Origin-Of-Myths-1-Bw-Sample.Pdf

table of contents foreword by Professor Trevor Palmer ...... XIII editorial notes ...... XXVI acknowledgments ...... XXXII

PART ONE: PRELIMINARIES

method and style ...... 111 history of the project ...... 121212

III comparative mythology ...... 232323 1 axioms in comparative mythology ...... 24 2 creation mythology and the axis mundi ...... 41 3 mythogeography ...... 50

IIIIII catastrophism ...... 595959 4 catastrophist science ...... 60 5 catastrophist mythology ...... 68 6 an ‘age of myth’ ...... 76 7 connectivism and the plasma universe ...... 85

IIIIIIIII the question of metaphors ...... 919191 8 metaphorical or literal? ...... 92 9 solar and lunar anomalies ...... 101 10 solar and lunar anomalies in Greek and Near Eastern tradition 105 11 the real sun and moon ...... 113 overimaginative explanations ...... 113 heliocentric model ...... 116 surface features ...... 117 eclipses ...... 119 atmospheric optical effects ...... 122 12 metaphorical suns and moons ...... 133

IVIVIV a history of axis mundi research ...... 137137137 13 towards the concept of a mythical axis mundi ...... 138 14 the astronomical axis mundi ...... 146 definition ...... 146

applications in myth ...... 147 logical derivation ...... 150 earliest attestations ...... 155 the Latin term axis mundi ...... 157 conclusion ...... 159 15 uniformitarian theories of the mythical axis mundi ...... 162 16 catastrophist theories of the mythical axis mundi ...... 179 the axis mundi as a visible physical object ...... 179 the axis mundi as a vaporous vortex ...... 184 the axis mundi as an electromagnetic phenomenon ...... 196

VVV the axis mundi as an auroral column ...... 207207207 17 the earth’s electromagnetic environment ...... 208 18 the mythical axis mundi and the familiar aurora ...... 220 typology of auroral forms ...... 220 single auroral pillar ...... 229 multiple auroral pillars ...... 232 a tree ...... 239 a mountain, pyramid or cone ...... 240 a rope ...... 243 a ladder ...... 244 support and centre ...... 245 aurorae and creation mythology ...... 246 19 an intense aurora ...... 252 towards the concept of an intense aurora ...... 252 the axis mundi as Peratt’s intense-auroral column ...... 257 Peratt’s intense-auroral column under fire ...... 266

VIVIVI from axis to axes ...... 273273273 20 the problem of global visibility ...... 274 21 pre-Greek attestations of a polar column? ...... 279 22 no single, stationary column ...... 285 23 synopsis of traditional cosmologies ...... 289 undifferentiated unity ...... 289 original particle or earth ...... 290 solar and lunar anomalies ...... 291 axes mundi ...... 292 formation ...... 292 form ...... 292 duration ...... 295 location ...... 296

number ...... 296 movement ...... 297 termination ...... 298 regional variations ...... 299 24 conclusion ...... 303 timeline for the history of theories on the mythical axis mundi ...... 307 appendix 1: Anaximander and the shape of the universe ...... 313 quotations in other languages ...... 315 figures ...... 331 figure credits ...... 371 bibliography ...... 374 motif-index ...... 418 index ...... 421

