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Fake News Analysis: Lexical and Semantic Deception Cues

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Fake News Analysis: Lexical and Semantic Deception Cues Вчені записки ТНУ імені В. І. Вернадського. Серія: Філологія. Соціальні комунікації UDC 81’373’38’42:070.16:316.776.23 DOI https://doi.org/10.32838/2663-6069/2020.2-2/37 Revenko Yе. S. Kherson State University fAKe NeWS ANALYSIS: LeXIcAL AND SeMANTIc DecePTION cUeS This article is devoted to the study of the lexical and semantic features of deception in modern media space. Language is a flexible and a most important tool for communication. It provides us with the opportunity to discover the world and share beliefs and opinions. Nowadays in the era of post- truth and information war the language, being misused, can become a dangerous weapon. Thus, in recent years many techniques and tools have been created to reduce the spread of disinformation. Fake news detection becomes one of the key tasks not only for professional journalists and researches but also for tech giants like Google and Facebook. This research concentrates on the linguistic analysis of fake news texts as one of the most reliable methods of disinformation detection in the media space. The review of scientific sources on the research topic is presented. The concepts “post-truth” and the categories of fake news are also considered. The categories of the fake news include serious fabrications, large-scale hoaxes and humorous fakes. Using the content analysis of fake news corpus, the specific thematic focus that is characteristic of fake news is distinguished in the article. The article also includes the characteristic of fake news headlines. The predictive function of the headlines, which points at the content of the text and a phatic function, which is to attract the attention of, and establishing the first contact with any prospective reader are outlined. The studied corpus of fake news makes it possible to identify such lexical and stylistic features of fake news as the informal non-objective narrative character; the use of metaphors and stylistically marked vocabulary; an abnormality at all levels of content (thematic, informative, lexical, syntactic); the use of trigger words and hedging words; the frequent use of adjectives; an expressly ironic or sarcastic tone. It is concluded that fake news is characterized by a wider emotive space than denotative one. Key words: post-truth, media discourse, disinformation, information war, clickbait. formulation of the problem. The modern global mation space, and therefore the language space as communicative culture exists in the “post-truth” or a whole, which according to the cognitive science “post-communication” era. The Oxford Diction- is the most important category in the perception ary defines “post-truth” as “circumstances in which of the world by a person. people respond more to feelings and beliefs than to Each text of fake news has a subjective frame of inten- facts” [12]. Under such circumstances, the deception tional orientation of the author and is designed to cause can spread through media space much faster than a corresponding reaction by the recipient of the message. the truth since the deception appeals to the lesser, Linguistic techniques are functional tools for realizing baser instincts of the recipients. the interests of the author by influencing the processes Words in the media have significant power in of cognitive reflection of the recipient. shaping beliefs and opinions. Due to the rapid The objective of the article is to analyze the seman- development of technology and increasing oppor- tic and linguistic characteristics of fake news and to tunities for any user to share their opinions with develop a system of aspects which can help identify the public, the truthfulness of the words is endan- the deception. gered. Thousands of fake news are daily dissemi- 1. Literature review nated in the media space to maximize manipulative Fake news with their direct impact on the infor- or propaganda impact. That is why it is so important mation environment is the sphere of scientific inter- to detect objective linguistic cues that indicate that we ests of both domestic and foreign researchers. The are dealing with misinformation in order to improve issue of fake news was investigated mainly in two existing fact-checking resources. directions: (1) distribution channels of fake news and Thus, the analysis of the semantic and linguistic (2) analysis of the fake news content. features of fake news is relevant for understanding The issue of the distribution of fake information the role of fake news in creating the global infor- in Ukrainian social media is outlined in the scientific 212 Том 31 (70) № 2 Ч. 2 2020 Германські мови works of M. Kitsa [6] and I. Mudra [9]. The fake news − Humorous Fakes (news satire, news par- in the linguistic-cognitive and synergetic aspects were ody) – the main communicative purpose is directed studied by Yu. Hlavatska [5] and Yu. Omelchuk [11]. at the entertainment of the