Journal of Medicinal Studies 2020; 8(4): 104-110

ISSN (E): 2320-3862 ISSN (P): 2394-0530 Indigenous knowledge and folk use of medicinal NAAS Rating: 3.53 www.plantsjournal.com plants in the Eastern Hajar Mountains, JMPS 2020; 8(4): 104-110 © 2020 JMPS Received: 10-05-2020 Accepted: 12-06-2020 Abdulrahman AL Hinai, Darach A Lupton and Ghudaina Al Issai

Abdulrahman AL Hinai Abstract Department of Botany and The history of traditional uses in Oman stretches back over millennia. However, little detail relating Conservation, Oman Botanic to the species and their uses has been documented. Here we focus on documenting medicinal plant Garden, PO Box 808, PC 122, species and their applications in the Eastern Hajar Mountains in northern Oman. 107 plant species, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman, Oman belonging to 50 plant families were recorded as having one or more medicinal uses. Gastro-intestinal disorders such as colic, diarrhea, and constipation were the most cited ailments treated using traditional Darach A Lupton plant-based medicines. Other conditions include eye disorders; cardiovascular and circulatory diseases; Department of Botany and dental; dermatological diseases; ENT; fever; headache (diaphoretic); genital and sexual diseases; nerve Conservation, Oman Botanic disorders; respiratory problems; skeletal-muscular problems; snake and scorpion bites, and urinary Garden, PO Box 808, PC 122, complaints. Rhazay stricta Decne. is the most widely used plant species. Many of the surveyed plants are Muscat, Sultanate of Oman, common, widely distributed throughout the area; 4 plants are endemic to Oman; 9 are regionally Oman endemic, and 3 rare and threatened.

Ghudaina Al Issai Keywords: Oman, medicinal plants, traditional knowledge, Eastern Hajar Mountains Department of Botany and Conservation, Oman Botanic Garden, Oman Introduction The use of plants for medicinal purposes has been recorded as far back as the first documentation of human history. In the Arabian Peninsula the use of plants goes back to the pre-Islamic civilizations [1]. Today plant extracts make up 25% of the active ingredients in all pharmaceutical products Globally, it is observed that communities living in remote areas, are

the most reliant on traditional plant based and that this knowledge held by those communities [2] could be utilized to produce modern medicines . Despite Oman’s long history of seafaring and trading, it remained closed and isolated for much of its history, particularly in the remote mountain areas in the north. People in these areas have relied on plants to meet their primary health care needs for centuries. Following the discovery

of oil and the subsequent opening up of Oman in 1970, there was a rapid expansion of hospitals and clinics throughout the country; with this came a reliance on pharmaceuticals and a move away from traditional plant based medicine [1]. The number of medicinal plants in Oman is estimated to be 448 [3]. Several studies on traditional plants in Oman have been carried out [4 5], however, the Eastern Hajar Mountains

have thus far remained understudied. Here we undertake a survey to identify and document plant species used in traditional medicine in the Eastern Hajar Mountains. Species referred to in the past tense are either no longer used or are not widely used today; species in the present tense are still utilized by the inhabitants.

Study area The Eastern Hajar Mountains is one of three mountain ranges making up the extensive Hajar mountains system, which extends north-west to the Musandam Mountains at the northern tip of Oman (figure 1). The study area is characterised by a hyper-arid climate, with cold, dry winters and hot summers [6]. Generally, the mountain climate is significantly cooler than lower

elevations, with an annual average air temperature of 18.1 °C (a minimum of 3.6 °C and a Corresponding Author: maximum of about 36 °C). Annual rainfall for the mountains is 120mm. The area is Abdulrahman AL Hinai characterized by deep wadi systems, spectacular caves, and peaks. These peaks include Jabal Department of Botany and Bani Jabir, Jabal Aswad, Jabal Abyad, Jabal Tayeen and Jabal Qahwan. According to [7], these Conservation, Oman Botanic mountains comprise of 431 plant species (31% of the total country’s flora). Garden, PO Box 808, PC 122, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman, Politically the Eastern Hajar Mountains are situated in the Al Sharqiya governorate, south west Oman of Oman’s capital city Muscat. ~ 104 ~ Journal of Medicinal Plants Studies http://www.plantsjournal.com