list of figures

1. Title page of Jules Verne’s novel Sans dessus dessous (1889). © G. Roux. 2. Diagram showing Ptolemy’s geocentric cosmology (1524). © P. Bienewitz. 3. Cosmogram based on the tradition of Mangaia (Polynesia). © probably W. W. Gill. 4. Cosmogram based on the tradition of Tuamotu (Polynesia). A tracing of a photograph taken in 1892 of a copy of a sand drawing made in 1869 by Paiore. 5. Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle (1657-1757). Painted by N. de Largillière in the 18th century. Musée des Beaux-Arts, Chartres. 6. Georg Friedrich Creuzer (1771-1858). Photographer unknown. Courtesy HeidICON, Heidelberger Bild- und Multimediadatenbank, Universität Heidelberg, Heidelberg. 7. Franz Felix Adalbert Kuhn (1812-1881). Based on a photograph by C. Schwartz & Co. in Berlin. 8. Friedrich Max Müller (1823-1900). Shown at the age of 30. Produced by E. Walker & S. C. Cockerell in c1901. Original artist unknown. 9. Adolf Bastian (1826-1905). © unknown. Courtesy History of Medicine Division, U. S. National Library of Medicine, Bethesda (Maryland). 10. Ignatius Loyola Donnelly (1831-1901). © unknown. 11. Cosmogram based on the tradition of the Kintaq group of Semang (Kedah, Malaysia). © probably P. Schebesta. 12. Cosmogram based on the tradition of the Jahai group of Semang (Perak and Kelantan, Malaysia). © probably P. Schebesta. 13. Cosmogram on a shamanic drum from the Altai region (Siberia; 19th century?). © unknown. 14. Cosmogram based on the tradition of Iceland (1824). Copper engraving by O. O. Bagge. 15. Cosmogram based on the tradition of the Osage (west of the Mississippi). Fac- simile of a chart drawn by Hadddda-ͻüʇse in 1883. 16. Cosmogram based on Hindū tradition for the time after the defeat of the mon- ster Vṛtra (1903). © probably L. B. G. Tilak. 17. Locations of cultures with traditions of the types ‘sun fixed or otherwise pro- ducing a perpetual day’, ‘strong/low sun’ and ‘multiple concurrent suns (past)’. © M. A. van der Sluijs, background map courtesy Canuckguy and others (2006). 18. Locations of cultures with traditions of the types ‘a low sky’ or ‘sky and earth close’ and ‘sky and earth mixed’. © M. A. van der Sluijs, background map courtesy Canuckguy and others (2006). 19. Locations of cultures with traditions of the type ‘sun caught in snare’. Courtesy Y. Berezkin. 20. Locations of cultures with traditions of the type ‘sky lifted by means of a long object, like a pestle or broom’ and ‘edible sky’. Courtesy Y. Berezkin. 21. Locations of cultures with traditions of the type ‘sky lifted by a giant’. Courtesy Y. Berezkin. 22. Locations of cultures with traditions of the type ‘collapse of ladder or tower built to gain access to the sky’. Courtesy Y. Berezkin. 23. World map of human migrations. Courtesy ‘NordNordWest’ (2014).

On the Origin of Myths historical times suffices to demonstrate near-universal extent on a practical level. As stated above (pp. 43-45), the world’s reservoir of creation myths, including traditions about the cosmic axis, exhibits a remarkable homogeneity, comprising countless themes which are distributed over all continents inhabited by humans. Taken as a whole, the mythology of creation and the axis mundi is a global phenomenon, requiring a singular though possibly complex and multifaceted explanation. Within this framework, geographical variations in the distribution of individual motifs may reflect actual variations in what was experi- enced at different places and times. For example, if traditions of multiple concurrent suns (§443) are rare in North America and Australia, it may be that whatever cause inspired them did not operate in those parts of the world – or that its witnesses left no descendants. Such variations notwithstanding, the collective universality of creation mythology poses an intellectual challenge in relation to chronology and the early migrations of human beings. At the onset of the Holocene epoch, some 12,000 years ago, Homo sapiens sapiens had already migrated to most corners of the habitable earth and generated a great diversity of language families (fig. 23). Even as long as 25,000 years ago, humans are thought to have already occu- pied parts of every continent except Antarctica and perhaps South America. Against this background, several theoretical possibilities arise for an explanation of the global uniformity of creation myths, of which only one is feasible. According to one extreme scenario, all traditions concerning ‘creation’ descend from a single ancestral myth current among a small group of people inhabiting a limited geographical region. This could be the case either if the natural experience from which this protomyth derived was had by the common ancestors of the entire human race before it split up into different branches or if the hypothetical Ur -myth diffused through the whole inhabited earth from its original location long after the differentiation of human groups. Neither of these alternatives stands up to scrutiny. As for the first option, memories antedating the earliest branching of modern humanity would push the remembered causes back in time by several tens or even hundreds of thousands of years. Witzel thus elected to trace creation myths back “step by step, ultimately to the stories told by early Homo sapiens sapiens or, to use the now popular term, to the pe-

