¶VXUIDFHSHUwastewater supply per day (m2/m3/d) 20.24 6.95 13.69 TN Efficiency (%) 88.13 35.25 54.21 ା N-N+ Efficiency (%) 90.02 35.57 55.27 TABLE 7 Max, min, mean pH values in three WSP systems Max Min Mean STDEV AVEDEV WSPs system n in out in out in out in out EȚı. Ǽȟ. Vamvakofito 49 8.09 8.22 6.86 7.09 7.47 7.63 0.32 0.30 0,26 0,26 ȃ. Skopos 34 8.17 7.95 6.67 6.78 7.03 7.08 0.40 0.32 0,29 0,22 Charopo 34 7.92 8.08 6.90 7.04 7.29 7.39 0.24 0.24 0,18 0,19 TABLE 8 The TP inflow and outflow concentrations in the three WSP systems [mg/L] Max Min Mean STDEV AVEDEV WSPs In Out In Out In Out In Out In Out V 14.60 8.10 2.80 1.30 6.50 3.51 2.42 1.38 1.70 1.03 N.S 5.10 3.70 2.10 1.67 3.55 2.67 0.78 0.48 0.62 0.39 Ch. 6.20 4.90 2.10 1.60 4.51 3.49 1.32 1.00 1.07 0.82 The effectiveness of TP removal depends on case of TP removal in Charopo WSPs system (Fig. the amount leaving the water column and entering 4), for the reasons previously mentioned. the lake sediments. This occurs due to the precipita- tion of the organic P, the setting of the mass of algae and the precipitation of the mineralization as com- pared to the amount that is returned to the water col- umn through the mineralization and redissolution. This effect becomes more intense at pH levels above 9.5. The pH of ponds ranged from 6.7 to 8.2 with an average value of about 7 to 7.5 (Table 7), therefore redissolution of P is higher. This fact could explain the low P removal efficiency of the three systems [40]. The low performance can also be attributed to WKHIDFWWKDWWKHVOXGJHRIWKHSRQGV¶VHGLPHQWKDGQ¶W FIGURE 3 been removed during their years of operation. Part of Seasonal variation concentration efficiency the inorganic and of mineralized P, located in the (%) on TP removal. sediment, redissolved and was present in the efflu- ent. The effect of temperature on the performance is evident. As it is shown in Figure 3 all the three sys- tems were more efficient in summer, when the tem- peratures were higher. The highest efficiency value (71 %) was recorded in Vamvakofyto system in Au- gust 2007. The TP mass removal efficiencies, overall, had no significant deviations from the concentration ones; in some cases they were almost identical. Only during the summer a reduction of TP mass removal efficiency, compared with the concen-tration one, FIGURE 4 was recorded, due to the intense evapotranspiration Seasonal variation of mass and concen-tra- resulting from greater sunshine and higher tempera- tion efficiency (%) on TP removal in Charopo tures. This phenomenon was more evident in the WSPs system. 5594 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5589-5598 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin TABLE 9 The TP mass and concentration removal efficiencies of the WSP systems % Parameters Vamvakofito ȃ. Skopos Charopo Concentra- Mass % Concentration % Mass % Mass % Concentra tion % tion % Max 68.95 70.83 45.22 45.34 30.68 29.38 Min 22.29 23.65 4.54 12.83 -10.27 13.07 Average 42.59 44.76 21.38 23.02 15.53 22.23 STDEV 11.13 11.38 9.24 8.63 10.78 3.66 ADEV 8.81 8.87 6.41 6.33 8.80 3.02 TABLE 10 ା ି Relationships of TN, N-N+ , N-N2 , TP effluent versus influent concentrations System Vamvakofito N. Skopos Charopo Samples 49 34 34 TN Cout = 0.1353Cin ± 0.2332 Cout = 0.527 Cin + 3.0881 Cout = 0.4713 Cin + 0.5608 R² = 0.7186 R² = 0.8781 R² = 0.5719 ା N-N+ Cout = 0.1138 Cin ± 0.1514 Cout = 0.5497 Cin + 1.9664 Cout = 0.457 Cin + 0.4783 R² = 0.6814 R² = 0.8923 R² = 0.5447 ି N-N2 Cout = 0.8489 Cin + 0.0162 Cout = 0.8806 Cin ± 0.0013 Cout = 0.8424 Cin + 0.0131 R² = 0.95 R² = 0.9967 R² = 0.9414 TP Cİȟ = 0.4724CİȚı + 0.4419 Cİȟ = 0.4521 CİȚı + 1.0642 Cİȟ = 0.7367 CİȚı + 0.1681 R² = 0.683 R² = 0.534 R² = 0.955 In Table 9 the mass efficiencies of the three sys- instantaneous performance. The low, in some cases, tems, as calculated using the mass balance method, coefficients of determination, indicate the im- and the concentration ones, as resulting from sam- portance of other factors, not included in this analy- pling and measurements are presented. VLVDVWKHV\VWHPV¶SHUIRUPDQFHLVDPXOWL-paramet- It was also noted, that the TP removal following ric subject. BOD5 removal (Figure 5-6). In systems of N Skopos Figure 6 presents, indicatively, some of the lin- ି and Charopo the TP removal efficiency was about ear regressions relating the TN and N-N2 effluent half the BOD5 removal, reaffirming [11]. corrected concentrations with the influent concentra- WLRQVRI9DPYDNRILWR¶V:63VV\VWHP. FIGURE 5 TP and BOD5 removal efficiency % Equations were derived correlating the pollu- WDQWV¶HIIOXHQWFRQFHQWUDWLRQV&out with the influent concentrations Cin. The effluent concen-trations have been adjusted using the mass balance method, in order to remove atmospheric precipitation and evapotranspiration, as previously mentioned. The correlations between influent ± effluent mass were satisfactory. The equations expressing the relation- ା ି ship of TN, N-N+ and N-N2 , TP effluent con- centrations with the influent concentrations for each system are presented in Table 10. It should be noted that these simple models work in annual or seasonal FIGURE 6 basis, but it is difficult to use them in momentary ba- ି effluent۽Relationships of TN and N-N sis. First, because there is a nominal delay of a resi- concentrations versus influent concentrations dence time between inflows and outflows and sec- case of 9DPYDNRILWR¶V:63VV\VWHP ondly, because the temporary increases and de- creases in the storage systems can easily affect the 5595 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5589-5598 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin CONCLUSION tration ones. Exception to this was the summer pe- riod, where there was a decrease in mass removal ef- The three WSP systems have stable operation. ficiency in relation to the concentration efficiency ା ି due to the strong evapotranspiration. This phenome- The TN, N-N+ , N-N2 and TP recorded concen- trations [mg/L] of the three WSP systems had no sig- non was more evident in the system with the greater ା SRQGV¶VXUface, where negative efficiencies were rec- nificant divergences. The input TN, N-N + ǡ N- ି ା N2 and TP concentration values classify the three orded. Equations expressing the TN, N-N + , N- ି systems in low nutrient load class. The output con- N2 and TP effluent concentrations as a function of centration values are deemed to be satisfactory, the influent concentrations for each system were de- when compared with values of similar WSP systems rived. ା which operate in South Europe. The TN and N-N+ removal efficiencies were 88.13%, 35.25%, 54.21% About the authors. First Author Maria K. and 90.02%, 35.57%, 55.27% respectively in Gratziou, Dr.-Eng., Professor, Director of Hydraulic Vamvakofito, N. Skopos and Charopo WSP system Sector, Department of Civil Engineering, Democri- and are considered satisfactory, compared to those of WXV8QLYHUVLW\RI7KUDFH7KHDXWKRU¶VPDMRULVthe similar systems operating under similar climatic con- water resources management, technical and economic ditions. However, the outflow values do not render analysis of environmental projects focusing on the outputs suitable for reuse, according to the Greek wastewater treatment plants. Legislation. The results are not satisfactory for the ି Second Author Maria E. Chalatsi, Dr.-Eng., N-N2 and TP removal, where the efficiencies were 15.53%, 14.36%, 19.48% and 45%, 24%, 22% re- researcher of the Laboratory of Hydraulics, Hydrau- spectively in Vamvakofito, N. Skopos and Charopo lic Sector, Department of Civil Engineering, WSP system7KHIDFXOWDWLYHSRQGV¶UHWHQWLRQWLPH Democritus University of Thrace. 7KHDXWKRU¶VPD the ratio RI WKH SRQGV¶ VXUIDFH per m3 wastewater jor is stabilization ponds. supply and the pH values too seem to have a strong ା positive correlation with TN and N-N+ removal ef- ficiencies, with R2 > 0.97 and 0.94 respectively. The CONFLICT OF INTEREST ା highest TN, N-N + ǡ DQG73 removal efficiencies were 93.21%, 95.82% and 70.83 % respectively and The author confirms that this article content has were recorded during hot summer period in the sys- no conflict of interest. tem with the highest retention time and the highest ratio RIWKHSRQGV¶VXUIDFH per m3 wastewater supply. ା REFERENCES The lowest TN, N-N+ and TP efficiency values were 33.08%, 33.48% and 12.83% respectively and were observed during cold winter period in the sys- [1] Gijzen H.J., Mulder A. (2001) The nitrogen cy- tem with the lowest retention time and the lowest ra- cle out of balance Water Resource, 21(3-4), tio RISRQGV¶VXUIDFH per m3 wastewater supply. The pp.38-40. ା ି [2] Kurosu O. (2015) Nitrogen Removal from performance of TN, N-N+ and N-N2 removal in each WSP system was nearly constant over time and Wastewater in Microalgal-Bacteria Treatment during the seasons, with minor variations. The phos- Ponds. Report (Online) www. http://www.ist- phorus removal efficiencies of N. Skopos and Char- socrates.berkeley.edu/~es196/projects/2001 fi- opo WSP systems are about the half of BOD5 re- nal/ kurosu .pdf (accessed May 5, 2015). moval efficiencies. This relationship is confirmed by [3] Gijzen H.J. and Ikramullah M. (1999) Pre-feasi- other researchers in similar systems. The reduced TP bility of duckweed based wastewater treatment performance can be attributed to the increase of the and resource recovery in Bangladesh World sediment in the ponds since the sludge did not re- Bank Report, Washington D.C. moved during the years of V\VWHPV¶RSHUDWLRQ as a [4] Gratziou Ȃ. and P. Chrisochoidou. (2013) Cost part of the inorganic and of mineralized P, located in analysis of waste water nitrogen removal in the sediment, redissolved and is presented in the ef- Greece Fresen. Environ. Bull., 22 (7B), pp. fluent. As well as, the lowest phosphorus removal ef- 2117-2123. ficiency of N. Skopos and Charopo systems at- [5] Gratziou Ȃ. and Ȁelesidis Ǽ. (2010) Cost of tributed to fewer surfaces of facultative ponds and to wastewater treatment plants with biological and lower pH value as the role of pH is important in TP chemical- biological phosphorus removal Pro- removing. The pH was ranged from 6.7 to 8.2 with ceedings of 3rd International Confe-rence on an average value from 7 to 7.5, which partly explains Small Decentralized Wastewater Treatment the low TP V\VWHPV¶HIILFLHQFLHVLQDVPXFKDV these Plants (ed. A. ǽouboulis, A. Kougolos, P. Sama- values the phosphorus redissolution is higher, ac- ras), Skiathos Island, Greece, May 14-16, pp. cording to the literature. The mass removal efficien- 447-452. [in Greek] cies had not significant deviations from the concen- [6] Gijzen H.J, Bos J.J., Hilderink H.B.M., Moussa M., Niessen L.W., de Ruyter van Steveninck 5596 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5589-5598 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin E.D. (2004) Quick scan health benefits and costs ings of Australian Water Association Confere- of water supply and sanitation. Netherlands En- nce, March 18-19, Melbourne, Australia, ava- vironmental Assessment Agency National Insti- laible at www.ghd.com/PDF/WWSP082. pdf. tute for Public Health and the Environment± [18] Reinoso R., Blanco S., Torres-Villamizar L. and (MNP-RIVM), The Netherlands. Becares E. (2011) Mechanisms for parasites re- [7] Mara D.D. and Alabaster G.P. (1998), Design moval in a waste stabilization pond Microbial manual for waste stabilization ponds for Medi- Ecology, 61 (3), pp. 684-692 terranean countries, Lagoon Technology Inter- [19] National Metrological Service of Greece, Bu- national Ltd, Leeds, England. reau of Serres. [8] Picot B., Bahlaoui A., Moersidik B., Baleux B., [20] Chalatsi M. (2014) Qualitative and hydro-dy- Bontoux J. (1992) Comparison of the purifying namics characteristic of stabilization pond sys- efficiency of high rate algal pond with stabi- tems in Northern Greece PhD Thesis, Depart- lization pond Water Science and Technology, ment of Civil Engineering, Democritus Univer- 25(12), pp. 197±206. sity of Thrace. [in Greek] [9] Racault Y., Boutin C., Seguin A. (1995) Waste [21] Eaton A.D., (2005) American Public Health stabilisation ponds in France: a report on fifteen Association, American water Works Asso-cia- years experience Water Science and Technol- tion and Water Environment Federation Stand- ogy, 31(12), pp. 91±101 ard Methods for the Examination of Water and [10] Garcia J., Mujeriego R., Bourrouet A., Penuelas Wastewater, 21st ed., Washington, D.C.: APHA- G., Freixes A. (2000) Wastewater treatment by AWWA-WEF. pond systems: experiences in Catalonia, Spain [22] Heliotis F.D. and DeWitt C.B. (1983) A concep- Water Science and Techno-logy, 42(10±11), pp. tual model of nutrient cycling in wetlands used 35±42. for wastewater treatment: A literature analysis [11] Ghazy M.M.E., El-Senousy W.M., Abdel-Aatty Wetlands, 3 (1), pp. 134-152. A.M., Kamel M. (2008) Performance evalua- [23] Breen P.F. (1990) A mass balance method for tion of a waste stabilization pond in a rural area assessing the potential of artificial wetlands for in Egypt American Journal of Environ-mental wastewater treatment Water Research, 24 (6), Science, 4(4), pp. 316±325. pp. 689-697. [12] Mburu N., Tebitendwa S.M., Bruggen J.J.A., [24] Korkusuz E.A. (2004) Domestic wastewater Rousseau D.L.P., Lens P.N.L(2013). Perfor- treatment in pilot-scale constructed wetlands mance comparison and economics analysis of implemented in the Middle East Technical Univer- waste stabilization ponds and horizontal subsur- sity Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Biotechnology, face flow constructed wetlands treating domes- School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Middle tic wastewater: a case study of the Juja sewage East Technical University, Turkey. treatment works Journal of Environ-mental [25] Kuo J. (2014) Practical Design Calculations for Management, 128, pp. 220±225. Groundwater and Soil Remediation Chapter 4: [13] Zimmo O.R, Van der Steen, N.P., and Gijzen, Mass-Balance Concept and Reactor Design, 2nd H.J. (2003) Comparison of Ammonia Vola- ed., Taylor & Francis Group, LLC, CRC Press, tilization Rates in Algae and Duckweed-based Boca Raton, Florida, pp. 113-150. waste stabilization ponds treating domestic [26] Ward R.C. and Robinson M. (2000) Principles wastewater Water Research, 37 (19), pp. 4587- of Hydrology 4th ed., Mc Graw-Hill, New York. 4594. [27] Alcalde L., Oron G., Gillerman L., Salgot M., [14] Ingallinella A., Sanguinetti G., Fernandez R., Manor Y. (2002) Removal of fecal coliforms, Strausss M. and Montangero A. (2002) Co- tre- somatic coliphages and F-specific bacterio- atment of sewage and septage in waste stabiliza- phages in a stabilization pond and reservoir sys- tion ponds Water Science and Technology, 45 tem in arid regions Water Science and Technol- (1), pp. 9-15. ogy, 3(4), pp. 177-184. [15] Banat I., Puskas K., Esen I. and Al-Daher R. [28] *UDW]LRXȂ&KDODWVL0 (2013) Use of waste (1990) Wastewater treatment and algal pro-ductiv- VWDELOL]DWLRQSRQGV¶V\VWHPVLQ0HGLWHU-ranean ity in an integrated ponding system Biological Europe Desalination and Water Treat-ment, 51 Wastes, 32 (4), pp. 265-275. (13-15), pp. 3018±3025. [16] El-Shafai S.A., El-G´ohary F.A., Nasr F.A., [29] Chalatsi Ȃ. and Gratziou M. (2014) Efficiency (2007) Van der Steen N.P. and Gijzen H.J. Nu- and design parameters of waste stabilization trient recovery from domestic wastewater using ponds in north-east Greece Desalination and Wa- a UASB-duckweed ponds system Bio-resource ter Treatment, available at http://dx.doi.org/ Technology, 98 (4), pp´. 798-807. 10.1080/19443994.2014.981677 [17] Laginestra M. and van-Oorschot R. (2009) [30] Tsalkatidou M. (2010) Simulations of combi- Wastewater treatment pond systems ± An Austral- ned wastewater treatment using stabilization ian ex-perience Ozwater Paper 082. Proceed- ponds and wetlands PhD Thesis, Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, 5597 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5589-5598 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin Democritus University of Thrace, Xanthi, Greece. [in Greek] [31] Herrera Melián J.A., Arana J., González Díaz O., Aguiar Bujalance M.E. and Doña Rodríguez J.M. (2009) Effect of stone filters in a pond ± wet- land system treating raw wastewater from a uni- versity campus Desalination, 237 (1-3), pp. 277±284. [32] IWA. (2001) Constructed Wetlands for Pollu- tion Control ± Processes, Performance, Design and Operation, Specialist Group on use of mac- rophytes in Water Pollution Control, Scientific and Technical Report No. 8, London, UK. [33] Mara D.D. (2003) Design Manual for Waste Stabilization Ponds in the United Kingdom School of Civil Engineering, University of Leeds, Leeds, England. [34] Hamzeh R., Ponce M.V. (2014) Design and per- formance of waste stabilization ponds, http://stabilizationponds.sdsu.edu, accessed on November 2, [35] Mbwele L.A. (2006). Microbial Phosphorus Re- moval in Waste Stabilization Pond Waste-water Treatment Systems, Royal Institute of Technol- ogy, School of Biotechnology, Stock-holm, Swe- den. Received: 07.04.2017 Accepted: 21.07.2017 CORRESPONDING AUTHOR Gratziou Maria, Laboratory of Hydraulics, Depart- ment of Civil Engineering, Campus of Democritus University of Thrace, Kimmeria, Xanthi, Greece, 67100 Email: [email protected] 5598 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5599-5607 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin MULTIPURPOSE HYDROPOWER PROJECTS ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT UNDER CLIMATE CHANGE CONDITIONS Charalampos Skoulikaris*, Jacques Ganoulis UNESCO Chair & Network INWEB, Department of Civil Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124, Thessaloniki, Greece ABSTRACT However, capital budgeting not only focuses on the evaluation of cash flows based on the time-value of Large-scale hydraulic projects and water infra- money relation [3], but also thoroughly investigates structures have direct impacts on the social and eco- potential risks which might jeopardize the viability logical landscape in which they are located and vice of projects and thus the investment [2]. When deal- versa. In accordance to the sustainable development ing with renewable energy projects, intrinsic risk, concept, multipurpose hydroelectric plants apart among other types of risks, regards unforeseen prob- from power generation and thus profitability, should lems that may emerge after a project's comp-letion cover socioeconomic and environmental services. In and corresponds to overestimation of the natural re- the proposed method-ology, the aforementioned ser- sources under exploitation [4]. In the case of hydro- vices are attributed in monetary terms in order to power plants where the fuel is the water, variations trigger a custom economic tool that is based on the caused by climate change in this natural resource Net Present Value rule so as to assess the economic might affect the project viability. Especially, projects viability of a new hydropower plant. Moreover, the that are located in the Medi-terranean zone, where impact of climate change on the natural resources the frequency and intensity of drought is likely to be feeding the plant is considered as an externality that increased, and increased surface temperatures with should be evaluated and introduced in the feasibility parallel decreased annual precipitation, particularly study of a new renewable energy project. The results in terms of precipitation days, is very likely to be ob- from the coupling of mathematical models such as served [5], will have to cope with the negative effects hydrological, hydropower plants' operation, climate of climate change. The aim of the current study is to change and capital investment models, revealed that evaluate the economic sustainability of a multipur- the projected meso and macro timescale decrease of pose hydro-power project due to the hydrological water discharges will have direct negative effect on risk as derived by climate change impact to basin hy- the investment profitability and thus the planned drology. Particular attention is also paid to the mar- payback period. Moreover, the coupling of climate gins of the wholesale prices of electric power and its change with electricity wholesale prices fluc-tua- impacts during project's life cycle. tions could completely jeopardize the project and consequently have a deterrent effect rather than at- tracting investors. MATERIALS AND METHODS Case study: The Nestos river basin. The Nes- KEYWORDS: tos river basin is a transboundary basin in South climate change; project financing; hydroelectric plants; Eastern Europe that is shared between Bulgaria, up- wholesale electricity prices; water resources management. stream country, and Greece, downstream country Figure 1. The river both in terms of catchment's ex- tent and river's length is almost equally shared be- INTRODUCTION tween the two countries, i.e. 46% of 6,219 km2 and 51% of 255 km are located in Greek territory [6]. In A project economic sustainability is linked to the Nestos basin, the different socio-economic con- sufficient cash flows that can provide a return pay- ditions prevailing in each country result in having ment of the initial project expenditures within a pre- different development preferences and objectives at defined time period, commensurately cover the op- each part of the borders [7]. In 1972, the mean annual erational costs while the generated returns meet a runoff gathered in the Bulgarian part of the basin has sufficient target benchmark. The net present value been estimated up to 47.0 m3/s, while the water flow (NPV) method is one of the most popular methods entering Greece was 39.43 m3/s. More recent data re- [1] in the process of planning for and deciding upon vealed that the averaged interannual total water vol- capital investments, also known as capital budget- ume which enters Greece is 1,123 million cubic me- ing, with positive-NPV projects to be the more at- ters, which is equivalent to 35.59 m3/s while a further tractive investment in terms of profitability [2]. reduction of the incoming water volume is expected 5599 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5599-5607 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin [8]. of the hydraulic and topographic characteristics of the basin, such as stream definition and accumula- tion, watershed and streams delineation, slopes com- putation, a global digital elevation model (DEM), with a horizontal grid spacing of 30 arc seconds, namely GTOPO30, was successfully processed. The specific approach and the spatial resolution of the DEM is suggested when dealing with large catch- ments, such as the Mekong [11] and the Senegal [12] river basins. Apart from the topography and the land uses, meteorological data consisted of precipitation and temperature parameters and obtained by a dense monitoring network of more than 20 stations both in Bulgaria and Greece, Figure 1, together with the computed evapotranspiration with the use of the Turc method [13], were used as input data for the simulation of the river runoff. The model calibration was based on monthly river flow measurements in FIGURE 1 both countries for the period 1987 to 1992, while the Overlay of the hydrological model grid and of model validation was conducted for the period 1993 the existing (X symbol) and future (star symbol) to 1995. Finally, the simulated river discharges were hydropower projects on the Nestos river basin used for triggering the dams' simulation model, relief derived by a GTOPO30 DEM. while the calibrated hydrological model was used in order to simulate river runoffs under climate change Competitive water uses are obvious even at na- conditions. tional level, with the Greek part of the basin being a representative example. Hydropower use and future TABLE 1 investments, agricultural water demands and ripar- Characteristics of existing and future hydro- ian/coastal environmental needs aim at harnessing power plants in the Nestos River the same natural resource. In particular, the coastal Existing infrastructure Future project deltaic area of approximately 550.0 km2 is attributed Thisav- Platanov- Temenos with both socioeconomic and environmental ser- ros dam risi dam dam vices. Agriculture in the delta of the river Nestos is a Upper operation 380 227.5 158.0 highly developed industry with great importance to level (UOL) (m) the regional/national economy, while the river estu- Volume in UOL 750 84 11.35 106 m3 aries and delta's mouth are protected by environmen- Useful volume 565 11 6 tal legislations [9]. On the other hand, since the late 106 m3 1990s, in the mountainous Greek part of basin, 2 Reservoir sur- 18 3.25 1.05 large hydroelectric power stations, namely Thisavros face in UOL (Km2) and Platanovrisi, regu-late the water for energy pro- Height (m) 175 95 45 duction and irrigation purposes. A new multipurpose Number of 3/300 2/100 3/19.5 hydropower plant, namely Temenos, Table 1, down- units/Total stream of the two other, is planned to be constructed power (MW) in a relatively short time period. Simulation of hydropower operation. The Hydrological modeling. The simulation of the current and future hydroelectricity power stations hydrological behavior of the Nestos basin was con- operation was evaluated with the use of the WEAP21 ducted with the use of the spatially distributed hydro- model. The model requires two types of input data: logic model MODSUR [7, 10]. It is a grid-cell based i) the technical characteristics of the dam project, Ta- model which utilizes a progressive mesh with vary- ble 1, and ii) the inflow discharges to the reservoirs ing rectangle cells ranging from 250 m for the small- which are derived by the hydrologic model. The sim- est to 2000 m for the largest, Figure 1. Grid cells, ulation processing is based on a linear programming which are more refined, are used for the representa- (LP) solver which allocates the available water re- tion of the river and tributaries beds as well as areas sources across the hydrosystem, Figure 2 [14]. The with complex relief and land use. Homogeneity in hydrosystem is composed by specific supply and de- terms of terrain, soils, vegetation and land use is at- mand nodes that represent the subcatchments drain- tributed by larger mesh cells, such as in the deltaic ing into the river and the irrigation and environmen- area of the basin or plain areas. For the delineation tal water requirements 5600 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5599-5607 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin FIGURE 2 Illustration of the Nestos river hydrosystem under WEAP model, with green and red dots representing the supply (subcatchments) and demand (irrigation and environmental flow) nodes respectively [14]. TABLE 2 Characteristics of the utilized Regional Climate Model Model Acronym Sponsored Insti- Parent GCM Resolution Lower left cor- Upper right Emission tute (km) ner corner Scenario (lat/lon) (lat/lon CLM- CLM Max Planck Institute ECHAM5/MP 20*20 34.6/-10.6 69.8/36.8 B1 RCM for Meteorology IOM respectively. The LP solver's objective function is to riod i.e. from 1960 to 2100. As far as the evapotran- maximize satisfaction of demands, subject to de- spiration is concerned, it doesn't being simulated by mand priorities, mass balances and other constraints the climatic model bust it is computed based on the [14]. In order to coincide with the national environ- averaged surface latent heat flux [16]. All the afore- mental legislation of a constant environmental flow mentioned climatic variables were intersected to the requirement equal to 6.0 m3/s, and by taking into ac- hydrologic model grid with the use of proper geo- count the importance of agricultural activities, the graphic information system techniques. demand priorities of environmental flow, irrigation and hydropower production were set to 1, 2 and 3, Discounted cash flow. In order to estimate the respectively as the priority operational rules of the attractiveness of the investment opportunity on the dams. Temenos project, a custom tool based on the dis- counted cash flow (DCF) concept was developed and Regional climate models. The investigation of applied over the project life cycle, which in case of the climate change impacts to the river runoff was hydroelectric plants is more than 50 years. DCF anal- conducted with the use of a European Regional Cli- ysis uses future free cash flow projections and dis- mate Model (RCM), namely Climate Local Model counts them to arrive at a present value in order to (CLM). The version of the model used in this re- investigate the project economic viability, a method- search is the CLM-22 [15], i.e. it has a spatial reso- ology which is routinely being used for project fi- lution of 22Km, with the details on this non-hydro- nancing evaluation and decision making [18]. The static model dynamics and physics to be demon- sum of the series of discounted cash flows was im- strated in the literature [16]. The outputs of the CLM plemented with the quantitative criterion of the Net are generated at a 0.2o regular step (177x278 grid Present Value (NPV) [5] as given in Equation 1, points in latitude per longitude), while the model in- corporates 32 vertical atmospheric layers. CLM uses ே ூష ܸܰܲ ൌ σୀ (1) as forcing conditions, i.e. boundaries conditions, ሺଵାሻ those derived by the General Circulation Model ECHAM5/ MPIOM [17]. This technique which is where I are the incomes, C are the costs, r is the occurred in order to simulate finer-scale physical discount rate of return and n is the number of years processes consistent with the large-scale weather IURPILQDOUHWXUQSD\PHQWLHWKHSURMHFW¶VOLIHWLPH evolution is known as dynamic downscaling tech- The project revenues, i.e. incomes in the NPV nique. Information relative to the utilized RCM, such equations, are summarized as i) the wholesale of as utilized emission scenarios etc, are presented in electricity, ii) the sale of water for irrigation, and iii) Table 2. The required variables to the hydrological the sale of water from the pump storage procedure model, i.e. temperature, precipitation and evapotran- with the upper dam. On the other hand, the project spiration were retrieved for the whole simulation pe- expenditures, i.e. costs in the NPV 5601 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5599-5607 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin FIGURE 3 The CLM model outputs of the change of precipitation (1st row of illustrations), temperature (2nd row) and evapotranspiration (3rd row) for the future period 2021-2050 minus the control period 1971-2000, us- ing the B1 emission scenario. equations, consist of the i) capital expenditure, ii) op- control data, the model outputs indicate a potential erational expenditure, iii) compensations to farmers average increase of 0.9 °C -1.0 °C at basin scale, in case of inadequate water volumes for water de- with the Bulgarian and moun-tainous part of the ba- mands, and iv) cost of rehabilitation of the environ- sin to be more influenced. During spring period ment when environmental flow is unmet. (AMJ) the basin will be influenced by the smaller av- erage increase of 0.5 °C -0.6 °C, while the larger in- crease of approximately 1.2 °C -1.3°C to be pre- RESULTS dicted for autumn and early winter period (OND). Finally, the ETP variations, i.e. future minus control Assessment of climatic variability. The alter- data normalized by control data, which are presented ation of future climate (2021-2050) in terms of tem- in the 3rd row, do not follow a specific spatial pat- perature (T), precipitation (P) and evapotrans-pira- tern. Moreover, ETP is the only variable that presents tion (ETP) are presented in Figure 3, where future negative values, i.e. there are geographic areas where projections as derived by the CLM model for the B1 predicted evapotranspiration is lower than the his- emissions scenarios are compared with hindcast data toric one. It can be said that the middle part of the (known as control data) also derived by the climatic basin is an area of negative ETP. model for the period 1971-2000. Regarding the precipitation, the illustrations of Impact of climate change to river's runoff the first row in Figure 3 demonstrate the percentage and hydroelectric operation. According to availa- variation between the future and control data normal- ble historic monthly time step discharges at the bor- ized by the control period data, i.e. (P 2021-2050 mi- ders of the two countries from 1975 to 1995, the av- nus P 1971-200) divided by P 1971-2000. An aver- erage water inflows in the Greek territory was ap- aged significant decrease of future rainfalls of ap- proximately 20.6 m3/s [8]. The simulated runoffs at proximately 12.9% was revealed for the whole future the borders, with the use of the control period data period at basin scale, with the middle parts of the ba- and the future climatic data for B1 emission scenario, sin to be more affected. The quarterly analysis were assessed at 22.5 m3/s and 16.9 m3/s respec- demonstrated that rainfalls during the summer period tively. Thus, the climatic variations result on a sig- (JAS) present an average decrease of 15.2% while nificant decrease of 24.8% of the river's runoff enter- the maximum decrease for the same period is esti- ing into Greece in comparison with the control data mated at 38.4% at the deltaic area of the basin. In period. The reduced surfaced discharges have direct terms of temperature, where the 2nd row of illustra- impact to the Temenos reservoir's stocked water vol- tions gives the absolute difference between future umes and thereafter to the produced hydropower as indicated in Figure 4. The reduced 5602 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5599-5607 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin FIGURE 4 Projected reservoir's storage elevation (blue line) and produced energy (red line) for the period 2021-2050 under the B1 climatic scenario. FIGURE 5 Assessment of the Net Present Value of the Temenos project for different historic wholesale electricity prices (grey bars) presented in the Greek energy market. water volumes is also bound to have severe impacts mainly produced during the wet months, i.e. the pro- to the agricultural sector, since agriculture is the duced energy fluctuates between 3.6 GWh to prime consumer of water and the associated con- 4.3 GWh and between 3.6 GWh to 4.1 GWh for the sumption, it is projected to be six times the consump- JFM and AMJ quarterlies respectively. On the other tion of the early 20th century [19]. hand, during the JAS, the average intermonthly en- Apart from the expected seasonal variations, ergy cannot exceed the 1.6 GWh. During the water i.e. less stocked waters in dry than wet months of the stressed period of 2037 to 2046, the averaged pro- year, there are long term periods with decreased res- duced energy is almost 2.0 GWh mainly due to im- ervoir storage. The interannual reservoir storage for portant disability of refilling the reservoir with water the 30 years period is estimated at 69.6%, while dur- during the winter. ing the extended water stressed period of 2037 to 2046 the Temenos reservoir's storage fell to 52.8%. Discounted cash flow tool. The results of the At intermonthly time scale, the higher and lower res- DCF model for different wholesale electivity prices ervoir storage of 80.8% and of 61.0% are expected that were retrieved in the literature [21] for the fif- during the AMJ and JAS quarterlies, nevertheless teen years period of 2001-2014 are illustrated in Fig- these figures are turning to 66.2% and 40.4% respec- ure 5. The figure, in particular, demonstrates the pro- tively for the aforementioned water stress period. ject economic viability expressed through the NPV Moreover, the dam's upper operational level (UOL) for selective historical wholesale prices. The 15-year is met less than the half years of the simulated period, average price was 63.5 ¼0:KZLWKWKHPD[LPXP while during the dry period of 2037-2046 there are and minimum prices to be 78.0 ¼0:K DQG the times where the reservoir's water level gets lesser 45.8 ¼0:K UHVSHFWLYHO\, while the prices present than the lower operational level (LOL) of the plant. by and large decreasing trend, with a standard devi- In terms of produced energy, the interannual ation of 19.71% and a variance of 3.89%. The further produced energy corresponds to 34.4 GWh which is data analysis revealed that the amount of 5603 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5599-5607 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin 68.84 ¼0:KLVWKHFUXFLDOSULFHIRUVHOOLQJHOHFWULF the analysis of the bias derived by the model imple- ity in the wholesale market in order to achieve posi- mentation at European scale [26] indicated the ac- tive NPVs. The