Most of the inhabitants of the Eastern Hajar are pastoralists – Results and Discussion relying largely on goats for their income and sustenance. In Plant selection and parts used in folk medicine some locations terraced agriculture - growing grains and root preparations. vegetables persists, providing additional income for local A total 37 villages were visited throughout the Eastern Hajar people. However, an increasing scarcity of rain in recent Mountains; 44 individual and group interviews were carried decades has meant that this form of agriculture is becoming out. 53 males, ranging in age from 45 to 85 and 4 females, less pragmatic. Beekeeping and honey production are also an ranging in age from 55 to 90 were interviewed. In some important source of income, although they too have instances, the age was an estimate as many of the diminished in recent times. Since the 1970s there has been a interviewees did not know their exact date of birth. 107 plant steady migration of people from the Eastern Hajar Mountains species belonging to 50 plant families were recorded as to the cities to take up employment; further impacting the having medicinal use in the Eastern Hajar Mountains. 37 local economy, social fabric, and the preservation of (36%) medicinal plants are , followed by herbs - 36 traditional knowledge. (32%), tress - 10 (28%), herb/ - 10 (%), shrub/tree - 9 (8%), ferns - 2 (4%), bulbs - 2 and succulents - 3 (1%) (Figure 2). With exception of , all plant parts including , fronds, stems, bark, roots, fruits, bulbs, and are used by traditional healers (Figure 3). Choosing appropriate plant parts is dependent on the plant species and the medical condition being treated. For herbs and bulbs, the whole plant is used. Shrubs and trees are usually separated into their constituent parts; leaves are used in 60 (56%) of the 107 documented species; followed by whole plant - 37 (34%) roots – 23 (21%), stems - 14 (13%), fruit - 10 (9%), sap - 8 (7%) and seeds - 7 (6%) (Figure 3). The predominant use of leaves in preparations, according to the interviewees is due to their abundance and availability. The common use of leaves in the preparation of remedies is also reported by [13, 14].

Fig 1: Oman located on the south-eastern edge of the Arabian Peninsula. The Eastern Hajar Mountains (right) extend south-east from Oman’s capital, Muscat.

Methodology Field work took place from 2015 to 2019. Data relating to the medicinal use of wild plants were gathered from across the Eastern Hajar Mountains, including foothills, and adjacent Fig 2: Breakdown of plant forms used in the preparation of herbal coastal areas of both Northern and Southern Al Sharqiyah medicines. governorates and the eastern part of A’ Dhakiliah governorate. Pre-prepared, semi-structured interview questions (in Arabic) were presented to all interviewees. Interviewee selection gave priority to village elders and local herbalists. Full disclosure, explaining the purpose of the interviews was provided to all interviewees. Interviews started with informal introductory conversations with individuals and groups. Repeated interviews and visits were conducted when required. Answers were recorded in script and audio (Sony ICDUX512). Where permitted video recordings of interviews were made (Canon SX200IS). Identification and documentation of botanical names, including family, and species and life form were verified using, [8-12], and voucher specimens from the Oman Botanic Garden herbarium

(OM). Local plant names were verified by multiple interviewees prior to documentation; names were Fig 3: Plant parts used in the preparation of herbal medicines. transliterated from Arabic to English. All data, including written, audio and video were collated and stored at Oman Medical conditions treated with traditional folk medicine. Botanic Garden. Data including family, scientific name, local A total of 50 species are used to treat gastro-intestinal name(s), life form, flowering season, parts used, medicinal disorders such as colic, flatulence, diarrhea, constipation and application, and conservation status were recorded and stomach ulcers; 49 - species are used for the treatment of tabulated. wounds, cuts, anticancer, goiter, and a general tonic; 37 -

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species are used to treat skeletal-muscular problems such as most cited plant family - 14 plant species are used for herbal rheumatism, backache and general muscle pain; 37 - species medicines; followed by Apocynaceae and Lamiaceae with 9 are used to treat cardiovascular complaints and circulatory and 7 species respectively (Table 2). Most documented plants diseases including diabetes and blood pressure; 35 - for have multiple medicinal uses; it is rare for a plant to have a dermatological diseases; 27 - to treat fever, headaches and single use. A variety of substances purchased in local markets excessive sweating; 26 - for snake and scorpion bites; 22 - for are frequently blended with plant materials to produce a nerve disorders; 20 - for eye disorders; 15 - for respiratory medicinal preparation, including water, salt, goat’s milk, ailments like asthma and coughing; 15 - for ear, nose and sulfur, animal hair, rose water, saffron, ghee, dried sardines, throat (ENT) complaints; 11 - for urinary complaints red sandalwood, wolf gallbladder, crow gallbladder, egg including dysuria and kidney stones; 11 - for genital and white, honey and squid ink. 75 (70%) of the cited plants are sexual diseases, and 10 - species for dental problems (Table common and widely distributed throughout the Eastern Hajar 1). Mountains; 14 (13%) are not common; 4 (4%) are endemic to Rhazya stricta is the most widely used plant, treating 30 Oman; 9 (8%) regionally endemic, and 3 (3%) rare and ailments, covering 12 medical categories. Fabaceae is the threatened plant (Table 3).

