Introduction: Political Theatre and the Theatre of Politics 1

Notes

Introduction: Political Theatre and the Theatre of Politics 1 . Michael Walzer, “Liberalism and the Art of Separation,” Political Theory 12, no. 4 (1984): 315. The separation isn’t perfect—indeed, Walzer’s argu- ment in this essay is that further separations need to be made and the ones that already exist need to be strengthened through additional rules and institutions, specifically to protect the political sphere from the power of the market. 2 . Thomas Morawetz, “Tension in ‘The Art of Separation,’” Political Theory 13, no. 4 (1985): 599–606. 3 . H a n n a h A r e n d t , The Human Condition (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, [1958]1998), 198. 4 . For a discussion of Arendt’s rejection of determinism, see Margaret Canovan, Hannah Arendt: A Reinterpretation of Her Political Thought (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992). 5 . A r e n d t , The Human Condition , 187. 6. See Walter Benjamin’s essay “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction,” in Illuminations: Essays and Reflections (New York: Schocken Books, 1968), 234–235. 7 . A r e n d t , The Human Condition , 187–188. 8 . See J. Peter Euben, Corrupting Youth: Political Education, Democratic Culture, and Political Theory (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997); J. Peter Euben, The Tragedy of Political Theory: The Road Not Taken (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990); Peter J. Ahrensdorf, Greek Tragedy and Political Philosophy: Rationalism and Religion in Sophocles’ Theban Plays (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009); Mera J. Flaumenhaft, The Civic Spectacle: Essays on Drama and Community (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 1994), though the author does include chapters on Machiavelli and Shakespeare; Arlene Saxonhouse, “From Tragedy to Hierarchy and Back Again: Women in Greek Political 168 ● Notes

Thought,” American Political Science Review 80: 403–418; Martha Nussbaum, The Fragility of Goodness: Luck and Ethics in Greek Tragedy and Philosophy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986); Bonnie Honig, “Antigone’s Laments, Creon’s Grief: Mourning, Membership, and the Politics of Exception,” Political Theory 47, no. 1 (2009): 5–43; Aristide Tessitore, “Justice, Politics, and Piety in Sophocles’ Philoctetes,” Review of Politics 65 (2003): 61–88. 9 . Notable exceptions include Karen Hermassi, Polity and Theatre in Historical Perspective (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997); Mark Ingram, Rites of the Republic: Citizens’ Theatre and the Politics of Culture in Southern France (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2011); Loren Kruger, The National Stage: Theatre and Cultural Legitimation in England, France, and America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). 1 0 . K r u g e r , The National Stage. 11 . Grinor Rojo and Michael Sisson, “Chilean Theatre from 1957–1987,” Theatre Journal 41, no. 4 (1989): 524–537. 12 . Eugene van Erven, “Philippine Political Theatre and the Fall of Ferdinand Marcos,” The Drama Review: TDR 31, no. 2 (1987): 57–78. 13 . Serdar Ö zt ü rk, “Karag ö z Co-Opted: Turkish Shadow Theatre of the Early Republic (1923–1945),” Asian Theatre Journal 23, no. 2 (2006): 292–313. 14 . Michael Thompson, “The Order of the Visible and the Sayable: Theatre Censorship in Twentieth-Century Spain,” Hispanic Research Journal 13, no. 2 (2012): 93–110. 15 . I will discuss the cases of France and Germany below. 16 . Linda S. Myrsiades, “Narrative, Theory, and Practice in Greek Resistance Theatre,” Journal of the Hellenic Diaspora 21 (1995): 9–83. 17 . Preben Kaarsholm, “Mental Colonisation or Catharsis? Theatre, Democracy, and Cultural Struggle from Rhodesia to Zimbabwe,” Journal of Southern African Studies 16, no. 2 (1990): 246–275. 18 . Rose Mbowa, “Theater and Political Repression in Uganda,” Research in African Literatures 27, no. 3 (1996): 87–97. 19 . In his article, Robert McLaren discusses his work as a member of a theatre group performing in Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and Tanzania: Robert Mshengu McLaren, “Theatre on the Frontline: The Political Theatre of Zambuko/Izibuko,” The Drama Review: TDR 36, no. 1 (1992): 90–114. 20 . Paul Ryder Ryan, Julian Beck, and Judith Malina, “The Living Theatre in Brazil,” The Drama Review: TDR 15, no. 3 (1971): 20–29. 21 . Jean Graham-Jones, “Broken Pencils and Crouching Dictators: Issues of Censorship in Contemporary Argentine Theatre,” Theatre Journal 53, no. 4 (2001): 595–605. 22 . Mira Kamdar, “Theatre and Repression: Saffron Nightmares,” American Theatre 21, no. 9 (2004): 28–31, 100–102. Notes ● 169

2 3 . A n d r e w N . W e i n t r a u b , Power Plays: Wayang Golek Puppet Theatre of West Java (Athens, OH: Ohio University Research in International Studies, 2004). 2 4 . E u g e n e V a n E r v e n , The Playful Revolution: Theatre and Liberation in Asia (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992). This book documents Boal-inspired theatre movements in the Philippines, South Korea, India, Pakistan, Indonesia, and Thailand. 25 . The following data are taken from Karen Hauser, The Demographics of the Broadway Audience, 2008–2009 (New York: The Broadway League, 2009). 26 . These numbers are slightly higher than those who attend Broadway musi- cals: 71 percent of musical attendees have college degrees; 34.4 percent are age 50 and over. 27 . Don Aucoin, “Phantom of the Theatre: Audience is Getting Older,” The Boston Globe, June 17, 2012, http://www.boston.com/ae/the- ater_arts/articles/2012/06/17/theater_audiences_are_getting_ older/?page=1According to one study, in the United States, the percentage of young adults who attend plays has decreased 23 percent from 1982 to 2010. See E. Carew, “Attracting Young Patrons: A Challenge for Arts Groups,” Chronicle of Philanthropy 22, no. 6 (2010): 3. This study defines “young adults” as those of ages 18–24. 28 . On Sartre’s theatre more generally, see Mayer, Steppenwolf and Everyman ; Dorothy McCall, The Theatre of Jean-Paul Sartre (New York: Columbia University Press, 1971). 29 . On Sartre’s decision to stop writing plays, see Sartre on Theatre , 69. 30 . See Rosette C. Lamont, “The Surrealist Prankster,” in Ionesco’s Imperatives: The Politics of Culture (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993), 37–64, especially 42. 31 . On Ionesco’s fame and celebrity, see Ronald Hayman, Eugene Ionesco (New York: Ungar, 1976). 32 . Kenneth Tynan’s commentaries on Ionesco are contained in his anthology Curtains (New York: Atheneum, 1961); for a superb discussion of the Tynan-Ionesco dust up, see Mayer’s “Ionesco and Ideologies” in Steppenwolf and Everyman . 3 3 . A n d r e w R e h f e l d , “ O f f e n s i v e P o l i t i c a l T h e o r y , ” Perspectives on Politics 8, no. 2 (2010): 465–486. 3 4 . B o n n i e H o n i g , r e v i e w o f Philosophy and Real Politics , by Raymond Geuss; Public Philosophy in a New Key, vol. 1: Democracy and Civic Freedom, by James Tully; and Public Philosophy in a New Key, vol. 2: Imperialism and Civic Freedom , by James Tully, Perspectives on Politics 8, no.2 (2010): 659. 3 5 . S t e p h e n E r i c B r o n n e r , Of Critical Theory and Its Theorists, 2nd Edition (New York: Routledge, 2002), 4. 170 ● Notes

2 George Bernard Shaw: The Theatre of Bourgeois Radicalism 1 . For Shaw’s biography, I draw here primarily on Arthur Ganz, George Bernard Shaw (New York: Grove Press, 1983); and Michael Holyrod, Bernard Shaw: Volume 1, The Search for Love (New York: Random House, 1988). 2 . See Eric Hobsbawm’s three-volume history of the nineteenth century: Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Revolution: Europe, 1789–1848 (New York: Vintage Books, 1962); Hobsbawm, The Age of Capital, 1848–1875 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1975); and Hobsbawm, The Age of Empire, 1875–1914 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1987). See also Modris Eksteins, Rites of Spring: The Great War and the Birth of the Modern Age (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 1989). 3. Alexander Gerschenkron, Economic Backwardness in Historical Perspective: A Book of Essays (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1962). See also, Charles Tilly, Coercion, Capital, and European States: AD 990–1992 (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 1990); Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1983); Charles Tilly, European Revolutions: 1492–1992 (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 1993); and Roderick Phillips, Society, State, and Nation in Twentieth-Century Europe (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1996). 4 . B a r r i n g t o n M o o r e , Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World (Boston: Beacon Press, [1966] 1993). See also Theda Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia, and China (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1979). 5 . See J. B. Bury, The Idea of Progress: An Inquiry into its Origin and Growth (London: Macmillan and Company, 1920). See also Maurice Mandelbaum, History, Man and Reason: A Study in Nineteenth Century Thought (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1971); Robert Nisbet, History of the Idea of Progress, 2nd Edition (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1994); George G. Iggers, “The Idea of Progress: A Critical Assessment,” The American Historical Review 71, no. 1 (October 1965): 1–17; and Morris Ginsberg, The Idea of Progress: A Revaluation (London: Methuen, 1953). 6 . See Bury, introduction to The Idea of Progress. 7 . The classic account of the European balance of power remains Hans Morgenthau’s Politics Among Nations, originally published in 1948 (New York: McGraw Hill, 7th Edition, 2005). 8 . See Eric Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism Since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992). On the “dark side” of nineteenth-century “progress,” see also Hannah Arendt, “Imperialism,” in The Origins of Totalitarianism (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, [1951] 1973). Notes ● 171