52 On the Origin of Myths

It may be fair to regard Mitchell’s work as the first public promulgation of secular scientific catastrophism, but – as already stated above – the notion itself is at least as old as 1753, the year in which Boulanger com- pleted some of his manuscripts; his first published catastrophist tome, it will be remembered, only appeared posthumously in 1766. The terms ‘catastrophist’ and ‘uniformitarian’ themselves were only introduced in 1832 by the English scientist, priest and theologian William Whewell (1794-1866; fig. 24), who was renowned for his scientific neolo- gisms:

Have the changes which lead us from one geological state to another been, on a long average, uniform in their intensity, or have they con- sisted of epochs of paroxysmal and catastrophic action, interposed between periods of comparative tranquillity? These two opinions will probably for some time divide the geological world into two sects, which may perhaps be designated as the Uniformitarians and the Ca- tastrophists . The latter has undoubtedly been of late the prevalent doctrine … 122

From a modern perspective, the terminology seems somewhat dated and cumbrous. One shortcoming is that, while no one doubts the reality of slow and gentle processes such as erosion, it is unclear whether ‘catastrophism’ accepts an appreciable rôle for them in the shaping of geological formations during the “periods of comparative tranquillity” or not even then. Alternative designations such as ‘punctuated equilibrium’ and ‘saltationism’ versus ‘gradualism’ fare little better in this regard. As un- derstood here, change comes about – in nature as in history – by the combined operation of uniformitarian forces over long periods and catastrophic ones over short periods. 123 Traditionally, the purview of catastrophism has been limited to threats from the viewpoint of living beings on Earth, to the exclusion of disruptive events on scales smaller than the living organism and larger than the planet. No matter how direful on its surface, the splitting of a comet into halves is not strictly considered catastrophic if it is observed from Earth in utter peace and calm. Catastrophist theories can be divided into a few categories. 124 Terres- trial or geogenic catastrophism considers disasters affecting the earth in

122 Whewell 1832: 126. 123 Note also the cunning in Lyell’s choice of term ‘uniformity’, as exposed by Gould and discussed by Professor Palmer in the foreword to this book. 124 References for the ideas of the individual writers will be supplied in later volumes.

62 the question of metaphors

On these grounds, superfluous now but perhaps revolutionary in their day, Wáng Chōng objurgated the entire tradition as fiction. Cognisance of the figurative nature of many aspects of myth was probably widespread across time and space, even in traditional societies. For example, a visiting anthropologist had the following experience among the Osage (west of the Mississippi) in 1883:

An Osage said to the author: ‘We do not believe that our ancestors were really animals, birds, &c., as told in the traditions. These things are only wa-wi´-ku-ska´-ye [symbols] of something higher.’ On saying this he pointed to the sky. 203

Presumably, as in most religions today, literalists and allegorists opposed each other from the start in nearly every community, at every level and in different degrees. The argument for metaphorism is straightforward enough in cases where spokesmen for the traditions directly communicated the ‘mean- ings’ of the symbols in their texts or to visiting scholars. That the celestial ‘snakes’ of numberless traditions – from a contemporary perspective – symbolised the rainbow, the lightning, the Milky Way or an auroral band is therefore not in doubt; no one maintains that such traditions were exclusively derived from the observation of actual reptilian verte- brates. The challenge modern mythologists are facing is to identify metaphors and the realities behind them when these are not identified by representatives of the original cultures. A resort to metaphor is especially understandable in the case of unfamiliar phenomena, such as a rare display of a great comet, a halo, an eclipse or the polar aurora. In many cases, the selected metaphors may have been inspired by hallucinations and – for clear states of mind – pareidolia, a type of illusion in which familiar objects or shapes are rec- ognised in vague and sometimes random visual or aural stimuli. As this often occurs with such amorphous phenomena as clouds and aurorae, it is entirely natural to expect that humans subjected to truly rare spectacles in the sky or air, not seen in millennia, would a fortiori be tricked into seeing a wide array of familiar objects, but on unusual scales, in unex- pected locations, in odd combinations and with unfamiliar characteristics. Metaphors or a combination of them would frequently arise – delib- erately or inadvertently – in response to strange phenomena for which

203 recorded 1883, in Dorsey 1888: 396.