larger NPV and thus the highest prof- ceptable biases at the Mediterranean zone. In terms itability of the project equal to 3.86 0¼ FRLQFLGHV of produced results, the model projects an overall in- with the maximum electricity price. On the other crease of temperature and a significant decline of hand, it is observed that after the year 2007 the pro- rainfalls. The latter results on decreased river dis- ject presents constantly negative NPVs with losses charges and consequently to potential water stress of more than 11.5 0¼WREHSUHVHQWHGLQWKH\HDUVRI situation, mainly during the summer period due to 2010 and 2013 where the price is lower than augmented agricultural demands on water. Focusing 53.0 ¼0:K on the mountainous Bulgarian part of the basin, im- pacts on snowpack coverage and duration and there- after reduction of the summer river baseflow could DISCUSSION be produced by the foreseen temperature change. The alteration of snow cover due to climate change The proposed methodology evaluates the cli- in the Southern Bulgaria has been also demonstrated matic variability on the hydropower industry, a the- in the literature [27] where there are presenting ob- matic that has not been thoroughly investigated es- jective evidences for an increasing annual mean tem- pecially when social and environmental criteria are perature, longer vegetative periods and local inserted in the feasibility study of a new project. droughts in spring and autumn. Compared to the research on emissions from or mit- The intersection of the various scales of the igation by the energy sector, research on the impacts models inputs and outputs, i.e. 0.2° mesh of the cli- of climate change on the energy sector has been sur- matic model, variable mesh of 250-2000 m of the hy- prisingly scant [20]. It was only the last few years drological model, was conducted with the use of Ge- that there have been some regional and sectoral re- ographic Information System (GIS) technology. The views [21]; nevertheless any broad review of the im- specific approach has regularly been used in various pacts of climate change on the electricity sector has scientific sectors, such as in modelling soil erosion not been conducted [20]. and deposition when spatial data of different scales The methodological sequence of models or in- are available [28] or when assessing the local perma- dividual parts can be applied to any hydropower pro- frost dynamics by coupling RCMs with local re- ject. The custom developed economic tool, in partic- gional topographic characteristics [29]. As for the ular, can be universally implemented since the net point source data, i.e. data from the meteorological present value (NPV) is the preferred way to evaluate stations, distribution over the basin's area, the litera- the profitability of any investment [22]. Of course, ture presents a comprehensive analysis of geostatis- the internal rate of return (IRR) to evaluate the pro- tical approaches, such as kriging and it's variants, spective investments is also used as a universal prac- other techniques based on splines or generic algo- tice, however both NPV and IRR methods are func- rithms [30]. In the present case study, the Ordinary tionally equivalent and are preferred over all other Kriging was the selected interpolation method. capital budgeting methods [23]. In addition to the in- The proposed methodology evaluates the fluc- itial investment cost, the annual operation and tuation of the wholesale electricity market based on maintenance costs can be retrieved in the literature historic values in order to produce a sensitivity anal- for similar type of projects, and introduced in the ysis that is a key element of project appraisal. Criti- tool. The incomes are also computed by manually se- cal variables, such as the energy price, that present a lecting the electricity and water selling prices. As for degree of uncertainty while having a critical role to the water selling price, for the specific case study the the project returns and the investment are varied in data were retrieved by the River Basin Management order to evaluate their impacts. On the other hand, Plan of Thrace Water District [24]. the literature presents case studies where climatic As for the use of climate change data, direct ap- variables are also induced in sensitivity analysis by plication of the output from General Circulation altering historic precipitation and temperature levels Models (GCMs) is rather inadequate due to the lim- by amounts similar to those indicated by GCMs [31]. ited representation of mesoscale atmospheric pro- The analysis indicates that there is a unique price cesses, topography, and land-sea distribution in limit below which it is never optimal to invest, but GCMs [25]. Moreover, and of particular concern to above this limit investment is bound to be prosper- precipitation, GCMs exhibit a much larger spatial ous. Moreover, the analysis demonstrates a negative scale than is usually needed in impact studies. Thus covariation between the electricity price, similar to downscaling techniques, such as the dynamic other case studies in EU [32]. Evidence of this is downscaling, which is adopted in this work, could be strongest during the AMJ quarterly, where for the considered as interoperability bridges for the amelio- specific period the prices usually are at their lowest ration of the inconsistencies that result from applying value, due to negligible surplus energy demands, large scale and coarse resolution data at regional while water inflow and production reaches their scales. Concentrating on the utilized CLM model, 5604 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5599-5607 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin maximum level. During that period, the weather con- of large scale water projects. Specific emphasis has ditions are mild, thus no extra energetic loads are re- been given to the assessment of the economic viabil- quired for covering heating or cooling demands. Ge- ity of new dam projects and the evaluation of the sus- ographical location also affects prices which are de- tainable operation of projects generating renewable termined by the local supply-demand conditions. energy from water under climate change conditions. There are cases that these prices are approximately The proposed method-ology is suggested to be com- equal, but when a bottleneck arises there might be plementary to new investments related with high cost significant divergence between the different geo- hydraulic projects. graphic areas [32]. Moreover, countries having lower than optimal interconnection capacities to their neighbours (e.g. some of the Baltic states, ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Greece or Ireland) tended to have significantly higher prices than most of other European peers [33]. The proposed methodology was developed for The large differences in the wholesale price WKHUHVHDUFKSURMHFWHQWLWOHG³,QYHVWLJDWLRQRIFOLPDWH among the reference years is based on the liberalisa- change in Greece and its impact on the sustainability tion of the electricity market in the European Union of projects dealing with hydroelectric power and the that was activated in the early 2000s and set new agricultural economy: Application in the Nestos standards for electricity prices. In accordance to the river basin- ./,0(1(6726´, which was financed Electricity market Directives, a system of competi- by the Ministry of Education, Lifelong Learning and tion was developed to auction spare capacity through Religious Affairs, General Secretariat for Research a central system. Consequently the day-ahead market and Technology, Greece, through the National Stra- yields the reference price for the industry, as it con- tegic Reference Framework (NSRF) 2007-2013 and VWLWXWHVWKHPDMRUFRPSRQHQWRQZKLFKJHQHUDWRUV¶ XQGHUWKHRSHUDWLRQDOSURJUDPPHV³&RPSHWLWLYHQHVV cash-flows are based. This is the reason why the elec- DQG (QWUHSUHQHXUVKLS DQG 5HJLRQV LQ 7UDQVLWLRQ´ tricity price in reference year 2001 is much higher DQGZLWKLQWKH1DWLRQDO$FWLRQ³&RRSHUDWLRQ ´ than in the period after the directives implementa- tion. Furthermore, climatic parameters play an im- portant role in electricity price fluctuations. The fact REFERENCES that years 2009 and 2010, for example, were two suc- cessive years of intense wet conditions resulted in [1] Myers, S.C. & Majluf, N.S. 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Received: 07.04.2017 Accepted: 21.07.2017 CORRESPONDING AUTHOR Charalampos Skoulikaris UNESCO Chair & Network INWEB, Department of Civil Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessalo- niki, 54124, Thessaloniki, Greece e-mail: [email protected] 5607 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5608-5615 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin THE IMPACT OF THE URBAN ROAD NETWORKS¶ FUNCTIONAL AND TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS ON AIR POLLUTION: THE CASE OF THE CENTER OF THESSALONIKI, GREECE Anastasios Tsakalidis*, Eleftheria Exarchou Department of Civil Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124, Thessaloniki, Greece ABSTRACT transport and lately through the rapid expansion of private car use [1]. The shift made towards motor- The road transport system has been developed ized mobility during the last decades becomes obvi- at the urban and interurban level creating appropriate ous by observing the temporal change of the private networks in order to service traffic safely and effi- car ownership index. The problems arising in urban ciently. The increase of urban traffic flows leads di- areas vary and have serious impacts on the natural rectly to a rise of the externalities associated with and built environment and the overall life in cities. motorized traffic. One of the major impacts is the at- Extended use of transport can have serious impacts mospheric damage caused by pollutant and green- on the environment and also to people who suffer house gas emissions from vehicles contributing to daily from congestion, traffic noise and increased negative atmospheric phenomena, global warming pollutant and greenhouse gas emissions. The and climate change. Traffic emissions pose a serious transport sector is responsible for 30.40% of the total threat because although they do not cause large num- CO2 emissions in Europe (28), while the road bers of direct victims, serious consequences may transport sector participates with 71.10% in Euro- arise in the long term which are both local and uni- pean CO2 transport emissions with an estimated 40% versal in character. In the present study the effects of of road transport coming from urban road traffic [2, th WKHXUEDQURDGQHWZRUNV¶functional and traffic char- 3]. In the late 20 century, the concept of sustainable acteristics on traffic as well as on the produced emis- development was integrated in all European policies sions are investigated along selected road segments [4]. Thus, the principles of contemporary transporta- in the city of Thessaloniki, Greece. Towards this pur- tion planning require a sustainable urban mobility pose, the road network was first categorized accord- plan accompanied by the addressing of the afore- ing to the road characteristics, based on in-situ sur- mentioned negative effects. Inherent to this effort to- veys. Then, traffic volume and composition field wards sustainability, is the control of pollutants pro- measurements were conducted and the collected data duced by urban traffic and therefore numerous stud- were used for the CO2, CH4, N2O, NOx and PM10 ies and research efforts have been conducted within emission calculation due to motorized traffic using this framework [5±11]. As the role of gas emission the COPERT4 emission estimation model. Finally, estimation models is instrumental for a sustainable the findings are presented, evaluated and associated urban transportation, the scope of this paper is the with the characteristics of each road category. assessment of the urban mobility impact on the en- vironment through a case study at the city of Thes- saloniki, Greece. KEYWORDS: emissions, transport externalities, traffic characteristics, greenhouse gases, sustainability, urban mobility. METHODOLOGY Serious efforts are nowadays directed towards INTRODUCTION the identification and minimization of the environ- mental problems emerging from motorized urban The transport sector is inextricably linked to mobility and emission estimation models constitute daily human activities and has a major impact on so- a useful tool for a sustainable transportation plan- cioeconomic development as distances are bridged, ning, evaluation and policy making. Towards this making it possible for people and goods to be trans- aim, an assessment of the impact of urban mobility ported efficiently across the urban space. Motorized on the environment is attempted for the city of Thes- transport plays a key role in the level and form of saloniki, where rising car ownership combined with urban development, providing ways to serve more non-integrated transport planning and lack of ade- complex mobility needs, initially through public quate law enforcement apply constant pressure on 5608 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5608-5615 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin the urban road network. In this context, traffic data Initially, a search for available data sources and were collected from representative road segments of the selection of appropriate data from the most rele- the categorized urban road network in order to gen- vant sources is conducted. The road network of the erate reliable and systematically acceptable data for study area is categorized hierarchically according to CO2, CH4, N2O, NOx and PM10 emissions after the its functional (i.e. road class, directions, lanes per di- appropriate processing with the COPERT4 emission rection, existing bus-lanes, existing traffic control is- estimation model. land, existing signalized inter-section, on-street The COPERT (Computer Programme to Cal- parking) and traffic characteristics (i.e. traffic vol- culate Emissions from Road Transport) software ume, vehicle speed, traffic compo-sition), based on embodies technological research results concerning data gathered from relevant state or municipal agen- road vehicle emissions and has been developed as a cies. The reliable categorization of the urban road European tool for calculating road transport emis- network based on its functional characteristics is a sions and fuel consumption. It was designed for use prerequisite for the effective use of traffic data and by the European Union member states but in recent for traffic analysis. years its use has been extended to various countries Representative segments of each category of worldwide. The version of the program used in this WKHVWXG\DUHD¶VURDGQHWZRUNDUHVHOHFWHGDFFRUGLQJ study is COPERT4 which is the fourth revised ver- to the information collected in the previous step sion. COPERT is an important tool for assessing the combined with satellite or aerial photos obtained effects of traffic on air by calculating emissions from from relevant state agencies and/or appropriate inter- all major traffic polluters including all vehicle cate- net services. Then, for each selected road segment an gories in circulation. Since their environmental be- on-site recording of the local functional and traffic havior differs, vehicles are divided into classes, in- characteristics is conducted and the data collected cluding passenger vehicles, light commercial vehi- are stored in a database for further reference. Traffic cles, heavy duty trucks, buses, mopeds and motorcy- counts, field or remote, are conducted for each se- cles. The emissions calculated are distinguished into lected road segment in order to collect data concern- regulated and non-regulated types, including CO, ing the peak and off-peak traffic (i.e. volumes, com- NOx, VOC, PM and N2O NH3, SO2, NMVOC re- position, speed), followed by the primary data pro- spectively. For the calculation, the pollutants are cessing that includes the hourly traffic volumes and separated into four categories: the first includes pol- the average peak and off-peak traffic speed calcula- lutants for which a fixed analytical methodology and tion and the formation of an electronic database for emission factors exist and cover a variety of traffic all the selected road segments for further reference. environments also taking into account the engine The data gathered through the previous steps are rec- conditions; the second category includes pollutants orded in spreadsheets and are then used for the prep- whose emissions are based upon fuel consumption, aration of the COPERT4 suite input files, according while the level of detail of the results is similar to the to its requirements. The data are processed through first category. The third category includes pollutants the COPERT4 model and greenhouse gas and parti- whose emissions are based upon a simplistic meth- cle emissions are estimated for each road segment odology due to lack of data. The fourth category in- during the peak and off-peak period respectively. Fi- cludes pollutants that are a fraction of the total nally, the results from the use of COPERT4 are ex- NMVOC emissions [12, 13]. ported and correlated to the functional and traffic The methodology that was developed com- characteristics of the selected road segments; the prises a series of steps leading to the production of overall evaluation of their environmental perfor- results concerning the correlation of traffic emis- mance is examined leading to conclusions. sions with the functional and traffic characteristics of an urban road. ǀĂůƵĂƚŝŽŶ ZĞƐƵůƚƐ ŽĨ ZĞƐƵůƚƐ KW Zdϰ WƌŽĐĞƐƐŝŶŐ WƌŝŵĂƌLJ ĂƚĂ WƌŽĐĞƐƐŝŶŐ dƌĂĨĨŝĐ ĂƚĂ ŽůůĞĐƚŝŽŶ &ƵŶĐƚŝŽŶĂů ZŽĂĚ ^ĞŐŵĞŶƚ ĂƚĂ ŽůůĞĐƚŝŽŶ EĞƚǁŽƌŬ ^ĞůĞĐƚŝŽŶ ĂƚĞŐŽƌŝnjĂƚŝŽŶ FIGURE 1 Methodological steps of the study 5609 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5608-5615 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin FIGURE 2 Study area and selected roads [18] CASE STUDY sources were examined and after the provision of the necessary information concerning the functional Study area. The study area is situated in the characteristics of the central urban road network of center of the city of Thessaloniki, the second largest Thessaloniki by the Aristotle University of Thes-sa- city in Greece and the administrative, financial and loniki Transport Engineering Laboratory (AUTH ± cultural center of Northern Greece. According to the TEL), the road network of the study area was cate- 2011 national census it has a population of approxi- gorized accordingly and representative road seg- mately 1.1 million [14]. Transportation within the ments from ten important urban road axes that be- study area is mainly conducted by private car or long to the center of Thessaloniki were used for the public bus, the latter being the only available public case study as shown in Figure 2. The selection was means, serving about 167 million passengers annu- made in order to cover effectively the main types of ally. However, the private car occupies first place in urban roads of the area that make up the urban road the preference of Thessaloniki¶V citizens, with a high network and serve the majority of traffic, thus con- passenger car ownership index of 450 vehicles per tributing the most to traffic emissions. 1000 inhabitants [15]. The latest general transport Teams of field traffic observers conducted an study for Thessaloniki shows that the center of the on-site recording during June 2014 of the local func- city is the origin and/or destination of 25% of tional characteristics of the selected road segments, approximately 2.3 million daily trips [16]. The including the number of lanes per direction, the ex- concentration of population and activity in the city istence of bus-lanes, traffic-control islands and center along with the existing private car depen- nearby signalized intersections. The length of each dency have a major impact on traffic congestion road segment was measured using an on-line satellite along main arterials of the city center [17]. imaging service and all the data collected were stored in a database for further reference. Moreover, Application of the methodology. The metho- observers were used for the recording of the local dology developed is applied in the study area, the traffic characteristics at the selected road segments, center of the city of Thessaloniki, where there is a using the appropriate traffic data collection forms. high pressure on its urban road network due to the The recorded vehicles were separated into six dis- concentration of a great number of various activities. tinctive categories (i.e. two-wheelers, taxis, private In order to accurately capture the emissions from ur- cars, light trucks, heavy trucks and buses) since the ban transport in the city center, some of the most im- driving conditions, the engine and the fuel catalyst portant road axes were examined, having as a key affect the composition of the exhaust gases emitted selection criterion their functional classification so by various vehicles and therefore the amount and to cover all road types. Initially, the possible data type of emitted pollutants varies depending on the 5610 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5608-5615 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin vehicle category. The vehicle categories included in Aggelaki, Stratou Ave., Papanastasiou and Mi- this study are the ones in circulation in the study tropoleos. For this category, heavy vehicles over 14t, area: Passenger Cars (Gasoline, Diesel, LPG, Hybrid articulated coaches, urban natural gas buses and ur- Gasoline ± according to engine size), Light Commer- ban biodiesel buses were excluded from the model, cial Vehicles (Gasoline, Diesel ± according to engine since these vehicles are not observed along these size), Heavy Duty Trucks (Gasoline, Diesel Rigid, road segments. The second category, includes N. Diesel Articulated - according to weight), Buses (Ur- Plastira. For this category, articulated buses were ex- ban Midi, Urban Standard, Urban Articulated, cluded, in addition to the vehicles excluded in the Coaches Standard ± according to weight), Mopeds first category, since only non-articulated buses are (2-stroke, 4-stroke ± according to engine size) and observed along this road segment. The third category Motorcycles (2-stroke, 4-stroke ± according to en- includes Mpotsari and Olympiados. For this cate- gine size). gory all buses are excluded, in addition to the vehi- Traffic data collection took place during the cles excluded in the first category, since no public summer season of 2014 for peak (08:30 - 09:30) and buses are observed along these segments. After all off-peak (10:30 - 11:30) periods for each of the se- the model input files were prepared the model soft- lected road segments. It should be noted, however, ware was used for each road segment of the study for that for two of the selected road segments (Mi- the peak and off-peak periods. Emission data con- tropoleos and G. Papandreou) peak and off-peak pe- cerning greenhouse gas and particulate matter emis- riods are reversed, contrary to the rest of the seg- sions were exported and CO2, CH4, N2O, NOx and ments under study. Nevertheless, we refer to the time PM10 emissions were used as the reference pollutant section 08:30-09:30 as peak period as it is peak hour emissions for the current study. CO2, CH4, and N2O for the majority of the selected road segments and in were selected as three of the main greenhouse gases the same manner for the off-peak period. This as- already monitored by the Kyoto Protocol, while NOx sumption does not affect the emission results that are and PM10 emissions were added because of their presented categorized as peak and off-peak results, negative effects on the atmosphere and public health. taking into consideration the corresponding hours The results of the above case study are presented an- for each road segment respectively. In addition, the alytically in the following section. recordings refer to the overloaded direction when the road is bidirectional and to the whole width when the road is unidirectional. The gradient along the exam- RESULTS ined road segments was small, while the number of lanes varied depending on the role of the road within The results obtained from the processing of the the urban road network. The observers recorded the data collected from field measurements with the number and type of vehicles at the midpoint of each COPERT4 model are summarized in the tables and segment at an adequate distance from any bus stop, figures below. Table 1 presents the functional cha- traffic signal or any other street features that could racteristics of each of the selected road segments, cause queues and stored them in a database for fur- Table 2 presents the respective observed traffic com- ther reference. The speed of the serviced traffic was positions, while in Figure 3 the respective traffic calculated using available volume-speed mathemat- characteristics are given. ical curves for each road segment for peak periods In order to have comparable results, Tables 3 and off-peak periods, as provided by AUTH ± TEL and 4 were added, where CO2, CH4, N2O, NOx and relevant research [19]. PM10 emissions per 100m of road segment are pre- Before the data input to the COPERT4 model sented for each road for peak and off-peak periods, software, the following primary processing took based on the exported data from the output files of place: The data from observer recordings in the field the COPERT4 emission estimation model software. were imported in spreadsheets for each road seg- In reference to the traffic characteristics of the ment, separately for the two periods and the total selected roads, a series of observations were made traffic volume was calculated separately for the two concerning speeds and volumes. Recorded speed periods as well. The COPERT4 model software suite values range between 24 - 32km/h, with the maxi- input files were prepared for each road segment; in mum speed observed along G. Papandreou Str. dur- particular, traffic volume, composition, speed and ing the off peak period due to its large width that segment lengths were incorporated to the model supports unhindered movement. Moreover, vehicles files. Some vehicle categories included by default in can develop higher speeds due to the fact that the the COPERT4 model input files were excluded from road is unidirectional and so they do not risk colli- the study under the assumption that they are not ob- sion with other vehicles moving in the opposite di- served on specified road segments based on existing rection. On the other hand, the minimum speed was legislation and the current public transport fleet serv- recorded in Stratou Ave. equally for the peak and ing the study area. Therefore, the selected road seg- off-peak period. This is justified because of the small ments were divided into three categories: the first width that causes the vehicles to reduce speed in or- category includes Egnatia, Tsimiski, G. Papandreou, der to avoid accidents and the existence of illegal 5611 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5608-5615 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin parking along the bus-lane; that forces public buses stability of vehicle speed has a major effect on the that are unable to use the bus-lane to use the remain- production of emissions from traffic. More specifi- ing lane thus supporting congestion which causes cally, emissions are reduced when there is a smooth drivers to reduce speed. Moreover, the selected seg- flow of traffic and increased with instability of vehi- ment is bidirectional without a traffic-control island, cle speed that is caused by decelerations and accel- a fact that discourages drivers to increase speed due erations of the vehicles (stop and go). to higher collision risk. It should be noted that the TABLE 1 Functional characteristics per road segment Existing Road Existing Existing Lanes per Traffic Segment Road Road Class Directions Bus- Signalized Parking Direction Control Length Lane Intersection Island (m) Egnatia Main Arterial Two Three Yes No Yes 400 No Tsimiski Main Arterial One Four Yes No Yes 125 No G. Papandreou Main Arterial One Three Yes No Yes 90 No Aggelaki Main Collector Road One Three Yes No Yes 313 Yes M. Mpotsari Main Collector Road Two One No No Yes 379 No Secondary Collector Olympiados Two One No Yes No 83 Yes Road Mitropoleos Secondary Arterial One Two Yes No Yes 125 Yes Stratou Ave. Secondary Arterial Two Two Yes No Yes 92 No Papanastasiou Secondary Arterial Two Two Yes Yes Yes 282 No N. Plastira Main Collector Road Two One No No Yes 463 No TABLE 2 Traffic composition per road segment Peak Period Off Peak Period Road Two- Private Light Heavy Two- Private Light Heavy Taxis Buses Taxis Buses wheelers Cars Trucks Trucks wheelers, Cars Trucks Trucks Egnatia 21% 12% 55% 7% 1% 4% 17% 13% 56% 7% 2% 5% Tsimiski 21% 12% 60% 4% 1% 2% 20% 14% 57% 6% 1% 2% G. Papan- 11% 13% 63% 9% 2% 2% 15% 16% 54% 10% 3% 2% dreou Aggelaki 18% 11% 60% 5% 2% 4% 22% 12% 55% 8% 2% 1% M. Mpotsari 17% 7% 61% 13% 2% 0% 19% 12% 59% 8% 2% 0% Olympiados 15% 7% 68% 7% 2% 1% 18% 3% 66% 10% 2% 1% Mitropoleos 24% 31% 29% 9% 1% 6% 18% 33% 25% 11% 1% 12% Stratou Ave. 21% 16% 52% 5% 2% 4% 24% 14% 52% 6% 1% 3% Papanastasiou 25% 11% 59% 3% 0% 2% 22% 11% 53% 8% 2% 4% N. Plastira 10% 8% 68% 9% 3% 2% 14% 12% 60% 9% 2% 3% FIGURE 3 Traffic characteristics per road segment 5612 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5608-5615 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin TABLE 3 Estimated main greenhouse gas emissions Peak CO2 Off-Peak CO2 Peak CH4 Off-Peak CH4 Peak N2O Off-Peak N2O Road Emissions Emissions Emissions Emissions Emissions Emissions (g/100m) (g/100m) (g/100m) (g/100m) (g/100m) (g/100m) Egnatia 33803.91 31948.09 24.39 26.35 4.03 3.87 Tsimiski 47673.94 46323.15 13.24 12.51 1.83 1.81 G. Papandreou 35340.48 26466.38 5.59 4.65 1.08 0.83 Aggelaki 26101.01 26829.21 16.78 17.62 2.57 2.68 M. Mpotsari 4733.84 5227.98 3.55 4.18 0.62 0.64 Olympiados 6066.75 6045.55 0.97 0.99 0.16 0.16 Mitropoleos 11543.88 9727.60 2.83 1.78 0.39 0.31 Stratou Ave. 20675.50 19141.9 3.6 3.6 0.51 0.48 Papanastasiou 11504.26 6349.11 7.83 3.87 0.97 0.57 N. Plastira 5631.13 4685.64 4.24 3.77 0.83 0.68 TABLE 4 Estimated NOx and Particulate Matter emissions Peak NO Emis- Off-Peak NO Peak PM Emis- Off-Peak PM Road x x 10 10 sions (g/100m) Emissions (g/100m) sions (g/100m) Emissions (g/100m) Egnatia 101.61 83.52 6.96 6.73 Tsimiski 97.42 94.93 9.77 9.62 G. Papandreou 80.04 63.87 6.77 5.77 Aggelaki 69.66 76.61 5.47 6.01 M. Mpotsari 8.39 9.6 0.93 1.07 Olympiados 11.88 13.01 1.12 1.17 Mitropoleos 41.07 42.38 2.81 2.27 Stratou Ave. 53.76 44.94 4.21 3.93 Papanastasiou 21.46 16.92 2.38 1.41 N. Plastira 12.74 11.12 1.01 0.89 TABLE 5 Factors affecting emission levels per road segment Road Emission Level Factors affecting emission levels -Highest volume Tsimiski Very High -Stop and go because of signalized intersections combined with high volume -Illegal parking along left lane -High volume -Highest bus volume Egnatia Very High - Stop and go because of signalized intersections combined with high volume -Illegal parking along bus-lane -High volume G. Papandreou Very High -Highest heavy vehicle volume - Stop and go because of signalized intersections combined with high volume -High bus volume Aggelaki High - Stop and go because of signalized intersections combined with high volume -Illegal parking along left lane -Stop and go because of signalized intersections combined with high volume Stratou Ave. High -Bidirectional road without traffic control island, not allowing stable speeds -Illegal parking along bus-lane Mitropoleos Moderate -Illegal parking along right lane forcing all traffic to bus-lane -Illegal parking along bus-lane Papanastasiou Moderate -Stop and go because of signalized intersections and bus-stops +Traffic control island dividing two directions allows stable speeds +Low volume Olympiados Low +Traffic control island dividing two directions allows stable speeds +Lowest volume N. Plastira Low +Stable speeds supporting a normal traffic flow +Low volume M. Mpotsari Low +No bus volume +Stable speeds supporting a normal traffic flow Contrary to speed, there was a wider range in the off-peak period, which is a bidirectional road observed volumes because of the various traffic and segment with one lane per direction without any traf- functional characteristics recorded. The minimum fic congestion. On the contrary, the highest volume volume was observed along N. Plastira Str. during 5613 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5608-5615 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin was observed along Tsimiski Str. during the peak pe- speed along urban roads and to facilitate the decon- riod, where vehicles are served by three lanes and a gestion of the network. bus-lane. It should be noted that Tsimiski Str. is the Regarding the functional characteristics, in the main arterial that crosses the central business district ten selected road segments the emissions are pro- of the city and it is reasonable to present high de- portional to the road category. More specifically, mand. As far as the relation of emissions with traffic emissions are particularly high on main arterials, characteristics is concerned it was found that for the while on secondary arterials emissions are generally road segments with similar values of traffic volumes limited. In addition, the road direction has a serious and speeds the emission level depend on the traffic impact as the majority of the roads that are unidirec- composition. If there is no significant com-position tional, have more limited emissions compared to bi- variation between the two periods, gas emissions in directional roads, because the former support the de- both periods are similar. A typical example is Olym- velopment of higher and more stable speeds and fa- piados Str. where the volume (291 vehicles during cilitate decongestion, resulting in lower emissions. peak and 280 vehicles during off-peak period) and Moreover, the existence of a traffic-control island composition of traffic (68% pas-senger vehicles, separating the two directions supports higher and 15% motorcycles, 7% taxis, 7% light trucks, 2% more stable speeds and reduces emissions. More heavy trucks 1% buses during peak period and 66% lanes per direction favor higher volumes, but also the passenger vehicles, 18% motor-cycles, 3% taxis, development of higher speeds during off-peak peri- 10% light trucks, 2% heavy trucks 1% buses during ods. Road segments with lower traffic volumes, even off-peak period) as well as the traffic speed (28km/h with only one lane per direction can support higher both during peak and off-peak period) have similar speeds, undisrupted vehicle flow and lower emis- values in peak and off-peak period resulting to pol- sions. It should be noted that illegal parking reduces lutant emissions with no significant variations be- drastically the effective width of the section of the tween the two periods (CO2 emissions: 6066.75g road, contributing to increased congestion and emis- during peak, 6045.55g during off-peak period, CH4 sions. Moreover, it was observed that the existence emissions: 0.97g during peak, 0.99g during off-peak of bus-lanes in road segments contributes to the period, N2O emissions: 0.16g during peak and off- smooth flow of traffic and the reduction of green- peak period, NOx emissions: 11.88g during peak, house gas emissions. More specifically, it was ob- 13.01g during off-peak period, PM10 emissions: served that along road segments where the bus-lane 1.12g during peak, 1.17g during off-peak period). was illegally occupied by parked vehicles, buses had The estimated emission levels for the ten road seg- to interfere in the general traffic, causing more cases ments under study as well as the factors affecting of traffic saturation, lower speeds and overall higher them and the overall environmental performance are emissions. The existence of signalized intersections presented analytically in Table 5. combined with high volumes contributes to high traffic emissions as vehicles are subjected to decel- erations and accelerations (stop and go). However, CONCLUSIONS the existence of signalized intersections, when con- figured adequately in order to facilitate a smooth From the above analysis the following findings traffic flow, lead to lower air pollutant emissions due concerning the impact of road characteristics on the to the maintenance of stable vehicle speeds, while traffic emissions were derived. Concerning the traf- misconfigured signalized intersections, in conjunc- fic characteristics, traffic volume plays the main role tion with high volumes, contribute to high traffic in the emission of gaseous pollutants from the vehi- emission as vehicles undergo frequent decelerations cles, as in all cases emissions rise accordingly to the and accelerations (stop and go). traffic volumes. An important observation is also that along the road sections where traffic volumes are not significantly different, emissions depend on REFERENCES traffic composition with heavy vehicles (trucks and buses) having a noticeable effect on the emission of [1] Newman, P. and Kenworthy, J. (1999) gaseous pollutants; high percentage of heavy vehi- Sustainability and cities. Overcoming automo- cles in traffic composition has a significantly nega- bile dependence. Washington, DC: Island Press. tive effect on emissions, while two-wheelers hardly [2] European Commission (2007) Green Paper - affect total traffic emissions. Traffic speed is another Towards a new culture for urban mobility COM important traffic characteristic which significantly (2007) 551 final. Brussels: European Commis- influences traffic emissions. More specifically, sion. emissions are reduced when there is a regular traffic [3] IEA/UIC (2015) Railway Handbook 2015 flow and increase along with vehicle deceleration Energy Consumption and CO2 Emissions. and acceleration (stop and go). Thus, it is of critical OECD/IEA and UIC. importance to maintain a normal and stable driving [4] European Commission (2001) A sustainable Europe for a better world: A European Union 5614 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5608-5615 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin strategy for sustainable development. COM Greece: EMISIA S.A. (2001) 264 final. Brussels: European Commis- [14] Hellenic Statistical Authority (2011) Hellenic sion. Statistical Authority Official Web Site. Hellenic [5] Nikolaou, K. and Basbas, S. (2014) Urban Statistical Authority. Retrieved from http://- traffic and air quality evolution under economic www.statistics.gr/en/home/ recession conditions. Global Nest Journal, [15] 7KHVVDORQLNL¶V ,QWHJUDted Transport Authority 16(5), 866±872. (2012) 7KHVVDORQLNL¶V ,QWHJUDWHG 7UDQVSRUW [6] Stamos, I., Samaras, C., Mitsakis, E., Ntzia- Authority. Thessaloniki, Greece. christos, L., Aifadopoulou, G. and Samaras, Z. [16] Gavanas, N., Politis, I., Dovas, K. and Lianakis, (2015) Road Transport Emissions Evolution In E. (2012) Is a New Metro Line a Mean for Urban Areas; The Case Of Thessaloniki, Gree- 6XVWDLQDEOH0RELOLW\ $PRQJ&RPPXWHUVௗ"WKH ce. In: Proceedings of the 14th International Case of Thessaloniki City. International Journal Conference on Environmental Science and for Traffic and Transport Engineering, 2(2), 98± Technology Rhodes, Greece, 3-5 September 106. 