Table 1: Medical conditions and the plant species used to treat them in the Eastern Hajar Mountains

Number Category Taxa of taxa Acacia nilotica subsp. indica, Valchellia tortilis, Capparis spinosa, Commiphora kua, Dental Commiphora wightii, Cucumis prophetarum, Ficus cordata subsp. salicifolia, shawii, 10 Rhazya stricta, Solanum incanum hierochuntica, Caesalpinia bonduc, Calotropis procera, Chrozophora oblongifolia, Genital and sexual Launaea intybacea, Pluchea arabica, Ruta chalepensis, Salvadora persica, Senna holosericea, 11 diseases Vitex agnus-castus, Ziziphus spina-christi Acridocarpus orientalis, Aloe vera, Asphodelus tenuifolius, Blepharis ciliaris, Convolvulus Urinary complaints virgatus, Cymbopogon schoenanthus, Ephedra pachyclada, Fagonia indica, Pluchea arabica, 11 Pycnocycla aucheriana var. aucheriana, Rhazya stricta Acacia nilotica subsp. indica, Asphodelus tenuifolius, Capparis spinosa, Chrozophora Ear, Nose, Throat oblongifolia, Corchorus depressus, Crinum x powellii, Dipcadi erythraeum, Ecbolium viride, 15 (ENT) Euphorbia larica, Launaea intybacea, Maerua crassifolia, Olea europaea, Pulicaria glutinosa, Rhazya stricta, Salvia aegyptiaca Abutilon pannosum, Aloe vera, Blepharis ciliaris, Commiphora wightii, Crotalaria aegyptiaca, Cymbopogon schoenanthus, Dipcadi erythraeum, Dyerophytum indicum, Haplophyllum Respiratory problems 15 tuberculatum, Lycium shawii, Periploca sp. nov., Rhazya stricta, Salvadora persica, Zataria multiflora, Ziziphus spina-christi Acacia nilotica subsp. indica, Acridocarpus orientalis, Aloe vera, Astragalus fasciculifolius subsp. arbusculinus, Ceratonia oreothauma subsp. Oreothauma, Chrozophora oblongifolia, Cleome Eye disorders fimbriata, Cocculus pendulus, Crinum x powellii, Ephedra foliata, Lycium shawii, Maerua 20 crassifolia, Olea europaea, Pentatropis nivalis, , Rhazya stricta, Salvadora persica, Solanum americanum, Tephrosia apollinea, Zataria multiflora Acridocarpus orientalis, , Anastatica hierochuntica, Asphodelus tenuifolius, Calotropis procera, Citrullus colocynthis, Convolvulus virgatus, Cymbopogon schoenanthus, Nerve disorders Daphne mucronata, Ephedra pachyclada, Ficus cordata subsp. salicifolia, Moringa peregrina, (hysteria, epilepsy, 22 Physorhynchus chamaerapistrum, Plocama aucheri, Pluchea arabica, Rhazya stricta, Ricinus sedative) communis, Ruta chalepensis, Salvia aegyptiaca, Searsia aucheri, Tephrosia nubica, Withania coagulans Adiantum capillus-veneris, Aerva javanica, Andrachne aspera, Aristolochia bracteolata, Caesalpinia bonduc, Calotropis procera, Capparis cartilaginea, Capparis spinosa, Chrozophora Snake and Scorpion oblongifolia, Citrullus colocynthis, Cleome brachycarpa, Corchorus depressus, Cucumis 22 bites prophetarum, Daphne mucronata, Euphorbia larica, Euryops arabicus, Heliotropium europaeum, Maerua crassifolia, Nerium oleander, Olea europaea, Physorhynchus chamaerapistrum, Polygala erioptera, Rhazya stricta, Telephium sphaerospermum, Tephrosia apollinea, Tetraena qatarensis Aerva javanica, Aloe vera, Anastatica hierochuntica, Asphodelus tenuifolius, Capparis cartilaginea, Cleome brachycarpa, Commiphora kua, Commiphora wightii, Crinum x powellii, Fever, headache Daphne mucronata, Dipcadi erythraeum, Dipterygium glaucum, Fagonia indica, Lantana 27 (diaphoretic) petitiana, Maerua crassifolia, Nerium oleander, Phyla nodiflora, Plocama aucheri, Prosopis cineraria, Pteris vittata, Rhazya stricta, Ruta chalepensis, Salvia aegyptiaca, Senna holosericea, Solanum incanum, Tephrosia apollinea, Teucrium stocksianum Acacia nilotica subsp. indica, Valchellia tortilis, Acridocarpus orientalis, Aloe vera, Calotropis procera, Capparis cartilaginea, Capparis spinosa, Chrozophora oblongifolia, Citrullus colocynthis, Corchorus depressus, Cucumis prophetarum, Cymbopogon schoenanthus, Daphne Dermatological and mucronata, Datura metel, Dodonaea viscosa, Ephedra pachyclada, Euphorbia larica, Farsetia 35 topical diseases linearis, Ficus cordata subsp. salicifolia, Grewia erythraea, Indigofera tinctoria, Iphiona aucheri, Lycium shawii, Moringa peregrina, Nerium oleander, Physorhynchus chamaerapistrum, Prosopis cineraria, Pulicaria glutinosa, Rhazya stricta, Ricinus communis, Solanum americanum, Solanum incanum, Tamarix aphylla, Tetraena qatarensis, Zataria multiflora Aloe vera, Anastatica hierochuntica, Asphodelus tenuifolius, Blepharis ciliaris, Caesalpinia Cardio vascular and bonduc, Calotropis procera, Capparis cartilaginea, Capparis spinosa, Caudanthera edulis, 37 circulatory diseases Chrozophora oblongifolia, Citrullus colocynthis, Corchorus depressus, Crinum x powellii, Cucumis prophetarum, Ephedra pachyclada, Cymbopogon schoenanthus, Datura metel,