95 On the Origin of Myths what tortuous fashion the eyes of Horus”. 243 The following hymn, for instance, directly equates the sun god’s protective uraeus with Horus’ eye:

Praise to thee, Re-Atum, at thy goodly comings, thou who art shining and powerful. [Thou settest in life and splendour in the western hori- zon in thy domain which is in Manu, thy uraeus being around thee, around thee. Hail to thee, who art in peace, in peace. The eye of Horus has enclosed thee; thou art hidden within its midst. It drives off dan- ger from thee. It makes thee safe that thou mayst live. It extends its protection around thy person.] 244

While this poem suggests that the serpent-eye was a feature of the contemporary evening sky, whether a rare or a daily occurrence, and thus a parontomyth, a Theban hymn to Amun gives reason to suspect that its composer distinguished Horus’ eyes from the sun at the time of creation – like an etiomyth, in other words:

You came forth as the one, who was alone in the primordial water with your father ‘Earth’, your mother ‘Sky’, when you were HORUS, who enlightens the two countries with his eyes, still before the sun in the sky had come into being. 245

Was the idea here that the two eyes had become the sun and moon af- terwards, for example by moving into the sky, or that they had been replaced altogether? The former possibility could be supported by a hymn according to which the sun, as Ra and Atum-Harakhte, “raised up the sky so that his two eyes (i.e. the sun and the moon) might travel” 246 – a cosmogonic event likely believed to be replicated every morning. At least originally, the eyes of Horus and Ra were probably synonyms for the same object, a goddess perhaps identifiable as a morning star of some sort and matched by an evening star as a second ‘eye’. 247 Be that as it may, there is no gainsaying that the Egyptians of the early New Kingdom

243 Stewart 1967: 36. 244 Hymn to Ra-Atum (14th or 13th century BC), tr. Stewart 1967: 71. The text in square brackets is absent from a version from the Late Period (712-323 BC). 245 Hymn to Amun ( Papyrus of Berlin 3055), lines 5-9, tr. Assmann 1999: 276 #124 (•). Assmann (1999: 277 note 9) was perplexed: ‘This statement seems to preclude the idea that the sun is one of the sky god’s two eyes!’ (•) 246 Hymn to Ra , version B (13th century BC), tr. Stewart 1967: 71 note 3. 247 van der Sluijs 2011d: 24-25, 227-228, where further literature is cited.

110 On the Origin of Myths

what it was that the moon encountered, and how, being at the full, she should on a sudden lose her light and emit all sorts of colours, this was no easy thing to comprehend. Men thought it uncanny, – a sign sent from God in advance of divers great calamities. 277

Yet, unless the recording anthropologist was in error, the Nivaclé (Para- guay and northwest Argentina) associated both solar and lunar eclipses with clashes between the two luminaries. 278 Regardless, solar eclipses are excellent natural candidates for a ‘weak or invisible sun’ (§439) and Islāmic cosmology, for one, explicitly interprets them as partial or total tumblings of the sun from its char- iot. 279 The solar corona as majestically exposed during a total eclipse can readily be compared to various types of superficially unnatural portray- als of the sun. During solar minima, it is splayed out in two opposing equatorial directions by so-called ‘helmet streamers’, resembling wings. This form calls to mind images of a ‘winged sun’ (§442), such as the ‘winged disc’ familiar from ancient Near Eastern art. 280 The uraeus ser- pents with which the ancient Egyptians adorned the solar disc, winged or not, could quite naturally have been inspired by observations of solar prominences sticking out of the photosphere during total eclipses. Al- ternatively, the hymn cited above which equates the snake with the eye of Horus impels one to wonder if it could not also represent the corona, wrapped around the darkened sun like an eyeball or iris around a dark pupil. The wings and the serpent need not even be contradictory expressions, if the imagined creature was a winged serpent. Both at solar minima and maxima, helmet streamers in the corona occasionally exhibit the form of a pillar (fig. 33) or combine in the shape of a cross, 281 as in the eclipses of 3 May 1715 (fig. 34), 9 February 1766 (fig. 35), 18 July 1860 (fig. 36) and 29 July 1878 (fig. 37).282 Such spectacles