9 . Bernard Shaw, Agitations: Letters to the Press, 1875–1950, Dan H. Laurence and James Rambeau, eds. (New York: Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., 1985), xi. See also Vanessa L. Ryan, “‘Considering the Alternatives . . . ’: Shaw and the Death of the Intellectual,” SHAW: The Annual of Bernard Shaw Studies 27 (2007): 175–189. 1 0 . G a n z , George Bernard Shaw , 18. 11 . See Raymond Williams, Culture and Society, 1780–1950 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983). 12 . Charles Grimes, “Bernard Shaw’s Theory of Political Theater: Difficulties from the Vantages of Postmodern and Modern Types of the Self,” SHAW: The Annual of Bernard Shaw Studies 22 (2001): 118. 1 3 . I b i d . , 1 2 0 . 14 . In his preface to The Apple Cart , Shaw writes: “I once saw a real popular movement in London. People were running excitedly through the streets. Everyone who saw them doing it immediately joined in the rush. . . . It was most impressive to see thousands of people sweeping along at full speed like that. There can be no doubt that it was literally a popular movement. I ascertained afterwards that it was started by a runaway cow. That cow had an important share in my education as a political philosopher,” in Bernard Shaw, Plays Political: The Apple Cart, On the Rocks, Geneva (New York: Penguin, 1986), 23. 15 . On Fabianism, and especially Shaw’s, see Gareth Griffith, On Socialism and Superior Brains: The Political Thought of George Bernard Shaw (New York: Routledge, 1995). 16 . Shaw, preface to Back to Methuselah in Bernard Shaw, Collected Plays with Their Prefaces , vol. 5 (London: The Bodley Head, [1930], 1972), 271. 17 . Piers J. Hale, “Of Mice and Men: Evolution and the Socialist Utopia. William Morris, H.G. Wells, and George Bernard Shaw,” Journal of the History of Biology 43 (2010): 21. Hale’s piece provides an excellent discussion of the conflicting views of evolution that were popular in Shaw’s time as well as their political implications. 18 . Shaw, preface to Back to Methuselah , 273–274. 1 9 . I b i d . , 3 0 1 . 20 . George Bernard Shaw, An Autobiography: 1898–1950, The Playwright Years , selected from his writings by Stanley Weintraub (New York: Weybright and Talley, 1970), 181. 21 . Shaw once wrote, “I was a coward until Marx made a Communist of me and gave me a faith: Marx made a man of me,” quoted in Ganz, 16. 22 . Quoted in A. M. Gibbs, “G.B.S. and ‘The Law of Change,’” SHAW: The Annual of Bernard Shaw Studies 27 (2007): 30. 23 . Both quotes are cited in Grimes, “Bernard Shaw’s Theory of Political Theatre,” 119–120. 172 ● Notes

24 . Lisa Wilde, “Shaw’s Epic Theater,” SHAW: The Annual of Bernard Shaw Studies 26 (2006): 136. The previous block quote is from p. 136 as well. For a full discussion of the theatrical tropes of the time, see also, Martin Meisel, Shaw and the Nineteenth Century Theater (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963). 25 . For a discussion of the Courtesan play, see Maurice Valency, The Cart and the Trumpet: The Plays of George Bernard Shaw (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973), 93–95. 26 . Shaw, preface to Mrs. Warren’s Profession, in Bernard Shaw, Plays Unpleasant: Widowers’ Houses, The Philanderer, Mrs. Warren’s Profession (New York: Penguin Books, [1930] 1946), 186. 2 7 . I b i d . , 2 4 9 . 2 8 . I b i d . , 2 5 1 . 2 9 . I b i d . , 2 8 4 . 30 . According to Valency, the 1902 production was “thoroughly denounced in the press,” 102. 31 . Shaw, preface to Plays Unpleasant, 25–26. 32 . “Shavian” is the adjectival form of “Shaw.” 3 3 . S e e V a l e n c y , The Cart and the Trumpet, 312–313; Weintraub, Journey to Heartbreak . 3 4 . S e e W e i n t r a u b , Journey to Heartbreak . 35 . Christa Zorn, “Cosmopolitan Shaw and the Transformation of the Public Sphere,” SHAW: The Annual of Bernard Shaw Studies 28 (2008):189. 3 6 . G e o r g e B e r n a r d S h a w , What I Really Wrote About the War . The Collected Works of Bernard Shaw , vol. XXI. (New York: WM. H. Wise and Company, 1931), 26. 3 7 . I b i d . , 3 0 . 3 8 . I b i d . , 1 1 . 39 . See Daniel O’Leary, “Censored and Embedded Shaw: Print Culture and Shavian Analysis of Wartime Media,” SHAW: The Annual of Bernard Shaw Studies 28 (2008): 181–185. 4 0 . S h a w , What I Really Wrote About the War, 24. 4 1 . S e e W e i n t r a u b , Journey to Heartbreak , 29–33. 42 . Zorn, “Cosmopolitan Shaw”: 193. 4 3 . I b i d . , 1 9 4 , 1 9 7 . 4 4 . T r a c y D a v i s , George Bernard Shaw and the Socialist Theatre (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1994), 104. 45 . See Ryan, “Considering the Alternatives.” 4 6 . S t e p h e n E r i c B r o n n e r , Socialism Unbound, 2nd Edition (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2001), 108. 4 7 . S e e E c k s t e i n s , Rites of Spring . 4 8 . S e e W e i n t r a u b , Journey to Heartbreak . 49 . George Bernard Shaw, preface to Heartbreak House, in Selected Plays (New York: Dodd, Mead and Company, 1981), 614. Notes ● 173

5 0 . S h a w , Heartbreak House , in Selected Plays , 724. 5 1 . I b i d . , 7 3 3 . 5 2 . I b i d . , 7 3 5 . 5 3 . I b i d . , 7 3 5 . 5 4 . I b i d . , 6 1 5 . 5 5 . I b i d . , 6 1 6 . 5 6 . I b i d . , 7 2 4 . 57 . As quoted in Sonya Freeman Loftis, “Shakespeare, Shotover, Surrogation: ‘Blaming the Bard’ in Heartbreak House,” SHAW: The Annual of Bernard Shaw Studies 29 (2009): 55. 5 8 . S h a w , Heartbreak House , in Selected Plays, 731–732. 59 . Alfred Turco, quoted in Desmond Harding, “Bearing Witness: Heartbreak House and the Poetics of Trauma.” SHAW: The Annual of Bernard Shaw Studies 26 (2006): 6. 6 0 . S h a w , “ P r e f a c e , ” Heartbreak House, 616. 6 1 . I b i d . , 6 2 0 . 62 . A classic account of the subjective turn that took place in the interwar years is Theodor W. Adorno’s The Jargon of Authenticity (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, [1964] 1973). See also Stephen Eric Bronner, Ideas in Action: Political Tradition in the Twentieth Century (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 1999), especially Chapter 10: “The Liberation of Subjectivity.” 63 . In the preface to Back to Methuselah , Shaw writes of Man and Superman : “I took the legend of Don Juan in its Mozartian form and made it a dra- matic parable of Creative Evolution. But being then at the height of my invention and comedic talent, I decorated it too brilliantly and lavishly. I surrounded it with a comedy of which it formed only one act, and that act was so completely episodical (it was a dream which did not affect the action of the piece) that the comedy could be detached and played by itself.” Shaw, Collected Plays with their Prefaces 5 (1972): 338 6 4 . V a l e n c y , The Cart and the Trumpet , 354. 6 5 . G e o r g e B e r n a r d S h a w , Back to Methuselah, as quoted in Michael and Molie Hardwick, The Bernard Shaw Companion (London: John Murray, 1973), 62. 66 . Shaw, preface to Back to Methuselah, 339. 6 7 . S h a w , An Autobiography: 1898–1950, The Playwright Years . 68 . On the critical reception of Back to Methuselah, see Peter Gahan, “The Achievement of Shaw’s Later Play’s, 1920–1939,” SHAW: The Annual of Bernard Shaw Studies 23 (2003):27–35; Valency, The Cart and the Trumpet . 69 . Margery M. Morgan, “Back to Methuselah: The Poet and the City,” in G.B. Shaw: A Collection of Critical Essays , ed. R. J. Kaufmann (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1965), 130–142. 174 ● Notes

7 0 . K e n n e t h T y n a n , Curtains: Selections from the Drama Criticism and Related Writings (New York: Atheneum, 1961), 151. 71 . Shaw, “Postscript: After Twenty-five Years,” in Collected Plays with their Prefaces 5 (1972): 696. 7 2 . I b i d . , 7 0 2 . 73 . Shaw, preface to Back to Methuselah, 74 . Shaw, “Shaw Has Become a Prophet,” in Collected Plays with their Prefaces 5: 714. 75 . Bernard Shaw, “Postscript: After Twenty-five Years,” in Collected Plays with their Preface, 5: 692. 7 6 . S h a w , An Autobiography: 1898–1950, The Playwright Years , 221. 7 7 . I b i d . , 2 1 6 .

