The Clove Tree of Madagascar : a Success Story with an Unpredictable

BOIS ET FORÊTS DES TROPIQUES, 2014, N° 320 (2) SYZYGIUM AROMATICUM / FORUM 83

Pascal Danthu1, 2, 9 Eric Penot3, 2 The clove tree of Madagascar : Karen Mahafaka Ranoarisoa4 Jean Chrysostôme Rakotondravelo4 a success story with Isabelle Michel5 Marine Tiollier5 Thierry Michels6 an unpredictable future Fréderic Normand6 Gaylor Razaﬁmamonjison2, 4, 7 Fanja Fawbush4 Michel Jahiel2, 7, 8

1 Cirad UR 105 Bsef 34398 Montpellier Cedex 5 France 2 Cirad DP Forêts et Biodiversité BP 853, Antananarivo Madagascar 3 Cirad UMR Innovations BP 853, Antananarivo Madagascar 4 École Supérieure des Sciences Agronomique Université d’Antananarivo BP 175, Antananarivo Madagascar 5 Montpellier Supagro Institut des Régions Chaudes UMR Innovation 1101 avenue d’Agropolis BP 5098 34093 Montpellier Cedex 05 France 6 Cirad UR HortSys Station de Bassin Plat, BP 180 97455 Saint-Pierre Cedex France 7 Centre Technique Horticole de Tamatave BP 11, Tamatave Madagascar 8 Cirad UR HortSys BP 11, Tamatave Madagascar 9 Cirad Direction régionale à Madagascar BP 853, Antananarivo Madagascar

Photo 1. Young clove trees near Tamatave. Photograph P. Danthu. BOIS ET FORÊTS DES TROPIQUES, 2014, N° 320 (2) P. Danthu, E. Penot, K. M. Ranoarisoa, 84 FORUM / SYZYGIUM AROMATICUM J. C. Rakotondravelo, I. Michel, M. Tiollier, T. Michels, F. Normand, G. Razaﬁmamonjison, F. Fawbush, M. Jahiel

RÉSUMÉ ABSTRACT RESUMEN

LE GIROFLIER DE MADAGASCAR : THE CLOVE TREE OF MADAGASCAR: A SUCCESS EL CLAVERO DE MADAGASCAR: UNE INTRODUCTION RÉUSSIE, STORY WITH AN UNPREDICTABLE FUTURE UNA INTRODUCCIÓN EXITOSA, UN AVENIR À CONSTRUIRE UN FUTURO POR CONSTRUIR

Introduit à Madagascar au début du 19e siècle, The clove tree was introduced to Madagascar El clavero, introducido en Madagascar a princi- le giroflier est originaire des îles Moluques en from the Maluku Islands in Indonesia at the pios del s. XIX, es originario de las islas Molu- Indonésie. Malgré la sensibilité de l’essence beginning of the 19th century. In spite of its sen- cas en Indonesia. A pesar de su sensibilidad a aux risques météorologiques, tels les cyclones, sitivity to hazards such as cyclones, a locally riesgos meteorológicos como los ciclones, a los et aux attaques d’un parasite local, andretra, et found pest known as andretra and year-on-year ataques de un parásito local, andretra, y a la malgré la production variable de clous de variability in the production of cloves, it has variable producción de clavos de olor de un año girofle d’une année sur l’autre, son adaptation adapted surprisingly well to the ecological con- para otro, su adaptación a las condiciones eco- aux conditions écologiques de la côte Est de ditions on Madagascar’s East coast, particularly lógicas de la costa este de Madagascar, espe- Madagascar, notamment dans la région d’Ana- the Analanjirofo Region. The species was cialmente en la región de Analanjirofo, es sor- lanjirofo, est remarquable. Très vite adoptée par adopted very rapidly by farmers (some settlers prendente. La especie fue adoptada muy rápi- les paysans (certains venus s’installer mais la but mostly native peasant farmers), who inte- damente por los campesinos (autóctonos en su plupart autochtones), ceux-ci l’ont intégrée grated it into their cropping systems as a com- mayoría y algunos foráneos) que la integraron dans leurs systèmes de culture en complément plement to their staple crops (rice, in particular) en sus sistemas de cultivo como complemento aux cultures vivrières (riz, surtout) et de rapport and cash crops (coffee and vanilla). Currently, de los cultivos alimentarios (sobre todo arroz) y (café et vanille). Aujourd’hui, le marché du clou the marketability of cloves brings a regular comerciales (café y vainilla). Actualmente el de girofle est une source de revenus réguliers income to households, ensuring them food mercado del clavo de olor supone una fuente pour les ménages et leur assure la sécurité ali- security. The clove tree bears two products of regular de ingresos para los hogares y les mentaire. Le giroflier donne deux produits de high economic value, the clove, which is the garantiza la seguridad alimentaria. El clavero grande valeur économique, le clou de girofle, le dried flower bud, and the essential oil, derived proporciona dos productos de gran valor eco- bouton floral séché, et l’huile essentielle de from distillation of the leaves, of which Mada- nómico: el clavo de olor —los botones florales girofle produite par distillation des feuilles, gascar is the world’s number one exporter. secos— y el aceite esencial de clavo, producido dont Madagascar est le premier exportateur Products from the clove tree, along with vanilla, mediante destilación de las hojas y del que mondial. Avec la vanille, les produits du giro- account for the largest (second largest in some Madagascar es el primer exportador mundial. flier représentent les premiers produits agri- years) proportion of Madagascar’s agricultural Junto con la vainilla, los productos del clavero coles d’exportation, parfois les deuxièmes, de exports. Cloves are exported primarily to representan los primeros productos agrícolas Madagascar. Les clous de girofle s’exportent Indonesia to be used in the production of the de exportación (algunos años los segundos) de surtout en Indonésie, où ils entrent dans la local cigarettes known as kretek. There is a Madagascar. Los clavos de olor se exportan fabrication d’une cigarette locale appelée kre- small demand from northern countries for sobre todo a Indonesia, en donde se usan para tek. Un petit volume s’exporte vers les pays du exports of the clove spice. Clove essential oil is elaborar unos cigarrillos locales denominados nord sous forme d’épice. L’huile essentielle de produced in a plethora of redimentary stills kretek. Una pequeña parte se exporta hacia los girofle est distillée dans une multitude d'alam- located throughout the clove growing zone. The países del norte como especia. El aceite esen- bics rudimentaires dans toute la région de pro- quality of the essential oil depends on the con- cial del clavero es destilado en una multitud de duction. La qualité de l’huile essentielle tent of eugenol, a molecule of interest in a num- rudimentarios alambiques en toda el área de dépend de sa teneur en eugénol, molécule ber of commercial sectors including the cos- cultivo. La calidad del aceite depende de su mise en œuvre dans de nombreux secteurs éco- metic industry, human and veterinary pharma- contenido de eugenol, compuesto empleado en nomiques, dont l’industrie des cosmétiques, la ceuticals and the food industry. The clove tree muchos sectores económicos como la industria pharmaceutique humaine et vétérinaire et l’in- in Madagascar seems to represent an example cosmética, la farmacéutica humana y veterina- dustrie alimentaire. Le giroflier de Madagascar of successful adoption and integration of a new ria y la industria alimentaria. El clavero de semble représenter un exemple d’intégration crop into existing production systems. How- Madagascar parece representar un ejemplo de réussie d’une nouvelle culture dans un système ever, the clove tree plantations are ageing and integración exitosa de un nuevo cultivo en un de cultures existant. Cependant, les plantations the conditions for their renewal are not fully sistema agrícola ya existente. Sin embargo, las de girofliers vieillissent et les conditions de leur established. Whilst the market for cloves is plantaciones de claveros envejecen y no se reú- renouvellement ne sont pas pleinement pré- largely dependent on demand from Indonesia, nen plenamente las condiciones para su reno- sentes. Alors que le marché du clou de girofle the future looks promising for the world market vación. Mientras que el mercado del clavo de dépend fortement de la demande indoné- in clove spices and eugenol-based products. olor depende en gran medida de la demanda sienne, les perspectives sont prometteuses sur Consequently, current practices and possible indonesia, las perspectivas son prometedoras le marché mondial des épices et des produits ways of adapting and developing the Malagasy en el mercado mundial de especias y en pro- contenant de l’eugénol. De ce fait, les pratiques clove sector in new directions need to be inves- ductos a base de eugenol. Por ello, hay que actuelles et les possibilités d’adaptation et de tigated and addressed in order to balance the estudiar detenidamente las prácticas actuales y développement du secteur Malgache de la future demands of the markets with the needs las posibilidades de adaptación y desarrollo del girofle doivent être étudiées de près pour assu- of the farmers in terms of resource management sector malgache del clavo para garantizar el rer l’équilibre futur entre les marchés et les and valorization. equilibrio futuro entre mercados y necesidades besoins des paysans en termes de gestion de la campesinas en cuanto al manejo del recurso y a ressource et de sa valorisation. Keywords: clove tree, Syzygium aromaticum, su valorización. cloves, essential oil, cropping systems, produc- Mots-clés : giroflier, Syzygium aromaticum, tion, exportation, historical evolution, Mada- Palabras clave: clavero, Syzygium aromaticum, clous de girofle, huile essentielle, systèmes de gascar. clavos de olor, aceite esencial, sistemas de cul- culture, production, exportation, évolution his- tivo, producción, exportación, evolución histó- torique, Madagascar. rica, Madagascar. BOIS ET FORÊTS DES TROPIQUES, 2014, N° 320 (2) SYZYGIUM AROMATICUM / FORUM 85