2015. [17] Gavanas, N., Tsakalidis, A., Aggelakakis, A. [7] Symeonidis, P., Ziomas, I. and Proyou, A. and Pitsiava-Latinopoulou, M. (2013) Assess- (2004) Development of an emission inventory ment of bus lane violations in relation to road system from transport in Greece. Environmental infrastructure, traffic and land-use features: the Modelling & Software, 19(4), 413±421. doi:10.- case of Thessaloniki, Greece. European Trans- 1016/S1364-8152(03)00140-3 port \ Trasporti Europei, (55). [8] Kousoulidou, M., Ntziachristos, L., Mellios, G. [18] Google (2015) Google Maps. Retrieved and Samaras, Z. (2008) Road-transport emis- November 20, 2015, from http://www.google.- sion projections to 2020 in European urban gr/maps environments. Atmospheric Environment, 42 [19] Pitsiava-Latinopoulou, M., Gavanas, N., Tsaka- (32), 7465±7475. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2008- lidis, A., Aggelakakis, A., Verani, E. and Sdou- .06.002 kopoulos, A. (2013) Investigation of the flow- [9] Skabardonis, A., Geroliminis, N. and Christofa, speed relation in urban networks. Implementa- E. (2013) Prediction of Vehicle Activity for tion for the categorised road network of Emissions Estimation Under Oversaturated Thessaloniki, Greece. In: Proceedings of the 6th Conditions Along Signalized Arterials. Journal Congress on Transportation Research in Greece, of Intelligent Transportation Systems, 17(3), Thessaloniki, Greece, 17-18 October 2013. 191±199. doi:10.1080/15472450.2012.704338 Thessaloniki, Greece, 488±506. [10] Moussiopoulos, N., Vlachokostas, C., Tsilin- giridis, G., Douros, I., Hourdakis, E., Naneris, C. and Sidiropoulos, C. (2009) Air quality status in Greater Thessaloniki Area and the emission reductions needed for attaining the EU air quality legislation. The Science of the total Received: 07.04.2017 environment, 407(4), 1268±85. doi:10.1016/j.- Accepted: 21.07.2017 scitotenv.2008.10.034 [11] Gavanas, N., Tsakalidis, A., Verani, E., Sdouko- poulos, A., Pitsiava-Latinopoulou, M., Kouri- CORRESPONDING AUTHOR dis, C., Papageorgiou, T., Blatsis, E. and Melios, G. (2014). Real-time information and guidance Anastasios Tsakalidis based on road traffic and environmental criteria. Aristotle University of Thessaloniki In: ITS 2014 Intelligent Transport Systems & Department of Civil Engineering Smart Cities, Patras, Greece, 19 - 22 November Division of Transportation, 2014. Patras, Greece. Construction Management and Regional Planning [12] EMISIA S.A. (2014) COPERT 4. Retrieved Transportation Engineering Laboratory from http://www.emisia.com/copert Univ. Box 436, [13] Gkatzoflias, D., Kouridis, C., Ntziachristos, L. 54124, Thessaloniki ± GREECE and Samaras, Z. (2012) COPERT 4 Computer programme to calculate emissions from road E-mail: [email protected] transport User Manual (9th ed.). Thessaloniki, 5615 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5616-5621 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin EXAMINING THE CORRELATION OF NOISE LEVELS WITH TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS IN AN URBAN AREA: THE CASE OF THESSALONIKI Anastasios Tsakalidis*, Fotini Kehagia, Magda Pitsiava-Latinopoulou Department of Civil Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124, Thessaloniki, Greece ABSTRACT noise levels. Additionally, 170 million citizens live in so-FDOOHG³JUH\DUHDV´ZKHUHQRLVHOHYHOVDUHVXFK Transportation systems comprise one of the as to cause serious annoyance during the daytime. main pylons of economic and social development in The economic damage of environmental noise in the urban areas, while motorized transportation has EU could reach DVPXFKDVPLOOLRQ¼, while it has historically played the key role in this context. In been estimated that for each 1 dB(A) increase in addition to the positive effects of motorized trans- noise levels, average property values in Germany fall portation, a series of negative externalities arises by 0.5%. Road traffic is the most dominant source of including congestion, delays, pollutant emissions environmental noise with an estimated 125 million and traffic noise. The purpose of this paper is to people affected by noise levels greater than 55 dB examine traffic noise, a major externality in urban Lden (day-evening-night level) [1, 2]. centers, both as an environmental problem and a The entry into force of the European Directive transportation planning challenge. Specifically, an on Environmental Noise 2002/49/EC known as the investigation of the correlation of traffic noise with Environmental Noise Directive requires Member the traffic characteristics of an urban area is carried States to produce strategic noise maps followed by out through a diachronic observation. Towards this action plans. At national level, approaches differ aim, a case study was conducted along selected road slightly from country to country [3]. While taking axes of the categorized urban network of Thes- into account increasing concerns about excessive saloniki¶V central business district in Greece, where costs, the road designer should evaluate existing or noise levels along the road axes are associated with potential noise levels and estimate the effectiveness traffic and urban characteristics of the surrounding of reducing highway traffic noise through location area over a seven-year period. Findings concerning and design considerations. Source control strategies the correlation between traffic noise, the existing include quieter vehicles and tires, speed control, traffic characteristics and the permanence of the additional building insulation, more building codes phenomenon are given and possible measures and for new construction, and noise-reducing pavements. solutions to deal with the problem are proposed. METHODOLOGY KEYWORDS: Traffic noise, traffic characteristics, sustainable mobility, Traffic noise prediction is based on a number urban degradation, urban traffic. of influencing parameters and thus it is very useful, as it helps the appropriate preventive mitigation measures to be taken for reducing noise impact. In INTRODUCTION this framework, many researchers have carried out studies aiming at the development of traffic noise Noise pollution is a growing concern and is a prediction models. Although these models differ major environmental and health problem in Europe. from country to country according to the traffic and It is caused by a varied number of sources and is environmental conditions, all of them present a widely present not only in the busiest urban strong correlation of traffic noise with traffic environments, but is also pervading natural environ- parameters, such as speed, volume and composition ments. In this framework, traffic noise imposes a [4, 5]. Specifically, traffic composition was found to public health threat affecting the psychological and be a determinant factor in the estimation of traffic physical state of the urban population and is noise [6, 7]. characterized by its permanence, contrary to other The basic purpose of this paper is the sources of noise pollution. The European Com- investigation of the above correlation through a dia- mission estimate that up to 80 million people in the chronic observation of both i.e. traffic noise and traf- European Union (EU) suffer from unacceptable fic characteristics indicators in an urban network. 5616 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5616-5621 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin Network Data Network Field Data Data Analysis Collection Identification collection Road Network Network Urban Noise Model Functional Data Categorization Morphology Verification Satellite / Road Segmet Traffic Data Traffic - Noise Aerial Imaging Selection Noise Data Level Data Correlation Evaluation of Results FIGURE 1 Workflow of methodological approach In order to achieve this, measurements of stages. The standard UK method for the calculation traffic noise for a seven-year period along selected of road traffic noise (CRTN) prediction model is axes of the central road network of Thessaloniki in used for the estimation of noise levels in the selected Greece are analyzed and correlated with the road segments during peak and off-peak periods as a respective traffic characteristics for the same period. verification mode and the results are presented Analysis of the above data highlights the fact that graphically. Pertinent factors are traffic charac- traffic noise constitutes a complex environmental teristics (speed, volume, composition), topography problem which requires a special treatment. (vegetation, barriers, distance) and roadway charac- teristics (configuration, pavement type, grades, type Methodological steps. The proposed metho- of facility). The basic level at a reference distance of dological approach to investigate the correlation of 10 meters away from the nearside carriageway edge the existing traffic characteristics of an urban area is calculated and then it is corrected taking into with noise levels, includes the following stages, as account different parameters [8]. presented in Figure 1: The noise level results of the sound metering The first stage of the methodology includes an and the CRTN model processing are exported and initial collection of data relevant to the operational correlated with the operational and geometrical characteristics of the study area road network from characteristics of the selected road segments; the state or municipal agencies, and the acquisition of overall evaluation of their performance is examined satellite or aerial image data of the study area from leading to conclusions and possible interventions. the appropriate internet services if needed (i.e. satellite or aerial photo provision services). The second stage includes the categorization of CASE STUDY the road network under consideration according to its operational and geometrical characteristics, based Study area. The study area is situated in the central on the relevant data gathered previously. The consid- business district of the city of Thessaloniki in ered categories are main arterial, secondary arterial, *UHHFH ,W LV WKH FRXQWU\¶V VHFRQG ODUJHVW FLW\ and primary collector road, secondary collector road and serves as the administrative, financial and cultural local road. Then, a number of representative road center in northern Greece and a transport node for segments of the road network are selected for the the greater southeastern Europe, a fact that supports VWXG\LQRUGHUWRREWDLQDZLGHUYLHZRIWKHDUHD¶V the development of activities related to the traffic and geometrical characteristics. movement of people and goods at an urban, regional The third stage of the study includes the field and international level. Thessaloniki maintains a data collection for each selected road segment. More population of 1,110,312 with a density of 301.49 specifically, the field surveys include on-site record- inhabitants per km2 [9]. Motorized traffic in the city ing of the local urban (operational and geometrical) center is relatively high as the private car dominates characteristics, and traffic measurements, field or re- FLWL]HQV¶WUDYHOFKRLFHV: 1,800,000 out of 2,300,000 mote, in order to collect data concerning the peak RU RI WKH FLW\¶V GDLO\ WULSV DUH FRQGXFWHG and off-peak served traffic (i.e. volumes, traffic com- using the private car, while the private car ownership position, speed). In addition, noise level measure- index reaches the value of 45%. Public transport in ments are also conducted simultaneously using a the city currently includes only one mode, the bus, special electronic noise measuring device and all the and it is run by the Organization of Urban Transpor- data collected are stored in a database for further tation of Thessaloniki with 79 lines and 618 vehicles, reference. that serve the FLW\¶VXUEDQDQGVXEXUEDQDUHDVZLWK The final stage of the study includes the an estimated volume of 167 million passengers analysis of the data collected during the previous annually [10]. 5617 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5616-5621 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin TABLE 1 Geometrical and operational characteristics of selected roads Number Bus- Lane Width Center Signalized Road Directions of Lanes Lane (m) Island Intersections V. Olgas Ave. 1 4 YES 3.00 NO YES Mitropoleos Str. 1 2 YES 3.20 NO YES Tsimiski Str. 1 4 YES 3.50 NO YES M. Alexandrou Ave. 1 6 NO 3.00 NO YES V. Georgiou Ave. 1 4 YES 3.00 NO YES Application of the methodology. Some of the direction, the existence of bus-lanes, traffic-control most important road axes in the city were examined islands, nearby signalized intersections, sidewalk in order to capture the urban transportation effects on width and nearby building heights. The length of noise levels in the central business district. The each road segment was measured using the above- Transport Engineering Laboratory of the Aristotle mentioned on-line satellite imaging service and all University of Thessaloniki provided the necessary the data collected were stored in a database for fur- information concerning the operational characteris- ther use. In addition, the observers recorded the local tics of the central urban road network of Thessalo- traffic characteristics at the selected road segments niki, while satellite images of the study area were ac- during peak and off-peak periods. Concerning traffic quired from an appropriate on-line provider. Thus, composition, vehicles were separated into six the road network of the study area was categorized categories (i.e. two-wheelers, taxis, private cars, accordingly and representative road segments from light trucks, heavy trucks and buses). The speed of five important urban road axes of the central busi- the served traffic along each road segment was ness district were used for the case study. calculated using the moving observer method, while ǹ VHULHV RI LQ-situ surveys was conducted the overall traffic data collection took place during during the period 2008-2015 in the framework of the peak and off-peak periods. It should be mentioned 3RVWJUDGXDWH&RXUVHµ(QYLURQPHQWDO3URWHFWLRQDQG that the above measurements were performed on the 6XVWDLQDEOH'HYHORSPHQW¶0RUHVSHFLILFDOO\ILHOG most overloaded lane. The gradient along the exam- measurements of traffic characteristics (traffic vol- ined road segments was small, while the number of ume, traffic composition and average travel speed) lanes varied depending on the role of the road within as well as traffic noise measurements using sound the urban road network. The observers recorded the metering devices were conducted along the selected number and type of passing vehicles at the midpoint road segments during these years. Moreover, the of each segment at an adequate distance from any characteristics of the surrounding urban area were bus stops, traffic signals or any other street features recorded in order to be used for the study, and for the that could cause queues, and stored them in a data- identification of the population share exposed to base for further use. noise effects. In addition, the CRTN noise level estimation Specifically, the Bruel&Kjær Type 2237 Noise model was used in order to verify the field data of Level Analyzer was used, according to the recom- traffic noise. The derived noise levels along the mendations of the International Standard Organi- examined road axes during peak and off-peak peri- zation for the measurement of traffic noise, for each ods are presented graphically and associated with the point measurement, together with a calibration traffic characteristics (volume, percentage of heavy device used to guarantee measurement accuracy. vehicles, traffic speed) and the characteristics of the The noise level meters were programmed to surrounding urban area. continuously measure the A-weighted noise level and store the energy-equivalent noise level (Leq). The acoustic survey was carried out over two RESULTS consecutive working days. The time interval of each measurement was 10 min, long enough for the The recorded geometrical and operational statistical levels to remain stable in this type of characteristics of the selected roads are presented in measurement and situation. The level of noise (Leq) Table 1. All five roads are principal arterials and they was measured three times consecutively, for each constitute an important part of the urban road point, of the same 10-minute period. The final value network of Thessaloniki. The first three roads (V. (Leq) is the average of the three 10-minute periods. Olgas, Mitropoleos and Tsimiski) have a com- Field data were collected by observers who mercial and residential character, while the other two conducted an on-site recording of the local network roads (M. Alexandrou and V. Georgiou) have a operational characteristics and the urban morphol- mainly residential character. ogy including the number of directions and lanes per 5618 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5616-5621 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin The noise levels estimated using the CRTN comparison with the recorded ones. These methodology and those recorded using the sound differences in values which are less than 5% for the metering devices for the selected roads are presented majority of observations (65% of the observations) in Figures 2 and 3 against the recorded traffic vol- and less than 8% for 80% of the observations can be umes and the percentage of heavy vehicles respec- attributed to the fact that some environmental (i.e. tively. The latter presentation was considered wind speed) or street design elements (canyon effect pertinent as it has been shown in previous studies [6, etc.) which may lead to the increase of noise levels 7, 11] that the effect of traffic composition, and in are not incorporated appropriately in the CRTN particular that of heavy vehicles, is quite significant methodology. on noise levels along the urban signalized arterials, From Figure 2, it can be observed that there is under various geometric characteristics. a reduction in traffic volumes during the examined From the observation of the recorded noise seven-year period due to the economic crisis (less levels, for the selected roads, it can be seen that noise trips/person) which varies from 25%-45% according levels are in the region of 75-82 dB during the peak WRWKHRSHUDWLRQRIWKHURDGDVDOLQNWRWKHFLW\¶Vroad period and 70-75 dB during off-peak. The above network. Meanwhile, the recorded reduction in noise levels of noise exceed the allowable limits of 67 dB levels through these years is not of the corresponding (Leq (8-20 h)). Comparing the estimated levels of magnitude when compared to the volumes; a fact noise using the CRTN methodology and those that can be attributed to the changes in traffic recorded using the sound metering devices, it can be composition (i.e. more heavy vehicles and motor- seen that, in most cases, there is a slight cycles) (Figure 3). underestimation by the model noise levels in FIGURE 2 Recorded and estimated noise levels and traffic volumes 5619 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5616-5621 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin FIGURE 3 Recorded and estimated noise levels vs motorcycle and heavy vehicle percentages Concerning mean speed variation during the along selected axes of the categorized central urban years under analysis, it was found that it does not network of Thessaloniki in Greece, led to some follow any trends. It was only observed that the mean interesting results regarding: i) the correlation of speed during off-peak periods was slightly increased noise levels with the traffic characteristics of the in comparison with that of the peak period due to urban road network and ii) the permanence of the lower traffic volumes. It should be pointed out, phenomenon through the years. More specifically, it however, that there are many factors along an urban was found that traffic composition plays a significant network that have an effect on driver behavior and role in the recorded noise levels, as for the same therefore on mean driving speed, apart from the traf- traffic volumes or even less (during off-peak hours) fic volume, such as the geometric characteristics, the recorded noise levels along specific roads were parking availability, type of traffic control and the found to be greater when there was variation in type of adjacent land uses. traffic composition and the other elements remained stable. Concerning the permanence of the pheno- menon through these years, despite the significant CONCLUSIONS reduction in traffic due to the economic crisis, it is also justified by the increased percentages of Noise pollution has become a critical issue in motorcycles and heavy vehicles in the total traffic, the assessment of transport system sustainability. the poor maintenance of the vehicle fleet as well as The diachronic observation of this problem in an ur- driving behavior. ban area, in parallel with the parameters most This analysis indicates the complex effects of significant for its creation, provides a useful tool for traffic on noise levels and highlights traffic noise as its remedy. Towards this goal, in the present study an environmental problem whose remedy should be the elaboration of a 7-year database including the achieved through a holistic transport planning traffic characteristics as well as the noise levels approach. 5620 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5616-5621 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin REFERENCES rence, Kungolos, A., Aravossis, K., Karagian- nidis, A. and Samaras, P. (Eds.), Grafima Publ., [1] European Environmental Agency (2014) Noise Thessaloniki, 1669±1674. in Europe 2014. Publications Office of the [9] Hellenic Statistical Authority (2011) Hellenic European Union, Luxembourg. Statistical Authority Official Web Site. Hellenic [2] CEDR (2010) Noise management and abate- Statistical Authority. Retrieved from http://- ment. Conference of European Directors of www.statistics.gr/en/home/ Roads, Paris La Défence. [10] Organization of Urban Transportation of [3] Directive 2002/49/EC of the European Parlia- Thessaloniki (2015) Organization of Urban ment and of the Council of 25 June 2002 relating Transportation of Thessaloniki. Retrieved from to the assessment and management of environ- http://www.oasth.gr mental noise-Declaration by the Commission in [11] Cyril, A. and Koshy, B.I. (2013) Modelling of the Conciliation Committee on the Directive Road Traffic Noise. International Journal of relating to the assessment and management of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering environmental noise. Official Journal L 189, and Technology, 2(1), 125±130. 18.7.2002, 12-25. [4] Steele, C. (2001) A critical review of some traf- fic noise prediction models. Applied Acoustics, 62(3), 271±287. [5] Pronello, C. and Camusso, C. (2012) A Review of Transport Noise Indicators. Transport Reviews, 32(5), 599±628. Received: 07.04.2017 [6] Filho, J.M.A., Lenzi, A. and Zannin, P.H.T. Accepted: 21.07.2017 (2004) Effects of traffic composition on road noise: A case study. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 9(1), 75± CORRESPONDING AUTHOR 80. [7] Abdel Alim, O., El-Reedy, T.Y. and Abou-El- Anastasios Tsakalidis Hassan, A. (1983) Traffic noise level as a guide Aristotle University of Thessaloniki for town-planning. Applied Acoustics, 16(2), Department of Civil Engineering 139±146. Division of Transportation [8] Pitsiava, M., Kehagia, F. and Vizmpa, C. (2009) Construction Management and Regional Planning Road traffic noise level prediction in the city of Transportation Engineering Laboratory Thessaloniki: a comparison between the French Univ. Box 436, and British method. In: Proceedings of the 2nd 54124 Thessaloniki ± GREECE International Conference on Environmental Management, Engineering, Planning and Eco- E-mail: [email protected] nomics (CEMEPE) and SECOTOX Confe- 5621 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5622-5634 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin FORMING THE FRAMEWORK FOR SUSTAINABLE COMMUTING TO HIGHER EDUCATION: THE CASE OF THE TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF THESSALY, GREECE Nikolaos Gavanas1, Anastasios Tsakalidis2,* 1School of Technological Applications, Technological Educational Institution of Thessaly, 41110, Larissa, Greece 2Department of Civil Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124, Thessaloniki, Greece ABSTRACT wards the implementation of coordinated policies and measures for the integration of the city-campus Since the late 20th century, academic institu- network and the upgrade of commuting conditions tions have conducted extensive research towards with regard to accessibility, sustainability and re- the promotion of sustainable mobility in cities and duction of environmental impacts. While several urban areas. However, a lack of an organised universities in the United Kingdom conduct regular framework of policies and measures can be ob- travel plans, the number of relevant projects else- served when looking at attempts to strengthen sus- where is limited. Therefore, a gap in know-how and tainability in the transport system of academic experience is created between the academic in- campuses, apart from limited cases of institutions stitutions. Taking for granted that these institutions implementing travel plans regularly. In this paper, a should pioneer the promotion of a socially inclu- methodology is proposed for the development of an sive, economically competitive and environmen- appropriate framework in order to improve the ac- tally friendly transportation system, this paper ad- cessibility and sustainability of the daily transport dresses the aforementioned gap by proposing a activities to/from the campus and to upgrade the methodology which extends beyond the investi- interaction between the campus and the urban net- gation of the features regarding daily accessibility work. The methodology is based on international between the campus and the city, to the prioritisa- experience taking into account necessary adjust- tion of the appropriate goals and the formulation of ments to local conditions. Its added value derives the framework of policies and interventions for from the ability to be implemented by institutions sustainable commuting to higher education. In the with limited experience in travel plans and the pro- FRQWH[WRIWKHSURSRVHGPHWKRGRORJ\³FRPPXWLQJ VSHFW RI HQKDQFLQJ WKH VWXGHQWV¶ H[SHULHQFH LQ WKH WR KLJKHU HGXFDWLRQ´ UHIHUV WR systematic (mainly process. The methodology was tested through a daily) travel from the place of residence to the case study at the Technological Educational Institu- campus for the purposes of work or study. The tion of Thessaly, Greece. The findings of the study methodology takes advantage of a review of the suggest there is a limited awareness of sustain- available travel plans and projects worldwide in ability issues in the travel culture mainly among order to provide the means for institutions with no staff members, while it proposes a comprehensive such experience, to build upon their own scientific framework of short and long-term solutions. capacity for the adaptation of the appropriate poli- cies and measures. The applicability and suitability of the methodology are tested through the case KEYWORDS: study of the Technological Educational Institution Commuting, sustainability, accessibility, higher educa- (T.E.I.) of Thessaly in Greece leading to interesting tion, academic campus. conclusions regarding travel choices and mobility conditions. INTRODUCTION THEORETICAL BACKGROUND Cities are connected to academic institutions through the daily action of people travelling to The overview of international research activi- campuses and vice versa for accessing specific re- ties forms the background for the analysis of the sources and activities. Researchers of these institu- factors that affect the travel behaviour of university tions often provide evidence concerning the in- commuters and the impacts on mobility conditions fluencing factors and impacts of the aforementioned as well as the quality of the environment. Tolley [1] interaction. However, there are limited efforts to- outlines the impacts of transport on the envi- 5622 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5622-5634 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin ronment with reference to higher education and the METHODOLOGY need to battle car commuting and shift to envi- ronmentally friendly modes of transport. Conway et The proposed methodology combines a thor- al. [2] examine the ecological footprint on cam- ough analysis of the commuting conditions and puses underlining the role of commuting and evalu- choices for a specific campus with the systematic DWHDSRVVLEOHFRPPXWHUV¶VKLIWWRSXEOLFWUDQVSRUW overview of international policy and practice for the A similar approach for the analysis of a university allocation of the framework of strategies and inter- FDPSXV¶V FDUERQ IRRWSULQW WDking into account the ventions which are most suitable to the campus. contribution of commuting is conducted by Letete The steps of the methodology are presented in Fig- et al. [3]. The initiatives and measures for the shift ure 1 and described in the following sections. from cars to active and public transport modes in campuses is reviewed by Balsas [4] underlining the On-site observation and collection of infor- ability of higher education to promote sustainability mation. The step is essential in order to better un- and the reform of transportation patterns. Concern- derstand the study area and to identify the major ing the choice of transport mode for university re- features that should be further analysed through the lated travel, the influencing factors in the student following steps of the methodology. More speci- population and the spatial, temporal and gender dif- fically, the step involves the collection and or- ferences are analysed correspondingly in the studies ganisation of information concerning the following of Whalen et al. [5] and Delmelle and Delmelle [6]. issues: a) Location of the campus in relation to the Moreover, the trip features and traveller character- city, b) Structure of available private (motorised istics concerning commuting to/from a university and not motorised) and public transport infrastruc- campus by active and public transport using demo- ture and networks and c) Alternative travel choices graphic, behavioural, and environmental criteria are for campus-city commuting. The above information presented in the works of Bopp et al. [7] and Ka- can be obtained by the following activities accord- czynski et al. [8]. Regarding the specific use of ing to the case examined: walking and cycling for daily transport and access x On-site observations with the support of to the university, Shannon et al. [9] examined the audits, such as walkability and bike-ability audits, motivators affecting transport decisions in the uni- maps and designs and holding a small number of versity population, Molina-Garcia et al. [10] evalu- indicative interviews with students and staff mem- ated the psychosocial and environmental correlates bers where they are asked to freely express their of active commuting to university while Akar and opinion about commuting to/from the campus. Clifton [11] studied the policies for the promotion of bicycle commuting to/from the campus. FIGURE 1 Workflow of methodological approach 5623 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5622-5634 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin x Collection of existing studies, research x The improvement of transport infrastruc- projects and student projects concerning directly or ture for campus-city commuting and the promotion indirectly the mobility and accessibility conditions of sustainability in the transport mode choices of of the campus, evaluation and extraction of useful students and staff. results and conclusions x The application of methodologies and in- x Actualisation of measurements and counts struments for the promotion of sustainable com- IRUWKHTXDQWLILHGGHVFULSWLRQRIWKHFDPSXV¶VWUDI- muting. fic and parking features. x The implementation of specific policies and interventions for the improvement of the cam- Questionnaire survey. The objective of the SXV¶VDFFHVVLELOLW\DQGPRELOLW\FRQGLWLRQV survey is the assessment of the choices made by the most frequent users of the transport network that Comparative analysis (benchmarking). The services trips from the city to the campus and vice analysis aims at the comparison of the conditions versa and the identification of their criteria towards and patterns of accessibility between the examined these choices. Furthermore, it aims at the assess- institution and other institutions at national and ment of their opinions regarding the current com- international level. The selection of academic in- muting conditions and their willingness to accept stitutions to be included in the comparative analysis alternative solutions. It should be highlighted that is based primarily on the review of international the target population of a higher education institu- experience and good practice identified during the tion comprises a wide range of users from different previous step but also on the availability of relevant age groups (all adults) and various occupations, i.e. data. The analysis can be conducted in the form of a students, teachers, administrative, technical and benchmarking survey at regular time periods pro- other staff, which also implies different levels of vided there is a definition of benchmarks com- education and income. It is commonly accepted by patible to the specific characteristics of the study the research community that age, occupation (and area and appropriate targets in the context of a suit- value of time), education and income are determi- able time horizon are set. nant factors in