3 Bertolt Brecht: The Theatre of Proletarian Revolution 1 . For Brecht’s biographical information, see the following texts: Martin Esslin, Bertolt Brecht: A Choice of Evils, 4th ed. (New York: Methuen, 1984); John Willett, Brecht in Context: Comparative Approaches, rev. ed. (London: Methuen, 1998); Henry Pachter, Weimar Etudes (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982); Frederic Ewen, Bertolt Brecht: His Life, His Art, and His Times (New York: Citadel Press, 1967); Peter Thomson and Glendyr Sacks, eds., The Cambridge Companion to Brecht (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994). 2 . Douglas Kellner, “Expressionism and Rebellion,” in Passion and Rebellion: The Expressionist Heritage , eds. Stephen Eric Bronner and Douglas Kellner (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), 3–39. 3. Stephen Eric Bronner, “Expressionism and Marxism: Towards an Aesthetic of Emancipation,” in Passion and Rebellion , eds. Bronner and Kellner, 413. 4. See Dietmar Elger, Expressionism (K ö ln: Taschen, 1989). 5 . See Douglas Kellner, “Expressionist Literature and the Dream of the ‘New Man,’” in Passion and Rebellion , eds. Bronner and Kellner, 166–200. 6. Barbara Drygulski Wright, “Sublime Ambition: Art, Politics, and Ethical Idealism in the Cultural Journals of German Expressionism,” in Passion and Rebellion , eds. Bronner and Kellner, 82–112. 7 . Kellner, “Expressionist Literature and the Dream of the New Man,” 192. 8. Max Beckman, in a letter to his wife from 1914, as quoted in Elger, Expressionism , 13. 9 . See Jean-Michel Palmier, “Expressionist Reviews and the First World War,” in Passion and Rebellion , eds. Bronner and Kellner, 113–125; Elger, Expressionism . 10 . According to Esslin, as early as 1923, Brecht’s name was number five on the Nazi liquidation list, largely due to the anti-German content of this particular poem. See Esslin, 55. Notes ● 175

11 . Take, for example, a scene from Hasenclever’s 1918 play, Humanity : First Act, Third Scene The niche at the right becomes bright. A ragged man sitting at a table covered with bottles. THE TIPPLER. I am dreaming The hall becomes dark. ALEXANDER enters. THE TIPPLER hands him the glass. ALEXANDER drinks. THE TIPPLER. You are starving! ALEXANDER looks up. THE TIPPLER. Brother! Embraces him. THE INNKEEPER enters. Money! THE TIPPLER searches in his jacket. THE INNKEEPER. Six bottles ALEXANDER. I want work THE INNKEEPER. As a waiter! Points to the hall, goes. LISSI enters. Men! THE TIPPLER. You are sick LISSI. I avenge myself Goes . ALEXANDER stretches out his arms. Love!! W a l t e r H a s e n c l e v e r , Humanity , in An Anthology of German Expressionist Drama: A Prelude to the Absurd , ed. Walter H. Sokel (Garden City: Anchor Books, 1963), 174–175. 12 . Bertolt Brecht, Bertolt Brecht: Diaries 1920–1922 , ed. Herta Ramthun, trans. John Willett (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1979), 8, emphasis in the original. 13 . Ibid., 8, emphasis in the original 14 . For a discussion of Baal , see Kellner, “Expressionist Literature,” in Passion and Rebellion , eds. Bronner and Kellner, 181–189. 15 . Though it would be historically inaccurate to view the new objectivity as a cohesive project, it is possible to identify key themes and trends among the art commonly identified with the movement. 16 . I am speaking here of the left wing of the new objectivity, those closest to Brecht in terms of form and focus. The artists of the movement were cat- egorized by Hartlaub along political lines. The right wing was concerned with everyday German life in a way that revealed nationalistic tendencies. It is interesting to note that the few artists that were either allowed to keep their teaching positions or given positions under National Socialism— Shrimpf, Kanoldt, Franz Radziwill, Albert Henrich, Georg Siebert, Werner 176 ● Notes

Peiner, Bernhard D ö rries, Franz Lenk, etc.—exclusively fall in the right hand column of Hartlaub’s model. See Sergiusz Michalski, New Objectivity: Painting, Graphic Art and Photography in Weimar Germany, 1919–1933 (London: Taschen, 2003). 17 . For example, Otto Dix’s 1927/28 triptych painting, “Metropolis,” depicts the odd juxtapositions common in everyday Weimar life: in the first panel, two war veterans (one dead or asleep, the other a double-amputee) are passed on the street by a group of grotesque prostitutes in fancy dresses and mink stoles. The second panel depicts a bourgeois dance party; the third, another group of prostitutes, ignoring the homeless at their feet. In three related images presented in the religious form of the triptych, Dix communicates the vast divide between the social classes of Weimar and the manner in which individuals will do anything possible to escape their reality, even if just for one night. See Michalski’s discussion of the painting in New Objectivity, 54, 59. For more on the new objectivity see John Willett, Art and Politics in the Weimar Period: The New Sobriety, 1917–1933 (New York: Pantheon Books, 1978). 18 . Bryan Gilliam, ed. Music and Performance during the Weimar Republic (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994). 1 9 . E s s l i n , Brecht; Willett, Art and Politics in the Weimar Period; Gilliam, ed. Music and Performance . All of Brecht’s work, with the exception of his first play, Baal , can be said to have been inspired by the new objectivity. Interestingly, however, Brecht never considered himself to be a part of the new objectivity or any other movement. 2 0 . E s s l i n , Brecht , 23. 21 . Bertolt Brecht, The Messingkauf Dialogues, trans. John Willett (London: Methuen and Co Ltd., 1965), 69. 22 . As quoted in Bertolt Brecht, Brecht on Theatre: The Development of an Aesthetic, ed. and trans. John Willett (New York: Hill and Wang, 1964), 61–62. 2 3 . E s s l i n , Brecht . Brecht did not fully theorize the epic theatre until his time in exile. Nevertheless, elements of epic theatre can be found in his early plays of the mid-late 1920s: Man Equals Man , The Threepenny Opera , and The Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny . The program notes of these plays are the beginnings of his attempts to theorize his dramaturgy, the best example being “The Modern Theatre is the Epic Theatre,” the title he gave to the Mahagonny notes. 24 . Many commentators, including Willett and Esslin, mistranslate Verfremdungseffekt as “alienation effect.” There is an important political and philosophical distinction between “estrangement” and “alienation” that arises from Marxist theory. Estrangement is the ability inherent in human beings to make things seem strange. Like “objectification,” estrangement is value neutral. Alienation, on the other hand, is always seen as a negative Notes ● 177