Introduction

The clove tree, Syzygium aromaticum L., originates from the Maluku Islands in Indonesia and has been used for its spice and aromatic properties for millennia. Whilst products from the clove tree were imported regularly to Europe from as early as the 7th century (FRANÇOIS, 1936; MAISTRE, 1964; VAXELAIRE, 2013), its story began more recently with the dis- covery of the Maluku Islands by the Portuguese, and the expe- dition organised by Magellan. On returning to Spain in 1522, the Victoria, the first boat to circumnavigate the globe, carried in its hold a cargo of spices that included cloves. The first description of the clove tree can be found in Antonio Pigafetta’s account of this journey entitled “Navigation & découvrement de l’Inde supérieure & îles de Malucque où naissent les clous de girofle, faite par Antonio Pigafetta, vicentin et chevalier de Rhodes, commençant en l’an 1519”. The Portuguese held the trading monopoly for cloves until they were driven out of the Maluku Islands by the Dutch at the beginning of the 17th century (VAXELAIRE, 2013). In an attempt to keep their hold on the clove trade, the Dutch tried to concentrate the tree’s cultivation to Ambon Photo 2. Island, by systematically destroying the trees elsewhere in the Clove tree foliage (Tamatave). archipelago (VAXELAIRE, 2013). This project was destined to Photograph P. Danthu. fail though, partly due to the tenacity of Pierre Poivre who, more than a century later, organised several expeditions for clove. It asks what motivates producers in their decisions to the French East India Company to pilfer clove and nutmeg favour the production of one product over the other, or alter- plants from the Dutch. The first plants were brought to nately to combine the two. How has this complex management Mauritius, Ile de France as it was then known, in 1770, where led to the sector’s current structure? How and in what context they were acclimatised (VAXELAIRE, 2013). It was from these has Madagascar become world leader of the clove market? trees that the first plants on the Reunion Island originated. The aim of this article is to describe the present operating According to FRANÇOIS (1936) and DECARY (1937), the first dynamic of the clove sector, that is to say the way it is man- plants were established in Madagascar on the island of Sainte- aged and organised around these two products, in a historical Marie (off the coast of Grande Terre) in the 1820s, making perspective in relation to some key background factors in the Sainte-Marie the historical birth place of the Malagasy clove history of the clove. The article is based on a synthesis of old tree (PRUDHOMME, 1901; DE NEMOURS, 1930). Production of documents and an analysis of agricultural statistics, and is cloves at this time remained moderate (15 tonnes in 1880). backed up by field studies carried out in 2012 and 2013 on The crop was only developed on Grande Terre from 1895, at the island of Sainte-Marie and in the region of Fénérive-Est. the time of its conquest by the French. This cultivation took off rapidly occupying vast swathes of land, sometimes at the expense of food crops (LEROY, 1946; TOURNEUR, 1947a). The Clove Tree: one tree, From the 1920-30s, Madagascar became one of the major two products producers and exporters of cloves. At the same time, a secondary product emerged, clove essential oil, which rapidly elbowed In comparison to the majority of other spice producing its way onto the world market (MINISTÈRE DES COLONIES, plants, the clove tree distinguishes itself in that it supplies 1917; LEDREUX, 1928, 1932; MAISTRE, 1955, 1936). two products of major economic interest, the clove and clove Currently, Madagascar is one of the largest producers of essential oil. cloves and clove essential oil, and since the 1990s, the world’s number one exporter (TEUSCHER et al., 2005; FAOSTAT, 2013). Biological features of the species In under a century, the clove tree has been adopted by the small peasant farmers of Madagascar, who have become expert The clove tree, Syzygium aromaticum L., is a member of the in its cultivation, resulting in a new form of valorization. Cloves Myrtaceae family. It is typically found in low lying (below and clove oil have become a flagship of Malagasy agriculture. 300m) areas with a humid tropical climate and no noticeable However, such a success story raises questions. This article dry season, such as can be found on the West coast of investigates how the clove sector has developed over the past Madagascar (MAISTRE, 1964; DE HAUT DE SIGY, 1968) (figure century, on the basis of what strategies, and for what uses and 1). The clove grows well in poor quality soil (PRUDHOMME, which markets. It identifies who has been involved in its devel- 1909; MAISTRE, 1964; DUFOURNET, 1968). Whilst it is averse opment. It looks at how and when essential oil production to sandy soil, it adapts well to ferralitic tropical soils which, came into being and how it relates to the initial product, the for example, are not suitable for coffee (TOURNEUR, 1947a). BOIS ET FORÊTS DES TROPIQUES, 2014, N° 320 (2) 86 FORUM / SYZYGIUM AROMATICUM