the selection of transport mode as Indicative criteria that can be used for the well as in the awareness concerning sustainability comparative analysis are given below: issues. x Location of the campus in relation to the The exact structure and contents of the ques- city tionnaire as well as the sample size depend on the x Available transport modes that service examined case and the conclusions extracted from commuting trips the previous step, i.e. local knowledge. Nonethe- x Share of commuting trips conducted by less, a part of the questionnaire refers to the current students or staff members travel choices of the respondents for their daily trip x Distribution of commuting trips by to/from the campus and another to their willingness transport mode for students and staff members to change these choices in the case that one or more of the features of the current multimodal transport SWOT analysis. The conclusions from the system would be improved (stated preference). A previous step should allow the description of the separate part of the questionnaire should refer to the main features of commuting between the examined personal data of the respondent which, as men- campus and the city in comparison to the cor- tioned above, are crucial in the selection of a travel responding features of other campuses worldwide. mode. The combined analysis of results from the Thus, it can be used as a basis for the evaluation of different parts of the questionnaire leads to useful the advantages (strengths) and disadvantages findings regarding the commuting patterns of stu- (weaknesses) of the current conditions regarding dents and staff, while the quantification of commut- campus-city commuting and for the identification ing choices will be used in a benchmarking process of the external trends (opportunities and threats) which takes place in a subsequent step of the meth- which are expected to affect these conditions in the odology. context of a SWOT analysis. These external trends refer to the following: Review of international know-how and x &KDQJHV LQ WKH LQVWLWXWLRQ¶V RU FDPSXV¶V practice. The objective of this step is the compre- infrastructure, organisation and operation, such as hensive review of international literature which the development of a new department or the reduc- should support three discrete and inter-related steps tion of personnel. of the methodology: a) Comparative analysis and x Planning and implementation of interven- benchmarking, b) SWOT analysis and c) Proposal WLRQV DQG SROLFLHV DIIHFWLQJ WKH FLW\¶V WUDQVSRUW LQ- of policies and measures. The step involves the frastructure and services, such as the operation of a systematic assessment of international experience, new transport mode, the setting of urban tolls or the i.e. campus travel plans and other relevant projects, development of a low emission zone, and influ- referring to: 5624 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5622-5634 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin encing especially the transport links to the campus dates other facilities, such as administrative and RUWKHWUDYHOKDELWVRIWKHFDPSXV¶VFRPPXWHUV auxiliary buildings VWXGHQWV¶ GRUPLWRULHV UHVWDX- x Changes in the socio-economic and envi- rants and recreational spaces. The campus is situ- ronmental conditions and relevant policies affecting ated at the outskirts of the city of Larissa, which is WKHZD\RIOLIHRIWKHFDPSXV¶VFRPPXWHUVVXFKDV the administrative capital of the prefecture of Laris- the economic crisis and global warming. sa, and the biggest city in the region of Thessaly x Strategic priorities and practices for the with a population of 144,651 inhabitants within the promotion of sustainable development of academic PXQLFLSDOLW\¶V ERXQGDULHV DQG LQKDELWDQWV institutions, such as energy management schemes. in the wider urban area [12]. Framework of policies and measures. The Local knowledge and on-site observation. SWOT analysis is expected to lead to a series of The campus is closely linked to the city as the ma- conclusions which will contribute towards the allo- jority of students and staff members are residents of cation of the appropriate solutions based on the re- Larissa. Safe access to the campus is available only view of good practices which was conducted earli- by car, motorcycle and bus through a signalised er. These solutions are adjusted during the current intersection with the main road network. There is step in order to formulate the framework of policies no cycling or walking infrastructure linking the and measures for the improvement of sustainable campus to the city, despite the fact that the city cen- commuting to/from the examined campus. The tre is equipped with pedestrian ways and a bicycle framework should provide clear and comprehensive network. Regarding accessibility to long-distance time horizons, i.e. a short-term period for the im- travel, the campus is directly connected by bus to plementation of urgent and low cost solutions and a WKH FLW\¶V UDLOZD\ VWDWLRQ EXW QRW WR WKH LQWHUurban long-term period for the development of large scale bus terminal. interventions. ThHFDPSXV¶VWUDQVSRUWLQIUDVWUXFWXUHLQFOXGHV mainly private car and public bus facilities, i.e. 489 Prioritisation and commitment. The meth- car parking spaces, a taxi-stand with 6 parking odology aims at the development of a framework of spaces and a parking shelter for motorcycles. Park- policies and measures for the improvement of the ing in the campus is free and there is no parking conditions of daily commuting for an academic in- management system in operation. Despite the ade- VWLWXWLRQ¶V VWXGHQWV DQG staff members. However, quate parking supply, direct access to the destina- the finalisation of the framework should take into tions within the campus is not provided due to the account the prioritisation and commitment of the location and arrangement of the available spaces. commuters and stakeholders, i.e. university and city The corresponding study during a typical workday authorities and transport service providers, to con- revealed a mean occupancy of 57% and 62 illegally tribute towards sustainable commuting to higher parked cars. education. Furthermore, the stakeholders should There is one bus stop at the centre of the cam- enter into a long-term discussion to evaluate the im- pus. Among the two lines that service the campus, SDFWVIURPWKH LPSOHPHQWDWLRQRIWKH IUDPHZRUN¶V the first leads to the city centre with a scheduled policies and measures. The main objective of this frequency of 10 minutes (min) and a mean occu- process is the on-time identification of the op- pancy of 36.75 passengers/hour during the peak pe- portunity or necessity for the re-implementation of riod and the second leads to the railway station with the above methodology and the upgrade of the a scheduled frequency of 60 min and a mean occu- framework for sustainable campus commuting. pancy of 25 passengers/hour. Students have a dis- count on the ticket price. CASE STUDY Questionnaire survey. It is not obligatory for academic students in Greece to be present in all The applicability and suitability of the meth- lectures while the schedule of academic teachers odology are tested through the case study of the varies and thus the number of every day commuters Technological Educational Institution (T.E.I.) of is not fixed. In order to define the population of Thessaly. It should be highlighted that the students daily commuting students, the hourly variations of of the class of 2012- LQ WKH FRXUVH ³7UDIILF tKHDIRUHPHQWLRQHGEXV¶VRFFXSDQF\ZDVWDNHQLQWR HQJLQHHULQJ5DLOZD\V´ SDUWLFLSDWHG LQ WKH FRQGXF- account in order to define the morning peak-period tion of the on-site observations and the question- of arrivals to the campus by bus during a typical naire survey. workday. On-site surveys in classes, offices and la- boratories during the hour after the aforementioned Study area. The T.E.I. of Thessaly comprises morning peak-period were conducted in order to as- 15 departments, 11 of which are located within the sess the number of students and staff members who main campus while the rest are located in nearby accessed the campus during the peak-period or be- FLWLHV 7KH 7(,¶V PDLQ FDPSXV DOVR DFFRPPR- fore. The above were considered as campus com- 5625 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5622-5634 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin muters. The main assumptions of the above ap- (1) Structure and methodology. The first proach were that a) The peak-period for commuting part of the questionnaire can be divided into two was defined by the peak-period of arrivals by bus, sections: b) Studying or working was considered as the only a) $VVHVVPHQW RI WKH UHVSRQGHQWV¶ SHUVRQDO trip purpose of commuters and other trip purposes choices and features of the daily trip to/from the VXFKDVDFFHVVWRWKHFDPSXV¶GRUPLWRU\UHVWDXUDQW campus from/to the city. The questions of this sec- cafeteria or public spaces were omitted, c) Students tion refer to: OLYLQJZLWKLQWKHFDPSXV¶GRUPLWRU\(non- i. The transport mode usually used for daily commuters) were not excluded from the sample, d) commuting. Commuters reaching the campus during the rest of ii. 7KH DOORFDWLRQ RI WKH WULS¶V RULJLQ UHVL the day were not taken into account, e) Commuters dence) in order to divide urban and interurban trips. who were absent due to unexpected reasons, such iii. The time period of the trip, i.e. was it dur- as illness, were not taken into account. Approxi- ing the peak period (07:00 ± 10:00 a.m.) or not. mately 400 commuters were assessed during the iv. The perceived trip duration and the travel morning peak-period. A sample of 180 question- time for each phase of the trip, e.g. time for walking naires from all groups of commuters, i.e. students, from residence to bus stop, time on bus, time for teachers and staff members, was defined in order to walking from bus stop to destination in the campus. safeguard a confidence interval of 95% according v. The perceived trip cost. to Table 1 [13]. b) Stated preference analysis of the respond- HQWV¶ LQWHQWLRQ WR FKDQJH WKHLU WUDYHO FKRLFHV LI DQ improvement of the access towards an alternative TABLE 1 mode is provided. In this section the following in- Sample size, confidence interval and sampling formation was extracted according to each respond- error HQW¶VDQVZHUVLQWKHSUHvious section: i. The two main reasons (rating from 1 to 2 Confidence interval (%) 95 99 according to their significance, where 1 stands for Sampling error (%) 5 1 the most significant) from a pre-defined set of rea- Population size (number) Sampling size (number) sons for not using a transport mode different from 50 44 50 the one they usually use. 100 79 99 200 132 196 ii. The willingness of changing their current 500 217 476 choice of mode for commuting and shift to an alter- 1000 278 907 native transport mode if the network of this 2000 322 1661 transport mode would service their area of resi- 5000 357 3311 10.000 370 4950 dence. The possible answers are: very probable, 20.000 377 6578 probable, unlikely and never. 50.000 381 8195 iii. The distance that they are willing to walk 100.000 383 8926 in order to access the network of an alternative 1.000.000 384 9706 transport mode. The possible answers are: less than 200 meters, from 200 ± 400 meters and more than 400 meters. The distance of 400 meters is consid- The questionnaires were filled on-site, at the ered an acceptable daily walking distance (ap- location of each School and working place, through proximately 5 minutes of walking at a speed of 1.4 random personal interviews during typical work- meters/second). days in a period of two weeks in the spring semes- The second part of the questionnaire concerns ter of 2013. the personal data of the respondent, i.e. sex, age The first part of the questionnaire was divided JURXSSRVLWLRQLQWKH³LQVWLWXWLRQ´LHWKH7(,RI into two sections: a) Personal choices and features Thessaly, number of household members and num- of the daily trip to/from the institution from/to the ber of students in the household, number of private city, e.g. current mode of choice, allocation of the cars owned by the household, range of income WULS¶V RULJLQ UHVLGHQFH HWF DQG E 6WDWHG SUHIH- managed by the household and years of studies or rence of the intention to change mode of choice if work in the institution. These questions provide es- an improvement of the accessibility towards an sential information for the respondents which are alternative mode is provided. The second part of the expected to affect their mode choice for commuting questionnaire concerns the personal data of the res- to/from the campus. It should be highlighted that pondent, i.e. sex, age group, role in the institution, the household for both the staff members and the number of household members, number of private VWXGHQWV UHIHUV WR WKH ³XVXDO UHVLGHQFH´ LH WKH cars owned by the household, level of available place where the respondent normally lives (aside financial resources and years of studies or work in from temporary absences for the purposes of recre- the institution. ation, holidays, visits to friends and relatives, busi- ness, medical treatment etc.) [14]. 5626 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5622-5634 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin (2) Results. Due to the high concentration of WKHLU SDUHQWV¶ KRXVH WKURXJKRXW WKHLU DFDGHPLF students (Figure 2) in the sample, the distribution years. Furthermore, an interesting finding derives into different age groups shows that 65.5 % of the from the distribution of the annual income managed population is 18 ± 25 years old and 14.3 % is 26 ± by the household. There is a differentiation of in- 35 years old, while a total of 20.2 % is over 35 come between students and staff members, with years old with the majority of this share corre- approximately 55% RI VWXGHQWV¶ households man- sponding to the age class of 46 ± 55 years old. In DJLQJ DQ DQQXDO LQFRPH RI ¼ RU OHVV DQG the same context, almost 71% of the respondents approximately 50% of the staff members declaring work or study at the institution for a period of 4 DQDQQXDOKRXVHKROGLQFRPHRIWR¼ years or less and the rest for more than 4 years. The distribution per transport mode for daily Taking into account that the duration of undergrad- trips to the campus is presented in Figure 3 for the uate studies in the Greek Technical Educational In- overall population, the students and the staff mem- stitutions is 4 years, it can be conducted that the bers. Despite the close distance of the campus to the specific ratio corresponds to the ratio of Figure 2. wider urban area of Larissa, the trip origin of 165 of In Table 2, there is a presentation of the the respondents, it can be seen that over 30% of the household characteristics of the respondents in trips are conducted by car, either as drivers or as terms of household members, number of employees passengers. The share for private cars exceeds 85% and students, and number of privately owned cars. IRUWKHVWDIIPHPEHUV¶WULSVZKLOHPRUHWKDQ It can be observed that private car ownership in of the students select the public bus or active VWXGHQWV¶ KRXVHKROGV LV UHODWLYHO\ KLJKHU WKDQ RQH transport (cycling or walking) for their daily access would expect, which is explained both by the car- to the campus. It is worthwhile mentioning the ab- oriented culture of Greece and by the fact that a sence of the use of taxis for daily access to the significant number of students are permanent resi- campus, which is due to the high cost of the fare dents of the wider urban area of Larissa and live in and the existence of competitive alternatives. FIGURE 2 Role in the academic institution TABLE 2 Household characteristics Average value Household characteristics Overall Students Staff Number of members 2.20 1.98 2.79 Number of employees 1.01 0.98 1.11 Number of students 0.59 0.59 0.60 Number of private cars 1.13 0.88 1.77 5627 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5622-5634 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin FIGURE 3 Distribution per mode of daily access to the campus FIGURE 4 Reasons for not selecting the bus/bicycle/private car for daily access to the campus-Total 5628 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5622-5634 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin FIGURE 5 Reasons for not selecting the bus/bicycle/private car for daily access to the campus Regarding the time distribution of the trips, 3 EXV LH ¼ DQG GRXEOH WKH FRVW RI WKH WULS E\ out of 4 respondents stated that they arrive at the motorcycle. Walking and cycling trips are consid- campus during the morning peak period (07:00- ered as trips of no cost by the respondents. The par- 10:00 a.m.). Almost 80% conduct a trip of per- ticipants in the survey who do not use the public ceived duration of less than 20 minutes. The trip bus for every day commuting were asked to rank duration varies depending on the transport mode the two main reasons for their choice from a prese- with the bus trips being the longest, with an average lected set of statements. The corresponding quest- of over 24 minutes compared to an average duration ions were asked to the respondents that do not use between 11 and 14.5 minutes for the rest of the the private car and the bicycle. The total results are available transport modes. presented in Figure 4, while the results for students Another interesting fact refers to the compari- and the other commuters are presented in Figure 5. son of the cost per trip by different modes, as per- It is confirmed from Figure 4 that the main ceived by the respondents. The average value of the reason for not using the bus is the long distance to perceived cost per trip by car is equal to the cost by the origin bus stop closely followed by the long trip 5629 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5622-5634 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin duration and the high cost. On the other hand, quate service for their area of residence, they were commuters do not choose cycling because of the asked about the longest distance that they would be lack of infrastructure, trip duration and the safety willing to walk in order to reach the public bus and level. One third of commuters not using the car bicycle networks. Most of them (81% in the case of consider the fuel and maintenance costs prohibitive, the bus network and 69% in the case of the bicycle while almost an equal percentage of non-drivers network) are willing to walk less than 400m. would shift to the use of private car if they had ac- cess to one. The duration of the car trip is rated Analysis of international know-how and significantly lower compared to the use of bus and practice. The following reports and documents bicycle, while the respondents seem not to take into were reviewed: a) The Travel Plans and relevant consideration neither safety and security issues nor initiatives of the universities of Birmingham [15], the negative environmental impacts from private Bournemouth [16], Bristol [17], Essex [18], Exeter car daily usage. [19], Florida [20], Greenwich [21], Lancaster [22], Respondents are conflicted as to their shifting Leeds [23], Loughborough [24], Monash [25], to public bus, if there was a bus line that would Newcastle [26], Oxford Brookes [27], Sheffield service their area of residence. The corresponding [28], Sunderland [29], York [30] and b) docu- statements to the question are almost equally dis- mentation from The International Sustainable Cam- tributed among the options: Very probable, proba- pus Network (ISCN) [31]. The different approaches ble, unlikely and never. On the other hand, bicycle and various interventions presented in the above use seems to be more attractive as approximately documents were analysed in order to formulate the three out of four people that do not currently use the comprehensive framework which is presented in bicycle find it very probable (30%) or probable Table 3. The framework can be used as an invento- (47%) to shift to bicycle, if the bicycle network ry of good practices according to the specific needs would service their area of residence. In order to of the examined case. define what the above respondents consider as ade- TABLE 3 Inventory of good practice Phase Intervention Development of a dedicated organisation or office within the University with the role of supporting sustainable mobility and managing the following interventions Integration of the principles of sustainable mobility and accessibility to the Uni- YHUVLW\¶VVXVWDLQDEOHGHYHORSPHQWSROLF\IUDPHZRUN 1. Setting the policy Participation in the exchange of international experience and development of benchmarking processes 6\QHUJ\ZLWKWKHFLW\¶VWUDQVSRUWDQGXUEDQGHYHORSPHQWSROLF\IUDPHZRUN Committing stakeholders in an ongoing process of changing travel culture Safeguarding the economic viability of the schemes and interventions Modal split, O/D (Origin/Destination) analysis and time distribution of trips to/from/into the campus Conducting the 2. Analysis of travel behaviour and commuting characteristics of staff and students study Impact assessment: Accessibility, health and safety, emissions, energy efficiency and built environment &RPSOHPHQWDULW\RIWKHFDPSXV¶VDQGWKHXUEDQWUDQVSRUWQHWZRUN Compliance with international design standards Inclusive mobility services within the campus and accessible activity areas for all Developing the in- 3. with focus on VRUs (vulnerable road users) frastructure Supplementary facilities (information, guidance, parking, lockers) for the support of active transportation, i.e. walking and cycling Aesthetic quality of the infrastructure design to increase its attractiveness Carry out of training and social awareness campaigns Provision of discounts for public or/and University transit Promoting the con- 4. Personal motivation (economic and other) for commuters that use active transport cept on daily trips to/from the campus. The same may apply for car sharing schemes. Provision of bike rental and repair services Monitoring the im- Standard evaluation process for changes in travel patterns, demand features and 5. pacts LPSDFWVRIWKHFDPSXV¶VWUDQVSRUWV\VWHP 5630 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5622-5634 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin Table 3 indicates that the review of recent of active transportation (walking and cycling) Travel Plans and cooperative initiatives of universi- to/from the campus of the University of York was ties may lead to a common framework of good 69.3%, a share approximately 3.4 times higher than practice. At the same time, the review led to the the share of active transportation for the T.E.I. of conclusion that the aforementioned plans and initia- Thessaly. It is also worth mentioning that, accord- tives are not based on a common methodology for ing to data of 2012, the share of private motorised the quantified assessment of the mobility and ac- trips (including taxi) to/from the campus of the cessibility conditions of campuses. It is highlighted T.E.I. of Thessaly is 38.1%, a share approximately that the formulation of such a methodology would 1.4 times higher than the relevant share for the Uni- facilitate the development of a common bench- versity of Thessaloniki, which is serviced by the marking mechanism in order to evaluate the level of FLW\¶s public and active transport networks due to mobility and accessibility provided by the campus- its central location. HV¶WUDQVSRUWLQIUDVWUXFWXUHDQGVHUYLFHV The fact that the Travel Plans do not follow SWOT analysis. Based on the conclusions common specifications obstructs a comparative from the above steps, a SWOT analysis concerning analysis of the accessibility and mobility conditions sustainable commuting to/from the campus of the between different campuses because different kinds T.E.I. of Thessaly was conducted. The process for of data are collected with different spatial and/or developing the SWOT analysis involved the fol- time references. In the context of the specific case lowing steps: i. Students of the class of 2012-2013, study, an effort was made to highlight a series of who conducted the questionnaire survey, in cooper- main remarks concerning the comparison of the DWLRQ ZLWK WKH SURMHFW¶V VXSHUYLVRU SUHSDUHG D campus of the T.E.I. of Thessaly to other campuses, presentation of the questionnaire results, ii. The su- i.e.: i. Aristotle University of Thessaloniki [32], pervisor prepared the review of international know- which is located in a campus adjacent to the city how and practice, iii. A presentation of the above centre of Thessaloniki, Greece, and ii. University of was conducted in class in order to launch a class York, where a Travel Plan has been conducted reg- debate with the purpose of discussing the strengths, ularly since 2000 with prioritisation towards the weaknesses, opportunities and threats for sustaina- promotion of active transportation for access ble commuting to/from the campus of the T.E.I of to/from the campus [30]. It should be noted that the Thessaly. The supervisor collected the results of the campus of the University of York is located at the class debate in the SWOT analysis presented per city outskirts. According to data for 2011, the share thematic field in Table 4. TABLE 4 SWOT analysis for sustainable commuting to/from the campus of the T.E.I. of Thessaly Thematic field Ability to promote Public transport Active transport Travel behaviour sustainable commuting x Car-oriented culture. x Frequent routes to StafIPHPEHUV¶EH the city centre x Close to the city Strengths KDYLRXULV³OHVVVXV x Discount policy for x Level terrain WDLQDEOH´WKDQVWX students GHQWV¶ x Trip duration twice x Lack of infrastruc- WKHFDUWULS¶VGXUD Weaknesses ture tion with the same x Low level of safety perceived cost x Students of relevant courses can be encouraged to participate in a 6WXGHQWV¶ZLOOLQJQHVV Availability of open space for enhancing infra- campus travel plan to shift to cycling Opportunities structure in the campus and along the routes x Availability of best practice in the provided the appropri- towards the city. international literature ate infrastructure x Available European funding pro- grams. x Lack of previous experience (trav- el plans, mobility management etc.) x Limited own financial resources Threats and constrained national funding due to the crisis x Other urgent needs and priorities for the institution 5631 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5622-5634 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin TABLE 5 Policy priorities and interventions for the enhancement of sustainable commuting to/from the campus of the T.E.I. of Thessaly Short Long Policy priority Intervention term term 1.1. Establishment of a unit with the participation of staff members and X students responsible for the following interventions 1.2. Involvement and cooperation with the stakeholders, i.e. students, staff members, local authorities, transport operators and the local community 1. Promotion of X through information, awareness campaigns and active participation in the sustainable transport following interventions 1.3. ³&\FOLQJ-to-ZRUN´VXEVLG\EDVHGRQPLOHDJHIRUVWDIIPHPEHUV X* 1.4. Negotiation of a pricing policy to attract staff members to the bus X system 2.1. Re-distribution of parking spaces in the campus X 2. Parking 2.2. Parking management scheme for authorised entrance to parking management X areas and discouragement of illegal parking 3.1. Development of bus-lanes along main corridors linking the campus X 3. Competitive to the city and prioritisation of the bus at traffic signs public transport 3.2. Car sharing schemes for the service of areas not serviced by the X current bus routes 4.1. Development of pedestrian pathways linking the campus to the X 4. Infrastructure FLW\¶VSHGHVWULDQQHWZRUN for active transport 4.2. ([SDQVLRQRIWKHFLW\¶Vbicycle network, connection to the campus X and development of parking shelters for bicycles 5.1. Regular sWXGHQWV¶WHDPZRUNSURMHFWVIRUWKHPRQLWRULQJDQGHYDOXD X 5. Monitoring WLRQRIWKHFDPSXV¶DFFHVVLELOLW\DQGPRELOLW\FRQGLWLRQV and planning 5.2. Commitment of stakeholders for the development and implementa- X tion of a Travel Plan to be updated on a regular basis * A precondition for the promotion of cycling to staff, a group likely to include a higher percentage of older commuters and persons with a high value of time, is the completion of long-term measures concerning a safe and effective bicycle infrastructure (see Priority 4). Framework of policies and measures. Com- priately adapted to international practice and the prehensive analysis of the findings from the case local characteristics of the T.E.I. of Thessaly. study leads to an outline of the policy priorities to improve the accessibility and commuting condi- tions of the T.E.I. of Thessaly campus, which are DISCUSSION presented in Table 5 in relation to the proposed interventions. The interventions are divided into The above case study leads to useful conclu- short-term (2 years) and long-term (6 years) inter- sions regarding the preferences and trends of the ventions, according to the time horizon for their campus commuters, while providing a framework implementation. The selection of interventions is of priorities and interventions to improve sustaina- based on the following elements: ble commuting to/from the campus of the T.E.I. of i. Local knowledge and the results of the ques- Thessaly in Greece. The proposed interventions are tionnaire survey provide a clear description of the based on an inventory of international good practice type and extent of problems and drawbacks con- in a prioritised way and appropriately adjusted to cerning the accessibility conditions of the campus, the specific features of the campus, the adjacent ii. International literature provides directions city and the perceptions of students and staff mem- in order to ensure the compatibility to existing Uni- bers. versity Travel Plans and good practices that can be In this way, the proposed methodology has a implemented to cope with the specific problems significant added value, i.e. the capitalisation on and drawbacks of the examined campus and best practices of academic institutions with ex- iii. The SWOT analysis contributes towards tended experience promoting ³VXVWDLQDEOH travel the selection of specific interventions from in- SODQV´ DLPLQJ DW EULGJLQJ WKH JDS WKDW VHSDUDWHV ternational practice which would be expected to these institutions from the institutions with limited take advantage of existing strengths and foreseen experience in the specific domain. Simultaneously, opportunities while maximising the impact against it allows for the active involvement of the students major weaknesses and threats. It this way, policy during the process leading to an enhancement of priorities and interventions of Table 5 are appro- their sustainable mobility culture and an improve- 5632 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5622-5634 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin ment of their skills in transportation planning meth- [9] Molina-Garcia, J., Castillo, I. and Sallis, J. F. ods and tools. (2010) Psychosocial and environmental corre- Based on the case study conclusions, the main lates of active commuting for university stu- limitation for the successful implementation of the dents. Preventive Medicine, 51(2), 136±138. proposed methodology is rooted in the lack of com- [10] Akar, G. and Clifton, K. (2009) Influence of patibility among the existing travel plans of cam- Individual Perceptions and Bicycle Infrastruc- puses worldwide due to the absence of a common ture on Decision to Bike. Transportation Re- framework of specifications. This incompatibility search Record: Journal of the Transportation obstructs the comparative analysis between cam- Research Board, 2140, 165±172. Hellenic Sta- puses and the development of a benchmarking tistical Authority (2011) Hellenic Statistical mechanism, which would be useful for monitoring Authority Official Web Site. Helle-nic Statisti- the progress of sustainable mobility and accessibil- cal Authority. Retrieved from http:- ity conditions in university campuses. Towards this //www.statistics.gr/portal/page/portal/ESYE/B goal, coordinated efforts should be conducted in UCKET/General/A1602_SAM01_DT_DC_00 future to develop such a mechanism which would _ 2011_02_F_GR.pdf accelerate the uptake of university travel plans in- [11] Cohen, L., Manion, L., Morrison, K. and ternationally. Wyse, D. (2010) A guide to teaching practice. Routledge. [12] Eurostat Statistics Explained, People in the EU REFERENCES ± statistics on household and family structures. Retrieved from http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/sta- [1] Tolley, R. (1996) Green campuses: Cutting the tistics-explained/index.php/People_in_the_- environmental cost of commuting. Journal of EU_%E2%80%93_statistics_on_household_an Transport Geography, 4(3), 213±217. d_family_structures#Households [2] Conway, T.M., Dalton, C., Loo, J. and [13] University of Birmingham (2013) University of Benakoun, L. 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Campus Transportation through Transit Part- (2013) Mode choice of university students nership and Transportation Demand Manage- commuting to school and the role of active ment: A Case Study from the University of travel. Journal of Transport Geography, 31, Florida. Berkeley Planning Journal, 19(1), 125- 132±142. 142. [6] Delmelle, E.M., and Delmelle, E.C. (2012) [19] Earp, S. (2008) Avery Hill Travel Plan apprai- Exploring spatio-temporal commuting patterns sal consultation document. University of Gre- in a university environment. Transport Policy, enwich. Avery Hill, London. 21, 1±9. [20] Lancaster University (2010) Lancaster Univer- [7] Bopp, M., Kaczynski, A. and Wittman, P. sity Travel Plan 2010-2015. Lancaster. (2011) Active Commuting Patterns at a Large, [21] University of Leeds (2013) University of Leeds Midwestern College Campus. Journal of Ame- Travel Plan. Leeds. rican College Health, 59(7), 605±611. Kaczyn- [22] Colin Buchanan and Partners Limited (2010) ski, A.T., Bopp, M.J., and Wittman, P. (2012) Loughborough University Travel Plan Execu- To Drive or Not to Drive: Factors Dif- tive Summary. London. ferentiating Active versus Non-Active Com- [23] Rose, G. (2008) Encouraging Sustainable Cam- muters. Health Behaviour and Public Health, pus Travel: Self-Reported Impacts of a Univer- 2(2), 14±19. sity TravelSmart Initiative. Journal of Public [8] Shannon, T., Giles-Corti, B., Pikora, T., Bul- Transportation, 11(1), 85±108. sara, M., Shilton, T. and Bull, F. (2006) Active [24] Newcastle University (2015) Newcastle Uni- commuting in a university setting: As-sessing versity Travel Plan Update. Newcastle. commuting habits and potential for modal [25] Oxford Brookes University (2010) Oxford change. Transport Policy, 13(3), 240±253. Brookes University Travel Plan. Oxford. [26] Travel Plan Services Ltd. (2013) The Univer- 5633 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5622-5634 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin sity of Sheffield Student and Staff Travel Sur- vey 2012. Report on findings. Sheffield. [27] Atkins. (2013) University of Sunderland Travel Received: 07.04.2017 Plan Update 2013-2016. Sunderland. Accepted: 21.07.2017 [28] University of York (2012) The University of York Travel Plan. Submission Document. York. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR [29]International Sustainable Campus Network. (2013) International Sustainable Campus Net- Anastasios Tsakalidis work Reports. International Sustainable Cam- Aristotle University of Thessaloniki pus Network. Retrieved from http://www.inter- Department of Civil Engineering national-sustainable-campus-network.org/rep- Division of Transportation, Construction Manage- orts/view-category.html ment and Regional Planning [30]Pitsiava-Latinopoulou, M., Basbas, S. and Ga- Transportation Engineering Laboratory vanas, N. (2013) Implementation of alterna- Univ. Box 436, tive transport networks in university campuses: 54124 Thessaloniki ± GREECE The case of the Aristotle University of Thessa- loniki, Greece. International Journal of Sustai- E-mail: [email protected] nability in Higher Education, 14(3), 310±323. 