capacity, a kind of objectification that involves the subservience of human beings to the object. Unlike estrangement, alienation is something to be overcome. 2 5 . B r e c h t , Brecht on Theatre , 143. Or, to put it more simply, “The achievement of the [Estrangement-effect] constitutes something utterly ordinary, recurrent; it is just a widely-practiced way of drawing one’s own or someone else’s attention to a thing, and it can be seen in education as also in business conferences of one sort or another.” Brecht, The Messingkauf Dialogues , 76. 26 . Bertolt Brecht, The Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny, in Collected Plays , Vol. 2., eds. John Willett and Ralph Manheim (London: Methuen, 1994), 222. 27 . Bertolt Brecht, The Elephant Calf , in Brecht, Collected Plays , Vol. 2, 79. 28 . From a speech given in 1951, quoted in Brecht, Brecht on Theatre, 240. 29 . From a speech given in 1951, quoted in Brecht, Brecht on Theatre, 240. 30 . See the section, “The Philosopher’s Explanation of Marxism,” in Brecht, The Messingkauf Dialogues , 36. 31 . Bertolt Brecht, Bertolt Brecht: Journals 1934–1955, ed. John Willett, trans. Hugh Rorrison (New York: Routledge, 1996), 4. 32 . Quoted in Brecht, Brecht on Theatre , 24. 33 . According to Brecht’s friend, Fritz Sternberg, it was the experience of wit- nessing the violent suppression of the May Day demonstrations in 1929 that led Brecht to openly support the Communist Party. Reportedly, the murder of at least 30 peaceful demonstrators under the orders of the SPD- led government was both shocking and motivating. It reinforced the belief already brewing that the movement toward political change should be the dominant force behind his art. See Willett, Brecht in Context . 34 . Christopher Hailey, “Rethinking Sound: Music and Radio in Weimar Germany,” in Music and Performance during the Weimar Republic, ed. Brian Gilliam (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 13–36. 35 . Due to Lindbergh’s associations with the Nazis in World War II, Brecht later changed the name of the play to The Ocean Flight . In 1950, Brecht wrote a letter to the South German Radio in Stuttgart, regarding their desire to produce the play. He gives his permission, provided they remove any and all reference to Charles Lindbergh. The line, “My name is Charles Lindbergh,” was to be replaced with the line, “My name doesn’t matter.” When referring to Lindbergh in the third person, he was to be referred to as “the Flier.” The letter is included in Brecht, Collected Plays, Vol. 3ii. 36 . Bertolt Brecht, Lindbergh’s Flight , in Collected Plays: Vol. 3ii., trans. John Willett, 7. It should be noted that the quoted passage was not part of the original script, but was added soon after the first production. 37 . Karl Laux, as quoted in Stephen Hinton, “Lehrst ü ck: An Aesthetics of Performance,” in Music and Performance in the Weimar Republic, ed. Bryan Gilliam, 67. 178 ● Notes

38 . Bertolt Brecht, The Baden-Baden Lesson on Consent , trans. Geoffrey Skelton, in Collected Plays : Vol. 3ii, 43. 3 9 . B r e c h t , Collected Plays , Vol. 3ii. 40 . For excerpts from the students’ reports, see Brecht, Collected Plays, Vol. 3ii. 41 . Quote from “Group from Upper I, age 18,” as found in Brecht, Collected Plays, Vol. 3ii., 226. The italics are in the original and are meant to indi- cate the points that Brecht specifically took into account when writing the counter-piece. 42 . Perhaps the harshest criticism came from the critic Frank Warschauer, who wrote in Die Weltbune that the play contained “[a]ll the evil ingredients of reactionary thinking, founded on senseless authority.” He went on to say that “This Yes-sayer reminds us strongly of the Yes-sayers during the War.” As quoted in Ewen, Bertolt Brecht , 246. 4 3 . B e r t o l t B r e c h t , He Said Yes/He Said No , in Brecht, Collected Plays, Vol. 3ii, 59. 44 . From a 1931 note introducing the two texts, reprinted in Brecht, Collected Plays, Vol. 3ii, 221. 45 . See Michelle Matson, “Brecht and the Status of the Political Subject,” in Brecht Unbound, eds. James K. Lyon and Hans-Peter Breuer (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1995), 29–40. 46 . Quoted in Brecht, Collected Plays: Vol. 3ii., 231, emphasis in the original. 47 . Klaus Vö lker, Brecht Chronicle, with an introduction by Carl Weber (New York: The Seabury Press, 1975). 48 . Due to the onslaught of criticism against the piece that immediately fol- lowed the premiere, Brecht altered the ending so that the Comrade is asked to consent to his own death, in the manner of He Said Yes . Their final conversation with him goes as follows: THE FIRST AGITATOR to the Young Comrade : If you are caught they will shoot you, and because you will be identified our work will be betrayed. So we must shoot you and throw you into the lime pit so that the lime burns you up. But let us ask you: can you see any other way? THE YOUNG COMRADE: No. THE THREE AGITATORS: Let us ask you: are you in agreement? Pause. T H E Y O U N G C O M R A D E : Y e s . THE THREE AGITATORS: Where would you like us to take you? We asked. THE YOUNG COMRADE: To the lime pit, he said. (Brecht, The Decision , in Collected Plays : Vol. 3ii, 88). A written version of the original script, according to Ewen, no longer exists. See his discussion of the play in Ewen, Bertolt Brecht . 4 9 . B r e c h t , The Decision , in Collected Plays: Vol. 3ii, 87. 5 0 . P a c h t e r , Weimar Etudes, 232. Notes ● 179

51 . Karl Thieme, in his paraphrasing of the Communist position on the play after the premiere, states that “the Communists would not agree that this [the killing of the Comrade] was Communist practice.” The Comrade would merely have been expelled from the Party (as quoted in Ewen, Bertolt Brecht ). Other Communists disliked the play because it turned a political issue into a moral one. 52 . As quoted in Brecht, Collected Plays, Vol. 3ii, xv. 5 3 . B r e c h t , Collected Plays, Vol. 3ii, 232–33. 5 4 . B r e c h t , The Messingkauf Dialogues , 74. 5 5 . B r e c h t , The Messingkauf Dialogues, 36. 56 . Douglas Kellner, “Brecht’s Marxist Aesthetic: The Korsch Connection,” in Bertolt Brecht: Political Theory and Literary Practice , eds. Betty Nance Weber and Hubert Heinen, 29–42 (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press). 57 . As quoted in Brecht, Collected Plays, Vol. 3ii, 234. 5 8 . B r e c h t , Collected Plays, Vol. 3ii, xvi–xvii. 59 . Two others were Andrei Zhdanov and Alfred Kurella. See Pachter, Weimar Etudes . 60 . Indeed, it was Alfred Kurella’s piece that initiated the debate; yet in Ernst Bloch’s reply to the piece, he directed his remarks specifically at Luk á cs, which led Luká cs to then join the debate. See Theodor Adorno et al., Aesthetics and Politics: The Key Texts of the Classic Debate within German Marxism , ed. Ronald Taylor (New York: Verso, 1980.) For a thorough discussion of “socialist realism” and the expressionism debate, see Adorno et al., Aesthetics and Politics ; Stephen Eric Bronner, “Expressionism and Marxism,” in Passion and Rebellion, eds. Bronner and Kellner, 411–453; Stephen Eric Bronner, “Political Aesthetics in the 1930s,” Of Critical Theory and its Theorists, 2nd. ed. (New York: Routledge, 2002), 116–136; Eugene Lunn, “Marxism and Art in the Era of Stalin and Hitler: A Comparison of Brecht and Luk ács,” New German Critique , no. 3 (Autumn, 1974): 12–44. 61 . As Henry Pachter notes, Brecht’s lack of official Party ties may have been intentional, as the Party felt it useful that some outside artists should remain “fellow travelers.” See Pachter, Weimar Etudes . 62 . In 1938, Brecht said to Benjamin that, “Russia is now under personal rule. Only blockheads can deny this, of course.” And yet even then he stayed loyal to the cause. As quoted in Walter Benjamin, “Conversations with Brecht,” in Adorno et al., Aesthetics and Politics , 95. 63 . Though Brecht expressed suspicion about Stalin’s intentions and actions to his close friends, he was not willing to abandon Soviet Communism. See Walter Benjamin, “Conversations with Brecht,” in Adorno et al., Aesthetics and Politics , 86–99. 64 . Tom Kuhn and John Willett, introduction to Collected Plays, Vol. 4, by Bertolt Brecht (London: Methuen, 2001), viii. 180 ● Notes