The clove tree has few known enemies, despite reported cases of apoplexy (“sudden death”) in Madagascar as well as Zanzibar (HEIM & BOURIQUET, 1937, 1939; BOURIQUET, 1946; FRÈRE, 1955; MAISTRE, 1955). Cases of anthracnose, root rot and sooty mould have been recorded (BOURIQUET 1946). The main pest is andretra, the clove leaf miner, lepti- doptera Chrysotypus mabilianum, of which the first recorded attacks in Madagascar were in 1933 (TOURNEUR, 1947a) (photo 5). Despite widespread damage, which was difficult to estimate, no lasting means of protection or prevention seem to have been put in place (FRAPPA, 1954; DUBOIS & RANAIVOSOA, 1966). The clove tree is noted to be sensitive to wind (FRANCOIS, 1936), and yet paradoxically, it is the clove growing region of Madagascar (figure 1) which is most sus- ceptible to cyclones (KIRKHAM, 1928; DONQUES, 1975).

The Clove: the clove tree’s “historical” product

Cloves have been put to a variety of uses. It is used as a culinary spice in many eastern and western dishes (a staple ingredient in most curried dishes, spicy fruit cakes, sauer- kraut) (TEUSCHER et al., 2005). Europe and India are amongst the major importers of high quality cloves (FRANÇOIS, 1934; TOURNEUR, 1947a; FAOSTAT, 2013). It also has a long history of usage in dentistry, cosmetics and perfumery. But the majority of world production goes into the manufacture of kretek, a Figure 1. traditional Indonesian cigarette, a mix of tobacco and clove Coverage of clove growing zone in Madagascar in 1955 (MAISTRE, 1955). (TEUSCHER et al., 2005; DUCLOS, 2012). According to RUF (2000), around 75% of worldwide clove production was destined in the 1980s for this purpose. The tree has a conical crown (photo 1) and measures on average between 10 and 12 metres but can get as tall as 20 Clove oil: uses past and present metres. It has tough, evergreen leaves (photo 2). The recommended density for plantations is 100 to 150 trees/hectare, Clove oil has been used in Europe since the 16th century. It ensuring the plants adequate light. However, Malagasy peas- is produced essentially by hydrodistillation of the leaves, ants often tend to plant 4 to 5 metres apart (MAISTRE, 1964). cloves and stems (LEDREUX, 1932). Higher yields of matter The flowers are clustered in terminal cymes of 20-25 flow- are obtained from the stems (15 to 20% in relation to fresh ers, generally forked into three peduncles, called “stems” matter) than the leaves (4 to 5%) (TOURNEUR, 1947b). (RABECHAULT, 1955; MAISTRE, 1964). The plant flowers for the Its interest lies in its high eugenol content (BRIAND, 1996; first time after 8-10 years and trees are fully flowering at TEUSCHER et al., 2005). It can contain up to 90% eugenol, around 20 years (FRANÇOIS, 1936; MAISTRE, 1955). The inflo- depending on the organ distilled and mode of distillation rescences bearing the unopened flower buds, “nail-like” (GOPALAKRISHANAN & NARAYANAN, 1988; SRIVASTAVA et al., spikes called cloves, are handpicked and the cloves are 2005; RAZAFIMANONJISON et al., 2013). Essential oil from the removed from the stems and dried in the sun (photos 3, 4). clove bud and stems give the greatest yields (TOURNEUR, The peduncles and pedicels from the inflorescences that con- 1947b). Eugenol is reputed for its anti-bacterial, fungicide, stitute the clove stems are harvested along with the clove antiseptic, antioxidant anaesthetic and analgesic effects, and buds (MARTIN, 1991). In Madagascar, the harvest takes place is widely used in aromatherapy, pharmacy, human and veteri- between October and January (TOURNEUR, 1947a; DUCLOS, nary medicine and dentistry (SURESH et al., 1992; 2012). If the harvest is left too late (flowering stage), the prod- FRANCHOMME et al., 2001; BURT, 2004; TEUSCHER et al., uct is a “headless clove” of lower quality (MAISTRE, 1964). The 2005; FU et al., 2007; MILINT & DEEPA, 2011; SHAABAN et al., fruit, called antofle, is a lightly-scented, single-seeded drupe. 2012). Eugenol is also the primary component in the hemi- Clove production varies from one year to another (LEDREUX, synthesis of vanillin (TOURNEUR, 1947b; BRIAND, 1996), put- 1932; BOITEAU, 1936), without any particular alternating pattern. ting the clove paradoxically in competition with vanilla, RAMANANTSOAVINA (1971) estimates the extent of these varia- Madagascar’s other major export. Clove essential oil is also tions to be between 1 and 7. However, whilst these irregularities used widely as a base in perfumery, an ingredient of Opium have been widely observed, the determining factors have not by Yves Saint-Laurent and l’Air du Temps by Nina Ricci been established (MAISTRE, 1964; THANKAMANI et al. 1994). (BRIAND, 1996), amongst others. BOIS ET FORÊTS DES TROPIQUES, 2014, N° 320 (2) SYZYGIUM AROMATICUM / FORUM 87

Balancing clove and clove oil production: a compromise in the management of trees?