277 Plutarch, Vita Niciae ( Life of Nicias ), 23. 1-2 (538), tr. Perrin 1916: 288-289. By “towards the end of the month” Plutarch referred to the fact that solar eclipses necessarily take place at new moon. 278 van der Sluijs 2018a: 148-149. 279 van der Sluijs 2018a: 73. 280 Apparently, various researchers made this connection independently: Maunder 1908: 125- 129; Jankovics 2001 (1996): 16; James 2000: 106; Barber & Barber 2004: 186 figure 26; Edgar, in Bhatnagar & Livingston 2005: 10-11; Vaquero & Vázquez 2009: 200-201. 281 Corliss (1986: 130-133) collated several examples and comprehended (1986: 131): “Solar magnetic fields mould odd corona shapes.” 282 The inner circular band observed in these cases must be the diamond ring effect which occurs directly before and after totality.

120 On the Origin of Myths

the whole cosmos depend. The conversion of pillar into axis may quite well have taken place in Pythagorean circles, for the Pythago- reans were especially concerned with maintaining the doctrine of a spherical earth in the midst of a spherical cosmos. 458

Such acuity as displayed by Roscher, Cook and Richardson remained a rarity in writings on the subject, however. More typical is Harva’s take on the mythical ‘pillar of the world’ as an unsurprising spontaneous reaction to observations of the polar sky, independent of latitude:

THE REGULAR diurnal movement of the stars round an axis at the North Star, the reasons for which never-ending rotation were earlier unknown, gave birth to an idea that this apparent centre of the universe was formed by some object which could be represented in con- crete form, and which was, in addition, believed to support the roof of the sky. 459

Following the demise of the Pan-Babylonist movement, of which Jensen and Jeremias had been prime advocates, the subject of the world axis in myth and symbolism was virtually appropriated by the ‘traditionalists’, an intellectual movement characterised by its recognition in historical and archaeological sources of a preconceived cross-culturally coherent network of symbols – the ‘primordial tradition’. Creuzer, cited above (p. 31), may be viewed as an early exponent of this school of thought, before the notion of a mythical cosmic column had arisen. The figurehead of the traditionalists during the 1930s, the French symbologist and esotericist René-Jean-Marie-Joseph Guénon (1886-1951; fig. 57), was aware of Roscher’s ideas,460 but apparently not of those of the other writers discussed so far. Abandoning even the pretense of a proven link with the astronomical world axis, he liberally referred to the ‘Axis of the World’ and the ‘axis of the Universe’, often in footnotes, with complete disregard for the question of whether or not the primary sources indicate a connection with the rotational poles. 461

458 Richardson 1926: 129, cf. 132. 459 Holmberg 1927: 333. 460 Guénon 1958a (1927): 74. 461 Guénon 1958a: 28, 41 note 3, 78 and note 1; 1957 (1931): 130 note 3, 140, 143, 148 and note 1, 150 note 1, 151 note 1, 175, 188 note 2, 262, 264, 266 (tr. 1958b: 40 note 4, 46-47, 50 and note 1, 51 notes 1 and 3, 64, 70 note 1, 110-112) (••); cf. 1958a: 20 note 2, 74; 1957: 96, 110 (tr. 1958b: 21, 30). On Guénon’s ideas, see further Godwin 1993: 21-24.