65 . For more on the Me-ti poems, see Kellner, “Brecht’s Marxist Aesthetic” in Bertolt Brecht: Political Theory and Literary Practice, eds. Betty Nance Weber and Hubert Heinen, 29–42; Klaus-Detlef Mü ller, “Me-ti” in Bertolt Brecht: Political Theory and Literary Practice , eds. Weber and Heinen, 43–59. 66 . Kuhn and Willett, introduction to Collected Plays, Vol. 4. 6 7 . B r e c h t , Journals, 1934–1955 , 13. 68 . As discussed in Kuhn and Willett, introduction to Collected Plays, Vol. 4. 69 . The pieces are collected in Adorno et al., Aesthetics and Politics . 70 . Stephen Eric Bronner, “Expressionism and Marxism,” in Passion and Rebellion , eds. Bronner and Kellner, 419. 71 . Lunn, “Marxism and Art in the Era of Stalin and Hitler.” 72 . Rodney Livingstone, Perry Anderson, and Francis Mulhern, introduction to “Presentation II,” Adorno et al., Aesthetics and Politics , 61. 73 . Brecht, “On the Formalistic Character of the Theory of Realism,” in Aesthetics and Politics , eds. Adorno et al., 71. 74 . Brecht, “On the Formalistic Character of the Theory of Realism” in Aesthetics and Politics, eds. Adorno et al. 75 . Brecht, “Popularity and Realism,” in Aesthetics and Politics, eds. Adorno et al., 82–83. 7 6 . I b i d . , 8 1 . 7 7 . I b i d . , 8 2 . 78 . As quoted by Benjamin, “Conversations with Brecht,” in Aesthetics and Politics , eds. Adorno et al., 97. 7 9 . B r e c h t , Collected Plays, Vol. 3ii, 95. 80 . Ibid., 109–110, my emphasis. 8 1 . I b i d . , 1 4 0 . 8 2 . I b i d . , 1 4 1 . 83 . For example, the opening line of the scene, spoken by “A Worker” reads as follows: “As we came along the Lybin-Prospekt there were already several thousand of us. More that fifty firms were on strike, and the strikers joined us to demonstrate against the war and against Tsarist domination.” Ibid., 150. 84 . It was one of only three Brecht plays not to have music, the other two being his adaptation of Antigone and certain scenes of Fear and Misery of the Third Reich. See Willett, Brecht in Context , 167. 8 5 . B r e c h t , Collected Plays , Vol. 4, 210. 8 6 . B r e c h t , Collected Plays, Vol. 3ii, 132. 8 7 . B r e c h t , Collected Plays, Vol. 4, 229. 8 8 . I b i d . , 2 3 4 . 8 9 . I b i d . , 2 3 5 . 9 0 . I b i d . , 2 3 5 – 2 3 6 . 91 . For discussions of the play’s effectiveness as drama, see Esslin, Brecht ; Ewen, Bertolt Brecht . Notes ● 181

92 . See Ewen, Bertolt Brecht, 320. 9 3 . B r e c h t , Collected Plays, Vol. 4. 94 . Brecht, as quoted in Esslin, Brecht, 60. 9 5 . B r e c h t , Collected Plays, Vol. 4.

4 Jean-Paul Sartre: The Theatre of Situations 1 . My biographical profile of Sartre is drawn heavily from Annie Cohen- Solal’s Sartre: A Life (New York: Pantheon, 1987). 2 . Jean-Paul Sartre, Existentialism Is a Humanism , trans. Carol Macomber (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), 22–23. 3 . Jean-Paul Sartre, Anti-Semite and Jew: An Exploration of the Etiology of Hate , trans. George J. Becker (New York: Schoken Books, 1995), 59–60. 4 . I b i d . , 9 0 – 9 1 . 5 . Jean-Paul Sartre, “War Diary, September–October 1939.” New Left Review 59 (September–October 2009): 111. 6 . Jean-Paul Sartre, Sartre on Theatre, eds. Michel Contat and Michel Rybalk, trans. Frank Jellnick (New York: Pantheon Books, 1976), 183. 7 . I b i d . , 1 8 4 . 8 . I b i d . , 1 8 5 . 9 . Jean-Paul Sartre, Bariona, or the Son of Thunder, in The Writings of Jean-Paul Sartre: Volume 2 , Selected Prose, eds. Michel Contat and Michel Rybalka, trans. Richard McCleary (Chicago: Northwestern University Press, 1974), 86. 1 0 . I b i d . , 1 2 8 . 1 1 . I b i d . , 1 2 9 – 1 3 0 . 1 2 . I b i d . , 1 3 6 . 1 3 . S a r t r e , Sartre on Theatre , 185. 1 4 . H a n n a h A r e n d t , Between Past and Future: Eight Exercises in Political Thought (New York: Penguin, [1961] 1993), 3. 1 5 . I b i d . , 4 . 16 . See James D. Wilkinson, The Intellectual Resistance in Europe (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981). 17 . Jean-Paul Sartre, “Situation of the Writer in 1947,” in What is Literature? , ed. Jean-Paul Sartre, trans. Bernard Frechtman (New York: Washington Square Press, [1949] 1966), 148. 18 . Ibid.,155, emphasis in original. 1 9 . I b i d . , 2 0 3 . 2 0 . I b i d . , 1 6 5 . 2 1 . S a r t r e , Sartre on Theatre , 193. 22 . Ibid., 193–194. See also Andrew Ryder, “Sartre’s Theater of Resistance: Les Mouches and the Deadlock of Collective Responsibility.” Sartre Studies International 15, no. 2 (2009): 78–95. 2 3 . S a r t r e , Sartre on Theatre , 193–194. 182 ● Notes

2 4 . I b i d . , 1 9 5 . 2 5 . I b i d . , 1 8 6 . 26 . Jean-Paul Sartre, The Flies , in No Exit, and Three Other Plays, trans. Stuart Gilbert (New York: Vintage International, 1989), 49. 2 7 . I b i d . , 5 3 . 2 8 . I b i d . , 7 3 . 2 9 . I b i d . , 7 5 3 0 . I b i d . , 7 8 . 3 1 . I b i d . , 1 0 2 . 3 2 . I b i d . , 1 1 5 . 3 3 . I b i d . , 1 2 1 . 3 4 . S a r t r e , Sartre on Theatre , 186. 3 5 . S a r t r e , The Flies , 116. 3 6 . I b i d . , 1 1 9 . 3 7 . I b i d . , 1 1 9 . 3 8 . I b i d . , 1 2 3 . 39 . This is perhaps what Sartre meant when he said, in 1948 that, “in my view, Orestes is not a hero at any point.” Indeed, Orestes is not a classical hero, but an exemplary individual of the new age (Sartre, Sartre on Theatre, 196). 40 . Philosophically, “bad faith” can be conceptualized as the tendency to try to remove the tension that exists between conflicting aspects of human exis- tence so as to make oneself more comfortable (and less distinctly human). 41 . Another way of conceptualizing this is to say that Garcin is trying to synthesize his facticity with his transcendence. Sartre describes this attitude in Being and Nothingness as that of one who believes: “No reproach can touch me since what I really am is my transcendence.” Jean-Paul Sartre, Being and Nothingness , trans. Hazel E. Barnes (New York: Washington Square Press [1943] 1992), 164. 42 . Jean-Paul Sartre, No Exit in No Exit, and Three Other Plays , 19. Estelle has attempted to synthesize her “being-for-itself” with her “being-for-others,” by “converg[ing] two looks, [hers] and that of the Other.” Sartre, Being and Nothingness , 164. 4 3 . S a r t r e , No Exit , 25. 4 4 . I b i d . , 2 6 . 4 5 . S a r t r e , Being and Nothingness , 177. Sartre defines this as “sincerity,” which operates in the same way as bad faith—as an escape, a way to see oneself as an object in order to “put oneself out of reach.” Ibid., 177. 46 . Her bad faith is her attempt to synthesize temporal ekstases : More specifically, she is one “who deliberately arrests [herself] at one period in [her] life and refuses to take into consideration the later changes.” Ibid., 165. 4 7 . S a r t r e , No Exit , 42. 4 8 . I b i d . , 4 2 . Notes ● 183

49 . Robert Norman Scanlan, “Complete Action: An Examination of Three Modern Plays in the Light of Aristotle’s Poetics.” Diss. Rutgers University, 1976, 74. 5 0 . R o b e r t C h a m p a i g n y , Sartre and Drama (York, SC: French Literature Publications Company, 1982), 69. 5 1 . S a r t r e , Sartre on Theatre, 210. 52 . For a history of the PCF, see Richard Johnson, The French Communist Party Versus the Students: Revolutionary Politics in May–June 1968 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1972). 5 3 . R o n a l d A r o n s o n , Jean-Paul Sartre: Philosophy in the World (London: NLB, 1980). 54 . Indeed, Sartre denounced the Soviet camps in an editorial for Les Tempe Modernes in 1950, saying “there is no socialism when one citizen out of twenty is in a camp.” Quoted in Ian H. Birchall, Sartre Against Stalinism (New York: Berghahn Books, 2004), 110. 55 . This critique is best articulated in Sartre’s 1946 essay “Materialism and Revolution,” reprinted in Jean-Paul Sartre, Literary and Philosophic Essays (New York: Collier Books, 1970), 198–256. 56 . Jean-Paul Sartre, The Devil and the Good Lord, trans. Kitty Black (New York: Vintage Books, 1960), 12. 5 7 . S a r t r e , The Devil and the Good Lord, 145. 5 8 . I b i d . , 1 4 9 . 5 9 . I b i d . 60 . The following discussion of Sartre’s political shifts is taken largely from Ronald Aronson’s book, Jean-Paul Sartre: Philosophy in the World (London: NLB, 1980). 61 . Indeed, the inner lives of the characters in these plays seem a bit too simple, and the conflicts they face emerge from the outside world, rather than from within themselves. It was almost as if Sartre made the conscious decision during this period to put all philosophical dilemmas aside, trading theory for practice. 62 . Again, see Aronson, Jean-Paul Sartre . 63 . Dorothy McCall, The Theatre of Jean-Paul Sartre (New York: Columbia University Press, 1971), 5. 6 4 . S a r t r e , Being and Nothingness , 358. 6 5 . I b i d . , 4 7 5 . 66 . Ibid., 536–537, emphasis in original. 6 7 . I b i d . , 5 3 7 – 5 4 7 . 68 . Ibid., 547, emphasis in original. 6 9 . A r o n s o n , Jean-Paul Sartre , 263. 7 0 . I b i d . , 2 9 2 . 7 1 . D o u g l a s K e l l n e r , r e v i e w o f On a raison de se ré volter , by Jean Paul Sartre, Philippe Gavi, and Pierre Victor. Telos 22 (December 1974): 201. 184 ● Notes