In Madagascar, trees are grown both for clove and clove oil production. Collectors will cut the top 50 cm of the branches for the purpose of distillation photo 7). Lopping in this way reduces the height of the trees making it easier to harvest the clove buds and protects against wind damage. This is what gives the crown its characteristic platter shape (photos 8 and 9). Yet, whilst this is poorly documented, it seems that the practice of systematically and drastically reducing the leaf surface has a negative influence on the production of clove buds. Apparently, clove production takes second place to the Photo 3. collection of leaves for distillation. This was observed very Freshly picked stems and clove spikes (Sainte-Marie, November 2011). early by FRANÇOIS (1934), who claimed that lopping like this Photograph P. Danthu. was harmful to the trees and that prioritising essential oil production was “the clove industry’s worst competitor”. Like- wise, LEROY (1946) described this practice as vandalism and mutilation, compromising for the future of plantations. Fur- thermore, a regional decree was passed in 2011 to counteract this constraint, forbidding distillation in May and June, when it becomes feasible to assess the quantity of clove flowers and thus selectively direct the collection of leaf biomass destined for oil production. Incidentally, Zanzibar even went as far as to halt the setting up of stills, banning the distillation of fresh leaves, so as to give a better chance to clove production (FRANÇOIS, 1934) and only the lower quality clove spikes and stems were distilled (KIRKHAM, 1928; FRÈRE, 1955). This might explain the higher yields of clove buds from Zanzibari trees (640 kg/ha compared with only 250 kg/ha in Madagas- car) (MAISTRE, 1964).

Photo 4. Fresh and dried cloves (Sainte-Marie, November 2011). Photograph P. Danthu.

At present, demand for eugenol on the international market is high and on the increase (DUCLOS, 2012). There is a developing sector in the purification of eugenol from clove essential oil, in particular in Indonesia, and the first fractionation plant has just started operating in Tamatave. Distillation is carried out in stills found in all the villages (fokontany) and hamlets throughout the clove growing area. Small farmers wishing to distil will generally hire the still from the owner (photo 6). Whilst the precise number of stills is not known, there are estimated to be between around 1,000 and 2,000 in the region of Fénérive-Est, Vavatenina and Soanier- ana Ivongo (RAMALANJAONA & JOURDAN, 1961; DANDOY, 1973; P.P.R.R., 2013). Photo 5. Caterpillar The waste matter from distillation of the leaves can be used of Chrysotypus as compost for growing taro and bananas. It was used at one mabilianum, time as substrate for growing a very high quality comestible responsible for clove mushroom, Volvaria volvacea, (BOURIQUET, 1941, tree andredra. Photograph 1942/1943), but this usage seems to have died out. M. Panco. BOIS ET FORÊTS DES TROPIQUES, 2014, N° 320 (2) 88 FORUM / SYZYGIUM AROMATICUM

Evolution tined chiefly for the spice trade (FRANÇOIS, 1934). As the plant was considered a secondary crop and the harvest labour of the Malagasy clove sector intensive, it was not recommended for large scale cultivation (PRUDHOMME, 1909; ROLLOT, 1923), particularly on planta- The history of the clove tree in Madagascar can be tions belonging to European settlers (MINISTÈRE DES approached from two angles; via the evolution of clove and COLONIES, 1917). The first wave of plantations, strongly sup- clove oil production, equated here with annual exports, the ported by the colonial powers, was organised in the district of products being mostly destined for the international market, Mananara from 1924 to 1926, under the impetus of the or alternately by the geographic expansion of the clove sector. Administrator Ballot “who particularly favoured the propaga- tion of native crops” (FRANCOIS, 1928; BROWN, 2000), in Historical dynamic of clove and clove oil production which a million clove trees were planted by local small farmers. ROLLOT (1923) asserts that many clove trees at this time An analysis of the curves (figure 2) shows a wide interan- belonged to natives who had planted them around their vil- nual variation in the production of cloves (as well as essential lages. This development, demanding little upkeep, seems to oil), confirming the irregularities previously highlighted. But have been to the detriment of the food crops, especially rain- aside from these irregularities, it is possible to draft a hypoth- fed rice. TOURNEUR (1947a) goes as far as to typify it as “a esis for a periodization in the development of the clove sector lazy-man’s crop”! Yet, the extent of the clove sector was still in Madagascar since the beginning of 20th century. quite limited, estimated at 2,800 ha for 1,600 tonnes of clove Before this date, the clove crop remained modest for a long produced in 1929. It was also during this period, in 1906 or time (15 tonnes in 1880) even if there appear to have been 1911, that the first distillations of clove oil were carried out on some exports onwards of 1835 (CAMPBELL, 2005). Clove was stems (MINISTÈRE DES COLONIES, 1917; RAHONINTSOA, still considered a secondary crop. Very little consideration 1978). This advance was partly associated with the arrival of was given to clove as a crop of the future by PRUDHOMME, the first stills in Madagascar (RAMALANJAONA & JOURDAN, who was Director of Agriculture in Madagascar in 1901, and 1961; DUFOURNET, 1968) and partly with the fact that General GALLIÉNI (1908), the Governor General of Madagas- eugenol was found to be a useful additive in the manufacture car from 1896 to 1905. of the varnish used for the wings of aircraft, for which war had Five distinct periods have been identified, partly inspired multiplied demand (GATEFOSSÉ, 1921). However, production by the periodisation suggested by DE HAUT DE SIGY (1968). of clove oil remained modest, with annual output still at less The first period covers the years between 1900 and than 100 tonnes (figure 2). 1925/1930. This marks the beginning of clove cultivation in The second period, from 1930 to 1939, is characterised by a Madagascar, firstly on Sainte-Marie, as indicated by significant increase in the areas planted with clove trees, which PRUDHOMME (1901, 1909). Production at that point was des- increased to 10,000 ha in 1938. The production of cloves increased concurrently to 6,500 tonnes in 1938. 25 000 2 500 Annual output of clove essential oil grew to 400 tons. Cloves The third period was short, corresponding to Essential oil World War II. Exports of cloves and clove oil (but not 20 000 P5 2 000 production) fell dramatically from 1940 and picked up again in 1944 (DUFOURNET, 1968). These varia- tions are closely linked to the historical conditions, 15 000 P1 P2 P3 P4 1 500 where under Vichy rule, Madagascar was blockaded from 1940 to the end of 1942, and then subsequently seized by the British, then the Free French