5634 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5635-5641 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin MINIMUM ENVIRONMENTAL CRITERIA FOR THE RE- DUCTION OF AIR POLLUTION DERIVING FROM PRIVATE TRANSPORT: POTENTIAL OF A CAR FLEET RENEWAL Renata Dagiliute*, Kristina Kersiene, Jurate Zaltauskaite Department of Environmental Sciences, Vytautas Magnus University, Vileikos 8, Kaunas LT- 44404, Lithuania ABSTRACT especially in urban areas [3]. The energy consump- tion percentage for transport reached 28% of total Transport is one of the four fields (food, hous- end-use energy in 2010 and more than 50% of the ing, mobility, and tourism) of private consumption energy in transport sector refers to road transport [4]. with the greatest impact on air quality and climate Correspondingly, land transport contributes to more change. One way to reduce transport emissions is the than 20% of total anthropogenic greenhouse gas application of green procurement criteria not only in emissions [5]. Greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions public, but also in the private sector. The study eval- from the transport sector have been increasing fast uates benefits of applying selected environmental since 1970 and more than 70% of them come from criteria for air pollution reduction for private road transport as R. Sims et al. sum up in the IPCC transport, considering as an option renewal of car report [6]. In 2010, in EU Member States road fleet. Different Euro emission standards are at- transport was responsible for 33% of NOx, for 14% tributed to the passenger cars depending on the year of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), for 29% of of production. Four different scenarios of car fleet CO, for 14% of PM10 and for 15% of PM2.5 emis- change for Lithuania and their potential for air pol- sions [7]. These pollutants contribute to ground level lution mitigation are analysed. Analysis showed that ozone [8] and other environmental as well as health the best results could be reached if 50% of the cars problems (e.g., respiratory system and lung function from more than ten-year-old group are replaced with [9; 10], brain and heart [11] disorders, preterm birth new ones; it would result in the reduction of carbon [12] and cardiovascular and respiratory diseases risk, dioxide by 18%, of nitrogen oxides - about 30%, of lung cancer [13]). carbon monoxide - 25% and of particulate matter - Even improvement in air quality has been 46%. Car fleet renewal can be an option for the re- achieved; substantial impacts remain in EU. It is pro- duction of transport-related emissions; however, jected that not mitigated road transport emissions other factors should be taken into account. will continue to contribute to regional ozone exceed- ances and related health effects by 2025 [15]. There- fore, long-term EU objective for air pollution im- KEYWORDS: plies much stricter requirements for human health transport, air pollution, Euro standards, minimal environ- and ecosystem tolerance [14]. mental criteria, Lithuania, car fleet renewal Energy consumption and pollution has de- creased in Lithuanian transport sector compared to the respective figures in the early 1990¶V[2]. How- INTRODUCTION ever, recently some trends are on increasing direc- tion [16]. Increasing motorization rates are those Transport sector is one of the most important contributing to environmental burden resulting from economic activities, relating different locations, raw the road transport. Lithuania is one of the countries materials, final products, producers, and consumers. with the highest vehicle imports, however importing On European Union (EU) level, the transport share relatively old, used cars. Though much of them are amounts to 4.4% of total GVA (gross value added) re-exported to the Belarus, Russia, Kazakhstan, and and this sector employs 4.3% of total employees [1]. other countries [16], quite a lot remains within the +RXVHKROGV¶ H[SHQGLWXUHV RQ WUDQVSRUW DPRXQW WR Lithuanian territory. The biggest share of the passen- 1900 EUR annually per capita on average in EU [1]. ger cars are private cars. Therefore, private road However, rapid development of the transport transport is one of the issues to be addressed in order system inevitably has a significant adverse impact on to meet pollution reduction targets. the environment. This mainly includes energy use, One of the ways to reduce transport emissions air pollution, and impact on climate change [2] with is the reduction of fuel consumption, and/or corres- related outcomes for environment and human health, pondingly reduction of emission factors. These are 5635 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5635-5641 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin often related with the production year of the car, as ¾ Under 5 years ± corresponds to the require- corresponding emission standards come into force ments of the European standard Euro - 5 (from gradually. Before mentioned standards correspond 2009); with requirements for green public procurement de- ¾ 5-10 years - corresponds to the require- fining minimum environmental criteria for a green ments of the European standard Euro - 4 (from 2005 vehicle. A good practices report indicates that ap- to 2009); plied green public procurement results in the de- ¾ Over 10 years - corresponds to the require- crease in the emissions ranging from 3g/km to 45 ments of the European standard Euro - 2 (from 1992) g/km per vehicle in the Slovenian case [17]. Dagili- The difference between the emissions was cal- ute and Anikanova [18] indicate that if environmen- culated separately for diesel and for petrol-powered tal criteria had been applied to 50% of performed cars on the assumption, that over the year a passen- public procurements in the case of vehicles, 20 times ger car covers 15000 km (an average of EU). Pollu- more of CO2 could have been avoided additionally. tion calculations are based on the standards of Euro Therefore, the aim of this article is to analyse emission limit for passenger cars and mileage. Pas- the road transport indicators and potential of the min- senger cars include both passenger cars used for in- imum environmental criteria for green public pro- stitutional needs (owned by company, institution) curement in order to reduce air pollution due to pri- and private passenger cars (owned by persons and vate vehicles in Lithuania. used for personal needs). The CO2 emission of each age group is calcu- lated accordingly to the mileage mentioned above MATERIALS AND METHODS and referring to the results of the European Environ- ment Agency report ³Monitoring CO2 emissions Analysis of changes in motorization (number from new passenger cars in the EU: summary of data of passenger cars per 1000 inhabitants) and related for 2011´ [20]. It was assumed that one diesel pas- indicators (number of first time registered passenger senger car DVVLJQHG WR WKH ³XQGHU \HDUV´ group cars, passenger cars by age), as well as changes in emits 145.3 g/km CO2³- \HDUV´ group ± 157.7 transport air pollution and contribution to climate JNPDQG³RYHU\HDUV´ group ± 240 g/km of CO2 change was performed. Data from the Department of (the latter number is based on the results of Study on Statistics of Lithuania, the European Union's Statis- Integrated Environmental Impact of Implemented tical Office (Eurostat) and the State Enterprise ³Re- Public Procurement [21]). The petrol-powered car gitra´ were used. %DVHGRQWKH³7KHOLVWRIWKHVW ³under 5 years´ group emits 147.6 CO2 g/km; under group of products to which public procurement is ap- "5-10 years" age group ± 171.7 g/km, and ³RYHU plicable´ (list approved by the Ministry of the Envi- years´ - 240 CO2 g/km. The power of the engine is ronment in 2011 28 June, Law No. D1-508) [19], not taken into account. minimum environmental criteria for M1 (vehicles Benefit of environmental criteria application carrying passengers, no more than eight seats in ad- separately for diesel and petrol - powered car is ex- GLWLRQWRWKHGULYHU¶VVHDW) and N1 (N - vehicles car- pressed as the difference between emissions (kg) cal- rying goods having a maximum mass not exceeding FXODWHGIRU³QRWJUHHQ´YHKLFOH PHHWLQJWKHUHTXLUH 3.5 tones) class vehicles were applied: PHQWV RI (XUR DQG (XUR DQG ³JUHHQ´ YHKLFOH 1. The vehicle must comply with the standard meeting the Euro 5 emission standard. Differences of Euro 5 emission; in emissions in-between group are considered as 2. 7KH YHKLFOH¶V HPLVVLRQ RI FDUERQ GLR[LGH green procurement benefit for one car. (CO2) must not exceed the requirements established The emissions reduction according to four sce- in the green procurement thresholds. narios (Table 1) has been estimated. For each sce- It was presumed that cars differ in their envi- nario, the absolute yearly benefit (in terms of ronmental influence according to the emission levels avoided emissions) is calculated by multiplying the while driving (i.e. for the assessment of the environ- derived values from the number of cars in a separate mental impact during its product's life cycle us- age group. Diesel and petrol-powered cars are calcu- age/consumption stage is selected). Analysing the lated separately. In 2011 diesel-powered passenger benefit of criteria for one passenger car it is im- cars made up 41% and petroleum-powered cars 38% portant to pay attention to the difference of pollutant of total car fleet. Factors, which may affect the emis- emissions, which is strongly influenced by the age sion rate, but not considered in the study, include ve- factor of the car. The more modern a car is, the hicle's technical condition, fuel quality, also lack of stricter Euro standard and CO2 requirements it precise data on the number of registered, but not used meets. In our study, cars were divided into three cars (such cars may account to about 600 000), and groups according the age. Each age group was as- driving style. signed to a certain EURO standard and a certain amount of CO2: 5636 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5635-5641 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin RESULTS especially private passenger cars (Fig. 1). The num- ber of private cars is multiplied by 1.4 times during Transport energy consumption, pollution, the analysed period (from 1 097 797 to 1 572 789 and car fleet trends. Currently, in the structure of units). This resulted in annual growth of the motori- total energy consumption transport sector dominates zation level (the number of cars per 1000 inhabit- in Lithuania. 32.7% of all energy was consumed in ants). It has increased 1.6 times (from 336 to 542 cars this sector in 2010. The final consumption of fuel per 1000 inhabitants) during the period of 2000- and energy during the period of rapid economic 2010. Another very important factor resulting in growth until 2007 has been growing in the transport negative outcomes for the environment is age struc- sector (from 1056.1 ktoe in 2000 to 1848 ktoe in ture of Lithuanian car fleet. The most common cars 2008) (Fig.1). Accordingly, the emission of main on Lithuanian roads are more than 10 years of age pollutants from transport sector increased: nitrogen (85.7%) (Fig. 2) and the national average age of a car oxide emissions increased approximately 1.3 times, fleet is about 17 years according to 2011 data. The particulate matter and greenhouse gas emission from majority of other EU countries do not exceed the the transport sector increased 1.6 times. Afterwards limit of 10 years. Only 4.6% of 1.7 million passenger due to the recession and rapid growth of fuel prices cars were under age of five, and only 2% of 1.57 mil- during 2008 ± 2010 the total consumption of fuel and lion private cars passed under this group. Therefore, energy in transport sector considerably decreased. the fundamental task is to reduce the age of car fleet. This decrease amounted to more than 30%. Accord- Recently car registration system was renewed (2014) ingly, emissions of the majority of key pollutants de- and cars without valid technical passport and civil creased as well. responsibility insurance were withdrawn from the Transport fleet is growing very fast in Lithua- register. However, the average age of a car remains nia due to increasing number of road vehicles and nearly the same. TABLE 1 Scenarios under analysis Scenario Description 50% of cars of >10 years group are replaced with ones coinciding the emission standard EURO 5 and does I SCENARIO not exceed the marginal values of CO2 all first time registered cars coincides with the emission standard EURO 5 and does not exceed the marginal II SCENARIO values of CO2 17% of first time registered cars coincides with the emission standard EURO 5 and does not exceed the marginal values of CO (WKHVFHQDULRLVVHOHFWHGDFFRUGLQJWRWKH*UHHQSURFXUHPHQW¶VDFFRXQWLQJUHVXOWV III SCENARIO 2 (Public Procurement Office, 2013), stating that public green procurement was applied for 17% of public vehicles procurement in 2011 (vehicles of categories M1 and N1) 17% of cars of >10 years group coincides with the emission standard of EURO 5 and does not exceed the IV SCENARIO marginal values of CO2 FIGURE 1 Final energy consumption, air pollution, and motorization rate trends during 2000 ± 2010 in Lithuania (based on Lithuanian Department of Statistics and Eurostat data) 5637 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5635-5641 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin FIGURE 2 All and private passenger cars by age, 2011 (based on 6WDWHHQWHUSULVH³5HJLWUD´GDWD TABLE 2 Total air pollution mitigation potential (emitted amounts; mitigated amounts, compared to base situation). Pollutant I Scenario Savings II Scenario Savings III Scenario Savings IV Scenario Savings CO, tons Diesel cars 7004.3 25.6% 8884.9 3.1% 9167.3 0.1% 8431.4 8% Petrol cars 13782.4 25.9% 17975.7 3.4% 18585.2 0.1% 16961.9 8.8% Total emis- 20786.7 26860.6 27752.5 25393.3 sions Total savings 6981.1 25.1% 907.2 3.3% 15.3 0.05% 2374.5 11.8% NOx, tons Diesel cars 3183.9 30.3% 4349.2 30.3% 4567.8 0.1% 4098.6 10.3% Petrol cars 914.2 28.4% 1217.9 4.6% 1274.1 0.2% 1152.6 9.7% Total emis- 4098.1 5567.1 5841.9 5251.2 sions Total savings 1748.3 29.4% 279.3 4.7% 4.5 0.07% 595.2 10% PM, tons Diesel cars 389.4 45.5% 660.6 7.5% 713.3 0.01% 603.8 15.5% Petrol cars - - - - Total emis- 389.4 660.6 713.3 603.8 sions Total savings 324.8 45.5% 53.6 7.5% 0.9 0.01% 110.4 15.5% CO2, tons Diesel cars 1825671 18.3% 2175241.2 2.7% 2234448.7 0.1% 2096401.3 6.2% 1712252. Petrol cars 17.8% 2022075.4 2.9% 2081770.1 0.1% 1957078.5 6.1% 7 Total emis- 3537923. 4197316.6 4316218.8 4053479.8 sions 7 Total savings 781144.1 18.1% 121751.2 2.8% 2849 0.07% 265588 6.1% Own calculations Potential of application of the minimum en- nitrogen oxides emissions would reach ± 28.4% and vironmental criteria for air pollution reduction. of carbon monoxide - almost 26% (Table 2). Other Based on the estimated emissions per one car in dif- possible scenarios for the age structure of the car ferent car age groups, four scenarios of car fleet re- fleet had no significant impact on the reduction of air newal were analysed. Diesel cars related pollution pollution from petrol-powered cars. would be reduced most in the case of scenario I (50% In the most desirable scenario with highest re- of cars of >10 years group coincides with the emis- duction, total absolute emission savings would sion standard EURO 5) (Table 2). The reduction of amount to 6981 tons of CO, 1748 tons of NOx, 324 carbon monoxide emissions would reach 24%, nitro- tons of PM (Table 2). gen oxides ± 30% and even 46% of particulate mat- Analysis of four scenarios showed that CO2 ter. Some improvement would be reached in case of would be reduced mostly in the case of scenario I: scenario IV as well: reduction of carbon monoxide for diesel cars, the reduction would reach 18.3%, for would reach 8%, nitrogen oxides - 10% and 15% of petrol - powered cars it would reach 17.8% (Table particulate matter. 2). Some reduction could also be achieved in the case Petrol-powered car air pollution would be re- of scenario IV: reduction of carbon dioxide emis- duced the most in the case of scenario I: reduction of sions would reach 6.2% for diesel cars and 5.2% for 5638 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5635-5641 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin petrol-powered cars. Other possible scenarios for the sively in Lithuania, recently. Some prepositions dis- age structure of car fleet had no significant impact cuss some 70 ± 100 EUR tax depending on the age on the reduction of CO2. of the vehicle. In addition, vehicle registration regu- Total emission would be lowest in the Scenario lation was initiated recently and number of regis- 1 and nearly 800 000 tons per year of CO2 could be tered passenger car decreased. However, the average avoided if half of car fleet would be replaced with age of the car remains the same (around 17). A num- new cars (Table 2). ber of European countries apply registration tax based on CO2 emissions or annual circulation tax based on CO2 emissions [24]. Another measure DISCUSSION AND POLICY OUTLOOK could be tax on old imported cars or tax incentives to individuals who wish to purchase a new or alterna- Results suggests that, diesel-powered passen- tive fuelled car. Exemption of ethanol cars from ger car meeting minimal environmental criteria Stockholm congestion tax increased purchases of emits 1.7 times less of CO2 (petroleum-powered 1.6- such cars in 2006 and 2007 as a study indicates [25]. fold), two times less of CO (petroleum-powered 2.2- R. Kok [26] highlights 11% lower CO2 emissions on fold), 1.4 times less of NOx (petroleum-powered 2.5- average in 2013 and 3.5 million tons of CO2 reduc- fold) and even 16 times less of PM compared with tion between 2008 and 2013 in the Netherlands case old car per year. However, the majority of the cars because of car purchase tax graded by CO2 emission. (85.7%) are more than 10 years age in Lithuania, A. Sánchez-Braza et al. [27] presents drivers for road contributing significantly to air pollution. Neverthe- tax reduction for electric vehicles that could reach less, the results show that the green procurement re- 75% reduction and could be used as an incentive to quirements, pooling on the key areas of environmen- buy electric car. However, electric vehicle purchas- tal performance of the product, can contribute to the ing capacity is rather low in Lithuania [28]. In Lith- environmental pollution reduction if applied in the uania GDP per capita in PPPs (Purchasing Power private sector. Other studies [22; 23] also present re- Parities ± currency conversion rates that equalize the duction of fuel consumption and/or of emission fac- purchasing power of different currencies and elimi- tors among other policies (emission trading, differ- nate the differences in price levels across the coun- ent taxation options, subsidies) as options for reduc- tries) amounts only to 75% to that of EU28 on aver- tion of externalities from road transport. age (Eurostat). In addition, as a car tax is not exist- Analysis of four scenarios showed that the ent, hence, no incentives for such cars can be applied highest reduction in diesel cars related pollution at the current situation in Lithuania. Therefore, pen- would be achieved in the case of scenario I (a half of etration of hybrid or electric cars is very slow in Lith- the car fleet meets EURO 5 emission standards): re- uania. In 2012, only two thousand electric and hybrid duction of carbon dioxide emissions would reach cars were registered within the country [28]. 18.3%, nitrogen oxides ± 30.3%, carbon monoxide ± In addition, to the already mentioned measures, 25.6% and particulate matter - 45.5%. Petrol-pow- another important measure is information provision. ered car air pollution would be reduced the most also Drivers in Lithuania pay little attention to their car's in the case of scenario I: reduction of carbon dioxide impact on the environment. Drivers lack knowledge emissions would reach 17.8%, nitrogen oxides ± on how they could reduce emission of pollutants 28.4% and carbon monoxide - almost 26%. while changing driving habits. Eco-driving could Hence, significant renewal of car fleet is save fuel and would have a positive impact on reduc- needed to achieve significant results in air pollution ing automobile emissions. Ho et al. [29] indicates reduction in Lithuania. Therefore, to foster car fleet fuel consumption and carbon emissions savings by renewal and solving the transport related environ- more than 10% due to the eco-driving practices. In mental pollution and climate change issues several general, Lithuanians still lack environmental con- aspects should be considered. First, transparency and sciousness concerning mobility. Thought 83% of credibility of car production industry should be im- Lithuanians agree, that they can play a role in pro- SURYHGDVWKHODWHVWDLUSROOXWLRQWHVWV¶PDQLSXODWLRQV tecting the environment, only 35% choose a more indicate. Secondly, some additional measures should environmentally friendly way of traveling (public be applied to create incentives for purchasing a new transport, on foot, by bike) [30]. On a typical day or an alternatively fuelled car. 45% Lithuanians choose a car as a transport mode, Taxes, tax incentives, and information provi- 27% use public transport, and 19% chose walking, sion could be the measures for renewal of car fleet 7% bike and 2% other means of transport [31]. Ra- and respectively for air pollution reduction. One of ther low overall satisfaction with urban public the measures could be vehicle taxes. It is important transport [32] might also contribute to high level of that the determined fee to be neutral one, especially car preferences. in relation to the state budget (e.g. not supplement Of course, shift to more sustainable transport the state budget, but targeting air pollution issues). modes would be the most desirable option. However, Vehicle tax is under considerations rather inten- having in mind strong society dependence on a car [31; 33], renewal of a car fleet applying minimum 5639 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5635-5641 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin environmental criteria could be a starting option. of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Nevertheless, other measures promoting sustainable Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the mobility in order to achieve significant results in air Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change pollution reduction and climate change mitigation in [Edenhofer, O., Pichs-Madruga, R., Sokona, Y., road transport should be also addressed and ex- Farahani, E., Kadner, S., Seyboth, K., Adler, A., plored. Baum, I., Brunner, S., Eickemeier, P., Krie- mann, B., Savolainen, J., Schlomer, S., von Stechow, C., Zwickel, T. and Minx, J.C. (eds.)]. CONCLUSIONS Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, Unit- ed Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. Promoting green procurement not only in the [7] EEA (2012) The contribution of transport to air public sector but also in the private one might give quality ± TERM 2012: transport indicators significant results. Even under the minimum envi- tracking progress towards environmental targets ronmental criteria, environmental burden could be in Europe. 2012. EEA Report, No.10/2012, Co- reduced and environmental objectives may be penhagen, p. 96. achieved. [8] Valverde, V., Pay, M.T. and Baldasano, J.M. However, current volume of green public pro- (2016) Ozone attributed to Madrid and Barce- curement is not sufficient to contribute to the mitiga- lona on-road transport emissions: Characteriza- tion of air pollution problems, nor could be achieved tion of plume dynamics over the Iberian Penin- in the private sector if only the same proportion of sula. Science of the Total Environment, 543, new vehicles would meet minimal environmental 670±682 criteria. Remarkable renewal of a private car fleet is [9] Kousoulidou M., Ntziachristos L., Mellios G. needed. Information provision and economic incen- and Samaras Z. (2008) Road-transport emission tives could be discussed as possible measures. So far, projections to 2020 in European urban environ- Lithuania policy offers no incentives for car fleet re- ments. Atmospheric Environment, 42, 7465± newal and only EU Energy End Use Efficiency and 7475. Energy Services directive (2006/32/EC) aiming at [10] WHO (2014) Air quality and health ² Fact eco-driving is being to some extend implemented. sheet No. 313 ² Updated September 2014. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/fact- sheets/fs313/en/ (accessed December 22, 2015) REFERENCES [11] Prockop L.D. and Chichkova R.I. (2007). Car- bon monoxide intoxication: An updated review. Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 262, 122± [1] EU (2015) EU Transport in figures ± Statistical 130. pocketbook 2015. European Union. Luxem- [12] Dedele A., Grazuleviciene R. and Bendokiene I. bourg: Publications Office of the European Un- ion. (2011) Individual Exposure to Nitrogen Dioxide [2] Juknys, R. and Dagiliute, R. (2004) Changes in and Preterm Birth Risk in Kaunas. Environ- mental Research, Engineering and Manage- Lithuanian Transport Sector from the Point of ment, 2(56), 49 ± 56 Sustainability. Environmental Research, Engi- [13] de Kok, T.M.C.M., Driece, H.A.L., Hogervorst, neering and Management, 3(29), 37-43. J.G.F. and Briede J.J. (2006) Toxicological as- [3] EEA (2013) A closer look at urban transport. TERM 2013: transport indicators tracking pro- sessment of ambient and traffic-related particu- late matter: a review of recent studies. Mutation gress towards environmental targets in Euro-pe. Research/Reviews in Mutation Research, 613, EEA Report No 11/2013, Luxembourg: Pub-li- 103±122. cations Office of the European Union. [14] EC (2013) A Clean Air Programme for Europe. [4] IEA (2012) World Energy Outlook. (2012) In- ternational Energy Agency. France. Communication from the Commission to the [5] Uherek, E., Halenka, T., Borken-Kleefeld, J., European Parliament, the Council, the European economic and social committee and the Com- Balkanski, Y., Berntsen, T., Borrego, C., Gauss, mittee of the regions, COM (2013) 918 final, M., Hoor, P., Juda-Rezler, K., Lelieveld, J., Me- Brussels. las, D., Rypdal, K. and Schmid, S. (2010) [15] Williams, J.E., Hodnebrog, O., Van Velthoven, Transport impacts on atmosphere and climate: Land transport. Atmospheric Environment, 44, P.F.J., Berntsen, T.K., Dessens, O., Gauss, M., 4772-4816. Grewe, V., Isaksen, I.S.A., Olivie, D., Prather, M.J. and Tang, Q. (2014) The influence of fu- [6] Sims R., Schaeffer, R., Creutzig, F., Cruz- ture non-mitigated road transport emissions on 1XQH];'¶DJRVWR0'LPLWULX')LJXHURD regional ozone exceedances at global scale. At- Meza, M.J., Fulton, L., Kobayashi, S., Lah, O., mospheric Environment, 89, 633-641 Mckinnon, A., Newman, P., Ouyang, M., Schauer, J.J., Sperling, D. and Tiwari, G. (2014) [16]Raslavicius, L., Kersys, A., Starevicius, M., Sa- Transport. In: Climate Change 2014: Mitigation pragonas, J. and Bazaras, Z. (2014) Biofuels, 5640 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5635-5641 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin sustainability and the transport sector in Lithua- [26] Kok, R. (2015) Six years of CO2-based tax in- nia. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Re- centives for new passenger cars in The Net-her- views, 32, 328±346 lands: Impacts on purchasing behavior trends [17] EC (2012) Green Public Procurement: A collec- and CO2 effectiveness. Transportation Research tion of good practices. Luxembourg: Pub-lica- Part A, 77, 137±153 tions Office of the European Union. [27] Sanchez-Braza, A., Cansino, J.M. and Lerma E. [18] Dagiliute, R. and Anikanova, K. (2011) Green (2014) Main drivers for local tax incentives to Public Procurement in Lithuania: Volumes and promote electric vehicles. The Spanish case. Possibilities for Environmental Impact Reduc- Transport Policy, 36, 1±9 tion. Environmental Research, Engineering and [28] Raslavicius, L., Azzopardi, B., Kersys, A., Star- Management, 4(58), 42-47 evicius, M., Bazaras, Z. and Makaras, R. (2015) [19] Ministry of Environment (2011) Law on des- Electric vehicles challenges and opportu-nities: cription of the application procedure for pro- Lithuanian review. Renewable and Sus-tainable ducts with applicable public procurement envi- Energy Reviews, 42, 786±800 ronmental criteria, a list of environmental crite- [29] Ho, S.-H., Wong, Y.-D. and Wei-Chung V. ria and environmental criteria which the con- (2015) What can eco-driving do for sustainable tracting organization shall follow for pur-chase road transport? Perspectives from a city (Singa- of goods, services or works [in Lithua-nian], pore) eco-driving programme. Sustainable Citi- No. D1-508, Ministry of Environment, 28 June, es and Society, 14, 82±88 2011. [30] Special Eurobarometer. (2014) Attitudes of Eu- [20] EEA (2012) Monitoring CO2 emissions from ropean citizens towards the environment. Spe- new passenger cars in the EU: summary of data cial Eurobarometer 416. Report. European Un- for 2011. European Environmental Agency, Co- ion. DOI 10.2779/25662 penhagen. [31] Special Eurobarometer. (2014) Quality of trans- [21] Study on Integrated Environmental Impact of port. Special Eurobarometer 422a. Report. Eu- Implemented Public Procurement [in Lithuani- ropean Union. DOI 10.2832/783021 an]. (2008) Integralaus atliktu viesuju pirkimu [32] )ODVK(XUREDURPHWHUE (XURSHDQV¶ poveikio aplinkai vertinimo studija. UAB satisfaction with urban transport. Flash Euro-ba- ³1DFLRQDOLQLXSURMHNWXUHQJLPDV´, Vilnius. rometer 382b. Report. [22] Santos, G., Behrendt, H., Maconi, L., Shirvani [33] Dagiliute R. (in press). (Un)sustainable con- T. and Teytelboym, A. (2010) Part I: Externa- sumption and some policies behind: Lithuanian lities and economic policies in road transport. case. Environmental Engineering and Manage- Research in Transportation Economics, 28, 2± ment Journal. 45 [23] Aizura, A.B., Mahlia, T.M.I. and Masjuki, H.H. (2010) Potential fuel savings and emissions re- duction from fuel economy standards imple- mentation for motor-vehicles. Clean Technolo- gies and Environmental Policy, 12, 255±263 Received: 07.04.2017 [24] ACEA (2015) Overview of CO2-based motor Accepted: 21.07.2017 vehicle taxes in the EU. European Automobile 0DQXIDFWXUHUV¶ Association. URL http://www.- acea.be/publications/article/overview-of-co2- CORRESPONDING AUTHOR based-motor-vehicle-taxes-in-the-eu [accessed December 4, 2015) Renata 'DJLOLnjWơ [25] Mannberg A., Jansson J., Pettersson Th., Bran- Department of Environmental Sciences nlund R. and Lindgren U. (2014) Do tax in-cen- Vytautas Magnus University WLYHV DIIHFW KRXVHKROGV DGRSWLRQ RI µJUHHQ¶ Vileikos st. 8-223 cars? A panel study of the Stockholm conges- LT-44404 Kaunas ± LITHUANIA tion tax. Energy Policy, 74, 286±299 E-mail: [email protected] 5641 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5642-5657 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF ACTUATED SIGNALS ON INTERRUPTED TRAFFIC FLOW Evangelos Mintsis1, Georgios Aldaggelou2, Georgios Mintsis2, Socrates Basbas2,*, Magda Pitsiava-Latinopoulou3 1Centre for Research and Technology Hellas, Hellenic Institute of Transport, Thessaloniki, Greece 2Faculty of Rural & Surveying Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece 3Faculty of Civil Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece ABSTRACT Aggregate and disaggregate simulation output statis- tics have been obtained through the simulation ex- Surface transportation yields a significant periments. amount of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions annu- The following sections include a detailed de- ally, while concurrently being the primary energy scription on materials and methods used in the consumer among the transportation sectors. Exces- framework of this paper. A brief review is presented sive emissions and energy consumption are typically on the operation and past deployment of actuated observed at traffic congested areas and around traffic traffic signals. Microscopic traffic and emissions signalized intersections. At those latter locations, ve- simulation modelling techniques are described for hicles are frequently subjected to long idling periods assessing traffic operations and estimating fuel con- and deceleration/acceleration maneuvers due to the sumption and traffic pollutants in a simulated road operation of the traffic lights. Thus, the characteris- network. Results and discussion present the main re- tics of the traffic signals are a determinant regarding sults and findings of the application of the proposed traffic flow and its impacts on the environment. methodology, while concluding remarks are also Within the framework of the present research, the noted. environmental impacts of actuated signals on an 11- km signalized arterial street that connects Thessalo- QLNL¶VFLW\FHQWHUZLWKWKHOocal airport and the east- MATERIALS AND METHODS ern suburbs of the city are evaluated. The morning peak period of a typical weekday on this arterial has Operation and performance of actuated been simulated with the use of the traffic modelling traffic signals. Pre-timed signal control is the sim- software AIMSUN. Network-wide and section out- plest type of signal control and is designed, so that it put statistics (i.e. fuel consumed, carbon dioxide can accommodate a specific traffic demand pattern (CO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate matter per traffic signal plan configuration. However, traf- (PM)) are presented in this research. fic demand varies over time and statistical analyses of traffic field data have indicated that 15 minute peak traffic volumes can trigger breakdowns of traf- KEYWORDS: fic flow and onset congestion [3]. Actuated signal Traffic simulation, actuated signals, environmental im- controllers have been designed in order to respond to pact, traffic flow, AIMSUN. these traffic demand variations minimizing stops and traffic delay [4]. Actuated signals utilize real-time traffic data collected from nearby detectors to adjust INTRODUCTION green and red times automatically, based on the arri- val/departure rate of vehicles and the queue evolu- This study evaluates the environmental impacts tion/dissipation process at the branches of an inter- of fully actuated control at signalized intersections section [1]. with the use of microscopic traffic simulation. Fully Previous studies have developed different actuated control is the mode of operation where all models regarding the operation of actuated signals, approaches have detectors installed and all green tested their applicability according to intersection phases are controlled by means of detector infor- geometry and evaluated their impacts on vehicular mation [1]. The green phase terminates when the traffic flow [1, 5 ,6]. These previous studies have headway between two vehicles is larger than a cer- been conducted either through analysis of empirical tain maximum time interval. A signalized corridor data or simulation modeling. that connects the city of Thessaloniki with the sub- An empirical study based on traffic data col- urb of Peraia has been simulated in AIMSUN [2]. lected from signalized intersections across the road of Hermanos Garcia Noblejas, in Madrid, showed 5642 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5642-5657 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin that actuated signal control can reduce delay and emission models for the assessment of the environ- emissions compared to fixed time control at small mental impacts of traffic management and control and T-shaped intersections [6]. Another study pro- policies, since this is complex issue that requires de- posed proper controller-detector combinations and tailed analysis of not only their impact on average detectors locations for the optimization of the actu- speed but also on other aspects of vehicle operation ated control operation of arterial signal systems [5]. such as acceleration and deceleration [9]. Viti and van Zuylen developed a probabilistic model for traffic at actuated control signals that assumes The study site ± Aimsun simulation model. A stochastic arrival rates of vehicles [1]. This model detailed microscopic simulation model has been de- renders the operation of actuated traffic signals more veloped, covering the signalized arterial corridor that efficient when the intersection operates near capac- connects the city of Thessaloniki with the suburb of ity. A person-based traffic responsive signal control Peraia. The model development has been imple- system for arterials was tested on a four-intersection mented with the Aimsun microscopic traffic simula- segment of San Pablo Avenue arterial in Berkeley. tor. The simulated network is comprised of 194 sec- 7KHILQGLQJVVKRZWKHV\VWHP¶VFDSDELOLW\WRRXWSHU- tions and 17 junctions; its total length is 11-km and form fixed-time optimal signal settings by reducing it is depicted in Figure 1. Among the 17 junctions, total person delay [7]. 