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Desmidorchis arabica, Desmidorchis flava, Dipcadi erythraeum, Dodonaea viscosa, Euryops arabicus, Fagonia indica, Ficus cordata subsp. salicifolia, Ficus johannis, Lantana petitiana, Plocama aucheri, Pluchea arabica, Portulaca oleracea, Prosopis cineraria, Prunus arabica, Pulicaria glutinosa, Rhazya stricta, Taverniera cuneifolia, Teucrium stocksianum, Withania coagulans, Ziziphus spina-christi Acacia nilotica subsp. indica, Acridocarpus orientalis, Anastatica hierochuntica, Blepharis ciliaris, Calotropis procera, Capparis cartilaginea, Capparis spinosa, Cleome brachycarpa, Commiphora kua, Commiphora wightii, Daphne mucronata, Dipterygium glaucum, Dodonaea viscosa, Ephedra foliata, Ephedra pachyclada, Fagonia indica, Ficus cordata subsp. salicifolia, Skeletal-muscular Ficus johannis, tenacissima, Haplophyllum tuberculatum, Indigofera tinctoria, 37 problems Maerua crassifolia, Moringa peregrina, Nerium oleander, Pentatropis nivalis, Pergularia tomentosa, Physorhynchus chamaerapistrum, Pluchea arabica, Ricinus communis, Salvadora persica, Solanum americanum, Solanum incanum, Tamarix aphylla, Tephrosia apollinea, Tetraena qatarensis, Trichodesma africanum, Ziziphus spina-christi Abutilon pannosum, Acacia ehrenbergiana, Acacia nilotica subsp. indica, Valchellia tortilis, Achyranthes aspera, Adiantum capillus-veneris, Aloe vera, Calotropis procera, Capparis cartilaginea, Capparis spinosa, Chrozophora oblongifolia, Citrullus colocynthis, Cleome fimbriata, Commiphora kua, Commiphora wightii, Convolvulus virgatus, Corchorus depressus, Cucumis prophetarum, Daphne mucronata, Dipterygium glaucum, Ephedra pachyclada, Others (wounds, cuts, Euphorbia granulata, Euphorbia larica, Fagonia indica, Ficus cordata subsp. salicifolia, narcotic, tonic, 49 Indigofera tinctoria, Iphiona aucheri, Launaea intybacea, Lavandula subnuda, Maerua anticancer and goiter) crassifolia, Moringa peregrina, Nerium oleander, Ocimum forskoelii, Pergularia tomentosa, Physorhynchus chamaerapistrum, Polygala erioptera, Prosopis cineraria, Pteris vittata, Pulicaria glutinosa, Rhazya stricta, Solanum incanum, Tamarix aphylla, Telephium sphaerospermum, Tephrosia apollinea, Tetraena qatarensis, Teucrium stocksianum, Verbascum sinaiticum, Zataria multiflora, Ziziphus spina-christi Abutilon pannosum, Acacia gerrardii subsp. negevensis, Acacia nilotica subsp. indica, Acridocarpus orientalis, Aerva javanica, Aizoon canariense, Anastatica hierochuntica, Asphodelus tenuifolius, Blepharis ciliaris, Capparis cartilaginea, Capparis spinosa, Citrullus colocynthis, Cleome brachycarpa, Cleome fimbriata, Commiphora kua, Commiphora wightii, Convolvulus virgatus, Cucumis prophetarum, Cymbopogon schoenanthus, Dipterygium glaucum, Gastrointestinal Dodonaea viscosa, Ducrosia anethifolia, Ephedra pachyclada, Euryops arabicus, Fagonia indica, 50 disorders Ficus cordata subsp. salicifolia, Haplophyllum tuberculatum, Lantana petitiana, Launaea intybacea, Lycium shawii, Maerua crassifolia, Moringa peregrina, Periploca sp. nov., Plocama aucheri, Pluchea arabica, Prosopis cineraria, Pulicaria glutinosa, Pycnocycla aucheriana var. aucheriana, Rhazya stricta, Ricinus communis, Ruta chalepensis, Salvia macilenta, Searsia aucheri, Senna holosericea, Solanum americanum, Tephrosia apollinea, Tetraena qatarensis, Teucrium stocksianum, Zataria multiflora, Ziziphus spina-christi