10 000 1 000 forces from January 1943, the date when the block-

Clove exportation (t) Clove ade was lifted. Despite this, trade in cloves remained

Essential oil exportation (t) oil Essential modest, as did the entire colonial production destined for export and not considered essential to the 5 000 500 war effort (FRANÇOIS, 1945; CASTEL, 1947). The exports in 1946 and 1947 corresponded partly to the stocks remaining from the previous years’ har- 0 0 vests (DUFOURNET, 1968). The fourth period covers the post-war years to 1900 1905 1910 1915 1920 1925 1930 1935 1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 Years 1983, undisrupted by the independence of Mada- gascar in 1960. The state of Madagascar continued Figure 2. to support the clove sector, whilst research and Evolution of Malagasy clove and clove essential oil production since 1900, periodisation of five proposed periods (P1 to P5). development of the species flourished, as witnessed Sources: MAISTRE (1964); DUFOURNET (1968); FAOSTAT (2013). by the major studies published at this time by Data unavailable for years 1971, 1972 and 1989. Indicated MAISTRE (1955, 1964), RABECHAULT (1955), tonnages correspond to exports and account for the fact that the RAMALANJAONA & JOURDAN (1961) and product of year N is generally exported almost entirely in year N+1. RAMANANTSOAVINA (1971). During this period, BOIS ET FORÊTS DES TROPIQUES, 2014, N° 320 (2) SYZYGIUM AROMATICUM / FORUM 89

annual clove exports stagnated, fluctuating between 2,000 and 13,000 tonnes, averaging at around 4,500 tonnes and with extremes of 974 tonnes in 1969 and 22,254 in 1975. The production of clove oil increased regularly rising from 550 tonnes in 1947 to 780 in 1960 and 1,346 in 1973 (figure 2). A drive of plantings took place in the 1960s and 1970s in the region of Mananara (LOCATELLI, 2000). In 1971, RAMA - NANTSOAVINA estimated at three million the number of poten- tially productive trees. During the years when Madagascar was under socialist rule (1972-1991), the purchase price of the Photo 6. Still used for clove oil distillation at Sainte-Marie clove bud from farmers was kept low by the government. This (November 2011). strategy was aimed at improving the balance of payments and Photograph P. Danthu. compensating the deficit associated with the importation of rice, resulting from a drop in production due to keeping the selling price of this basic foodstuff artificially low. This resulted in an illegal trade in Malagasy clove, exporting to the Comoros where the buying price was higher (BROWN, 2000), but this practice did not affect the levels of exportation to any significant degree (figure 2). This period ended in 1983 with the (pro- visional) halt in exports to Indonesia, which had become self- sufficient for the first time and able to manage without foreign imports, in particular those from Madagascar (FAOSTAT, 2013) (figure 3). This crisis brought about a slump in clove sales for Malagasy producers, some of whom even considered uproot- ing their clove trees (BLANC-PAMARD & RUF, 1992). In the fifth period, up to the present day, annual exports fluctuated between 4,000 and 15,000 tonnes, with an average of 11,700 and a few exceptional years (22,000 in 2012). These exports are headed primarily for Singapore from where they are fed into the Indonesian market. Cloves from Photo 7. Madagascar serve as an adjustment to Indonesian produc- Transporting bundles of clove leaves in preparation for distillation tion. Annual clove oil exports are around 1,275 tonnes with (Ambatiharanana, around Fénérive-Est, May 2013). marked high output in recent years (2010 and 2011), mainly Photograph P. Danthu. due to the substantial increase in world demand and hence world prices. The sector has been supported dur- 120 000 ing this period by some large scale aid pro- grammes promoting cash crops such as Indonesia production Operation Coffee, Pepper, Clove, Cocoa 100 000 Madagascar export (Opération Café Poivre Girofle Cacao [O.C.P.G.C.]) Zanzibar export and the Rural Income Promotion Programme Indonesia import (Programme de Promotion des Revenus Ruraux, 80 000 Singapore import P.P.R.R.), supported by IFAD (RAHONINTSOA, 1978; P.P.R.R., 2013). 60 000 Geographic extension Quantity (t) Quantity

40 000 The present day clove producing zone extends from Maroansetra in the north to Fort-Dauphin in the south in the areas of Antsinanana, Analanjirofo 20 000 (meaning “clove forest”), Vatovavy Fitovinany and Atsimo Atsinanana (figure 1). However, 90% of

0 clove production is concentrated around Mananara, Fénérive-Est and Soanierana Ivongo 1961 1966 1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011 (MAISTRE, 1964). Nowadays, the production on Years Sainte-Marie is merely token. Figure 3. Evolution of Indonesian clove production with exports from Madagascar and Zanzibar and imports from Indonesia and Singapore from 1961 to 2010. Source: FAOSTAT (2013). BOIS ET FORÊTS DES TROPIQUES, 2014, N° 320 (2) 90 FORUM / SYZYGIUM AROMATICUM