15 are controlled by signals. Ten public transport lines have been also simulated along with their cor- Microscopic traffic and emissions simula- responding time plans. tion modelling. Microscopic traffic simulators can Demand has been obtained through a macro- imitate the longitudinal and lateral movement of in- scopic traffic assignment model developed in VI- dividual vehicles as they occur in real-life. Their SUM for the wider area of Thessaloniki by Stamos ability to dictate these movements is based on a set et al. [10]. Field traffic flow data collected from traf- of sub-PRGHOV ZKLFK UHSOLFDWH GULYHU¶V FDU-follow- fic sensors located throughout the road network of ing, lane changing and gap acceptance behavior. Thessaloniki from an one-hour morning peak period 7KXV WKH VLPXODWRUV HVWLPDWH HDFK YHKLFOH¶V SRVL- (i.e. 08:00-09:00am) of a typical weekday (i.e. tion, speed and acceleration for every simulation Wednesday 15th October 2014) have been input to step. The trajectories of the vehicles are then utilized the macroscopic model, which executed the traffic for the estimation of fuel consumption and emissions assignment and produced the necessary demand info by the corresponding models that are integrated IRUWKH³ORDGLQJ´RIWKHPLFURVFRSLFPRGHO7UDIILF within the microscopic traffic simulation models. An composition information has been obtained through emission model developed by Panis et al. has been a previous study conducted by Mitsakis et al. [11]. integrated with AIMSUN [8]. This model is based According to this study the fleet in this portion of on empirical measurements which relate vehicle 7KHVVDORQLNL¶V URDG QHWZRUN LV FRPSULVHG E\ emissions with the instantaneous speed and acceler- private vehicles, 5% by taxis, 4% by trucks and 1% ation of the vehicle. Rakha and Kamalanathsharma by buses. have stressed the importance of using microscopic FIGURE 1 Simulated network in AIMSUN 5643 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5642-5657 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin FIGURE 2 Westbound approach of Thessaloniki-Peraia Rd. and Miaouli St. intersection FIGURE 3 Traffic conditions on the westbound approach of Thessaloniki-Peraia Rd. and Miaouli St. intersection 5644 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5642-5657 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin FIGURE 4 Fuel consumption on the westbound approach of Thessaloniki-Peraia Rd. and Miaouli St. intersection The operation and performance of the actuated tains to traffic performance measures and environ- signals against the fixed time control has been as- mental indicators. Simulation output statistics have sessed for three different demand levels. A total of 6 been estimated both at section level (i.e. disaggre- scenarios have been simulated, 3 pertaining to actu- gate level) and network level (i.e. aggregate level). ated signal control operation and 3to fixed time con- The estimated traffic performance measures are av- trol. The base case scenario corresponds to 100% de- erage section and network speed. The environmental mand level (i.e. initial demand input to the micro- indicators are fuel consumption, CO2, NOx, VOC, scopic model). The other demand levels correspond and PM emissions. to 150%, and 200% (i.e. medium and high demand levels) of the actual demand. Disaggregate simulation output statistics. Due to the stochastic nature of AIMSUN mul- The operation of the actuated signal control has been tiple runs of each simulated scenario are necessary, evaluated on the westbound intersection leg of two so that the simulation output is statistically signifi- signalized intersections along Thessaloniki-Peraia cant. Therefore, five simulations of the base case road. Thessaloniki-Peraia Rd. and Miaouli St. inter- scenario were initially run, each with a different ran- section is a T intersection depicted in Figure 2, while GRPVHHGJHQHUDWHGE\$,0681¶VLQWHUQDOUDQGRP Thessaloniki-Peraia Rd. and Metamorfoseos St. in- number generator, and statistics (i.e. standard devia- tersection is a four-way intersection depicted in Fig- tion and mean value) regarding the average network ure 6. The average traffic density on the westbound speed were collected for this sample of runs. The sig- leg of Thessaloniki-Peraia Rd. and Miaouli St. inter- nificance level was selected to be 95%, the tolerable section is very low irrespective of the type of the sig- error equal to 0.5km/h, and given the standard devi- nal control and the demand level (Figure 3). On the ation of the average network speed of the initial sam- other hand, it is rather high (i.e. higher than the jam ple, the required number of runs was determined to density) on the westbound leg of Thessalo-niki- be five. Peraia Rd. and Metamorfoseos St. when the opera- tion of the traffic signals is pre-timed and demand is medium or high (Figure 7). Thus, the effect of actu- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ated control on traffic operations has been assessed both in instances that pre-timed control succeeded The output of the simulation experiments per- and did not succeed to efficiently manage demand. 5645 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5642-5657 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin FIGURE 5 Emissions on the westbound approach of Thessaloniki-Peraia Rd. and Miaouli St. intersection The implementation of fully actuated traffic Metamorfoseos St. is paramount. Traffic congestion signals at Thessaloniki-Peraia Rd. and Miaouli St. that prevailed on this road section prior to the de- intersection yields positive results in terms of traffic ployment of actuated control is fully dissolved irre- operations on the westbound leg of the intersection. spective of the demand level (Figure 7). Due to con- The average traffic flow speed increases by approx- gestion mitigation energy savings become over- imately 30% for all demand levels (Figure 3). Ac- whelming (i.e. 5.3 times less fuel consumed for the cordingly, significant energy savings are generated high demand scenario compared to the pre-timed (Figure 4) and emissions reduce substantially as well signal control operation as depicted in Figure 8) and (Figure5). The impact of actuated signal control on the reduction of emissions is of the same magnitude the westbound leg of Thessaloniki-Peraia Rd. and as well (Figure 9). 5646 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5642-5657 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin FIGURE 6 Westbound approach of Thessaloniki-Peraia Rd. and Metamorfoseos St. intersection FIGURE 7 Traffic conditions on the westbound approach of Thessaloniki-Peraia Rd. and Metamorfoseos St. in- tersection 5647 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5642-5657 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin FIGURE 8 Fuel consumption on the westbound approach of Thessaloniki-Peraia Rd. and Metamorfoseos St. in- tersection TABLE 1 Average network Speed (km/hr) Average Network Speed (km/hr) Demand Level/Control Type Low Medium High Actuated Signals 52,65 42,08 28,94 Pre-timed Signals 49,21 40,39 28,34 % Difference 7,00 4,18 2,10 TABLE 2 Average network fuel consumption Average Fuel Consumption (L) Demand Level/Control Type Low Medium High Actuated Signals 2.847 4.434 5.923 Pre-timed Signals 2.912 4.458 5.928 % Difference -2,22 -0,53 -0,09 5648 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5642-5657 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin FIGURE 9 Emissions on the westbound approach of Thessaloniki-Peraia Rd. and Metamorfoseos St. intersection Disaggregate simulation output statistics. the increase of the average network speed observed The performance of fully actuated signals has been for the high demand scenario in Table 1. On the other also assessed network-wide. The average network hand, emissions are lower regarding the implemen- speed increases with the deployment of actuated sig- tation of fully actuated signals for all demand levels nals irrespective of the demand level (Table 1). (Table 3). Overall, network-wide benefits occur in However, the benefit decreases with increasing de- presence of actuation, but are less significant com- mand. Fuel consumption is lower for low and me- pared to the isolated intersection case previously pre- dium demand levels, but increases for high demand VHQWHGIRUWKHVSHFLILFDFWXDWHGVLJQDOV¶VHWWLQJVFRQ (Table 2). This finding is contradictory compared to figuration of this study. 5649 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5642-5657 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin TABLE 3 Average network emissions Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Emissions (tons) Demand Level/Control Type Low Medium High Actuated Signals 6.267 9.714 13.896 Pre-timed Signals 6.320 10.045 13.990 % Difference -0,83 -3,30 -0,67 Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) emissions (kg) Demand Level/Control Type Low Medium High Actuated Signals 13.048 19.685 26.203 Pre-timed Signals 13.186 20.002 26.423 % Difference -1,05 -1,59 -0,83 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) (kg) Demand Level/Control Type Low Medium High Actuated Signals 965 1.898 3.710 Pre-timed Signals 1.026 2.197 4.008 % Difference -5,91 -13,63 -7,42 Particulate Matter (PM) (kg) Demand Level/Control Type Low Medium High Actuated Signals 25.097 43.688 56.374 Pre-timed Signals 26.508 45.461 68.040 % Difference -5,33 -3,90 -17,15 CONCLUSIONS [5] Francesco, V. and van Zuylen, H.J. (2010) A probabilistic model for traffic at actuated con- The environmental impacts of fully actuated trol signals. Transportation Research Part C, 18, signal control along a 11,5 km signalized arterial 299-310. corridor have been evaluated with the use of micro- [6] Yuan, J., (2013) Applicability of actuated signal scopic traffic simulation modelling. Results have in- control at intersections. Fourth International dicated that significant reduction in fuel consump- Conference on Transportation Engineering, tion and emissions can occur with the implementa- ICTE 2013, China, 2380-2387. tion of actuated signals both locally (i.e. isolated in- [7] Christofa, E., Ampountolas, K. and Skabardonis tersection) and network-wide. The benefits of the ac- A. (2015) Arterial traffic signal optimization: A tuated signals can be maximized with the selection person-based approach. Transportation Re- of the appropriate signal settings. Thus, further ex- search Part C, (in press). perimentation is required with the settings of the ac- [8] Panis, L.I., Broekx, S. and Liu, R. (2006) Mo- tuated signals of the simulated network in order to delling instantaneous traffic emission and the achieve optimum network performance. Moreover, influence of traffic speed limits. Science of the the possibility of implementing semi-actuated signal Total Environment, 371, 270-285. control on specific intersections instead of fully ac- [9] Rakha, H., and Kamalanathsharma, R.K. (2011) tuated control can be also investigated. Eco-driving at signalized intersections using V2I communication.14th International IEEE Conference on Intelligent Transportation Sys- REFERENCES tems, Washington, D.C., U.S.A. [10] Stamos, I., Salanova Grau J.M. and Mitsakis E. [1] Chang, E.C.-P. (1996) Guidelines for Actuated (2013) Macroscopic Fundamental Diagrams: Controllers in Coordinated Systems. Transpor- Simulation Findings for the road network of Thessaloniki. 6th International Congress on tation Research Record, 1554, 61-73. Transportation Research: Energy, Environment [2] TSS (2011) Aimsun Dynamic Simulator User and Transport, Thessaloniki, October 17 ± 18, Manual. Transport Simulation System, version 2013. 7.0, Barcelona. [3] Roess, R.P., Prassas, E.S., and McShane, W.R. [11]Mitsakis, E., Stamos, I., Salanova, J.M., Chry- (2010) Traffic engineering.4th ed. Prentice Hall, sochoou, E., Iordanopoulos, P. and Aifado-pou- lou, G. (2013) Urban mobility indicators for U.S.A. Thessaloniki. Journal of Traffic and Logistics [4] Bullen, A.G.R. (1989) The Effects of Actuated Engineering, 1, 148-152. Signal Settings and Detector Placement on Ve- hicle Delay. Transportation Research Record, 1244, 32-38. 5650 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5642-5657 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin 54124 Thessaloniki ± GREECE E-mail:[email protected] Received: 07.04.2017 Accepted: 21.07.2017 CORRESPONDING AUTHOR Socrates Basbas Faculty of Rural & Surveying Engineering Aristotle University of Thessaloniki 5651 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5658-5665 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin SMALL SCALE ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS. A SHORT REVIEW IN THEIR POTENTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT Panagiotis I Kokkotis, Constantinos S Psomopoulos*, George Ch Ioannidis, Stavros D Kaminaris Department of Electrical Engineering, Piraeus University of Applied Sciences, 250, Thivon & P. Ralli Ave., 12244, Egaleo, Greece ABSTRACT Nickel battery Sodium-sulphur Regarding Small Scale Energy Storage Sys- Lithium battery tems, large Pumped Hydro should be excluded be- Metal-air battery cause of its ³EXON´ FDSDFLW\ FKDUDFWHULVWLF )O\ R Flow Battery Energy Storage (FBES) wheels, Super Magnetic Energy Storage and Super- R Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage capacitors are considered environmentally friendly (SMES) and briefly mentioned; therefore electrochemical R Super Capacitor Energy Storage (SCES) means of EES systems such as batteries will be the x Mechanical Energy central point of this paper. R Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) Batteries are identified as a problematic mate- R Liquid Air Energy Storage (LAES) or Cry- rial in the waste stream. They are made from a vari- ogenic Energy Storage (CES) ety of chemicals and some of these, such as nickel R Hydro Energy Storage (HES) and cadmium, are extremely toxic and can cause R Pumped Hydro Energy Storage (PHES) damage to humans and environment. They can also R Flywheel Energy Storage (FES) cause soil and water pollution and endanger wildlife. x Chemical Energy Storage Cadmium can cause damage to soil micro-organisms R Hydrogen and affect the breakdown of organic matter. Other x Thermal Energy Storage chemicals used in modern electrochemical batteries R Sensible heat storage systems are discussed, along with any protective means of R Latent Heat Thermal Energy Storage safe utilization with minimum environmental im- (LHTES) pact. R Thermochemical energy storage Small Grid Definition and Energy Storage. KEYWORDS: As mentioned by Etxeberria [3], a micro grid is a Energy Storage; batteries; cadmium; lithium; environ- type of grid that can be characterized as weak and its ment. formation consists of numerous small sources, power converters, loads and storage systems. A micro grid can operate either connected to the INTRODUCTION main grid or as an autonomous system such as in the case of an island. The micro grid, when connected to The process in which electrical energy from a the main grid, is used to overcome the stochastic na- power network is stored and then converted back to ture and the uncertainty of the Renewable Energy electrical energy when needed is referred to as Elec- Sources (RES), in order to create a reliable load/gen- trical Energy Storage (EES).This process gives us eration system from the main electric grid point of the advantage to store electricity at times of low de- view. In this context, the use of the EES is a widely mand, low generation cost or from other energy accepted idea, as the variability of the generated sources such as wind, solar and wave, to be used at power can be smoothed, power quality problems times of high demand, high generation cost or when avoided and the frequency and the voltage of the mi- no other generation method is available [1]. cro grid controlled. Energy Storage Methods. The current energy storage systems [2] are divided into the following ENVIRONMENTAL APPROACH ON EN- categories according to the means of energy storage: ERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS x Electrochemical energy Battery Energy Storage (BES) R Having in mind the International Standards and Lead-Acid the European Union (EU) directives (Table 1) 5658 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5658-5665 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin TABLE 1 EU Directives and International Standards EU Directive Title 2009/105/ECa Simple Pressure Vessel Directive 97/23/ECa Pressure Equipment Directive 2006/95/ECa Low Voltage Directive 2004/108/ECa Electromagnetic Compatibility Directive 2006/66/ECa Batteries and Accumulators and Waste Batteries and Accumulators Directive 2000/53/ECa End-of Life Vehicles Directive 2002/95/ECa Restriction of Hazardous Substances in Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive 2012/19/EUa Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Text with EEA Relevance ISO Title 14040b Environmental management - Life cycle assessment - Principles and framework 14041b Environmental management - Life cycle assessment - Goal and scope definition and in- ventory analysis 14042b Environmental management - Life cycle assessment - Life cycle impact assessment 14044b Environmental management - Life cycle assessment - Requirements and guidelines a Available at ec.europa.eu (European Commission) b Available at www.iso.org (International Standards Organization) that qualify these technologies, a short technical summary for the technologies in focus will be pre- Recycling Prospects. A typical spent Lead- sented. Additionally, the environmental impacts and Acid battery can be harvested for its sulphuric acid, the regulatory issues arising with these technologies grids, metallic parts and the battery pastes [7]. The will be stated. drained acid can be used as i) commercial synthetic gypsum derived by means of membrane techniques Electrochemical Energy Storage Methods. such as nanofiltration and diffusion dialysis or chem- As mentioned in paragraph 1.1 above, an analysis of ical precipitation or ii) clean concentrated sulphuric the electrochemical energy storage methods will fol- acid (30% w/w), obtained with electro dialysis, low. which is suitable for filling new batteries. The bat- tery paste can be processed as in conventional raw Battery Energy Storage. Being part of electro- paste smelting, smelting without sulphur, re-smelt- chemical energy storage methods, battery energy ing of soda slug and finally, with hydrometallurgical storage falls into the following categories. treatment, with the latter leading to obtaining pure Pb [8]. Lead-Acid Batteries. Technical summary. The batteries whose cells are based upon chemical Nickel Batteries. Technical summary. Nickel reactions involving lead (Pb) and sulphuric acid (Ni) batteries are electrochemical cells. There are a (H2SO4) are known as Lead-Acid batteries and are number of Nickel based batteries currently available based on one of the oldest and most developed bat- or under development, including Nickel-Cadmium tery technologies [4]. (Ni-Cd), Nickel-Metal Hydride (Ni-MH), Nickel- Zinc (Ni-Zn) and Sodium-Nickel Chloride (Na- Main Chemical Reactions. The main chemical NiCl2). Ni-Cd and Ni-MH are the most developed of reaction [5] is shown below: the Ni batteries [4]. At the positive plate the reaction is: Dischargeo Main Chemical Reactions. The main chemical PbO24 3H HSO 2em PbSO 42 2H O Charge reaction for a Ni-Cd battery [5], as an example, is At the negative plate: shown below: Dischargeo For Nickel: Pb HSO44 2em PbSO H 2e Charge Ni OHo OH NiOOH+H O+e And the overall reaction is: 22 Dischargeo For Cadmium: PbO Pb 2H SO 2PbSO 2H O 224mCharge 42 Cd2 OHo 2e Cd 2OH Overall reaction: Environmental Impacts & Regulatory Is- 2Ni OH +Cd OH 2NiOOH+Cd+2H2NiOO O sues. The lead used in these batteries is toxic [6] and 22 2 therefore must be recycled. In addition, the sulphuric acid typically used as the electrolyte is corrosive and Environmental Impacts & Regulatory Is- when overcharged the battery generates hydrogen sues. The most significant disadvantage of Ni-Cd which presents an explosion risk. batteries is the highly toxic cadmium used within 5659 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5658-5665 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin them; an element that is highly recyclable but ex- [14]. On the other hand, isolated materials used in ceedingly toxic, as mentioned. Most Nickel is recov- NaS batteries react with other materials. More ana- ered from end-of-life batteries since the metal is rea- lytically, sodium reacts with water and the reaction sonably easy to retrieve from scrap and can be used is highly exothermic, usually explosive and produces in corrosion resistant alloys such as stainless steel, hydrogen gas and sodium hydroxide [15]. Conse- otherwise the metallic cylinder of the cell eventually quently, hydrogen in the presence of oxygen is begins to corrode and the cadmium gradually dis- highly explosive and sodium hydroxide is poisonous solves, seeping into the water supply [9]. In Ni-MH when ingested and severe chemical burns can be batteries, both the nickel and the electrolyte are semi- caused. Sulphur is not as chemically reactive as so- toxic. European Union EU legislation is in part re- dium, as stated before for their inert state, but there sponsible for the supercedence of Ni-Cd batteries by are significant hazards associated with its use. Sul- Ni-MH batteries and represents a significant issue to phur is flammable, hence the previously mentioned any future development of Ni-Cd battery technolo- risk, and produces sulphur dioxide and when burned gies. Avoiding fumes and dust is essential for work- it becomes a toxic gas and a tumorigenic [16]. ers in this sector [10]. Recycling Prospects. NaS batteries can be in- Recycling Prospects. Before the smelting cinerated, which is costly, reclaimed / recycled and takes place, metal components are separated form directly recycled / reused for their materials [14]. plastics. The metals are then recycled through a High-Temperature Metal Reclamation (HTMR) pro- Lithium Batteries. Technical summary. Lith- cess during which all of the high temperature metals ium batteries are electrochemical cells. Lithium-Ion contained within the battery (i.e. nickel, iron, man- (Li-ion) and Lithium-Polymer (Li-pol) types are ganese, and chromium) report to the molten-metal both available [17]. bath within the furnace, amalgamate, then solidify during the casting operation. The low-melt metals, Main Chemical Reactions. The main chemical such as zinc and cadmium, are separated during the reaction [5] is shown below: melting, the plastic and metals are then ready to be Charging: C+xLi xeLi C reused in new products [11]. x Discharging: LiMO21x2 Li1x MMO xLi xe Sodium-Sulphur Batteries. Technical sum- mary. Sodium-Sulfur (NaS) batteries are electro- Environmental Impacts & Regulatory Is- chemical cells. NaS batteries are the most developed sues. The main environmental issue with this type of type of high temperature battery. A NaS battery con- batteries is the resource depletion, Eco toxicity sists of liquid (molten) sulfur at the positive electrode (mainly associated with cobalt, copper, nickel, thal- and liquid (molten) sodium at the negative electrode lium and silver) and human toxicity. Due to its ma- as active materials separated by a solid beta alumina terials being capable of being recycled, like the salts ceramic electrolyte [12]. The electrolyte allows only and the lithium oxides, Lithium batteries have lim- the positive sodium ions to pass through it and com- ited environmental impacts [18]. bine with the sulphur to form sodium polysulphides. Recycling Prospects. These batteries contain Main Chemical Reactions. The main chemical metallic lithium, which reacts violently when it con- reaction [13] is shown below: tacts with moisture and must be disposed of appro- Anode reaction: priately [19]. If Lithium batteries are thrown in the Charge landfill without being discharged first, they could be 2Nao 2Na 2e mDischarge crushed by heavy equipment operating on top and the Cathode reaction: exposed lithium would ignite a fire. Landfill fires are extremely difficult to extinguish and can burn for Charge xS+2eo S years underground. Before recycling, it is advised to m x2 Discharge discharge to fully consume the lithium content [20]. Overall cell reaction: Charge 2Na xSo Na S Metal-Air Batteries. Technical summary. mDischarge 2x Metal-air batteries are electrochemical cells and are the most compact batteries available. Environmental Impacts & Regulatory Is- sues. The environmental concerns associated with Main Chemical Reactions. The main chemical NaS batteries are limited, since the materials used in reaction of Zinc-Air battery [5] is shown below: their construction are relatively environmentally in- Anode: Zn+4OHo Zn OH2 2e ert. We also have to mention that in order to maintain 4 Fluid: Zn OH2 o ZnO+H O+2OH sulphur in its liquid form the battery must be oper- 4 2 ated in high temperature and that has a small risk 5660 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5658-5665 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin Cathode: O +2H O+4eo 4OH field within a cooled super-conducting coil. The coil 22 is cryogenically cooled beyond its super-conducting o Overall: 2Zno O2 2ZnO temperature (-269 C). At this temperature, resistance of the material to electric currents disappears, and the Environmental Impacts & Regulatory Is- limited electrical resistance allows extremely high sues. Environmentally, metal-air batteries are rela- efficiencies of up to 97% to be achieved as well as tively inert since no toxic materials are involved in enabling storage more or less indefinitely. An addi- their construction. Like other battery types, metals tional advantage is the immediate release of power such as zinc or aluminium used within the battery which renders the system, a property useful to cus- should be recycled [4]. tomers requiring extremely high quality power out- put [24]. Recycling Prospects. The recycling method of these batteries is primarily dependant on the metal Environmental Impacts & Regulatory Is- used as the electrode. Thus, each metal used should sues. Extremely low temperatures are required for follow its respective recycling process. Specific the superconducting system which represents a guidelines for each metal are used, some of which safety issue. Larger scale SMES systems could re- are explained in this paper. quire significant protection to deal with magnetic ra- diation issues in the immediate vicinity of the plant Flow Batteries. Technical summary. Flow [25]. batteries store and release energy through a reversi- ble electrochemical reaction between two electro- Recycling Prospects. A typical SMES system lytes. There are four types of flow battery currently consists of the superconducting coil, the power con- being produced or in the late stages of development; ditioning system and the cryogenically cooled refrig- zinc bromine, vanadium redox (VRB), polysulphide erator. Usually, the coil is an alloy of Niobium (Nb) bromide and cerium zinc. The zinc-bromine system and Titanium (Ti) [26], which can generally be represents a type of hybrid flow battery. A leading safely recycled [27]. The power conditioning system form of the vanadium redox flow battery is a system falls under the local directives regarding the recy- by VRB Power Systems Inc in Canada. These sys- cling of electrical and electronic equipment. For the tems feature the separation of chemical reactants EU, directive 2012/19/EU clarifies the details re- from the electrochemical cells through which charg- garding the recycling of these materials [28]. ing and discharging take place. The storage capacity depends on the size of the electrolyte tanks, whilst Supercapacitors Energy Storage. Technical the power output depends on the size of the fuel cell. summary. Supercapacitors can store energy in the The vanadium redox system has an advantage over electric field between a pair of charged plates. Super- the hybrid system as the discharge time at full power capacitors, ultracapacitors or double-layer capacitors can be varied [21]. (DLCs) as they are also known, contain a signifi- cantly enlarged electrode surface area compared to Environmental Impacts & Regulatory Is- conventional capacitors, as well as a liquid electro- sues. The potential size and scale of these systems lyte and a polymer membrane [29]. are likely to determine the extent to which environ- mental impacts are significant. Significant quantities Environmental Impacts & Regulatory Is- of space may be required for holding tanks contain- sues. Supercapacitors can be employed to enhance ing the electrolytes and although these substances the energy performance of automotives, for example, may not be specifically toxic this obviously requires through regenerative braking systems, which can care at the design stage. A major advantage of the therefore lead to emissions benefits. In addition, su- technology is the ability of the technology to perform percapacitors have a long lifecycle. Potential nega- discharge cycles indefinitely, so there are no signifi- tive environmental impacts of supercapacitors arise cant waste products associated with operation [22]. from the materials and compounds used within their construction and operation [1]. Recycling Prospects. Recycling of these bat- teries, just like Metal-Air batteries, depend on the Recycling Prospects. Supercapacitors are be- various processes of each technology. Special care ing continuously improved and are considered as an should be given in the reclamation of the electro- emerging technology. Materials used in these types lytes, and since there are a variety of electrolytes of capacitors consist of carbon aerogels, carbon fi- used, special care should be given when handling bres, metal oxides, conducting polymers etc. [30]. In them [23]. general, the recycling of supercapacitors is achieva- ble but might require effort in separating the various Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage materials [31]. (SMES). Technical summary. SMES is a technol- ogy that can store electrical energy in a magnetic 5661 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5658-5665 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin Mechanical Energy Storage Systems. As high heat transfer capabilities and low environmental mentioned in paragraph 1.1, an analysis of the me- impact is crucial to improve overall performance of chanical energy storage methods will follow. the system [35]. Flywheel. Technical Summary. Flywheels Liquid Air Energy Storage. Technical Sum- represent a mechanical form of energy storage in mary. Liquid Air Energy Storage or Cryogenic En- which the kinetic energy of a fast-spinning cylinder ergy Storage works similarly as a CAES system but contains considerable stored energy. Recent techno- the difference is that the air is liquefied and stored in logical advances have modernised the traditional fly- over ground tanks. One pilot plant is operational at wheel, improving its efficiency dramatically. Mod- the time in Slough Trading Estate, UK [36]. ern flywheel systems are typically comprised of a massive rotating cylinder, supported on a stator by Environmental Impacts and Regulatory Is- magnetically levitated bearings that eliminate wear sues. One of the concerns at the start of the pilot plant and extend system life compared with conventional project was stratification of the liquid air in the stor- bearings. To increase efficiency, the flywheel is op- age tank. This could result in local oxygen enrich- erated in a low pressure environment to reduce fric- ment of the working fluid and the risk of fire or an tion with the air. A flywheel energy storage system explosion if the enriched fluid came into contact with draws electricity from a primary source to spin the hydrocarbons, such as the lubricating oil for the high density cylinder at speeds greater than 20,000 power turbine. This was managed in the pilot plant rpm [32]. by ensuring all parts in contact with the working fluid were oxygen cleaned. Some enrichment was Environmental Impacts and Regulatory Is- observed in feed pipes to the cryogenic pumps after sues. With no chemical management and disposal is- 5±7 days of down time through preferential boiling sues to consider, flywheels have some environmental of the nitrogen content of the liquid air. Purging of advantages over the battery systems described ear- these pipes before operation cleared the enriched lier. Design life for these devices may be only a few fluid from the system. No evidence of stratification years or less, which is an area for future research ac- or enrichment of the bulk liquid air in the storage tivity. Subject to stringent safety safeguards applied tank was observed during the project over two years to the operation of heavy, rapidly rotating objects, a of operation [37]. flywheel system should not cause problems to the lo- cal area [4]. Chemical Storage Systems. As mentioned in paragraph 1.1, an analysis of the chemical storage Compressed Air Energy Storage. Technical methods will follow. Summary. Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) systems use excess off-peak energy to Hydrogen. Technical Summary. The hydro- compress air and inject it into a depleted natural gen production pathways [38] include: Steam Me- gas reservoir and then use the compressed air to thane Reforming using natural gas as feedstock, Gas- power a generator during peak periods when the ification of Coal and other hydrocarbons, Electroly- energy is needed most. Traditional CAES essen- sis using conventional grid or renewable power, Gas- tially dumps the heat into the atmosphere, there- ification of biomass and Nuclear Power. Then, hy- fore requiring a second injection of heat prior to drogen can be stored in underground caverns, salt re-expansion [33]. Advanced Adiabatic CAES domes and depleted oil and gas fields [39]. Stored (AA-CAES), instead, aims to remove the heat and hydrogen can then be used in fuel cells or injected store it separately, then re-eject it at the expansion directly to natural gas pipes to boost the calorific stage, thereby removing the need to reheat with value and thus lead to better combustion in gas tur- natural gas [34]. bines. Environmental Impacts and Regulatory Is- Environmental Impacts and Regulatory Is- sues. CAES, as a means of mitigating intermittency sues. Each pathway has its own environmental con- in wind power production can be favourable in cer- siderations and can be found in Table 2 [38]. Regard- tain conditions, especially when geological condi- ing small scale storage, like gasification of biomass tions are well suited for implementation and no en- and electrolysis through Renewable Energy Sources ergy has to be spent on the creation of a cavern. In (RES), for remote consumers, it is considered as a general, AA-CAES has a lower impact compared to pretty clean technology. the CAES, due to fact that no fossil fuel is com- busted. However, the impacts for a CAES plant are Thermal Energy Storage. Thermal Energy lower than those from natural gas power plant. For Storage refers to the conversion and storage of en- AA-CAES, an important part is the thermal energy ergy to heat or cold. This can be achieved through storage. The development of the thermal mass with 5662 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5658-5665 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin TABLE 2 Hydrogen Production Pathways and Environmental Considerations Steam Methane Reforming (-) Burning natural gas contributes to global warming (-) Extracting and transporting natural gas could harm sensitive landscapes Gasification of Coal (-) Making H2 from coal or heavy oil would generate large amounts of carbon emis- sions (-) Coal mining can degrade land and water quality Electrolysis (+) Use of renewable power would produce low to zero-emissions (-) Use of conventional grid power would generate more global warming pollution than steam methane reforming with natural gas (-) Near-term benefits of using renewable power may be greater if used to displace other sources of electricity Gasification of Biomass (+) If feedstock are sustainably cultivated, process has low to no net global warming emissions (-) Large scale production of feedstock and collection and transport of crops and residues may raise air, land and ecosystem concerns Nuclear Power (+) Low global warming emissions (-) Issues of waste management and disposal and extraction and processing of ura- nium heat exchangers and heat pumps and the storage ves- sectors, and because they can be recycled up to 90% sel can be either underground tanks or cavities or they are the best choice in means of operation capa- over ground tanks. Verein Deutscher Ingenieure bilities and environmental aspects. (VDI) Guideline VDI 4640 Part 1 [40] also analyses An important issue that could be subject to fur- the various underground minerals that can store ther- ther investigation includes the environmental im- mal energy that can be later retrieved. Finally, ther- pacts of DLCs, as it is an emerging technology and mal energy storage is widely used in the forms of the recent and future developments in materials have building air conditioning systems and solar heating to be studied. for domestic water usage. The combination of pho- tovoltaic panels along with solar heating from the same panel can greatly reduce greenhouse gases [41] REFERENCES thus making it an ideal solution for small scale heat storage solution with minimum to non-existent envi- [1] Chen, H., Cong, T., Yang, W., Tan, C., Li, Y., ronmental impacts. The main environmental concern Ding, Y. 