Table 2: Summary of plant families, taxa, local names, parts used and medical applications

Plant family Botanical name: Local name: Parts used Medical uses Kidney stones; blood pressure; Acanthaceae Blepharis ciliaris Kinub; Neja Whole plant intestinal gas. Ecbolium viride Thwaimah Leaves Earache

Adiantaceae Adiantum capillus-veneris Genah Al Ghrab Fronds Snake bites; abrasions. Aizoaceae Aizoon canariense Mesh haim; Mesh haima Leaves Adrenal, pituitary, and thyroid gland. Amaranthaceae Achyranthes aspera Menaksah; Saif Al Jinn Whole plant Healing cuts and abrasions Aerva javanica Ra; Ara; Rala; Rai; Lira Root Snake bites; headaches; dysuria

Amaryllidaceae Crinum x powelii Susal Bulb, leaves Conjunctivitis; cataracts and diabetes. Anacardiaceae Searsia aucheri Qutf Leaves Colic; diarrhea Apiaceae Ducrosia anethifolia Bisbas; Kishat Abeed. Whole plant Reducing stomach gas Pycnocycla aucheriana Shakhas; Meshakhas Whole plant Dysuria; kidney stones

Apocynaceae Calotropis procera Shakhar; A'shkhar Sap, Roots, Leaves Reduce inflammation; scorpion bites. Caudanthera edulis Daghabees; Da'abees Stems Diabetes; high blood pressure

Desmidorchis arabica Deja Stems Diabetes; high blood pressure

Desmidorchis arabica Deja Stems Diabetes; high blood pressure

Nerium oleander Haban Sap, Leaves, Stems Skin eruptions; headaches; snakebites.

Sore eyes; reducing labour pains in Pentatropis nivalis Fashagh; Melwiah Whole plant animals The sap is used to expel thorns from Pergularia tomentosa Ghalqah; Shajarat Al Julud Sap feet Periplocasp. Kilkil Sap (Latex), Stems Relief from dry cough.

Rhazya stricta Harmal Leaves, Roots, Fruit Diabetes

Aristolochiaceae Aristolochia bracteolata Mekhisa Leaves Snake and scorpion bites Asparagaceae Dipcadi erythraeum Hanseleet; Basal Al Hesini Bulb Whooping cough; flu; diabetes Asteraceae Euryops arabicus Henqlan; Mehnqlan' Leaves Snake bites; burning chest pain. Iphiona aucheri Khiza Whole plant Bruising because of a fall.

Stomach ulcers; menstrual cramps; Launaea intybacea Huwah Leaves diarrhea. Pluchea arabica Ansfout; Asfut; Zafout Leaves Colic; constipation; intestinal gas.