5 Eugène Ionesco: The Theatre of the Absurd 1 . The sources used for Ionesco’s biographical information were primarily Deborah B. Gaensbauer, Eug è ne Ionesco Revisited (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1996); Martin Esslin, The Theatre of the Absurd , 3rd ed. (New York: Vintage Books, 2004); as well as Ionesco’s own writings: Eugè ne Ionesco, Fragments of a Journal , trans. Jean Stewart (New York: Quartet Books, 1987); Eug è ne Ionesco, Present Past / Past Present: A Personal Memoir , trans. Helen R. Lane (New York: Da Capo Press, 1998). Some sources, like Esslin’s The Theatre of the Absurd, list Ionesco’s birth year as 1912; apparently, at some point Ionesco lied about his age to make himself seem younger. 2 . Matei C ă linescu, “Ionesco and Rhinoceros: Personal and Political Backgrounds,” East European Politics and Societies 9, no. 3 (Fall 1995): 408. See also his “The 1927 Generation in Romania: Friendships and Ideological Choices (Mihail Sebastian, Mircea Eliade, Nae Ionescu, Eug è ne Ionesco, E. M. Cioran),” East European Politics and Societies 15, no. 3 (2002): 649–677. 3 . On Ionesco’s refusal of Fascism, his emigration, and his enduring ties with his Romanian compatriots see, in addition to the two pieces by C ă linescu cited above, the following: Cristina Bejan, “The Paradox of the Young Generation in Inter-War Romania,” Slovo 8, no. 2 (Autumn 2006): 115–128, and Anne Holloway Quinney, “Excess and Identity: The Franco-Romanian Ionesco Combats Rhinoceritism,” South Central Review 24, no. 3 (Fall 2007): 36–52. 4 . Eug è ne Ionesco, “Eug è ne Ionesco: The Art of the Theater No. 6: Interviewed by Shusha Guppy.” By Shusha Guppy. The Paris Review , no. 93 (Fall 1984), 6. 5 . Ibid., 8–10. 6 . Ibid., 11. 7 . Albert Camus, as quoted in Esslin, The Theatre of the Absurd , 23. 8 . Eug è ne Ionesco, as quoted in Esslin, The Theatre of the Absurd, 23. 9 . Esslin, 24. 10 . For more on the differences between the existentialist playwrights and Ionesco, see David I. Grossvogel, “Ionesco: Symptom and Victim,” in The Dream and the Play: Ionesco’s Theatrical Quest , ed. Moshe Lazar, 81–92 (Malibu, CA: Undena Publications, 1982); L. A. C. Dobrez, The Existential and Its Exits: Literary and Philosophical Perspectives on the Works of Beckett, Ionesco, Genet, & Pinter (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1986). 11 . See Ionesco’s discussion of the theatre in Eugè ne Ionesco, Notes and Counter Notes: Writings on the Theatre, trans. Donald Watson (New York: Grove Press, 1964). 12 . Eug è ne Ionesco, “Experience of the Theatre,” in Notes and Counter Notes , 19. Notes ● 185

1 3 . I b i d . , 2 5 . 1 4 . E u g è n e I o n e s c o , “ T h e B i r t h o f The Bald Soprano ,” in Notes and Counter Notes, 183–185. 1 5 . I n Notes and Counter Notes , Ionesco explains, “I have called my comedies ‘anti-plays’ or ‘comic dramas,’ and my dramas ‘pseudo-dramas’ or ‘tragic farces’: for it seems to me that the comic is tragic, and that the tragedy of man is pure derision,” 27. 1 6 . E u g è n e I o n e s c o , “ T h e T r a g e d y o f L a n g u a g e , ” i n Notes and Counter Notes , 175–180. 1 7 . E u g è n e I o n e s c o , The Bald Soprano, in The Bald Soprano and Other Plays , trans. Donald M. Allen (New York: Grove Press, 1958), 37. 18 . It should be noted here that Ionesco understood the bourgeoisie as a universal type. Whereas for Marx the bourgeois (and its subset, the petit-bourgeoisie) is a historically specific (and transitional) class belonging to the distinctive capitalist mode of production found only in the modern era, for Ionesco it is a universal archetype of the unthinking and manipulated man who pervades all human societies and defines the human condition. In 1960, he explained: “The petite bourgeoisie I had in mind was not a class belonging to any particular society, for the petit bourgeois was for me a type of being that exists in all societies, whether they be called revolutionary or reactionary; for me the petit bourgeois is just a man of slogans, who no longer thinks for himself but repeats the truths that others have imposed upon him, ready-made and there- fore lifeless. In short the petit bourgeois is a manipulated man.” From “Remarks on my Theatre and on the Remarks of Others,” in Notes and Counter Notes , 66. 1 9 . I o n e s c o , The Bald Soprano , 8. 20 . Ibid, 12. 21 . Ibid, 38. 22 . Ibid, 39. 23 . Ibid, 41–42. The text is obviously different in the original French text, yet it is equally bizarre and nonsensical. 24 . Ionesco’s original idea for the ending was, by his own admission, too com- plicated to be produced. Policemen were to take the stage and fire into the crowd after planted actors in the audience begin wrecking havoc. His alternative ending was to take the stage after the actors were finished and shout at the audience, “You bastards, I’ll skin you alive!” This didn’t seem to fit the piece dramatically. Having the play begin again seemed to be the best ending. Later, Ionesco had the idea to have the Martins and the Smiths change roles at the end of the play, to further emphasize the interchange- ability of the characters. See his discussion of the ending in “The Birth of The Bald Soprano,” in Notes and Counter Notes, and in the footnote on p. 42 of The Bald Soprano text. 186 ● Notes

25 . Of course, Ionesco did not become a success overnight. As Esslin reports, The Bald Soprano and The Chairs were received poorly by the critics during their first runs. It took about four to six years after the premiere of The Bald Soprano for the public to develop a taste for Ionesco’s vision. For a discussion of the original reviews of his plays, see Rosette C. Lamont, Ionesco’s Imperatives: The Politics of Culture (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993), esp. “Conclusion: Ionesco and His Critics,” 245–262. 2 6 . E u g è n e I o n e s c o , The Chairs, in The Bald Soprano and Other Plays , 145. 2 7 . I b i d . , 1 5 9 – 1 6 0 . 28 . The definitive text on tragedy is Aristotle’s Poetics . My preferred edition is The Poetics of Aristotle , with translation and commentary by Stephen Halliwell (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987). 29 . Ionesco, “Eugè ne Ionesco: The Art of the Theater No. 6: Interviewed by Shusha Guppy,” 13. 30 . For a discussion of the plays’ reception, see Gaensbauer’s Eug è ne Ionesco Revisited. See also Kenneth Tynan, Curtains . In it are positive reviews of a 1956 production of The Bald Soprano and The New Tenant , pp. 149–150; a 1957 production of A m é d é e , pp.167–169; and Tenant (149–150); a 1957 production of Amédée (167–169); and a 1957 production of The Chairs (177–178). 31 . For a discussion of Ionesco as both reflecting and contributing to the despondency of the world around him, see Grossvogel, “Ionesco: Symptom and Victim.” 3 2 . L a m o n t , Ionesco’s Imperatives, 255. The “we” apparently refers to Ionesco and his friend Adamov, who ended up caving in to the pressure. 3 3 . I b i d . , 2 5 8 – 9 . 34 . The entirety of the London Controversy is reprinted in Ionesco, Notes and Counter Notes, 87–108. 35 . Kenneth Tynan, “Ionesco: Man of Destiny?” in Notes and Counter Notes , 87. 3 6 . I b i d . , 8 9 . 3 7 . I b i d . 3 8 . I b i d . 39 . Eug è ne Ionesco, “The Playwright’s Role,” in Notes and Counter Notes , 90. 4 0 . I b i d . , 9 1 . 4 1 . I b i d . 42 . Eug è ne Ionesco, “An Interview with Eug è ne Ionesco,” by James Ulmer. The Harvard Crimson (March 09, 1978). 43 . Ionesco “The Playwright’s Role,” in Notes and Counter Notes , 91. 44 . Eug è ne Ionesco, “Experience of the Theatre,” written in 1958, published in Notes and Counter Notes , 6. Notes ● 187