168 On the Origin of Myths prevents a direct discharge between the ionosphere and the crust, forc- ing the currents to close in the ionosphere. Nevertheless, Peratt proposed that each of the two polar cusps, of which the auroral ovals define the bases, can be modelled as a single funnel-shaped ‘beam’ or “auroral plasma column” 885 composed of thin planar sheets of in- and outflowing particle streams:

Magnetometer measurements from rockets and satellites show that Birkeland currents often exist in sheets in the auroral zones … The thickness of such sheets is found to range from a few kilometers to several hundred kilometers. Often the sheets exist in pairs with oppo- sitely directed currents. 886

Peratt found the sheets, which connect the magnetopause with the ionosphere, to be “susceptible to two plasma instabilities”: “hollowing of the relativistic electron beam to form the sheets” and “the diocotron instability”, including filamentation. 887 Whether or not it is instructive – at least for the period of human existence – to treat the field-aligned current system as the outcome of a hollowing instability in an originally solid ‘column’ is debatable. Under ordinary circumstances, the visible aurora is mostly re- stricted to the auroral ovals around the poles, extending vertically for no more than 1000 km at the very most. The giant plasma funnels above the ovals – defined by the field-aligned currents and confined by the con- tours of the Van Allen radiation belts – remain in ‘dark discharge mode’. But conditions need not always be thus, as Zysman and Ashton were among the first to point out since Fourier’s scientific fantasy of an intense aurora. Specialists acknowledge that the intensity of the normal aurora can vary over more than four orders of magnitude. 888 That being the case, there may be no theoretical reason why a higher, fifth order could not be attained on extremely rare occasions. Beginning in 2003, Peratt went further than any of his predecessors in determining the characteristics of an aurora intensified by one or two orders of magni-

885 Peratt 2003: 1193. 886 Peratt 2015: 59-60, cf. 72. Compare 2015: 73: “The beam may be a solid or hollow cylinder, or a planar sheet, a geometry that happens to be of particular interest to the study of the aurora or of vacuum devices.” 887 Peratt 2003: 1193; cf. Peratt et al. 2007: 779, 797-798; Peratt & Yao 2008: 2. “Solar flares result- ing from coronal instabilities raise temperatures to 10-30 keV and produce relativistic streams of electrons and protons.” Peratt 2015: 12. 888 Brekke & Egeland 1983: 87 table 7. 1 note a.