Pulicaria glutinosa Al Mihtedi; Mehdedi. Whole plant, Leaves Colic; stomach acidity and intestinal

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gas. Boraginaceae Heliotropium europaeum Shajarat; Limboshah Whole plant Spider bites. Trichodesma africanum Tamrat Whole plant Relieving painful joints.

Brassicaceae Anastatica hierochuntica Kaf Mariam; Mekfaif. Whole plant Colic and fever in children Farsetia linearis Meshria Whole plant Treating skin allergies.

Physorhynchus chamaerapistrum Khefij; Khefi Leaves, Roots Contusions and swollen joints.

Burseraceae Commiphora kua Dhej Resin Fever and toothache. Commiphora wightii Meqel Resin Bone fractures and headaches.

Capparaceae Capparis cartilaginea Qanfar Leaves, Roots Diabetes; snakebites; stomach cramps. Heart conditions; painful muscles and Capparis spinosa Lisaf; Melusaf; Safi Leaves, Roots limbs. Maerua crassifolia Sarah Leaves Colic; earache; scorpion stings.

Caryophyllaceae Telephium sphaerospermum Sinaisla; Dheniat Far. Whole plant Wasp stings. Cleomaceae Cleome brachycarpa Khizima Al Dhabi. Whole plant Wasp; and scorpion stings; headaches. Cleome fimbriata Meqablout A'Shams. Whole plant Colic; conjunctivitis.

Dipterygium glaucum Alqa; Kabsha; A'Shajara Roots, Leaves Treatment for stomach cancer.

Convolvulaceae Convolvulus virgatus Bu Risha; Al Risha. Roots, Whole plant Kidney stones and dysuria Cucurbitaceae Citrullus colocynthis Handhal Leaves, Fruit, Roots Hemorrhoids. Cucumis prophetarum Lumat Al Housh. Fruit, Seeds, Roots Bites and stings- rarely snake bites.

Ephedraceae Ephedra foliata Ketel; Melawai. Whole plant Cataracts; conjunctivitis. Ephedra pachyclada Ansab; Ensbeet. Whole plant Exorcising evil spirits (Jinn).

Euphorbiaceae Chrozophora oblongifolia Meshriah; Sherween Leaves, Roots, Fruit Earache. Euphorbia granulata Halab; Halableebah. Sap (latex) Cleaning fresh wounds.

Euphorbia larica Isbuq Sap (Latex), Stems Earache.

Ricinus communis Arash Oil, Leaves Paralysis; exorcising evil spirits (Jinn).

Fabaceae Acacia ehrenbergiana Salam Wood, Leaves Burns; cuts and abrasions Acacia gerrardii Talh; Naghal Leaves Stomachache; colic

Acacia nilotica Qarat; Qarut Seeds Stomach ulcers; contusions.

Bruising; stomach cramps and Valchellia tortilis Samur Wood, Leaves toothpaste. Astragalus fasciculifolius Enteris; Ma enteris. Resin Cataracts.

Caesalpinia bonduc Meghilan Leaves, Roots, Seeds Male sterility; diabetes; snake bites.

Ceratonia oreothauma Tew Leaves A bruised eye.

Crotalaria aegyptiaca Niza; Meneza; Qudhub Leaves; Stems Treating asthma.

Indigofera tinctoria Adhlam Leaves Cleaning and treating wounds.

Prosopis cineraria Ghaf; Oud Leaves Diarrhea.

Taverniera cuneifolia Esmut; Suhet Al Ra ai. Stems Treatment of arteriosclerosis.

Tephrosia apollinea Dhafra Whole plant, Leaves Trauma and muscle ache.

Treatment of epilepsy or possession by Tephrosia nubica Aytiman; Aqman Leaves evil spirits. Constipation; easing labour pains during Senna holosericea Ishruq; Inshruq; Ishrej. Leaves, Roots childbirth. Used to reduce bleeding from a fresh Lamiaceae Lavandula subnuda Hairuq; Haruq; Sumar. Leaves wound. Used to reduce bleeding from a fresh Ocimum forskaolii Rihan; Rihan Barie Leaves wound. Salvia aegyptiaca Berahoo; Ra el. Whole plant Fever; flu and the evil eye.

Salvia macilenta Riah; Qudhub Whole plant Relieving intestinal gas.

Fever; blood pressure; colic; stomach Teucrium stocksianum Jada Whole plant cramps. Vitex agnus-castus Selikhah; Zelikhah Leaves Abortion agent.

Zataria multiflora Zatar Leaves Colic; strong coughs.