80 000

Coffee 70 000 Evolution in the modes of Cloves production and valorization 60 000

since colonial times 50 000

In the region of Analanjirofo, paddy fields are 40 000 relatively rare and the system of rain-fed rice production gives mediocre yields. This region is 30 000 therefore under-supplied in rice. Yet, the strategy (t) Exportation quantity of peasant farmers when attributing land has 20 000 always been to ensure that the need for rice is fulfilled (DANDOY 1973; RABEARIMANANA, 10 000 1985). Cloves make a significant contribution to household food security by ensuring sufficient 0

income to enable rice to be purchased when 1961 1966 1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011 there are shortfalls in food production (DANDOY, Years 1973; ANDRIANIRINA et al., 2010). Figure 4. Evolution of Madagascar’s exports of coffee and clove since 1960. How coffee was overtaken by cloves Source : FAOSTAT (2013). as number one cash crop But from the 1950s, after the Malagasy uprising of 1947 Clove has only recently become the number one cash crop, (BROWN, 2000), the colonial administration considered a rice coffee being the number one agricultural export in the 1980s surplus would guarantee social harmony (RABEARIMANANA, (RAMILISON, 1985) (table I, figure 4). 1985). And so, the coffee then occupying the good land in the From the 1930s, coffee (mainly the robusta varieties) was the valley bottoms (CIOLINA, 1947; RAMILISON, 1985) was main cash crop in Madagascar (DE NEMOURS, 1930). A quarter thought to be a hindrance to the extension of rice paddies of Malagasy coffee production came from the Tamatave area (BLANC-PAMARD & RUF, 1992). The administration took and 40% of exports were shipped via the ports of Fénérive and account of this contradiction and recommended that cultiva- Tamatave (CIOLINA, 1947). Coffee production was seen at that tion of coffee should take second place to the need to extract time as a means for buying rice (BLANC-PAMARD & RUF, 1992). full value from the rice fields (RABEARIMANANA, 1985).

Table 1. Ranking of cloves in the value of Madagascar’s exports. In the second column, the first figure relates to cloves and the second to clove essential oil. In the third column, the first figure relates to the rank of cloves in exports and the second relates to combined exports of clove and clove oil. Figures taken from Bulletin économique de Madagascar et dépendances (July 1901, 3rd quarter 1913, 1st quarter 1921, March 1931) and CASTEL (1947) and information provided by INSTAT (Institut national de la Statistique) (data covering 1967/1995 unavailable).

Year Cloves as a percentage Ranking of cloves amongst Main natural resources exported and their of value of total exports (%) exports of natural resources percentage of value of Madagascar’s exports (%)

1899 0.2 /- 8 gold (31.2%) - raffia (28.9%) - forest rubber (27.4%) 1910 0.2 / - 13 cattle hide (21.6%) - forest rubber (21.3 %) - gold (20.5%) 1920 0.8 / 0.1 14 / 14 cattle hide (19.8%) - rice (11.7%) - vanilla (9.9%) 1930 3.7 / 1.5 7 / 7 vanilla (10.6%) - pois du Cap (9.7%) - coffee (9.4%) 1938 4.4 / 1.3 6 / 3 coffee (31.7%) - vanilla (9.0%) - cattle hides (5.2%) 1954* 10.8 / 3.1 2 / 2 coffee (48.7%) - vanilla (5.2%) - rice (4.0%) 1966 2.4 / 1.6 10 / 5 coffee (31.5%) - vanilla (9.2%) - meat extract (6.2%)

2001 9.6 / 0.006 4 vanilla (15.5%) - shellfish (11.0%) - petroleum oil (10.5%) 2007 2.8 / 0.7 4 shellfish (10.1%) - vanilla (4.2%) - petroleum oil (4.2%) 2012 12.5 / 1.0 1 petroleum oil (6.8%) - shellfish (5.7%) - nickel (4.9%)

*: value for first half-year. BOIS ET FORÊTS DES TROPIQUES, 2014, N° 320 (2) SYZYGIUM AROMATICUM / FORUM 91

and develop exports), launched an extensive campaign to encourage small local farmers in the planting of plots of clove trees (ROLLOT, 1923; FRANÇOIS, 1928; LOCATELLI, 2000). This strategy was pursued until recently by projects such as the O.C.P.G.C. (Operation Coffee, Pepper, Clove, Cocoa), which from 1968 and for a further 20 years or so, was overseeing production (RAHONINTSOA, 1978), as well as the P.P.R.R. (P.P.R.R., 2013). However, not enough is known about the current replanting strategy to ascertain whether it is ensuring the resource’s renewal, or whether it is capable of overcoming the cumulative effects of an ageing stock, recurrent cyclone damage and over-collection of leaves. Photo 8. Currently, plots of monoculture of clove have all but disap- Old, lopped clove trees (Ambodimanga II). Photograph P. Danthu. peared and the clove trees are included in more or less complex agroforestry systems. These systems, according to the definitions given by TORQUEBIAU (2000), extend from combined agroforestry plotting systems in which the clove tree is associated with annual crops (rice, maize, cassava, sweet potato, etc.) to agro-forests in which they are combined with other trees, forest or fruit (coffee, mango, coconut, etc.) (photos 10, 11, 12, 13, 14). Systems also exist which combine clove trees with cattle, where the cattle graze beneath the trees (DANDOY, 1973; MICHELS et al., 2011). The situation in Sainte-Marie, where the clove trees are particularly dilapidated, shows that a number of factors have con- tributed to this evolution. When rights over plots are transferred into a number of different hands over generations, those farming the plots can be dissuaded from investing time in cultivating a crop over which they have no control or from which they are expected to share the profits. Another factor is the myriad of different rights (over the land, the tree, the usage of the cloves and leaves). Moreover, since 2000, a new trend can be observed in the planting of plots previously devoid of clove trees, where the owner concentrates all the rights in order to maintain full long Photo 9. View of a grove of lopped clove trees (Ambatoharanana, area term benefit of his investment (LEVASSEUR, 2012). around Fénérive-Est, September 2012). Photograph P. Danthu. Joint valorisation of the two products, This regressive context for coffee production was aggravated clove and essential oil: complementing household incomes in the 1980s by the world coffee crisis in which supply exceeded demand, bringing about a drop in price for the producers. The The clove sector in Madagascar is limited to three leading value of Malagasy coffee, which came from ageing and poorly players: producer, collector, and exporter (SCHWEITZER & maintained coffee plantations, plummeted. Export volumes RANAIVOSOA, 2007; P.P.R.R., 2013). According to DUAULT tumbled (figure 4). Despite the gradual adoption of coffee drink- (2008), the producers are well paid for the clove; about 58% of ing by the inhabitants (MOREAU, 2013), coffee no longer ful- the world market price (FOB price) for the clove spikes, which filled its role as a cash crop, as it was unable to provide a source on the whole is a fair price in relation to other cash crops. The of income for producers (MINAGRI, 2011; FAO, 2013). collectors and exporters share the remaining 42% equally. The clove tree was unaffected by this dynamic as it was pos- The quality of the products was defined by law in 1930, sible to cultivate it in poor soils. Clove then became, from 1990 offering two classifications that differentiate cloves of spice- onwards, the primary cash crop in Analanjirofo and, along with grade (type 1) from all the others (JO MADAGASCAR ET DÉPEN- vanilla, Madagascar’s primary agricultural export (table I). DANCES, 1930). In the 1960s, four grades were distinguished, the highest grade being “prima” consisting of whole cloves Evolution in cropping systems (with flower bud, light brown in colour, less than 16% humid- ity and weighing at least 70g) (MAISTRE, 1964). Currently, The clove tree developed on the large estates of European cloves are graded according to three categories: CG1 - “Hand settlers, but was also widely adopted by native farmers. In pick”; CG2 - “Prima”; CG3 - “Courant”, which correspond 1918, on Sainte-Marie, 228 hectares were cultivated by the respectively to spice usage, transformation and non-food former and 1,200 by the latter (RAHONINTSOA, 1978). From usage (SCHWEITZER & RANAIVOSOA, 2007). The greater part of the 1920s onwards, the colonial administration, committed Malagasy exports fall into the third category, destined for the to the promotion of “native crops” (in a bid to generate taxes Indonesian kretek industry (FRANÇOIS, 1934). BOIS ET FORÊTS DES TROPIQUES, 2014, N° 320 (2) 92 FORUM / SYZYGIUM AROMATICUM