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Re- frigerants and their Environmental Impact Sub- stitution of Hydro Chlorofluorocarbon HCFC and HFC Hydro Fluorocarbon. Search for an Adequate Refrigerant, Energy Procedia, 18, 807-816. 5665 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5666-5673 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin INDUSTRIAL FURNACES/BURNERS. A REVIEW ON THE ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION FOCUSING ON ECODESIGN Petros Papadatos, Constantinos S Psomopoulos*, George C Ioannidis Department of Electrical Engineering, Piraeus University of Applied Sciences, 12244, Egaleo - Athens, Greece ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION The main aim of this paper is to demonstrate In accordance with the European legislation briefly, the diachronic course of the European Eco- (Directive 2005/32/EC) [1], multiple barriers can oc- Design legislation, regarding the industrial furnaces cur concerning the Ecodesign of energy-using prod- and the associated equipment such as burners, in ucts, due to the differences and disparities between terms of its environmental aspects. Simultaneously, the legislation frameworks of the several Member the potential mandatory future requirements and pol- states of the European Union. Additionally, energy- icy options DVVHVVHG E\ WKH (XURSHDQ 8QLRQ¶V DX using products correspond to a large proportion of thorities will be depicted, launching the first discus- natural resources and energy consumption within the sions for the final official measures. EU, while they count other considerable environ- More specifically, in 2005, the initial version of mental impacts, too. Ecodesign, as a preventive pro- the Eco-Design Directive for Energy using Products cess in an (energy-using SURGXFW¶V GHVLJQ SKDVH (EuPs), was published. After this, a Working Plan in could lead to less environmental impacts, better en- 2008 listed the product groups which were consid- ergy efficiency and pollution minimization during ered as a priority for implementing measures for the the product's whole life cycle. Based on these facts 2009-2011 time period. Ten product groups were and in order to promote sustainable development by prioritized, due to certain specifications: i) the vol- SURGXFWV¶HQYLURQPHQWDOSHUIRUPDQFHRSWLPL]DWLRQ ume of sales and trade of units per year within the without degrading their functional quality, it is con- European Community, ii) considerable environmen- VLGHUHGWKDW ³Whe Eco-design of products is a crucial tal impact, including high energy consumption, long factor in the EU Community strategy on Integrated operating time, emissions, waste generation and Product Policy´ other, iii) significant potential for improvement. The In 2005, the Eco-design Directive for Energy- 'industrial and laboratory furnaces and ovens' prod- using Products (EuPs), as adopted by Council and uct group, was included. Subsequently, in 2009, the Parliament in July 2005, was published. After this recast of the initial (2005) Directive was presented, original Directive, a set of amending and recast Di- setting the basic policy framework affecting Energy- rectives were drafted accompanied by the corresͲ related Products (ErPs) in the (XURSHDQ8QLRQ¶V27 ponding prerequisite or derived plans and studies in Member States. On this cause, a preparatory study order to set the framework to decide on policies di- was launched in 2010 resulting to a final report that rectly affecting markets in the 27 Member States. [2, was published in September 2012. 3] The abovementioned directives, escorted by The Eco-GHVLJQ'LUHFWLYH¶VWDUJHWLVWRVHWWKH the corresponding preparatory studies, working frame of the mandatory minimum requirements for plans and recasts, compose the environmental legis- each product group, leading to specific implement- lation focusing on Eco-Design. The literal target of ing measures for each product group after a certain this legal process is to set the frame of the mandatory procedure. At the outset, the background data are requirements, leading to specific and strict imple- compiled in the preparatory study. A working docu- menting measures for each product group and in our ment is drafted by the European Commission with a case, the products related with the industrial fur- discussion in the Consultation Forum following. A naces. Draft Implementing Measure is voted by the Regu- latory Committee and is sent to the European Parlia- ment for audit. Finally, the Mandatory regulation is KEYWORDS: published in the Official Journal of the European Un- EcoDesign; Directive; environmental legislation; Euro- ion. [4] pean Commission; Energy related Products (ErPs); indus- There is a lot of research regarding the Euro- trial furnaces/burners. pean Commission¶V(FR-design Directives and their 5666 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5666-5673 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin prioritized product groups that are set under investi- groups which fall within the scope of the Eco-design gation, especially the ones related to the domestic Directive, against the principal environmental im- sector. As regards the 'industrial and laboratory fur- pact ± primary energy consumption in the use phase QDFHVDQGRYHQV¶ product group, there is a complete ± to determine the product groups with the highest (8¶V preparatory study, building on the Eco-design potential for reduction of GHG emissions. System- Directive. However, an absence of a summary con- atic identification of these product groups, was based cerning the industrial furnaces specifically and the on the PRODCOM product list, in order the Working notable proceedings to date, can be observed. In this Plan to be drawn. Finally, the Commission drafted SDSHUWKLVµJDSLQNQRZOHGJH¶ will be attempted to the Working Plan for 2009-2011 (COM/2008/660) be covered, along with a first review on the proposed and prioritized ten product groups that have a vol- measures. ume of sales and trade of more than 200,000 units per year within the Community: Air-conditioning and ventilation systems; LEGISLATION ROUTE, FUTURE REQUIRE- Electric and fossil-fuelled heating equip- MENTS AND POLICY OPTIONS ment; Food-preparing equipment; Legislation route to date. The above men- Industrial and laboratory furnaces and ov- tioned legislative procedure which starts with the ens; suggestions and trends of a Community Directive Machine tools; and produces a specific compulsory and pan-Euro- Network, data processing and data storing pean regulation, is reflected in detail in the next chart equipment; (Figure 1). Refrigerating and freezing equipment; Sound and imaging equipment; Transformers; Water-using equipment. The industrial furnaces/burners, are included in WKH ³,QGXVWULDODQGODERUDWRU\IXUQDFHVDQGRYHQV´ JURXS LQGLFDWHG DOVR DV ³IXUQDFH EXUQHUV´ DORQJ with products that, except a high volume of sales are also of significant environmental impact: High en- ergy consumption (>1,000 PJ/year), long operating time (very high: up to 24 hours a day or high: about 8 hours a day), related emissions and waste genera- tion and other environmental impacts of materials used. However, there is a significant potential for im- provement with high potential for energy savings (estimated average > 20%) and potential for other FIGURE 1 environmental improvements (e.g. improved heat The standard legislative procedure that con- transfer systems or reduction of mass, etc.). The cludes to an EU Mandatory Regulation above prioritization occurred due to the need to fulfil the criteria of the Article 15 of the initial Eco-design In 2005, the initial version of the Eco-design Directive regarding the energy-XVLQJSURGXFWV¶YRO Directive for Energy-using Products (EuPs) was ume of sales and trade within the Community, the published, while on 21 October 2009, a recast, the level of their environmental impacts during their Eco-design Directive 2009/125/EC for Energy-re- lifecycle within the Community and the potential for lated Products (ErPs), was drafted. Before this fun- improvement in terms of these impacts. The recast damental Directive and following the first general Directive of 2009 followed establishing the basis for Directive, the Commission contracted preparing the future eco-design requirements for energy re- studies on selected product groups [5], prepared a lated products in general and then the preparatory working programme (Working Plan) [6], with the study for the abovementioned product group, prospect for revision after three years determining codenamed as ENTR Lot 4, started in 2010 and was the product groups to be covered (firstly for the years completed in 2012 [8]. 2009-2011). There were involved representatives of Finally, on 18 April 2014, the Working Docu- the Member States and interested parties (industry ment for the Eco-design Consultation Forum of the and business, trade, environmental protection and 16th of May on industrial and laboratory furnaces and consumer organizations etc.) via a consultation fo- ovens, was published, highlighting the most signifi- rum which was assisted by representatives from the cant conclusions of the preparatory study and setting Member States in a regulatory committee. [7] the appropriate issues to the Consultation Forum and The Commission preparing study regarding the the interesting parties for conversation. [9] This preparation of the Working Plan, listed 57 product Working Document demonstrates the main policy 5667 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5666-5673 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin options to be implemented and presents the first sectoral Best Available Technologies conclusions ³GUDIW PRGHOOHG´ HQHUJ\ VDYLQJV VLPXOWDQHRXVO\ (the already existing, relevant legislation) [8, 9, 14]. with some initial indicative numerical values of pos- sible measures. It also refers to the already existing First Draft Measures and Requirements. Industrial Emissions Directive (so called IED - Di- The Ecodesign PHDVXUHV¶ SURSRVDOV EDVHG RQ WKH rective 2010/75/EU) [10] and its Best Available ENTR Lot 4 preparatory study and finally depicted Technologies (BAT) Reference documents (BREFs) RQWKH(&¶V:RUNLQJ'RFXPHQWFRQFHUQLQJWKH-7 and conclusions [11] along with the Emissions Trad- base cases (medium and large sized products) as ing System (so called ETS - Directive 2003/87/EC) mentioned before, consist of the next eco-design and the Energy Efficiency Directive 2012/27/EU strategies [8, 9, 14]. (EED) and its associated legislation. [12, 13] A graphic presentation for the product group legisla- (1) Communication of the energy consump- tion route, is demonstrated below (Figure 2): tion estimates and data to the end users. This eco- design strategy concerning the energy consumption The Main Policy Options. The ENTR Lot 4 information communication to the end users, is al- preparatory study classifies furnaces depending to ready applied extensively for large industrial fur- their size to laboratory (<120 litres), small and me- naces, as part of the preliminary processes or/and the dium (laboratory capacity <10 tonnes for batch and tendering contract and the design phase of the prod- laboratory <20 tonnes / day for continuous) and fi- uct [8,9,14]. nally, large and very large (>10 tonnes capacity for batch and >20 tonnes / day for continuous). It also categorizes the product group in 7 major base cases (BCs) as follows [14]: 1) BC1: Laboratory ovens and furnaces 2) BC2: Medium size batch oven (electric /gas) 3) BC3: Batch chamber furnace (electric/gas) 4) BC4: Continuous oven (electric/gas) 5) BC5: Continuous belt furnace (electric/gas) 6) BC6: Large furnace (fossil fuel [gas]) FIGURE 2 7) BC7: Very large oven (fossil fuel [gas]) Temporal presentation of European environ- In this review, there is focus on the medium and mental legislation regarding Ecodesign in In- large sized furnaces and oven products which con- dustrial Furnaces sume approximately 1,646 TWh of energy per year together, consequently the 2-7 base cases. The 2014 Working Document concludes in two (2) Heat recovery and reuse (direct gas-fired main policy options for further investigation within base cases). This eco-design strategy refers to the di- the ENTR Lot 4 preparatory study [8, 14]: rect-(fossil fuel) fired processes. During these pro- 1. Draft proposals for Eco-design Implement- cesses the excess unused heat is partly released along ing Measures relevant for Lot 4 furnaces and ovens, with the flue gases. This heat could be reused within subdivided according to Base Case and the furnace or generally the industrial facilities. The 2. Regulating Lot 4 furnaces and ovens proposed mandatory heat recovery and reuse through the Industrial Emissions Directive (IED) measures with draft values are presented in Table 1 sectoral BAT conclusions (higher chance of being [9]. more effective, through sectoral customisation) or The heat recovery process can be achieved via sev- the Horizontal Energy Efficiency BAT conclusions, eral methods, i.e. the use of regenerative/recupera- via the same "Eco-design-style" provisions. This op- tive burners. Such burners can reduce energy con- tion would enhance IED by providing clearer energy sumption from 20% to over 50%, depending on sev- consumption targets, but should not conflict with eral factors such as the burner design, etc. The per- (76DQGLWV³EHQFKPDUNLQJ´V\VWHP centage of heat recovered by regenerators can reach The 1st Policy Option investigates the manda- 85%, while for recuperators ranges between 20%± tory energy-saving targets and strategies/measures 50%, with these percentages linked to the combus- that could be set through a daughter regulation from tion gas temperature, the size of the regenerators/re- the Eco-design directive and stand alone, without cuperators and the process. It is noteworthy that oxy- any connection with the existing legislation which fuel burners are exempted from these mandatory re- partly deals with the product group (IED & ETS). quirements because they are already very efficient The 2nd Policy Option concerns the same issues as [9, 14]. the former, but to be applied in the scope of the IED 5668 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5666-5673 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin TABLE 1 3RWHQWLDOPDQGDWRU\KHDWUHFRYHU\PHDVXUHVDFFRUGLQJWRWKH(XURSHDQ&RPPLVVLRQ¶V:RUNLQJ'RFX ment [9] Minimum amount of heat recovery per specific time period Temperature of the pro- for flue gas containing 3% oxygen Size of the process cess 2016 and afterwards % re- 2019 and afterwards % re- 2025 and afterwards % re- covered & reused covered & reused covered & reused Medium <1 000°C - (flue JDV& )OXHJDV& Large <1 000°C IOXHJDV& IOXHJDV& IOXHJDV& Medium & - IOXHJDV& IOXHJDV& A minimum of 40% heat Large & (flue JDV& recovery IOXHJDV& TABLE 2 Draft mandatory eco-design requirements for insulation based on an ambient temperature of 20°C/calm air, DFFRUGLQJWRWKH(XURSHDQ&RPPLVVLRQ¶V:RUNLQJ'RFXPHQW [9] Base Case 2 3 4 5 6 (>1000°C o.t.*) 6 (450°C to 1000°C o.t.) 7 (<450°C o.t.) Mandatory Requirements (W/m2 DZD\IURP³KRW- < 300 < 300 < 500 < 400 < 500 < 400 < 200 VSRWV´ *o.t.: operating temperature TABLE 3 Draft mandatory eco-GHVLJQUHTXLUHPHQWVUHJDUGLQJ³Ȝ´PD[LPXPYDOXHVDFFRUGLQJWR the European &RPPLVVLRQ¶V:RUNLQJ'RFXPHQW> @ Time Frame Ȝmax value per Fuel NG LPG Fuel Oil 2016 and afterwards 1.25 1.25 Not Yet Determined 2019 and afterwards 1.15 1.15 Not Yet Determined (3) Improved insulation (electricity and di- furnaces only, at higher temperatures and are pre- rect gas-fired base cases). Improved insulation can sented in Table 3. ³Ȝ´ ODPEGDYDOXH LVGHILQHGDV FRQWULEXWHWRIXUQDFH¶VHIILFLHQF\WKURXJKUHducing (actual mass ratio of air/fuel) / (stoichiometric mass heat losses by keeping the temperature stable. This ratio of air/fuel). 7KHORZHUWKH³Ȝ´YDOXHWKHORZHU eco-design strategy has also another advantage: the fuel consumption. [8, 9, 14] while heat recovery and optimized fuel/air ratio ap- These measures regarding fuel/air ratio, do not ply only on direct fossil fuel combustion, improved apply on electric furnaces and where special atmos- insulation can be implemented for electrical heating pheric conditions are required (i.e. reducing atmos- also. The first draft eco-design mandatory require- phere). ments concerning improved insulation, are shown in All of the above eco-design measures cover a Table 2 (ovens set for maximum temperatures of large range of furnaces. But due to the heterogeneity 450°C & furnaces set for maximum temperatures and complexity of the processes, applications, user of >450°C). The external wall surface temperatures requirements and the product group contents in gen- away from the hot-spots and the corresponding wall eral, there is a number of limitations and exceptions heat losses are considered as: for temperatures 40 - in furnaces and the associated equipment (such as 50°C Æ 200 - 300 W/m2 of heat losses respectively burners) even on a base case to base case level, in (for ovens) and for temperatures 60 - 70°C Æ 400 - terms of the proposed mandatory requirements and 500 W/m2 of heat losses respectively (for furnaces). measures. Any specific exceptions and limitations [8, 9, 14] are omitted and not presented as well as they are be- yond the aims of this review. (4) Optimised control of fuel/air ratio (indi- Some representative examples of typical fur- rect gas-fired base cases). Optimal management of naces and ovens and the corresponding characteris- the fuel/air ratio can result to lesser amount of fuel tics, performance parameters and improvement esti- used to achieve the desired temperatures inside the mates through current BAT are presented in the Ta- furnace. The draft mandatory eco-design measures bles 4 & 5. These values are based on data provided demonstrated in the European CommisVLRQ¶V:RUN by stakeholders according to the ENTR Lot 4 Euro- ing Document, apply to indirect-fired fossil fuels pean study. The Eco-design options proposals were 5669 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5666-5673 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin built on processing of data similar to these, after ex- parameters (per industrial sector, process etc.), along tensive analyzes and calculations, combining several with the corresponding stakeholders data, calcula- indicators and parameters.[8, 9, 14] tion methods, estimations, assumptions and re- At this point it should be mentioned, that the strictions, are demonstrated in detail in the ENTR previously, briefly presented performance parame- Lot 4 European study (Task 5)[8, 9, 14]. ters, are indicative and by no case cover the range of processes and furnaces types. The full performance TABLE 4 Types of EU Furnaces and their Operational Characteristics according to the ENTR Lot 4 European study [8] Average Power Rate Working Hours, Capacity Utili- Type of Furnace/Oven Energy Consumption (MW) zation Cement Rotary Kiln 130 1000 GWh/year 8000 h/year, 60% Flat glass melting gas 60 156 ± 477 GWh/year Continuous for 15 years Rotary ferrous melting furnace gas 1 ± 4 200 to 27,000 MWh/year 10 h/day Rotary non-ferrous melting gas 1 ± 4 300 ± 43,000 MWh/year (copper) 10 h/day Steel wire heat treatment (various, 1.1 ± 1.5 11 GWh/year 8000 h/year, 90% gas) Steel wire galvanizing (various, 0.3 ± 1 7.2 GWh/year 8000 h/year, 90% gas) 1 ± 20 6.4 ± 128 GWh/year 8000 h/year, 80% Heat treatment aluminium gas < 1 4 GWh/year 6500 h/year, 60% Wall tile kiln 6 14,000 MWh/year (estimate) 335 days/year Sanitary ware kiln 5 12,000 MWh/year (estimate) 335 days/year TABLE 5 Indicative Performance Parameters for EU Furnaces according to ENTR Lot 4 European study [8] Maximum Process Energy Saving Type of Furnace Worst Average Best BAT Temperature (°C) Estimate Heat Recovery from combustion gases Flat glass melting gas 30% 45% 56% 60% 5% Rotary ferrous melting 10% 12% 20% 20% 5% (gas) Rotary non-ferrous melting 0% 10% 25% 25% 10% (gas) Fossil Fuel / Air Ratio supplied to BXUQHUVDVȜYDOXHV Cement Rotary Kiln 1.25 1.15 1.05 1.05 1% 1.1 (NG), Wall tile kiln 1.25 1.2 1.1 1% 1.25 (LPG) 1.1 (NG), Sanitary ware kiln 1.25 1.2 1.1 1% 1.25 (LPG) Heat Loss (W/m2) from external surface of insulation Steel wire heat treatment 3% (20% of insu- 1100 600 410 290 230 (various, gas) lation losses) Steel wire galvanizing 6% (30% of insu- 450 750 540 410 290 (various, gas) lation losses) Heat treatment aluminium 500 450 365 300 200 6% Flue Gas Temperatures at 3% oxygen Steel wire heat treatment 1100 900 at 0.5% 750 at 0.5% 600 at 0.5% 200 at 0.5% 25% (various, gas) (austenitizing) (790 at 3%) (659 at 3%) (527 at 3%) (176 at 3%) 20% using heat exchangers 45% Rotary ferrous melting gas 1600 700 600 450 450 using oxy-fuel burners 10% (recovered 265 237 Cement Rotary Kiln 1450 350 237 heat must be (280 at 2%) (250 at 2%) used elsewhere) 5670 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5666-5673 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin TABLE 6 Energy Consumption per annum and per base case according to (XURSHDQ&RPPLVVLRQ¶V:RUNLQJ'RFXPHQW [9] Base Case Energy Consumption (TWh) 2-5 (small-medium size) 211 TWh/year 6-7 (large size) 1 435 TWh/year Total 1 646 TWh/year 1 650 TWh/year with the 4TWh/year of the laboratory devices added. However including en- ergy consumption both in the manufacture/dispose phase and the use phase FIGURE 3 FIGURE 4 EU studies predictions on final energy consump- EU studies predictions on final energy consump- tion by applying Eco-design measures, for the tion by applying IED BAT measures for the 2014- 2014-2035 period. Based on data obtained from SHULRG%DVHGRQGDWDREWDLQHGIURP(&¶V (&¶V:RUNLQJ'RFXPHQWǹnnex Ǽ>@ :RUNLQJ'RFXPHQWǹnnex Ǽ>@ Potential Energy savings. According to the ,QWKH(&¶V:RUNLQJ'RFXPHQWDQGWKH(175 (XURSHDQ &RPPLVVLRQ¶V :RUNLQJ 'RFXPHQW Lot 4 study, the results of the calculations for the (2014), the Industrial Furnaces and Ovens product LLCC usually coincide with the BAT (Best Availa- group energy consumption per year depending on ble Technology) scenario. [8, 9, 14] each base case, is formed as in Table 6. Large indus- In Figure 4 (Policy 2), the IED BAT policy op- trial furnaces consume almost 87% of the total EU27 WLRQ¶VSUHGLFWLRQVDUHUHSUHVHQWHG,('%$7UHIHUV industrial IXUQDFHV¶HQHUJ\FRQVXPSWLRQDQGDSSUR[ to the Best Available Technologies implementation LPDWHO\RIWKH(XURSHDQ8QLRQ¶V,QGXVWULDO6HF under the Industrial Emissions Directive (IED) tor energy consumption [8, 9, 14]. BREF mechanism, or under the Horizontal Energy The next charts, based on Annex E of the Eu- Efficiency BAT conclusions, or the comparative as- URSHDQ&RPPLVVLRQ¶V:RUNLQJ'RFXPHQW>@UHS sessment (hypothetically) via the Emissions Trading resent the energy savings that will occur if the pro- System (ETS) (or both IED and ETS) for the existing SRVHGSROLFLHV¶UHTXLUHPHQWVDUHLPSOHPHQWHG )LJ industrial furnaces stock (parts renewal, etc) and new ures 3, 4). There are two main policy options as de- sales. There are three time-related scenarios (except scribed in the previous paragraphs (Eco-design the No action as mentioned before) for this policy: a) measures & BAT according to IED) that are pro- the Optimistic scenario ~ BAT implementation on posed to be adopted. In Figure 3 (Policy 1), three 2016, b) the Pessimistic scenario ~ BAT implemen- main scenarios are demonstrated (considering tation on 2022 and c) the Pragmatic scenario ~ BAT measures only for new products - new sales) [14]: implementation on 2018. The energy savings arith- 1) The No action scenario, considering that metic results are the same between these 3 scenarios there will be no energy saving technologies/ ± the only difference occurs to the year of implemen- measures for the forecast time period (until 2035), tation [14, 15-18]. 2) The (proposed) Eco-design measures policy The estimations show that the proposed man- scenario, and datory Eco-design requirements/measures would 3) The Least Life Cycle Cost (LLCC) scenario have almost immediate energy-saving results com- ± a reference/ hypothetical scenario for what would pared with the No Action scenario. More specifi- occur if the LLCC option were to be hypothetically cally, the mandatory Eco-design measures are ex- implemented from 2016. pected to provide 10% energy savings on 2035 com- pared to the No Action Scenario for all base cases 5671 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5666-5673 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin and the respective LLCC/BAT hypothetical scenario 96/57/EC and 2000/55/EC of the European Par- 12.9% energy savings for all base cases as a whole liament and of the Council. Official Journal of (including base case 1). On the other hand, the BAT the European Union, L191/29 ± L191/58. under the IED are expected to provide 19.2% energy [2] European Commission (2009) Directive 2009/ savings compared to the No Action scenario. [14] 125/EC of the European Parliament and of the The estimation for the potential energy savings Council of 21 October 2009 establishing a fra- technically available, calculated over a 25 year pe- mework for the setting of ecodesign require- riod, from 2011 to 2035, for all ovens and furnaces ments for energy-related products (recast) (Text if the best available technology (BAT) and also least with EEA relevance). Official Journal of the Eu- life cycle costs (LLCC) is implemented, is almost 90 ropean Union, L285/10 ± L285/35. TWh/year, with 82 TWh/year occuring from the [3] European Commission (2010) Directive 2010/ large furnaces and ovens (approximately 91% of the 30/EU of the European Parliament and of the total savings). [9] Council of 19 May 2010 on the indication by la- belling and standard product information of the consumption of energy and other resources by CONCLUSIONS energy-related products (recast) (Text with EEA relevance). Official Journal of the European Un- European environmental legislation process ion, L153/1 ± L153/12. concerning the eco-design of industrial furnaces/ [4] Okopol Institut fur Okologie und Politik GmbH. burners is not yet completed and in any case has not Overview Ecodesign. [Online] Available from: reached final conclusions. Until now, a basic frame- http://www.eup-network.de/product-groups/ov- work of draft, indicative measures and correspond- erview-ecodesign/, (last accessed on 04/04/ ing proposals are indicated. These proposals will be 2015). reviewed and re-evaluated, but nevertheless, reflect [5] Psomopoulos, C.S., Avramikos, I., Hermmann, an initial effort to conclude gradually, to the final, C., Saraev, A. (2007) Study for preparing the mandatory and official regulations. The forecasted first Working Plan of the Ecodesign Directive, energy savings are encouraging, however the Con- Report for tender No: ENTR/06/026. [Online] sultation Forum of the 16th of May of 2014 expressed Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/- doubts for the proposed strategies and policy op- publication/260724201_Study_for_preparing_ tions, due to the highly probable obstacles regarding the_first_Working_Plan_of_the_EcoDesign_ the possibility of checking the compliance and the Directive?ev=prf_pub, (last accessed on implementation of the measures in the industrial 05/02/2016). market. Different stakeholders, had also expressed [6] European Commission (2008) Communication their objections with several arguments, such as the from the Commission to the Council and the Eu- custom design of the majority of the industrial fur- ropean Parliament, Establishment of the work- naces, requiring a case by case approach that cannot ing plan for 2009-2011 under the Ecode-sign be covered by general measures. There is also al- Directive. (COM 2008 660). Available from: ready existing legislation (i.e. IED) that ± according http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/Lex-UriS- to the stakeholders - legally covers the specific envi- erv.do?uri=COM:2008:0660:FIN:en:PDF, (last ronmental issues. However, a possible combination accessed on 05/02/2016). of the already existing related legislation of the In- [7] Irrek, W., Barthel, C., Jepsen D., Reintjes, N. dustrial Emissions, Energy Efficiency, the draft Me- (2010). Ecodesign Directive Executive Sum- dium Combustion Plant (MCP) Directives and the mary, Summary report on Task 14 within the ENTR Lot 4 Impact Assessment which is also ongo- IUDPHZRUNRIWKH³Material Efficiency and Re- ing, with the measures of the Eco-design Directive, VRXUFH &RQVHUYDWLRQ´ (MaRess) Project. [On- could have significant effects in terms of reducing line] Available from: http://ressourcen.wupper- the energy consumption and minimizing the rest en- inst.org/downloads/MaRess_AP14_6_Ex- vironmental impacts. ecSummary.pdf, (last accessed on 07/04/2015) [8] Goodman, P., Robertson, C., Skarstein, A., Ly- ons, L. and Pahal, S. (2012) Sustainable Indus- REFERENCES trial Policy ± Building on the Eco-design Di- rective ± Energy-Using Products Group Analy- [1] European Commission (2005) Directive 2005/ sis / 2, Lot 4: Industrial and Laboratory Furnaces 32/EC of the European Parliament and of the and Ovens ±Tasks 1 ± 7 Final Report. [On-line] (ENTR Lot 4 Final Report). Available from: Council Of 6 July 2005, Establishing A Frame- https://circabc.europa.eu/sd/a/468c3956-4e3a- work for The Setting of Ecodesign Require- 4903-a82d-596bbfa4c08d/ENTR%20Lot- ments For Energy-Using Products and amend- %204%20Final%20Report.pdf, (last accessed ing Council Directive 92/42/EEC and Directives on 05/02/2016) 5672 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5666-5673 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin [9] European Commission (2014) Working Docu- Council on the limitation of emissions of certain ment for the Ecodesign Consultation Forum on pollutants into the air from medium combustion Industrial and Laboratory Furnaces and Ovens plants (Text with EEA relevance). [Online] (ENTR Lot 4), 16 May 2014 (ENTR/B1/- Available through: http://www.euro-parl.eu- mjb/Lot 4). ropa.eu/meetdocs/2014_2019/documents/ [10] European Commission (2010) Directive 2010/ com/com_com%282013%290919_/com_com 75/EU of the European Parliament and of the %282013%290919_en.pdf, (last accessed on Council of 24 November 2010 on industrial 04/04/2015) emissions (Integrated Pollution Prevention and [17] The European Ceramic Industry Association Control) (Recast) (Text with EEA relevance). (2014) Cerame-8QLH¶V3RVLWLRQRQthe Working Official Journal of the European Union, L334/ Document for The Ecodesign Consultation Fo- 17 ± L334/119. rum on Industrial and Laboratory Furnaces and [11] European Commission, Official Website. Joint Ovens. [Online] Available through: http://-cera- Research Centre. Institute for Prospective Tech- meunie.eu/topics/environment-health/envi-ron- nological Studies (IPTS). Reference Docu- ment/no-eco-design-necessary-for-indust-rial- ments. Best Available Techniques Reference furnaces/, (last accessed on 05/02/2016) Document (BREFs). (Online) Available [18] Glass Alliance Europe (2012) Statement on eco- through: http://eippcb.jrc.ec.europa.eu/referen- design for industrial furnaces ± April 2012: ce/, (last accessed on 04/04/2015) Glass Alliance Europe reiterates concerns on [12] European Commission (2003) Directive 2003/ Eco-Design of Furnaces Draft Final Report ± 87/EC Of the European Parliament and of the calls for glass to be excluded. [Online] Availa- Council of 13 October 2003 establishing a ble through: http://www.glassalliance-eu- scheme for greenhouse gas emission allowance rope.eu/en/statements-and-publications. trading within the Community and amending Council Directive 96/61/EC (Text with EEA relevance). Official Journal of the European Un- ion, L275/32 ± L275/46. [13] European Commission (2012) Directive 2012/ 27/EU of the European Parliament and of the Received: 07.04.2017 Council of 25 October 2012 on energy effici- Accepted: 21.07.2017 ency, amending Directives 2009/125/EC and 2010/30/EU and repealing Directives 2004/ 8/EC and 2006/32/EC (Text with EEA rele- CORRESPONDING AUTHOR vance). Official Journal of the European Union, L315/1 ± L315/56. Constantiunos S Psomopoulos [14]European Commission (2014) Annexe of the Department of Electrical Engineering Working Document for the Ecodesign Consul- Piraeus University of Applied Sciences tation Forum on Industrial and Laboratory Fur- 12244, Egaleo, Athens ± GREECE naces and Ovens (ENTR Lot 4), 16 May 2014: Initial Indicative Draft Impact Assessment En- E-mail: [email protected], [email protected] ergy Savings According to Modelled Policy Op- tions and Furnace/ Oven Base Cases. [Online] Available through (Swedish Energy Agency): https://www.energimyndigheten.se/g-lobalas- sets/energieffektivisering/produkter-me-d- krav/ugnar-industriella-och-laboratorie/ann- ex_e_policy_options_final.pdf, (last accessed on 15/04/2016) [15] (XURSHDQ (QYLURQPHQWDO &LWL]HQV¶ 2UJDQLVD- tion for Standardisation (ECOS), (2014) Offi- cial Website. Position on the draft EC Working Documents on the Ecodesign and Energy Label- ling of industrial and laboratory Ovens and Fur- naces. [Online] Available through: http://www.ecostandard.org/wp-content/uplo- ads/ENGOs-comments-on-Ovens-Furnaces-po- st-CF-June-2014.pdf, (last accessed on 04/04/ 2015) [16] European Commission (2013) Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the 5673 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5674-5684 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin A SIMPLIFIED DECISION MAKING APPROACH FOR THE ENERGY RENOVATION OF BUILDINGS: THE CASE OF THE DADIA FOREST HOTEL SETTLEMENT Thomas Psilovikos1,*, Agis Papadopoulos2, Kosmas Doukas3 1School of Forestry and Natural Environment, Department of Forest and Water Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124, Thessaloniki ± Greece 2School of Mechanical Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124, Thessaloniki, Greece 3School of Forestry and Natural Environment, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 59 Mouschounti & Demokritou str, 55134, Thessaloniki, Greece ABSTRACT KEYWORDS: climatic parameters, thermal comfort, bioclimatic design, energy performance, forest environment Settlements in forest areas are subject to re- strictions and rules that differ quite significantly IURP WKRVH RI ³UHJXODU´ EXLOGLQJV 7KH FDVH VWXG\ INTRODUCTION considered in this paper is of a settlement consisting of the administration building, a traditional timber restaurant and an ecotourism hotel situated in Dadia Buildings account for almost 40% of the ener- protected wildlife forest, in Greece. The bioclimatic gy consumption in Europe [1]. The efforts of the renovation of the settlement in order to reduce en- international scientific community against climatic ergy consumption relies on the collection of climat- change resulted in the adoption of directives and LFGDWDDQGRIGDWDRQWKHEXLOGLQJ¶VSHUIRUPDQFH standards and guidelines concerning the energy which depend on in-situ measurements. Low cost performance of buildings, such as the European instruments were used to measure climatic parame- &RPPLVVLRQ¶V (Qergy Performance Buildings Di- ters (air temperature, relevant humidity, solar radia- rective (2010/31/EU) [2], the ASHRAE standard tion, wind speed and direction) in the area. 90.1:2013 [3] and the International Energy Conser- Small scale business are lacking adequate vation Code for buildings (IECC) [4]. funds and specialized scientists. Furthermore, due Thermal comfort, together with indoor air to economic crisis they cannot attract managers to quality, has also been in the focus of scientific and undertake a formal decision making process. The regulatory effort, and developments moved on at a methodology used provides a simplified approach pace similar to that of the energy performance [6]. of decision making that can be applied in building The main international standards concerning ther- renovation linked to the improvement of energy mal comfort conditions tools for improving energy performance of ecotourism hotel. These actions are performance without compromising indoor thermal based on bioclimatic design techniques and green comfort of buildings are the U.S. American Stand- building concept methods that have been success- ards Institute ANSI/ASHRAE-55/2010 (2013) [7], fully applied in practice in Greece providing a and ISO 7730/2005 [8] (International Organization combination of cost effectiveness and optimum for Standardization) and European Standard EN energy consumption outcome in compliance to 15251/2007 [9]. In Greece the corresponding European and national directives actions against framework is the national regulation on energy climate change. performance, KENAK [10], accompanied by the The results revealed a low annual average four technical guidelines TOTEE 20701, parts 1 to wind velocity, of 1.90 m/s, an annual monthly aver- 4 [10]. age solar insolation of 150 W/m2, an annual tem- In order to define thermal comfort several perature range of -3.1 to 36.3 °C and of relevant mathematical models and indices have been devel- humidity from 20.6 to 100%. The proposed biocli- oped over time. The main disadvantage of these matic renovation actions focused on the alteration models and indices are their complexity in terms of of the HVAC systems proposing the use of biomass calculations, the required special instruments and for heating, installation of sun thermal systems for the need for controlled experiment environment. hot water and ceiling cooling fans, combined with The whole process is far beyond the capabilities of passive design measures, such as, the enhancement a standard team of users. Usually the implementa- of insulation, the replacement of old windows and tion is carried out by academics and specialized exploitation of natural ventilation. scientists (Eipstein and Moran, 2006) [11]. Fur- thermore, due to the economic crisis [5], it not affordable for small and medium size businesses to 5674 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5674-5684 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin respond to the required investment for the imple- Dadia forest covers an area of 428 km2, 72.9km2 mentation of a complete decision making procedure out of which are strictly protected. consisting of multiple tools and high cost instru- The research area is limited to the building es- ments [12]. This paper presents a simplified cost tablishments and its surrounding area of the Dadia- effective approach in order to measure and record Lefkimi-Soufli Management Body at an altitude of the basic climatic parameters as well as for the 93m above sea situated at the east side of the forest decision making process for the selection of reno- road (Figure 2) operating as an entrance to the visi- vation techniques for optimizing the energy perfor- tors. mance of the ecotourism hotel. The research area is a famous wild bird con- servation and protection area where visitors have the opportunity to observe wild birds from watch towers that are spread within the Dadia forest. The ecotourism hotel located at this area is the main accommodation building for visitors. The need for improvement of energy performance of the ecotour- ism hotel is justified for the following reasons: 1. Increasing trend in ecotourism, attracting users that are environmentally aware. In order to take advantage of this trend it is of vital importance to comply to environmental building regulations as well. The forest environment alone is not enough for visitors that are highly concerned with environ- mental issues so their accommodation should also FIGURE 1 meet environmental standards. Location of Dadia forested National Park at the 2. The need for reduction of energy consump- North-East borders of Greece tion for economic and environmental reasons. 