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Analysis of (Un)Invited Participation Using Environmental Justice in Permanent Reserved Forest in Peninsular Malaysia

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Analysis of (Un)Invited Participation Using Environmental Justice in Permanent Reserved Forest in Peninsular Malaysia Analysis Of (Un)Invited Participation Using Environmental Justice In Permanent Reserved Forest In Peninsular Malaysia Alia Azmi Doctor of Philosophy University of East Anglia School of Environmental Sciences August 2019 © This copy of the thesis has been supplied on condition that anyone who consults it is understood to recognise that its copyright rests with the author and that use of any information derived there from must be in accordance with current UK Copyright Law. In addition, any quotation or extract must include full attribution. ii ABSTRACT With current concern over climate change, forests are acknowledged as a vital component of climate change initiatives, translating to an economic subsidy worth billions of dollars. However, continuous deforestation and land development threatens protection and conservation of forests as well as the sustainability of this natural resource. Public participation then becomes important, as it is not only a key requirement of sustainable development, but also an important aspect of a democratic society. However, the overall neglect of the social aspect of sustainability in previous initiatives as well as examples of failed public participation processes highlights the question: How do we understand the process of public participation? What determines the success or failure of a public participation process? One of the ways to explore this issue is by considering the different dimensions of environmental justice and how they can be incorporated in a public participation process. The use of environmental justice provided an alternative perspective to study public participation. Using Malaysia as a case study, four cases of forestry management conflict were examined in peninsular Malaysia. These cases illustrated the interaction between different actors and how invited and uninvited public participations were constructed within permanent reserved forest governance. Application of environmental justice principles to both invited and uninvited participation processes highlight both social subordination of the public and unjust public participation mechanisms in a governance system that was supposedly built on the ideologies of sustainability. Interviews with multiple actors showed not only a disconnected perception amongst the actors regarding permanent reserved forests, but also a flawed forestry system that allowed domination by elite actors, rendering it unsustainable and ensuring public participation remained meaningless. However, the use of uninvited participation as a community based response to meaningless participatory mechanisms highlights the need for social capital, a resource that is available only to the affluent. Environmental justice has proven useful as an analytical lens, and the discovery of unjust and economic-centric forestry governance is indicative of a failed sustainable forestry management system, one that must be rectified. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT It is without a doubt that the person who contributed the most in this research (apart from myself, obviously) is my supervisor, Andrew Lovett. He once asked me whether I find him intimidating, to which I answered no. I lied, of course, but only because I could not find the words to tell him, that despite being intimidating, he is one of the best supervisors I know, one of the most helpful and the main reason why I am able to come this far. Andrew has challenged my skills as a researcher and has been relentless in overseeing my research and writings. Another person I would like to thank is my co-supervisor, Peter Simmons, who is always there whenever I am stuck and was critical in providing ideas and suggestions to refine my research questions and final thesis. While Andrew provided the core supervisory assistance, Peter complemented that with his vast knowledge of various philosophical and theoretical works, of which I sorely lack. This acknowledgement would not be complete without my girls, the nutty PhD students whom I shared an office with. To Jackie Zavala, the first friend I made in UEA, thank you for all the drama suggestions and the chismes that we shared. Your crazy chatter will definitely be missed. To Gurpreet Padda, your determination to succeed regardless of the obstacle has always inspired me and your friendship is one that I will always treasure. I look forward to reading your work next. To Netti Kaswiset, thank you for all the food/cake/chocolate that you keep sending my way, and all the best with your thesis! To Agatha, the housemate whom I gossiped with, I missed our morning hellos, but I am looking forward to hear good news from you. And last but not least, Charlotte Monteil, I