reader but not at the mes- Linguistic aspects of deception detection were sage of information. The key difference between studied in a variety of works. Rubin, V., Chen, Y., humorous fake news and other types is that & Conroy, N. in the work ‘Deception detection for the authors use the means and techniques of real news news: Three types of fakes’ [14] separated the task text and at the same time signal to the reader that it of fake news detection by type of fake: serious fab- is a parody rather than a statement of facts. In order rications, large-scale hoaxes and humorous fakes. for authors’ intentions to be clear to readers, the text Niall J Conroy et al. in the research work ‘Automatic is saturated with various obvious markers of comical deception detection: Methods for finding fake news’ and events are described in absurd manner. [1] provided a typology of veracity assessment meth- The specific thematic focus can be cues of decep- ods emerging from two major categories – linguistic tion. It is usually about controversial topics and tends cue approaches and network analysis ones. to cause strong emotional reactions. Using contextual The most relevant work to our research is ‘Truth analysis of fake news corpus, the following topics of Varying Shades: Analyzing Language in Fake News typical of fake news can be distinguished [3]: and Political Fact-Checking’ written by Hannah Rash- − hyperbolic statements against one person or kin et al [13]. This scientific work presents an analytic group; study on the language of news media in the context E.g. Putin has stated: Russian citizens (have) of political fact-checking and fake news detection. 2 options: Stay home for 15 days or in jail for 5 years The authors compare the language of real news with (Source: Instagram post). that of satire, hoaxes, and propaganda to find linguistic − hyperbolic statements in favor of one person or characteristics of the untrustworthy text. group; 2. categories and thematic focus of fake news E.g. Nate McMurray wants to reward illegals with In order to address the fake news problem, it is amnesty (Source: YouTube, “Across,” Jacobs for necessary to begin with distinguishing of fake news Congress). types. At the present time, there is no universally − sensational crimes and violence; agreed definition and classification of fake news E.g. Texas man admits kidnapping 79 people in the scientific community. Fake news becomes (Source: Facebook post). an object of studies which are based on various fac- − racist messaging; tors such as news distribution channels, its goals, Donald Trump said, "Immigrants aren’t people, countermeasures and so on. The researchers distin- they’re animals." (Source: Facebook post). guished two types of fake news according to genre − paranormal theories; characteristics: 1) fake news which have all the genre E.g. Alien discovery: Two ‘bases’ spotted on Mars signs of real news and whose purpose is to deceive which add weight to life on Mars theory (Source: recipients; 2) fake news which is a parody of real the online edition “Express”). news and aims at entertaining recipients rather than − conspiracy theories. reporting information [2]. E.g. Why Did Beyonce Name Blue Ivy "Blue Victoria L. Rubin et el. define three categories Ivy"? Ask The Illuminati (Source: the online edition of fake news with their key differences depending on “Romper”). the author’s intention [14]. They are the following: One of the most common themes of fake news − Serious fabrications are examples of exposed is the hyperbolic criticism of politicians. Fake news fraudulent journalistic writing. raises awareness by referring to well-known pub- Yellow journalism, political propaganda, click- lic figures, usually Donald Trump, Barack Obama, baits, conspiracy theories belong to this category. Hillary Clinton and Vladimir Putin. This can be Serious fabrications deliberately highlight topics explained by the fact that fake news is directly related such as sensational crime stories, astrology, gossip to the information warfare, the purpose of which is columns about celebrities, and junk food news. the distortion of the facts for political propaganda − Large-Scale Hoaxes is another type of fabrica- and manipulation of the mass consciousness as well tions which look like real news as creating the image of the enemy. The second most but contain false information. Hoaxes attempt to common thematic focus of fake news is conspiracy deceive recipients pretending to be real news and often theories. Fake news with a focus on conspiracy the- mistakenly reported by respected news agencies. ories are characterized by specific vocabulary, for 213 Вчені записки ТНУ імені В. І. Вернадського. Серія: Філологія. Соціальні комунікації example, the use of the phrases “a secret govern- to religious conflicts using the expression “Illegal ment”, “transnational corporations”, “a world gov- Muslim” and to tense relations between the United ernment” and the verbs “to deceive”, “to hide”, “to States and Iran, indicating that a person is from Iran.
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