Photo 13. Low land rice and clove trees (Ambodimanga II). Photograph P. Danthu.

Photo 10. View of a colonial plantation of clove trees in Madagascar (CASTEL, 1947). Photograph Anonymous.

Photo 14. Young clove trees in an agroforest in Sainte-Marie (November 2011). Photograph P. Danthu.

The household income generated by clove production is high Photo 11. Agroforest of clove trees and a field of rain-fed rice but fluctuates from one year to another and contributes consid- at Sainte-Marie (November 2011). erably to ensuring food security to small farmers and their fami- Photograph P. Danthu. lies (for buying rice and other necessities). Essential oil production is an opportunity for farmers to manage and control their income to respond to one-off or recurrent expenses (lean season, home repairs, healthcare, feast-days, and memorial cere- monies for the dead...). Clove and its two products thus provide a regular income enabling food security and at the same time provide for unforeseeable expenses and investments. It is nonetheless worth noting that the availability of man- power is a limiting factor in the harvesting of cloves (PRUDHOMME, 1901; DUFOURNET, 1968; RAHONINTSOA, 1978). Collecting and stripping the cloves is a short-lived activity but is highly labour intensive. On Sainte-Marie, beyond utilising the family labour, farmers have resorted to various solutions including forced labour, the quality of which was sloppy; casual labour, which results in poor yields; and sambiamanana, which consists of half shares of the harvest for the owner and the picker. Where oil production is con- cerned, access to a still is the main limiting factor. An agree- Photo 12. ment is usually struck up between the owner of the cloves Grove of clove trees combined with maize and rice used for distilling and the owner of the still; payment is (Ambodimanga II). always made in essential oil (DUFOURNET, 1968; Photograph P. Danthu. RAHONINTSOA, 1978). BOIS ET FORÊTS DES TROPIQUES, 2014, N° 320 (2) SYZYGIUM AROMATICUM / FORUM 93

Economic value of clove

Madagascar only recently became the world number one 2010) (figure 5). In 1983, Indonesia was self-sufficient for the clove exporter. However, the market is unstable and for the most first time causing a significant fall in exports from Madagascar part dependant on Indonesian production. This section deals and Zanzibar (figure 3) (BLANC-PAMARD & RUF, 1992). with the place clove occupies in Malagasy agricultural exports Since then, the majority of Madagascar’s clove crop is and the place of Madagascar in the worldwide clove trade. exported to Indonesia, particularly the poorer quality cloves (SCHWEITZER & RANAIVOSOA, 2007). But the volume of The place of clove in Madagascar’s agricultural exports exports is still tied to Indonesian production, as can be seen for the period 1999/2001, when a fall in Indonesian output Table I shows that Madagascar initially (before WW1) resulted in an increase in its imports (figure 3)... and a subse- exported mined or collected products (gold, rubber, raffia, quent soar in the world clove price. wax...). From 1913, the island began exporting agricultural The 1980s also saw a change to the conditions of the clove products and cattle (meat, hide, coffee, vanilla) (CASTEL, 1947). trade with Indonesia no longer importing directly but via Singa- Cloves then accounted for a small part of exports. In the years pore (figure 3). Since then, the majority of Madagascar’s from 1930 to 1960, coffee was by far Madagascar’s main agri- exports have shipped to Singapore, from where the greater cultural export, followed by vanilla, whilst clove exports were on part of the cargo is then re-exported to Indonesia (SCHWEITZER the increase. From 2000 onwards, clove, vanilla and prawns & RANAIVOSOA, 2007). (with the development of prawn farming) have dominated Volumes of spice-grade cloves exported from Madagascar exports, far exceeding those of lychee, sugar and cocoa. Cloves are small and usually destined for Europe (less than 15% of represented on average 7.3% of the value of exports in the world market) and India, the second biggest importer of period 2007/2012. In 2012, clove was the number one export. Malagasy cloves (SCHWEITZER & RANAIVOSOA, 2007), apparently despite the superior reputation of cloves from Ambon Indonesia number one producer and importer of clove, Island and Zanzibar (TEUSCHER et al., 2005). Madagascar number one exporter Clove oil production from which eugenol is extracted is essentially specific to Madagascar and Indonesia. Indonesian exports of Domination of the global clove market by Madagascar and clove oil exceeded 900 t/yr three times between 1979 and 1982, Zanzibar dates back to the beginning of the 20th century with whilst Madagascar’s varied between 900 and 1,200 tonnes, peak- these two world leaders accounting for 90% of the cloves ing twice at 1,800 tonnes in 1984 and 1986 (DUCLOS, 2012). The traded (MAISTRE, 1964; MARTIN, 1991). majority of Madagascar’s clove oil is destined for France (300- Until 1960, Zanzibar’s exports regularly exceeded Madagascar’s 400 tonnes) and for the USA (300-470 tonnes) whilst the remain- (figure 5). Zanzibar’s domination can be explained by its far higher der is exported to Indonesia for eugenol extraction and then tran- output in cloves. There are two reasons: Zanzibar’s production sited on to Europe and the USA. Indonesia has consequently concentrates on cloves rather than essential oil and the cloves become the number one importer of clove essential oil and the flower twice a year (a large harvest from July to September and a number one exporter of eugenol. World demand for clove oil is smaller one from December to January), whilst Madagascar’s estimated at 5,000 tonnes, far in excess of production, appearing flower only once (FRÈRE, 1955; DUFOURNET, 1968). to make this sector one which holds good future potential for During the period from 1970 to 1990, Madagascar and Zanz- Malagasy producers (DUCLOS, 2012). ibar alternated as the number one exporter. But from 1990, Madagascar’s exports increased whilst Zanzibar’s were on the 25 000 decline. Since then, Madagascar has Madagascar remained the number one world exporter with Zanzibar annual volumes of between 10,000 and 25 000 15,000 tonnes (figure 4) Currently, the majority of exports from Madagascar and Zanzibar (as well as smaller 25 000 exporters such as Comoros, Kenya and Brazil) are destined for the Asian markets, going 25 000