3. The economic crisis led to reduced funds for building's operation expenses as well as for energy saving actions imposing a need for low cost measures and decisions making procedures. 4. The potential for job creation as a social im- pact for the local community with respect to wood fuel production in a sustainable manner. The decision making on proposed renovation- retrofit actions for the improvement of energy per- formance at existing buildings requires the imple- mentation of multiple procedures. These procedures consist of installation of instruments recording local FIGURE 2 climatic data and technical tools such as energy The research area and the positions of recording simulation programs. Furthermore, analytical tools instruments source: Google Earth 2015 such as Life Cycle Assessment, Life Cycle Cost and cost/benefit analysis implementation are of vital importance, not to mention procedural tools like Environmental Management systems or rating MATERIALS AND METHODS Systems [14]. The Greek ministry of Environment, Energy and Climate change in cooperation with Research Area. The area under consideration Technical Chamber of Greece published technical is the protected forested National Park of Dadia- guidance documents [30, 31] as implementation Lefkimi-Soufli situated on North East borders of tools for the national Regulation on the Energy Greece as shown in Figure 1. The area is managed Performance of Buildings KENAK [10] concerning by the Dadia-Lefkimi-Soufli Management Body building's energy performance calculation methods [13], an Institution enacted by law by the Ministry and as a guide for the implementation of bioclimat- of Environment, Energy and Climatic Change as ic techniques towards the aim of nearly zero energy part of the network of Institutions of Protected building scheme. Those pieces of legislation are the Regions founded in 2003. Apart from protection harmonization of the Directives 31/2010/EU [2], on activities the Dadia-Lefkimi-Soufli Management the energy performance of buildings and on energy Body is implementing events and programs of envi- efficiency 27/2012/EU [15]. Specifically the latter ronmental education and have the ability to ac- states that all member states must establish a long- commodate visitors mainly interested in ecotourism term strategy for mobilizing cost effective invest- and recreation within the forest environment. The ments approaches in the renovation of the national 5675 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5674-5684 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin TABLE 1 Characteristics of the instruments and software used based on selected criteria Instrument Label Type of Measurements Recording characteristics Accuracy &RVW ¼ Power Predictor 2.0 [20] Every 10min Wind Speed (m/s) -10 to 50°C and 0 to 100 % RH Wind direction (deg) 50 m/s max air speed +/- 3% 405 actual solar output power >3 months continuous operation forecasts (W/m2) Memory stick Hobo U-12-011 × 2 +/- 0.35°C ( 0 Indoor Loggers [21] Every 30 min Air temperature °C to 50°C) -20 to 70°C 120 × 2 = 5 to 95 % 240 Relevant Humidity (%) +/- 2.5% to memory of 43000 measurements 3.5% Hobo U-23-002 Outdoor Logger [22] +/- 0.2 °C (-40 Air temperature °C Every 30 min to 70°C) 157 Relevant Humidity (%) Memory of 21000 measurements +/- 2% to 3.5% Total Cost: 911 The recording period was from April 2013 to September 2014. building stock both public and private [16]. The need for simplification. Earlier research showed aim is to provide technical details for designing that thermal comfort is strongly related to the ther- buildings with less energy consumption, incorpora- mal balance of the body, therefore temperature tion of renewable energy sources and reduction of being the most important parameter on human per- emissions against climate change phenomenon. ception, concerning thermal comfort [12]. Follow- ing these findings Toftum et.al [18, 19] experi- Instrument recordings of climate data. The mented in the percentage of dissatisfied persons most commonly accepted index is the Predicted from fluctuations of air temperature and air humidi- Mean Vote - Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied ty, setting upper limits of air humidity for thermal persons (PMV-PPD) developed by P.O. Fanger [17] comfort. These findings led to the determination of and has been adopted by the ASHRAE-55 [7], ISO a diagram depicted in Figures 7 and 8, consisting of 7730 [8] and EN 15251 [9] standards which set the air temperature against air humidity defining ther- requirements for indoor thermal conditions. The mal comfort and satisfaction zones. This diagram complexity of the above methods has been a draw- has been adopted in this case for its practicality on back resulting in need for simplification and this is checking the indoor thermal comfort conditions. a usual for most scientific operations that require the use of special instruments and equipment [16]. The instruments and software selection has Earlier research showed that thermal comfort is been made based on the following criteria, in line strongly related to the thermal balance of the body, with valid standards and guidelines [19]. therefore temperature being the most important x Ability to record continuously specific cli- parameter on human perception, concerning ther- matic parameters for prolonged period. mal comfort [11]. Following these findings Toftum x Accuracy of measurements. et.al [18, 19] experimented in the percentage of x Cost. dissatisfied persons from fluctuations of air temper- x Convenience, user friendly processing of ature and air humidity, setting upper limits of air data humidity for thermal comfort. These findings led to the determination of a diagram, consisting of air (1) Positioning of Instruments. The Instru- temperature against air humidity defining thermal ments have been positioned indoors and outdoors at comfort and satisfaction zones. This diagram has specific locations as shown on Figure 2 for the fol- been adopted (Figures 7, 8) in this case for its prac- lowing reasons: ticality on checking the indoor thermal comfort 1. The Power predictor 2.0 [20] mounted on conditions. the timber kiosk located on the hill with the maxi- The most commonly accepted index for ther- mum altitude of 134.5m labeled Instr.1 mal comfort is the Predicted Mean Vote - Predicted 2. The Hobo data logger U-12-011 [21] Percentage of Dissatisfied persons (PMV-PPD) placed inside a timber lodge on the hill labeled developed by P.O. Fanger [17] and has been adopt- Instr.2 to measure indoor conditions without a heat- ed by the aforementioned ASHRAE-55, ISO ing system. 7730[7] and EN 15251 [8] standards. The complex- 3. The Hobo data logger U-12-011 inside the ity of this method has been a drawback leading to a ecotourism hotel at the reception area labeled as 5676 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5674-5684 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin Instr.3 in order to measure thermal comfort condi- than from national data bases, in order to obtain tions in the building on a daily basis. reliable climatic data of the research area. 4. The Hobo data logger U-23-002 [22] out- Based on a significant number of surveys con- side the coffee-restaurant timber lodge facing north, cerning application of renovation-retrofit applica- labeled as Instr.4 in order to measure the external tions conducted in practice during the last 25 years conditions protected from sun influence. throughout the country by specialized contractors in the renovation market, it was found that a number Building characteristics. The building under of energy-saving measures have been recorded as consideration is a small ecotourism hotel named the most important with successful energy reduc- ³Hotel Inn´ Ecotourism Hotel of Dadia´. It is situ- tion results [16]. These refer to the existing building ated at the east side of the research area (Figure 2). stock relating to the building shell, heating and It consists of two longitudinal rows of one storey cooling systems, hot water systems, etc. (Table 2). and two storey semi-detached rooms and a break- According to research conducted by Hotel En- fast hall with a longitudinal patio in between. The ergy Solutions (2011) [23] in more than 1,200 ho- building's characteristics are: tels across Europe it was found that at most hotels, 1. Twenty double bed rooms with an average energy use falls in the range 200-400 kWh/m2/yr size of 15 m2 each, a breakfast hall of 128 m2 and a DQGWKHKRWHOVHFWRU¶VFRQWULEXWLRQWRJOREDOZDUP reception area of 25 m2, summing to a total area of ing and climate change, is estimated to include 2 453m . annual releases between 160 and 200 kg of CO2 per 2. Mainly intermittent (weekends) and season- m2 of room floor area. Space conditioning (heat- al use. ing/cooling, ventilation and air-conditioning) is the 3. A central 232 kW oil boiler for heating and largest single end-user of energy in hotels, account- 25 individual air condition systems for cooling ing for approximately half of the total consumption. needs Domestic hot water is commonly the second largest 4. Three solar thermal collectors for water user, accounting for up to 15% of the total energy heating of 200liters volume each. demand. Based on studies carried out in Greece, it 5. Recently renovated, focused on decoration, was determined that the main measures for energy alterations of space usage, replacement of electrical, conservation can be summarized in Table 2 [24, mechanical equipment and plumping networks 16]. (drainage and water supply), without including any Point 6 is of importance, as the national regu- works for the improvement of its energy perfor- lation on energy performance [10] requires that new mance. buildings, but also those undergoing major renova- 6. Wood frame windows and doors that are tion, must cover at least 60% of the energy required partly compliant with energy saving standards. for hot water by the use of solar thermal systems or The area is characterized by a heating load of other renewables. 1,798 Heating Degree Days (base temperature 18°C) of and only 136 Cooling Degree Days (base temperature 24°C). Therefore, the energy require- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ments are mainly for heating. Still, in order to en- sure comfort for the guests even in summer, each Climatic analysis results. The data analysis has room has an air-conditioning unit, i.e. a split-unit been focused on the main climatic parameters of air heat pump. This need for cooling appliances is temperature, relevant humidity, wind speed, wind justified by the fact that although the cooling degree direction and solar insolation. The results cover the days are limited to 136°C, the numbers of hours recorded period of 12 to 18 months depending on exceeding 28°C in the hottest months (July-August) the parameter analyzed, considering mean values. are 496. In that sense, in a short period of two The data have been exported from the software months, it can become quite uncomfortable. interfaces of the instruments into Microsoft Excel Forested areas have their own microclimate, from which the Figures 3 to 8 produced. imposing a need for on-site measurements, rather TABLE 2 Important energy saving renovation measures on existing Greek building stock Percentage Saving [%] Indicative Cost No Energy Saving Measure Thermal Energy Electricity 1 Wall thermal insulation 33-60 Up to 50>¼P2] 2 Restoration of glazed units (windows, doors, frames) 14-20 200-250 [¼unit] 3 Installation of new high efficient heating systems Up to 17 8000-10000 >¼XQLW@ 4 Installation of ceiling fans Up to 60 >¼XQLW@ 5. Night ventilation Up to 10 6 Installation of solar hot water systems 50-80 1000 >¼XQLW@ 7. Increased air tightness 16-21 5677 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5674-5684 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin FIGURE 3 Monthly mean wind speed ϮϱϬ ϮϬϬ Ϯ ϭϱϬ tͬŵ ϭϬϬ ϱϬ Ϭ FIGURE 4 Mean monthly solar insolation (W/m2) ϯϬ Ϯϱ ϮϬ KƵƚĚŽŽƌƐ ϭϱ /ŶĚŽŽƌƐ ϭϬ EŽ ŚĞĂƚŝŶŐ ŝƌdĞŵƉĞƌĂƚƵƌĞΣ ϱ /ŶĚŽŽƌƐ ǁŝƚŚ Ϭ ŚĞĂƚŝŶŐ FIGURE 5 Monthly mean air temperature over the recording period The calculated average monthly values over a 69.50% and the minimum daily average was 14 months period for wind velocity is 1.90m/s and 39.6%. the average monthly value of solar insolation for a 12 months period (April 2013- March 2014) has Proposed measures for optimization of been equal to 150 W/m2. The minimum and maxi- build-LQJ¶s energy performance. The improve- mum air temperature values over the 18 months ment of energy performance of existing buildings is period was -3.1°C and 36.3 °C and the correspond- a strive accomplishment compared to the applica- ing minimum and maximum of relevant humidity tion of bioclimatic design at the design stage and was 20.6% and 100%. Finally, focusing on relative likewise the cost is much higher for existing build- humidity during summer (Figure 9.), the recorded ings renovation or retrofit. The following proposed maximum daily average relative humidity was renovation-retrofit measures are based on facts of 5678 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5674-5684 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin successful renovations in practice. Their success is A) Passive building design improvements. measured according to their output concerning 1. One of the most successful measures towards the energy consumption reduction, enhancement of reduction of energy consumption is the increase of efficiency and increasing the share of renewable insulation. Placement on the outside is more suita- energy sources for energy production at the build- ble for permanent use like residential buildings ing sector and specifically at hotels. The actions are while placement on the interior is favorable for categorized into (A) passive building design tech- hotels or vacation use because the interior insula- niques and (B) HVAC systems alteration for energy tion increases the responsiveness of the heating production. system in order to reach thermal comfort conditions [25]. The challenge by the application of internal ϭϬϬ ϵϬ ϴϬ ϳϬ ϲϬ KƵƚĚŽŽƌƐ ϱϬ ϰϬ /ŶĚŽŽƌƐEŽ ϯϬ ŚĞĂƚŝŶŐ ZĞůĞǀĂŶƚ,ƵŵŝĚŝƚLJй ϮϬ /ŶĚŽŽƌƐǁŝƚŚ ϭϬ ŚĞĂƚŝŶŐ Ϭ FIGURE 6 Monthly mean relevant humidity over the recording period ϭϬϬ ϭϬϬ ϵϬ ϵϬ Wet unpleasant Wet unpleasant ϴϬ ϴϬ ϳϬ ϳϬ Comfort zone ϲϬ ϲϬ ϱϬ ϱϬ ϰϬ ϰϬ Comfort zone ZĞůĂƚŝǀĞ,ƵŵŝĚŝƚLJй ZĞůĂƚŝǀĞ,ƵŵŝĚŝƚLJй ϯϬ ϯϬ Satisfactory zone Satisfactory zone ϮϬ ϮϬ ϭϬ Dry-unpleasant ϭϬ Dry-unpleasant Ϭ Ϭ ϭϮ ϭϰ ϭϲ ϭϴ ϮϬ ϮϮ Ϯϰ Ϯϲ Ϯϴ ϭϮ ϭϰ ϭϲ ϭϴ ϮϬ ϮϮ Ϯϰ Ϯϲ Ϯϴ Ž Ž ŝƌdĞŵƉĞƌĂƚƵƌĞ ŝƌdĞŵƉĞƌĂƚƵƌĞ FIGURE 7 FIGURE 8 November 2013 thermal comfort diagram. May 2014 thermal comfort diagram 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 ZĞůĂƚŝǀĞ,ƵŵŝĚŝƚLJй 35 30 1 3 5 7 9 111 1313 1515 1717 199 2121 2323 2525 2727 292 31 EŽŽĨĂLJƐ FIGURE 9 Average daily Relative Humidity values of July 2013 5679 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5674-5684 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin insulation to the existing walls is the possible lique- [34]. According to the Greek Energy Regulation faction of the interior humidity on the internal side [10] buildings located in the area of Dadia belong of walls due to the fact that the building becomes to climate zone C and the corresponding energy more airtight. The provision of a humidity barrier consumption for this building should be less than on the internal side of the insulation may be neces- 150 kWh/m2 in order to be acceptable [16]. The sary to avoid mould problems in colder climates. area of Dadia is a pure forested one, with an operat- ing wood production industry mainly of fuel wood. 2. Replacement of windows with certified en- The forests are managed in a sustainable way ergy conservation ones. Windows and doors are the based on rotation harvesting system in order to weakest areas of a building's fabric. The heat trans- maintain the forested area. The cost of fuel wood is fer coefficient of windows are always higher com- quite low in thHORFDOPDUNHW ¼/stacked m3). The pared to the opaque parts of the building, the differ- use of wood as a fuel that has been produced from ences being higher for old types of windows with sustainable managed forests is considered to be un-insulated frames and single glazing. Fortunately, carbon neutral and is categorized as a renewable modern windows use insulated frames and double resource of energy [2]. Oil prices are fluctuating glazing, sometimes with special heat transfer resist- considerably from \HDUWR\HDUIURP¼ WR ing gases between the glazing. Wood frames pro- ¼ PDNLQJ D IXHO EXGJHW HVWLPDWLRQ DO vide more resistance to heat transfer than aluminum most impossible. The modern wood fuel boilers ones due to the microscopic structure of wood con- provide high values of efficiency and low emissions taining pores and voids, characterized as a natural compared to stoves or older boilers [35]. insulating material with an average value of thermal Furthermore the area has plenty of space for conductivity value Ȝ equal to 0.14 W(m*K) [31] storage of wood fuel. The fully automated boilers that complies to EN ISO 13789 and 6946 (2009). are those using wood chips, but some wood logs Moreover, Wood frames will adapt better to the ones provide automated feeding of wood. The pric- forest environment for aesthetic reasons. es of wood boilers are almost the same with oil ones and those using wood chips are slightly more 3. The low annual average wind speed is not expensive but more efficient and provide a standard capable in producing energy as the threshold for automated feeding system. The advantage is clearly wind power exploitation by installing a small scale viewed from an environmental perspective, as wind turbine is 3.5m/s [30]. The locally prevailing wood is a renewable energy resource and also is winds do not exceed 2.0 m/2. Consequently any locally produced. To optimize the use of heating investment in wind turbines for energy production system with respect to energy consumption is to use is clearly not feasible. two separate boilers, one small, for periods with low occupancy and a larger for the high season. B) Improving HVAC systems for energy This would of course lead to a higher initial cost but conservation. The building was built prior to the it is probably the most cost effective one as boilers regulations for reduction of energy consumption can operate at the highest efficiency. Special care [10] and as such it does not comply with the new should be given to the good seasoning of fuel wood standards so there is a need for improvement on in order to avoid possible soot emissions. energy performance via the following measures: 2. The 20 individual air-conditioning units in- 1. Replacement of the old oil-fired heating stalled should be replaced by a central unit and system. This measure is characterized as one of the while a separate air conditioning unit, probably a most cost effective energy retrofit measures for VRV one, should cover the needs of the breakfast buildings other than residential [33]. The average lounge and the reception. Furthermore, ceiling fans oil consumption during the winter is 9 m3 corre- should be installed at each room. TKH EXLOGLQJ¶s sponding to an average of 50% reservation and a throughout openings at each room should be ex- FRUUHVSRQGLQJFRVWRI¼7KHoil consumption ploited in order to provide natural cross-ventilation. for heating has been equal to 9m3 and the corre- Natural ventilation is very effective, especially sponding energy consumed is equal to: when applied at nights during the summer period, Heating energy consumption: 9m3 × 10000 by reducing cooling loads as much as 70% depend- kWh/m3 = 90000 kWh (1) ing on duration of natural ventilation hours [26]. Heating energy consumption per square meter: The above measures should be implemented in 90000 kWh / 453m2 = 198,6 kWh/m2 (2) conjunction for better results. In temperate cli- The acceptable consumption corresponding to mates, or during moderately hot weather, ceiling the heating degree days of the area should be much fans may allow occupants to avoid using air condi- lower in order to comply with the low energy build- tioner altogether [28]. This is justified by the af- ing regulations, below 100 kWh/m2 to an average fordable daily average relative humidity values of 65 kWh/m2 while for passive houses these num- during summer (Figure 9.) that were not high ber fall even more to an average of 15 kWh/m2 enough to require operation of air conditioners. 5680 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5674-5684 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin Another aspect concerning energy consumption is ment. The proposed actions include the most suc- primary energy resources consumed. Both cooling cessful practices, aiming at a combination of pas- fans and air conditioner use electricity from the sive design and HVAC improvement measures, in a national electricity network. In Greece, electricity is sense that the optimization would be provided by produced mainly by lignite, oil and natural gas their successful combination. while only by 16% of the total national production The local climatic data, as shown from the in- comes from renewable energy sources (Ministry of situ measurements, proved the existence of a poten- Environment, Energy and Climate change, 2012) tial for the exploitation of renewable energy [29]. Not surprisingly, according to the Greek sources, specifically, solar and biomass (wood fuel) Technical Chamber's corresponding directive by installing more solar water thermal systems in 20701-1 (2012) [30] that complies to EN ISO order to cover hot water consumption and by re- 13789 and 6946 (2009), electricity has a primary placing the existing heating system that uses oil energy resources consuming factor of 2.9, the high- with a wood chips one. Furthermore, considerable est among fossil fuels, compared to 1.05 for natural reduction of energy consumption is going to be gas as 1.0 for renewable energy sources. implemented if two boilers are installed, based on the concept of using only the smaller during low 3. Increase the number of solar water heaters occupancy period. because the existing ones do not have the adequate Any investment on the exploitation of wind capacity. The consumption of hot water per person should be excluded due to the low annual average is higher at hotels compared residential buildings in wind speed. Figure (5) show the area's requirement the range of 60 to 100 lit/person depending on the for both heating and cooling. Concerning the in- hotel category [30, 31]. Thus during high season the door parameters of thermal comfort, namely the air demand reaches 2400 lit daily, 10 times the current- temperature and relevant humidity, it appears that ly existing capacity. According to the Hellenic in most cases thermal comfort is satisfactory with Network of Solar Energy [36] the yearly sum of some temperature values above limits as shown on global irradiation received by orientated PV mount- figure (8), although the number of cooling degree ed at optimum angle for the area of North east days of the area is low. The period that requires Greece ranges between 1700 to 1800 kWh/m2 (re- operation of heating system ranges from October to cording from 2002-2013) and the corresponding May. experimental solar data collection resulted to a Finally, it should be noted, that the total cost value of 1794 kWh/m2. The solar radiation values for both instruments and analysis software was are adequate to justify installation of more solar OLPLWHGWR ¼ water heaters to meet hot water demand when fully occupied. Finally one zero cost measure, but nonetheless CONCLUSIONS a very effective one, is related to the proper use of the building premises by the occupants. Occupant's The increased energy consumption of the eco- behavior plays a key role to energy consumption of tourism hotel studied calls for measures to improve a building. They may cancel any of the benefits a the energy performance in compliance to the Euro- successful energy saving renovation may offer or, pean and national regulations. The first part of the on the other hand, may enhance even more the presented simplified low cost approach on decision improvement of the energy performance of a reno- making addresses a low cost method of recording vated building. A classic misuse example is the use and analyzing climatic data, compare them to the of an air condition with open windows, when there prevailing thermal comfort conditions and evaluate is no interlock automation. ǹ notification at every WKHEXLOGLQJ¶VRYHUDOOSHUIRUPDQFH7Ke second part room will have the desired impact as hotel occu- refers to the decision making processes with respect pants notice printed information more carefully to energy saving measures applied to the building, during their stay. The information should consist of which is quite particular as it is located in a the the following tips: highly sensitive forest area of Dadia. A. Use of windows when air-conditioning is The recent renovation did not take under con- not running sideration the need for reducing the energy con- B. Setting the thermostat to the appropriate sumption of the hotel, in line with the requirements temperature of national legislation. This omission revealed a C. Do not use water and hot water excessively lack of integrated decision making procedures on As the dominant energy need of the hotel is basic aspects of building improvement issues by the for heating and hot water production, the hotel administration and a lack of specialized consulta- management body lost a good chance to improve tion. WKH KRWHO¶V energy performance during the recent The proposed actions provide a combination renovation. This revealed a matter of poor decision of passive design measures, such as the increased making, at least with respect to energy manage- insulation, replacement of old windows and exploi- 5681 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5674-5684 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin tation of natural ventilation. In addition the installa- thermal comfort criteria. (Accessed on tion of additional DHW solar systems will diminish 12/2/2016). https://moodle.metropolia.fi/ plug the use of fossil fuels in favor of renewable energy infile.php/217631/mod_resource/content/ sources. Concerning the improvement of HVAC 1/EVS_EN_ISO_7730%3B2006_en.pdf. systems, the replacement of the old oil-fired boiler [9] European Standard EN 15251 (2007) Indoor for heating, with two biomass-fired ones, with sepa- environmental input parameters for design and rate operation for low and high occupancy. All assessment of energy performance of build- those measures are based on successful building ings-addressing indoor air quality, thermal en- renovation practices, with respect to the improving viron-ment, lighting and acoustics. CEN TC the energy performance of the hotel, establishing 156. (Accessed on 6/2/2016), http://www. good thermal comfort conditions, for the particular cres.gr/greenbuilding/PDF/prend/set4/WI_ characteristics of WKH DUHD¶V VSHFLILF FOLPDWH )XU 31_Pre-FV_- thermore the method considers the cost effective- version_prEN_15251_Indoor_Environment.pdf ness of the proposed actions in order to be suitable [10] ȀǼȃǹȀ (2010) Approval of Energy Perfor- for small to medium scale businesses that cannot mance of Buildings Regulation (in Greek). afford the cost of the official decision making pro- (Accessed on 8/2/2016). http://portal.tee.gr/ cesses but also lack the scientific background or portal/page/portal/tptee/totee/FEK%20407-B- managerial skills. 2010-%20-%20KENAK.pdf [11] Epstein, Y. and Moran, D.S. (2006) Thermal Comfort and the Heat Stress Indices. Journal of REFERENCES Industrial Health, 44. 388-398. [12] Lambrou, T.P., Anastasiou, C.C., Panagiotou, [1] European Commission (2015) Horizon 2020 C.G. and Polycarpoy, M.M. 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(Accessed on 26/2/2016). http://www.domain.- Received: 07.04.2017 com.au/advice/ceiling-fans-or-air-conditioners/ Accepted: 21.07.2017 [29] Ministry of Environment, Energy and Climate change (2012) Climate Change Emissions In- ven-tory. Annual Inventory Submission under CORRESPONDING AUTHOR the Convection and the Kyoto Protocol for Greenhouse and other Gases for Years 1990- Thomas Psilovikos 2010. Greece-National Inventory Report 2012. School of Forestry and Natural Environment, (Accessed on 27/2/2016). http://unfccc.int Department of Forest and Water Engineering /national_reports/annex_i_ghg_inventories/nati Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, onal_inventories_submissions/items/6598.php 54124, Thessaloniki ± GREECE [30]Technical chamber of Greece (2012) Technical Guidance 20701-1: Analytical National para- E-mail: [email protected] meter specifications for calculation of energy ef-ficiency of Buildings and issue of energy ef- 5683 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5684-5687 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin AUTHOR INDEX A Akansu, S. O. 5556 Aldaggelou, G. 5642 B Basbas, S. 5642 Bilgil, A. 5542 Bay, T. 5542 C Ceper, B. A. 5556 Christopoulou, O. 5551 Chalatsi, M. 5589 D Dagiliute, R. 5635 Doukari, M. 5564 Dogan-Saglamtimur, N. 5537, 5542 Doukas, K. 5674 Doguc, U. 5542 E Erkekli, K. 5542 Exarchou, E. 5608 G Ganoulis, J. 5599 Gratziou, M. 5589 Gavanas, N. 5622 Gratziou, M. K. 5581 I Ioannidis, G. C. 5658, 5666 J Jeguirim, M. 5529 K Kahraman, N. 5556 Kehagia, F. 5616 Kalin, M. A. 5537 Kersiene, K. 5635 Kaminaris, S. D. 5658 Kokkotis, P. I. 5658 Kamvyssas, G. G. 5523 L Limousy, L. 5529 M Mintsis, E. 5642 Mintsis, G. 5642 P Paine, K. 5572 Pedreno, J. N. 5529 Papadatos, P. 5666 Pitsiava-Latinopoulou, M. 5616, 5642 Papadopoulos, A. 5674 Psilovikos, T. 5674 Papakonstantinou, A. 5564 Psomopoulos, C. S. 5658, 5666 Papatzani, S. 5572 S Sakellariou, S. 5551 Skoulikaris, C. 5599 Samara, F. 5551 T Tampekis, S. 5551 Tsakalidis, A. 5608, 5616, 5622 Topouzelis, K. 5564 Tsangas, M. 5529 Triantakonstantis, D. 5551 5684 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5684-5687 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin U Uysal, M. 5556 V Valavanides, M. M. 5523 Y Yildirim, G. 5542 Z Zaltauskaite, J. 5635 Zorpas, A. A. 5529 5685 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5684-5687 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin SUBJECT INDEX A academic campus 5622 AIMSUN 5642 accessibility 5622 air pollution 5635 actuated signals 5642 Analytical Herocray Process 5529 aerial photo 5564 B batteries 5658 biodegradation rate constant 5581 bioclimatic design 5674 Biogas-Hydrogen mixture 5556 C cadmium 5658 climatic parameters 5674 car fleet renewal 5635 coastal management 5564 CDEW 5572 Commuting 5622 Cellular Automata Model 5551 construction 5542 climate change 5599 Cylinder Pressure 5556 D Directive 5666 E EcoDesign 5666 environment 5537, 5542, 5658 electric field 5537 environmental impact 5642 electromagnetic pollution 5537 Environmental Impacts 5529 electromagnetic power 5537 environmental legislation 5666 Emissions 5556, 5608 EU-legislation 5572 energy performance 5674 Euro standards 5635 Energy related Products (ErPs) 5666 European Commission 5666 Energy Storage 5658 F fly ash 5542 forest environment 5674 forecast 5551 G greenhouse gases 5608 H higher education 5622 hydroelectric plants 5599 I image processing 5564 Internal Combustion Engine 5556 industrial furnaces/burners 5666 L lightweight wall material 5542 Lithuania 5635 lithium 5658 M magnetic field 5537 Multi-Criteria Analysis 5529 marble slurry 5572 municipal wastewater 5581 minimal environ-mental criteria 5635 N nanotechnology 5572 nutrient removal 5589 nutrient mass efficiency 5589 5686 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5684-5687 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin P phosphorus removal kinetics 5581 project financing 5599 porous media 5523 pumice 5542 R recycled-aggregates 5572 reuse 5542 Renewable Energy Sources 5529 S saturated flow 5523 Structure from Motion 5564 Skiathos 5551 sustainability 5608, 5622 stabilization pond 5589 Sustainable Energy 5529 stabilization ponds 5581 sustainable mobility 5616 T thematic maps 5551 Traffic noise 5616 thermal comfort 5674 Traffic simulation 5642 traffic characteristics 5608, 5616 transport 5635 traffic flow 5642 transport externalities 5608 U UAV data acquisition 5564 urban mobility 5608 urban degradation 5616 urban traffic 5616 W waste 5542 water resources management 5599 Wastewater 5589 wholesale electricity prices 5599 « 3D visualization 5564 7-spot 5523 5687 © by PSP Volume 26 ± No. 9/2017 pages 5684-5687 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin FEB ± GUIDE FOR AUTHORS General few brief sentences (one-fourth to one page) FEB accepts original papers, review articles, short particularly significant findings. 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