thought of making a list to thank you for the cakes (French made, of course) you baked, the chocolates that we fought over, and the oranges we threw around, but at this point I’m too lazy to write anymore. You know you are awesome. And yes, this will be the only time I admit that. To all the friends I made in UEA; Fazrin, Huslinda, Rhosanna, Janet and Nadia and to those outside of UEA; Anastasia, Gosia and the homeless guy on the bridge, Norwich would have been dull without you. As for my mom, dad and my sisters, terima kasih sebab doakan adik. iv CONTENTS LIST OF ACRONYMS ………………………………………………………….. ix LIST OF TABLES ……………………………………………………………….. xi LIST OF FIGURES ……………………………………………………………… xii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Forests and People ………………………………………………………………. 1 1.1.1 Public Participation in Sustainable Development ...……………………………… 3 1.2 Aim of Research ………………………………………………………………….. 6 1.3 Outline of Thesis …………………………………………………………………. 8 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Sustainable Development & Agenda 2030 ………………………………………. 13 2.1.1 Pillars and Dimensions: Unsustainable Development of Natural Resources …….. 15 2.1.2 Public Participation & Decision Making ………………………………………... 19 2.1.2.1 Meaningful Participation …………………………………………………………. 20 2.1.3 Forms of Participation: Invited & Uninvited …………………………………….. 25 2.1.4 Evaluation of Public Participation: Justice Based Approach …………………….. 27 2.2 Environmental Justice ……………………………………………………………. 29 2.2.1 Environmental Justice & Natural Resources Management ………………………. 31 2.2.1.1 Justice as Recognition ……………………………………………………………. 32 2.2.1.2 Procedural Justice …...…………………………………………………………… 34 2.2.1.3 Distributive Justice ……………………………………………………………….. 36 2.2.2 Interrelations of Environmental Justice Elements ………………………………... 37 2.2.3 Capabilities & Social Capital …………………………………………………….. 39 2.3 On Issues of Participation, Justice and Development ……………………………. 41 CHAPTER 3 FORESTRY GOVERNANCE IN MALAYSIA 3.1 Federation of Malaysia …………………………………………………………… 44 3.1.1 Malaysian Government …………………………………....................................... 47 3.2 Formation of Malaysia …………………………………………………………… 48 3.2.1 Path to Merdeka & The Start of Racial Conflict …………………………………. 52 3.2.2 Post Merdeka & Rising Ethnic Tensions …………………………………............ 54 3.3 Economic Transformation & the Forestry Industry……………………………… 56 3.3.1 The System of Permanent Reserved Forest ………………………………………. 58 3.3.2 Other Agencies in Forestry Governance …………………………………………. 63 3.3.3 Policies & Legislations …………………………………………………………… 66 v 3.3.3.1 Flaws in PRF Policies ……………………………………………………………. 68 3.3.4 Sustainable Development & Incorporation with Forestry Practices ……………... 70 3.4 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………….. 71 CHAPTER 4 METHODOLOGY 4.1 Qualitative Methods ……………………………………………………………… 75 4.1.1 Environmental Justice Concepts …………………………………………………. 77 4.2 Ethical Considerations in the Research …………………………………………... 79 4.3 Research Design ………………………………………………………………….. 80 4.3.1 Case Study Selection: Description & Justification ………………………………. 82 4.3.2 Fieldwork ………………………………………………………………………… 86 4.4 Research Methods ………………………………………………………………... 89 4.4.1 Conducting Interviews …………………………………………………………… 89 4.4.2 Supplementary Documents ………………………………………………………. 92 4.4.3 Data Analysis …………………………………………………………………….. 93 4.5 Reflexive Account ……………………………………………………………….. 95 4.6 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………….. 97 CHAPTER 5 ANALYSIS OF CASES IN PENINSULAR MALAYSIA 5.1 Kota Damansara Community Forest (Case Study A) ……………………………. 101 5.1.1 Early Campaign by Local Residents & Malaysian Nature Society ……………… 102 5.1.2 Friends of Kota Damansara & General Election 2008 …………………………… 107 5.1.3 End of Campaign …………………………………………………………………. 108 5.2 Ampang Forest Park (Case Study B) …………………………………………….. 111 5.2.1 East Klang Valley Expressway & Ampang Forest Park …………………………. 113 5.2.2 Project Initiation & Start of Community Action …………………………………. 115 5.2.2.1 Environmental Impact Assessment ………………………………………………. 118 5.2.2.2 Degazettement of Ampang Forest Reserve & Closure of Ampang Forest Park …. 121 5.2.3 Environmental Degradation & Current Situation ………………………………… 123 5.3 Endau Rompin National Park (Case Study C) …………………………………… 125 5.3.1 Conflict in Endau Rompin & Development of a National Campaign ……………. 125 5.3.2 Establishment of State Park & Current Issue …………………………………….. 131 5.4 Ulu Tembeling Forest Reserve (Case Study D) ………………………………….. 135 5.4.1 Land Clearing & The Beginning of Ulu Tembeling Declaration ………………… 135 5.4.2 Villagers’ Reaction and Current Situation ……………………………………….. 143 5.5 Conclusion: Invited and Uninvited Participation ………………………………… 145 CHAPTER 6 FORESTRY GOVERNANCE: ACTORS AND CONFLICT 6.1 Actors in PRF Governance ……………………………………………………….. 150 6.1.1 Influential Actors …………………………………………………………………. 151 vi 6.1.1.1 Federal Government & The Barisan Nasional …………………………………… 151 6.1.1.2 State Government
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