45 . Kenneth Tynan, “Ionesco the Phantom,” in Notes and Counter Notes , 94. 4 6 . I b i d . 4 7 . I b i d . 48 . See Eugè ne Ionesco, “Remarks on my Theatre and on the Remarks of Others,” originally a lecture Ionesco gave in 1960, reprinted in Notes and Counter Notes , 59–82. 49 . Tynan, “Ionesco the Phantom,” in Notes and Counter Notes , 95. 5 0 . I b i d . , 9 6 . 51 . Orson Welles, “The Artist and the Critic,” in Notes and Counter Notes , 100. 52 . Ibid. Ionesco wrote a rejoinder to Tynan’s second critique, titled “Hearts are Not Worn on the Sleeve.” The Observer opted not to publish it. It appears in full in Notes and Counter Notes (101–108), and reiterates his previous remarks. 53 . For more on Ionesco’s approach to criticism, see George E. Wellwarth, “Beyond Realism: Ionesco’s Theory of the Drama,” in The Dream and the Play , ed. Moshe Lazar, 33–48. 5 4 . H a r o l d D . L a s s w e l l , Politics: Who Gets What, When, How (New York: Whittlesey House, 1936). 55 . Eug è ne Ionesco, “Hearts are Not Worn on the Sleeve,” in Notes and Counter Notes, 106–107. 5 6 . L a m o n t , Ionesco’s Imperatives , 125. 57 . See Moshe Lazar, “The Psychodramatic Stage: Ionesco and his Doubles,” in The Dream and the Play , ed. Moshe Lazar, 135–159. 5 8 . E u g è n e I o n e s c o , Rhinoceros, in Rhinoceros and Other Plays , trans. Derek Prouse (New York: Grove Press, 1960), 13. 5 9 . I b i d . , 3 7 . 6 0 . I b i d . , 5 1 . 6 1 . I b i d . , 6 2 . 6 2 . I b i d . , 7 8 . 6 3 . I b i d . , 8 0 . 6 4 . I b i d . , 1 0 4 . 6 5 . I b i d . , 1 0 3 . 6 6 . I b i d . , 1 0 7 . 67 . Ionesco, “Eugè ne Ionesco: The Art of the Theater No. 6: Interviewed by Shusha Guppy,” 16. 6 8 . I b i d . , 1 6 – 1 7 . 6 9 . I o n e s c o , Present Past/Past Present , 17. 7 0 . I b i d . , 4 5 . 7 1 . I o n e s c o , Notes and Counter Notes, 239. 72 . Ionesco, “Eugè ne Ionesco: The Art of the Theater No. 6: Interviewed by Shusha Guppy,” 14–15. 73 . On the limits of Ionesco’s politics of critique, see Emmanuel Jacquart, “Ionesco’s Political Itinerary,” in The Dream and the Play, ed. Moshe Lazar, 63–80. 188 ● Notes

74 . This insight was first presented by Moshe Lazar. For more on Ionesco’s plays as psychodramas, see Lazar, “The Psychodramatic Stage: Ionesco and his Doubles,” in The Dream and the Play , ed. Moshe Lazar, 135–160. 75 . Eug è ne Ionesco, “A Talk about the Avant-Garde,” in Notes and Counter Notes , 43. 7 6 . E u g è n e I o n e s c o , “ C u l t u r e a n d P o l i t i c s , ” i n The Dream and the Play, ed. Moshe Lazar, 161. 7 7 . I b i d . , 1 6 4 . 7 8 . I b i d . , 1 6 3 . 7 9 . I b i d . , 1 6 5 . 8 0 . I b i d . , 1 6 6 . 8 1 . I b i d . , 1 6 7 . 8 2 . I b i d . , 1 6 5 . 8 3 . I b i d . , 1 6 5 . 84 . Ionesco, “Hearts are Not Worn on the Sleeve,” in Notes and Counter Notes , 108. 85 . Eug è ne Ionesco, as quoted in Lamont, Ionesco’s Imperatives , 175.

6 Conclusion: Political Theatre as Political Practice 1 . Jean-Paul Sartre, in an interview from 1955, reprinted in Sartre on Theatre , 51. 2 . Albert Camus, as quoted in Jeffrey C. Isaac, Arendt, Camus, and Modern Rebellion (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992.) Isaac offers an enlight- ening discussion of this generation of intellectuals and the attempts they made to come to terms with “humanity at zero hour.” He focuses on the commonalities between Camus and Arendt, who shared much with Brecht, Sartre, and Ionesco. 3 . Hannah Arendt, “Preface to the First Edition,” in Origins of Totalitarianism (Boston: H Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 1973), vii. It was originally published in 1951. 4 . Ibid., ix. 5 . Bertolt Brecht, The Good Person of Szechwan, in Collected Plays, Vol. 6, eds. Ralph Manheim and John Willett (New York: Vintage Books, 1976), 68. 6 . I b i d . , 1 0 3 – 1 0 4 . 7 . A r e n d t , The Origins of Totalitarianism , 478. 8 . B r e c h t , The Decision, in Collected Plays, Vol. 3ii, 83. 9 . A r e n d t , The Origins of Totalitarianism , 472. 1 0 . B r e c h t , He Said Yes , in Collected Plays , Vol. 3ii, 52. 1 1 . I b i d . , 5 4 . 1 2 . B r e c h t , He Said No , in Collected Plays , Vol. 3ii, 59. Notes ● 189

1 3 . I b i d . 1 4 . A r e n d t , The Origins of Totalitarianism , 317. 1 5 . B r e c h t , Man Equals Man , in Collected Plays , Vol. 2, 38. 1 6 . I b i d . , 7 6 . 17 . Robert Skloot, “Vaclav Havel: The Once and Future Playwright.” Kenyon Review , 15, no. 2 (Spring 1993): 225.

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absurdism Arendtian politics, 145 Havel and, 164–5 Brecht and, 84 Ionesco and, 9, 14, 117–18, 119, Tynan, Ionesco, and, 136 121–3, 130, 164 Arendtian terms on creativity, 3 Sartre and, 96, 147–8 on the “European Mass Man,” 160 See also theatre of the absurd on the German Occupation of Adamov, Arthur, 117, 121 France, 94–5 Adorno, Theodor, 16 on the horrors of the twentieth Aeschylus, 11, 98 century, 149 agitprop, 54, 55, 56, 58 on Marxist logic, 156 Algerian crisis in France, 88 normative conception of politics Alice in Wonderland (Carroll), 121 of, 140 America. See United States on the political realm, 4 American Political Science prepolitical thought in Sartre Association, 1 in, 115 Anouilh, Jean, 122, 128 shirking of political commitment in antifascism, 50, 68, 70, 83 Shaw in, 46–7 antihumanism, 140 on theatre, 5 antipolitics on totalitarian ideology, 155 existentialism and, 118 Argentina, 7 Exit the King, Macbett, and, 142 aristocracy expressionism and, 73 as audience for Shaw, 42 Ionesco and, 9, 132, 134, 136, in Common Sense about the War, 32 140–5, 158, 165 expressionist attitude toward, 72 Rhinoceros and, 136, 140 Fabian critique of, 24–5, 39 theatre of the absurd and, 118 in Heartbreak House, 35, 52 antirealism, 148 in “Heartbreak House and “Antisemite and Jew” (Sartre), 89–90 Horseback Hall,” 36–7 anti-Semitism, 120 in Mrs. Warren’s Profession, 30 Apple Cart, The (Shaw), 43 in Russia, 38 Arendt, Hannah Shaw as member of intellectual, 44 202 ● Index aristocracy—Continued Bariona (Sartre), 88, 98, 114 Shaw’s critique of, 20–1, 24, 27, absence of the “we” in, 112 30–1, 35, 36–7, 38–9, 151 analysis of, 91–4 Shaw’s family background in, 19–20 bad faith in, 151–2 Aristotelian, 79, 82, 101 Beauvoir, Simone de, 91, 94, 96 Aristotle, 5, 128 Beckett, Samuel, 117, 121 Arms and the Man (Shaw), 27 Being and Nothingness (Sartre), 88–9, 114 Aronson, Ronald, 106, 114 central theme of, 88–9 art, 1, 3 No Exit and, 103 Asia, 12 ontology in, 112–13 Association for Political Theory, 15 Benjamin, Walter, 75 Austria, 84 Bentley, Eric, 43 authenticity, in Sartre, 89–91, 115, Bergson, Henri, 87 118, 159 Berliner Ensemble, 83, 129 authoritarianism, 149 Between Past and Future (Arendt), 94 Brecht and, 50, 75, 83–4 Bible, 44, 78 contemporary theatre and, 7 “Blaue Reiter, Der,” 51 Ionesco and, 141 Bloch, Ernst, 72, 73 Prussian, 21–2 Blue Horse (Marc), 51 Sartre and Soviet, 112, 148 Boal, Augusto, 12 social realism and, 69 Boucicault, Dion, 27 avant-garde, 14, 120, 121 bourgeois realism, 73, 84, 123 bourgeoisie Baal (Brecht), 53 aristocracy and, 24 Back to Methuselah (Shaw), 150 expressionism and, 52 analysis of, 40–3 individual resistance to, 161 public and critical reception of, 43–4 in the nineteenth century, 19, 21, Shaw’s opinion of, 45 22, 24 Shaw’s retreat from politics and, 21 political theatre and, 164 bad faith, in Sartre, 151–2, 154 Brazil, 7 in Dirty Hands, 105, 107 Brecht, Bertolt, 2, 8–9, 21, 88, 96, 119, in No Exit, 101–2, 103–4 149, 150, 151, 154, 159 in postwar France, 104 as antagonist to Ionesco, 129–31 Baden-Baden Festival of Modern authoritarianism and, 50, 75, 83–4 Music, 60–1, 63 bourgeois audiences and, 11 Baden-Baden Lesson on Consent, The bourgeois realism and, 84 (Brecht), 61, 62–3 bourgeois theatre and, 69–70 Bald Soprano, The (Ionesco), 117, capitalism and, 11, 49, 55, 58–9, 69, 118, 129 71, 80 analysis of, 123–6 communism and, 11, 49, 64, 67–9, Collège de ‘Pataphysique and, 120–1 72–3, 76, 82–3, 155–8 as parody, 13–14 Communist Party and, 69, 156 public reception of, 128 criticism of, 64 Balzac, Honoré de, 73 early life of, 49 Index ● 203