almost entirely to Indonesia. exportation (t) Clove In fact, Indonesia and its kretek industry directs the world clove markets. It is by far the largest clove producer (figure 3), whilst not 25 000 always fulfilling its own requirements. For a long time, Indonesian production (less than 10,000 tonnes until the 1960s) has fallen 25 000

short of it consumption. The 1980s were the 1897 1903 1909 1915 1921 1927 1933 1939 1945 1951 1957 1963 1969 1975 1981 1987 1993 1999 2005 2011 only boom years in Indonesian clove produc- Years tion with volumes exceeding 50,000 tonnes in Figure 5. the leaner years and more than 80,000 tonnes Comparative annual exports of clove from Madagascar in the good years (1988, 1991, 1995, 2003, and Zanzibar between 1897 and 2010 (MAISTRE, 1964; MARTIN, 1991; DUAULT, 2008; FAOSTAT, 2013). BOIS ET FORÊTS DES TROPIQUES, 2014, N° 320 (2) 94 FORUM / SYZYGIUM AROMATICUM

Perspectives Bibliographical references

The current state of the clove sector in Madagascar has ANDRIANIRINA N., BENOIT-CATTIN M., DAVID- BENZ H., 2010. arisen from a number of favourable convergent factors. First, it Diversité, diversification et inégalités chez les ménages can be considered the compatibility between the ecological ruraux. Le cas de l’observatoire rural de Fénérive-Est à Mada- requirements of the species and the environmental context on gascar. Actes des 4es journées INRA-SFER-CIRAD de recherches Madagascar’s East coast, even if its sensitivity to cyclones en sciences sociales. [En ligne] http://www. sfer.asso.fr. might be a hindrance to its development. The second factor Accessed 30th November, 2013. was the rapid uptake of the species by small farmers who ARNEZ M., 2009. Tobacco and kretek: Indonesian drugs in his- integrated it into their cropping systems, sometimes even at torical change. Aktuelle Südostasienforschung / Current the expense of their food crops. This was mainly because of Research on South-East Asia, 2: 49-69. the small manual outlay required to maintain the clove tree, BLANC-PAMARD C., RUF F., 1992. La transition caféière. Côte and the ease of harvest and preparation of the cloves relative Est de Madagascar. CIRAD et Centre d’Etudes Africaines Edi- to the substantial income generated by its sale. A third teurs, Collection « Documents Systèmes Agraires », 16, 248 p. favourable factor has been the soaring global demand (especially Indonesian) for cloves making it a high return cash crop. BOITEAU G., 1936. Le girofle. La Revue de Madagascar, 13 : The fourth factor is associated with the innovation repre- 107-116. sented by the development of essential oil production and BOURIQUET G., 1941. Les Champignons de Madagascar. La the strong interest for eugenol from different high value- Revue de Madagascar, 28 : 117-137. added industrial sectors. BOURIQUET G., 1942-1943. Notes de mycologie malgaches. th Thus, from the beginning of the 20 century, clove cultiva- Bulletin de l’Académie malgache, 25 : 12-24. tion took an increasingly important place in the cropping sys- BOURIQUET G., 1946. Les maladies du giroflier. In :Les mal- tems and incomes of peasant farmers in the area of adies des plantes cultivées à Madagascar. Encyclopédie Analanjirofo. Madagascar subsequently became a major mycologique Paul Lechevalier Editeur, France, 237-252. player on the world clove and clove oil market. Can Madagascar’s clove production then be described as a BRIAND C., 1996. L’essence de feuille de girofle, précurseur de success story? Or is this where the story takes a downturn? nombreuses molécules indispensables aux créateurs de par- Possible developments in the world market could deter- fums et d’arômes alimentaires. Les Cahiers du CITE, 4 : 61-62. mine the future of Madagascar’s clove sector. Whilst the mar- BROWN M., 2000. A history of Madagascar. Damien Tunna- ket for eugenol (and hence clove oil) looks promising, there cliffe Editor, Cambridge, 408 p. are doubts about the clove market. Effectively, competition BURT S., 2004. Essential oils: their antibacterial properties from the major multinational tobacco companies who are try- and potential applications in foods- A review. International ing to penetrate the enormous Indonesian market at the Journal of Food Microbiology, 94: 223-253. expense of the kretek, could in the medium term be responsi- CAMPBELL G., 2005. An economic history of imperial Madagas- ble for a drop in demand (and thus imports) from Indonesia car, 1750-1895. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 413 p. (HANUSZ, 2002; LAWRENCE & COLLIN, 2004; ARNEZ, 2009). At the producing end of the sector, resource management is CASTEL R., 1947. Commerce extérieur de Madagascar. M. de giving way to an economy of gathering from an ageing and Coppet (Éd.), Madagascar et Réunion, tome deuxième. 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