Malvaceae Abutilon pannosum Qarqa; Meqarqa; Meqrku. Leaves Diarrhea; stomach cramps. Muscle relaxant; exorcising evil spirits Malpighiaceae Acridocarpus orientalis Qafas; Qfas Leaves, Stems, Seeds (Jinn) Menispermaceae Cocculus pendulus Resras; Mersras; Meshras. Leaves, Stems Conjunctivitis; sore eyes. Used to reduce bleeding on a fresh Moraceae Ficus cordata Lathab; Lithab Leaves, Sap wound. Ficus johannis Suqub; Suqubt Fruit, Sap Treatment of red blood cell deficiency.

Moringaceae Moringa peregrina Shua; Eklil al malik Leaves, Stems, Seeds Muscle relaxant; colic; stomach cramps. Oleaceae Olea europaea Itm Fruit, Oil, Resin Scorpion stings; earache; conjunctivitis. Phyllanthaceae Andrachne aspera Shajarat Al Aqrab Whole plant, Root Scorpion stings Plumbaginaceae Dyerophytum indicum Melihlah; Lihlah Melihlah. Leaves Persistent cough. Poaceae Cymbopogon schoenanthus Sakhbar Leaves, Roots Skin allergies; shortness of breath. Polygalaceae Polygala erioptera Mesamnah Whole plant Scorpion stings Portulacaceae Portulaca oleracea Ghelinbah; Ragla Whole plant Blood cleansing Pteridaceae Pteris vittata Ginah Al Ghurab.. Fronds Headaches; blood coagulant Bone fractures; shortness of breath; Rhamnaceae Ziziphus spina-christi Sider; Sidrat Al Nabq. Leaves, Roots general tonic. Rosaceae Prunus arabica Mezj; Mez Fruit Diabetes. ~ 108 ~ Journal of Medicinal Plants Studies http://www.plantsjournal.com

Rubiaceae Plocama aucheri Khirman; Mekhirman. Leaves, Roots Colic; cholesterol; dizziness. Rutaceae Haplophyllum tuberculatum Tafer tays; Tafer A'tays. Leaves, Whole plant Fractured and dislocated bones. Ruta chalepensis Sidab; Sithab; Khidf. Leaves, Roots Colic; fever in children; sexual potency.

Salvadoraceae Salvadora persica Rak Wood, Leaves, Roots Painful eyes; coughs; painful joints. Sapindaceae Dodonaea viscosa Shahs Leaves Fractured bones; severe flatulence. Used to reduce bleeding on a fresh Scrophulariaceae Verbascum sinaiticum Lisan Al Kalb; Maitah Leaves wound. Datura metel Meranha Fruit, Leaves Treating skin sores and eruptions. Lycium shawii Qasad; Awsag Leaves, Roots, Stems Colic; flatulence; burns; toothache.

Solanum americanum Mejaj; Qadmi A'Sheta. Leaves, Fruit Stomach ulcers; cataracts.

Headaches; cleaning wounds; dislocated Solanum incanum Shirbjan; Meshribjan. Fruit, Roots, Seeds joints. Withania coagulans Shajarat Al Khutf; Mekhisa. Whole plant Paralysis; epilepsy.

Tamaricaceae Tamarix aphylla Athal; Lathal Outer bark, Leaves Burns and painful joints Broken bones; muscle spasms; Thymelaeaceae Daphne mucronata Bakhteet; Sharakh. Outer bark, Leaves snakebites. Scorpion stings; contusions; nose Tiliaceae Corchorus depressus Latia; Shehimat A'Dhab Whole plant bleeds. Grewia erythraea Sharham Leaves, Roots Scabies

Urticaceae Metabaq Whole plant Broken bones. Verbenaceae Lantana petitiana Sufsuf Leaves, Stems Stomach gas; heartburn; headaches. Phyla nodiflora Zanzalah Leaves Fever in children.

Cataracts; blood pressure; shortness of Xanthorrhoeaceae Aloe vera Sikel; Saber Inner Flesh, Juice breath. Asphodelus tenuifolius Besail; Mubsail. Whole plant, Leaves Heartburn; kidney stones; laxative.

Zygophyllaceae Fagonia indica Sheka; Mesheka Whole plant, Roots Constipation; fever. Tetraena qatarensis Tharmad; Harm Leaves, Whole plant Chickenpox; laxative; snake bites.