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layers, 129, 259, 295; cosmic, 45, Loomis, Elias, 124, 126, 209, 221, magnetopause, 216-17, 259, 262, 144, 179, 246, 297, 311 223, 225, 232, 238, 241, 243, 276 le Bovier de Fontenelle, Ber- 245 magnetosphere, 7, 90, 199, 201- nard, 1, 29, 308 lotus flower, 128-29 4, 209, 212-13, 215-17, 258-59, Le Mouël, 209-10 low: — sky, 45, 55, 107, 111, 138, 263-64, 269, 271, 276, 312; leg damage, sun’s, 114 177, 179, 187, 195, 248, 289, distorted, 199, 204; inner, 216 Legend of Etana , 281 300, 305; — suns and moons, magnetosphere-ionosphere Legge, 149, 152, 157, 313-14 107 coupling, 215-16 legs, 93-94, 114 Lucan, 157, 177, 233 magnetospheric: — plasmas, Leiden I, Papyrus of , 110, 131 Luckenbill, 281 204; — wind, 217 Lemström, 209 Lucretius, 11, 69, 157-58, 174, magnetotail, 216-17, 276 lepidopterist, 203 307 Magoun, 284 Lerner, 214 Luhya, 296 Mahābhārata , 149 Letter Concerning the Magnet , 210 Luna. See moon Mahbūb ibn-Qūṣṭānṭīn, 233 Levant, 103 lunar: — crescents, 140; — maimed, 115 levels, cosmic. See layers, shadow, 275; — surface fea- Mairan, Jean-Jacques d’Ortous cosmic tures, 117 de, 211, 213, 228 Lewis, 64 Lùnhéng , 93-94 maize cob, 281 Li , 94 luniplanetary catastrophism, Maktbānūt Zabnē , 234 librarian, 121 63, 74 Malaysia, 176 Library , 155 Lupáč, 235 male, ugly, 118 Liddell & Scott, 148 Luvsanjav, 290 malevolence, 291 life, tree of, 46, 165, 197 Luzon, 111 Malinen, Ontrei, 284 life cycle, human, 53-54 Lyell, Charles, 62, 64 Malone, Christian, 234 Life of Nicias , 120, 289 Lyman, 219, 239, 246-47 Malvezzi, Jacopo [Jacobus de life-giving pillars, 144 Lyra, constellation, 242 Malvecius], 245 lifting of the sky, 55, 148, 177, lyricist, 245 Mamen-gorak [Mamengorak], 299, 301 293 Light, colonel William, 231 MMM Mandara, Mount, 190 light: interplanetary, 119; Mandelkehr, Maurice, 63 synchrotron, 265, 269; zodia- Maailman alku munasta , 284 Mangaia, 177 cal, 73, 97, 119, 186, 211, 213, Maass, 230 Manger, 235 229-30, 232, 240, 285, 293, Macedonia, 46 Mango & Scott, 233 297; — bringer, 75; — pillars, Macrobius, 131-32 Manilius, Marcus, 69, 85, 157, 124-25, 229; — pollution, 124 Maehara, 219 180 lightning, 71, 73, 89-90, 92-93, Máel Eóin, Gilla Críst Ua, 234 Manitoulin Island, 250 95, 230, 248, 277, 295-96; in- maelstrom, 189 man-mountain, 167 terplanetary, 203 magazines, colonial, 58 Manóbo, 176 limbs, 115, 183 Magdalenian culture, 164 Mansfeld & Runia, 154, 313 limping, 158 Magic Papyrus, Harris , 144 Mansi, 290, 301 Lindahl, Erik, 171, 308 magical poles, 169 Manu, 110 linguist(ics), 2, 8-9, 32-34, 40, magician, 204, 291 Manuel, 80 71, 124; comparative, 9, 32; magnet, 210, 212, 225; dipolar, Māori, 50 historical, 164 252 maps, 50-51, 314 Linssen, 280-81 Magnet, Letter Concerning the , 210 Marathi, 163 liquids, 87-88, 187 Magnete, Epistola de , 210 M-arc (mid-latitude red arc), Lisbon, 61, 236; — earthquake, magnetic: — axis, Earth’s, 201, 227 61 204-5, 257; — equator, 219; — Marcovich, 149, 152, 157, 313-14 literalism, 70, 73, 92-93, 95, 97- field lines, Earth’s, 204, 217, Margulis, 283 98, 118, 193; Biblical, 80 224, 226-27, 261, 264; — (flux) Maricourt, magister Petrus literature, funerary, 280 ropes or tubes, 201, 217, 258, Peregrinus of, 209-10 Lithuanian, 123 266, 310; — gasses, 212; — marine water, 219 Little Bear, 241 inclination, 210; — poles, 205, marital divorce, 142 Líu Ān, 93, 101 209-10, 217, 222-23, 237, 252, mark, physical, 118 Livingstone, David, 50 257, 267, 269, 288; — tube, markasu , 281; markas šamê u Llanes, 111 201; — zenith, 224-25 irṣitim , 165, 280 local(ised) expressions, 35, 40, magnetic field, 204, 209, 212, Marrano, 27 296 214-15, 217, 258-61, 264-65; Marriage of Philology and Mer- Logan: James Richardson, 34-35; azimuthal, 264; Earth’s, 204, cury, The , 157, 181 Thomas Muldrup, 245 216, 223, 225, 227, 288; local, Mars, 74-75, 99, 125, 133-34; logos , 36 215; solar, 120 scar on, 202 Lombardy, 245 magnetician, 212 Martianus Capella, 157, 180-81 Lomonosov, Mikhail Va- magnetism, 87-88, 209-12, 214- marvels, Biblical, 70 silyevich, 246 16, 223, 228, 268, 274, 286 Maslow’s hammer, 3 London, 211 magnetohydrodynamic, 200, mass extinctions, 65 London Times , 232 259; — vortex, 310 Massachusetts, 235, 239 Lönnrot, Elias, 284 magnetometer, 262 Masse, William Bruce, 1, 68, 72- 73

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