Table 3: Conservation status of the medicinal plants in the Eastern Acknowledgements Hajar mountains. The authors are grateful to Oman Botanic Garden, Diwan

Conservation Status Count of species Royal Court for providing financial support. We extend Common 75 sincere appreciation to the local respondents for sharing their Endemic 4 in-depth knowledge, to our field assistants: Fathi Al Hisni, Near Endemic 1 Mohammed Al Balushi, Nasser Al Rashdi, Omar Al Amri, Not Common 15 Raid Al Mamari and Salim Al Rahbi for their dedication and Rare & Threatened 3 great effort during field work; to Ghudaina Al Issai and Dr Regional Endemic 9 Laila Al Harthi for their technical help and to Dr. Annette Total 107 Patzelt for her continual support.

Conclusion References Out of 433 plant species recorded from the Eastern Hajar 1. Ghazanfar SA, Fisher M. Vegetation of the Arabian Mountains, 237 have some economic value to the inhabitants Peninsula. – Dordrecht 1998, 63-69. 15; of these 107 species are used in the preparation of plant- 2. Wyk BE, Wink M. Medicinal plants of the world. CABI. based medicines. Knowledge relating to traditional folk 2017, 23-25. medicine in the Eastern Hajar Mountains is abundant, 3. Al Lawati AH, Al Saadym N, Al Khafaji H, Ch, Patzelt however it lies predominately in the minds of elderly A, Philips J, Maxted N et al. Socioeconomic Plants inhabitants. No one we spoke to below the age of 40 had Conservation Strategy for the Sultanate of Oman. Oman knowledge relating to plant-based medicine; all relied on Animal and Plant Genetic Resources Center, the modern pharmaceuticals to treat medical complaints. Research Council of the Sultanate of Oman, Muscat, Unfortunately, traditional plant knowledge is rapidly Oman. 2017, 51-89. vanishing due to, modernization, the ever-present lure of the 4. Ghazanfar SA, Al-Al-Sabahi AM. Medicinal plants of cities for the mountain’s younger inhabitants and the northern and central Oman (Arabia). Economic Botany unfortunate passing of many of the elderly inhabitants – 1993; 47(1):89-98 custodians of the knowledge. Our findings provide a general 5. Miller AG, Morris M. Plants of Dhofar: the southern overview of the existing knowledge relating to the historic region of Oman, traditional, economic and medicinal and contemporary use of plants for traditional folk medicine uses. Office of the Adviser for Conservation of the and represents the first comprehensive investigation of its Environment, Diwan of Royal Court, Sultanate of Oman, kind in this region of Oman. We recommend that measures be Muscat, Oman 1998, 11-25. put in place to support the continued research of medicinal 6. Patzelt A. Oman Plant Red Data Book. Al Roya Press & plants in the Eastern Hajar Mountains, through field based Publishing House. Office of the Advisor for the studies – data collection, written, audio and video Conservation of the Environment, Diwan of the Royal documentation of local knowledge; evaluation of the chemical Court. Muscat, Sultanate of Oman, 2015, 16-53. composition of indigenous plants; protection of rare and 7. Al Harthi L, Grenyer R. Classification and ordination of threatened medicinal plants and their , and the the main plant communities of the Eastern Hajar exploration of local commercial opportunities potentially Mountains, Oman. Journal of Arid Environments. 2019; arising from the production of natural remedies – a potential 169:1-18 financial benefit for local inhabitants. 8. Ghazanfar SA. Flora of the Sultanate of Oman. Scripta

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Botanica Belgica, Meise. 2003; 1:23-138. 9. Ghazanfar SA. Flora of the Sultanate of Oman Scripta Botanica Belgica, Meise. 2007; 2:3-14.6 10. Ghazanfar SA. Flora of the Sultanate of Oman. Volume 3 Scripta Botanica Belgica, Meise. 2015, 38-264. 11. Pickering H, Patzelt A. Field Guide to the Wild Plants of Oman. Kew Publishing, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2008, 3-10. 12. Patzelt A. Synopsis of the Flora and Vegetation of Oman, with Special Emphasis on Patterns of Plant Endemism. Abh. Braunschw. Wiss. Ges. 2015, 282-317. 13. Muthu C, Ayyanar M, Raja N, Ignacimuthu S. Medicinal Plants Used by Traditional Healers in Kancheepuram District of Tamil Nadu, . Journal of Ethnobiology & Ethnomedicine. 2006; 2:43-53. 14. Kala CP. Ethnomedicinal botany of the Apatani in the eastern Himalayan region of India. Journal of Ethnobiology & Ethnomedicine. 2005; 1:11-18. 15. Al Hinai A. Oman Botanic Garden – Unpublished Internal Report, 2019.

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