epic theatre and, 55–8, 69–71, Bronner, Stephen Eric, 17, 72 82–5, 164 “Brücke, Die,” 51 estrangement effect and, 56, 57 Büchner, Georg, 55 exile from Germany of, 67, 70, 83 Bury, J. B., 22 expressionism and, 50–5, 72–3 Butting, Max, 54 Fascism and, 49, 67, 69, 71 Byron, Henry James, 27 formalism and, 50, 71–5, 163 fourth wall and, 57 Calinescu, Matei, 119–20 France and, 129, 130 Camus, Albert, 96, 111–12, 121–2, 148–9 Germany and, 11, 49, 67, 83–4 Capital (Marx), 59 humanism and, 11 capitalism Ionesco’s view of, 123 art and, 15 Lehrstücke of, 58–67, 84, 156–7 Brecht and, 11, 49, 55, 58–9, 69, Lernstücke of, 64–5 71, 80 Lukács and, 68, 70–3, 75–6, 84, Fabians and, 24–5, 39 147–8, 163 at the fin de siècle, 21 Marxism and, 11, 58–60, 65–6, 76, industrialization and, 159 147, 156 Lukács and, 72–3 “mass man” and, 160–2 new objectivity and, 53 Nazism and, 64, 67, 69, 70, 83 Sartre and, 88, 106–8, 111, 115 necessity of active critique and, World War I and, 160 152–3 capitalist democracy, 12, 13, 15 new objectivity and, 53–4, 56, CCCP. See Soviet Union 59–61, 73 censorship, 26–7, 29, 31–2 opposition to Fascism of, 71, 155 Chairs, The (Ionesco), 118, 123, political theatre of, 11–12, 57–8, 62, 126–8, 130 84–5, 162, 164, 166 Char, René, 94 resistance in, 53, 67, 83 charity, 30, 46, 151 return from exile of, 83–4 Charter, 77, 164 on Shaw’s socialism, 147 Chekov, Anton, 35, 38 on Shaw’s theatrical technique, 28 Chesterton, G. K., 43 socialism and, 75, 163 Chile, 6 socialist realism and, 68–71, 73–4, China, 64, 111 82–5 Cioran, Emil, 119–20 Soviet Union and, 49, 50, 66, 67–9, 73, civil society, 13 75, 83–4, 130, 147, 155–6, 163 Cold War, 8, 88, 106–7, 164. See also Stalinism and, 64, 67, 69, 70 postwar period totalitarianism and, 130 collaborators (with Nazis), 97, 104 World War I and, 11, 49 Collège de ‘Pataphysique, 120–1 World War II and, 83 commitment, in Sartre, 101, 108 Bredel, Willi, 71 Common Sense about the War (Shaw), 32–3 Breton, André, 120 communism, 6, 22, 128–9, 154–5 Britain. See England Brecht and, 11, 49, 64, 67–9, 72–3, Broadway (New York), 7, 15 76, 82–3, 155–8 204 ● Index communism—Continued East Germany, 11, 83–4. See also Ionesco and, 140–1, 147 Germany Sartre and, 88, 104, 106–7, 111, 152, Eastern bloc, 7, 165. See also individual 157–8 nations see also Communist Party Eisler, Hans, 54, 55, 63, 65, 76 Communist Party, 59, 64 Elephant Calf, The (Brecht), 57 Brecht and, 69, 156 Eliade, Mircea, 119–20 in Dirty Hands, 73, 104–5, 158 Encyclopaedia Brittanica, 140 Lukács and, 73 engagement (in Sartre), 113 in The Mother, 78 England, 6, 12 Sartre and, 106–7, 158 The Bald Soprano’s depiction of, 124 Comte, August, 22 Brecht as antagonist to Ionesco in, Condemned of Altona, The (Sartre), 107 130 Conference of Vienna, 22 censorship of Shaw in, 29, 33–4 consciousness, philosophy of, 87 Fabian critique of, 24–5 Creative Evolution, 26, 40, 41–7, 150 fin de siècle, 21–3 critical theory, 17. See also political in Heartbreak House, 38 theory Ionesco’s reputation in, 140 Of Critical Theory and Its Theorists political playwrights in, 8 (Bronner), 17 propaganda in, 33 Critique of Dialectical Reason (Sartre), 114 Shaw’s critique of, 10, 20–1, 24, culinary theatre, 54 29–30, 32–3 Czechoslovakia, 88, 164 Shaw’s life in, 45 Victorian, 19 Dadaism, 120 World War I and, 32–3 Darwin, Charles, 25–6 Enlightenment, 1, 148, 155 Darwinism, 22, 25–6, 44, 46 epic theatre, 49–50, 67 compare Creative Evolution, applicability to contemporary times Lamarckism of, 12 see also Neo-Darwinism bourgeois theatre and, 69–70 Davis, Tracy, 34 The Mother as, 76, 84 Decision, The (Brecht), 50, 63–7, 155 naturalism and, 71 Defense of the Realm Act, 33 new objectivity and, 54–6 Democratic Socialist Party (Germany), 34 as political theatre, 84–5, 164 Denmark, 67 purpose of, 130 depoliticization, 2 Sartre’s feelings about, 148 Devil and the Good Lord, The (Sartre), Señora Carrar’s Rifles and, 79, 82–3 108–11 social realism and, 70–1 Die Hauspostille. See Manual of Piety techniques of, 56–8 (Brecht) Esslin, Martin, 54–5, 61, 118, 121, 122 Die Mutter. See Mother, The (Brecht) estrangement effect, 58 Dirty Hands (Sartre), 12, 104–7, 112, Brecht and, 56–7 158, 161 definition of, 56 Dramatists’ Club, 33 in epic theatre, 56–7 Dudow, Slatan, 82 Fear and Misery and, 71 Index ● 205

Ionesco and, 130 France, 6, 70, 106, 115 Lukács’s view of, 73 Brecht and, 129 proletariat and, 59 Brecht as antagonist to Ionesco in, 130 Sartre and, 96 fin de siècle, 21 Soviets view of, 69 German Occuapation of, 12–13, 88, evolution, 21, 22, 25, 39–40, 44. See 94–5, 97, 104, 107, 114, 135, 163 also Darwinism Ionesco and, 13–14, 117, 119, 120 existentialism, 89–91, 165 political theatre in, 7, 8 Bariona and, 94 postwar, 13, 163–4 Marxism and, 112, 114 Sartre and, 12, 87, 135, 163 situation of postwar literature and, 96 Sartre’s hopes for communism in, 111 theatre of the absurd and, 118, 121–2 Shaw and, 32–3, 38 “Existentialism is a Humanism” Franco, Francisco, 80 (Sartre), 89 freedom, in Sartre, 12, 89, 104, 107, Exit the King (Ionesco), 141–2 108, 112, 115, 158 expressionism, 50–4, 72–3 authenticity and, 90 in Dirty Hands, 106 Fabian Society, 24–5, 28, 33, 39 in The Flies, 98, 100–2, 161 Fascism, 6, 154–5 hope and, 93–4 Brecht and, 49, 67, 69, 71 in No Exit, 103 Communism and, 68–9 theatre of situations and, 96 in Dirty Hands, 104–5 French Communist Party, 106, 107, Ionesco and, 119–20, 136, 140–1, 158 111, 112, 129 Lukács on expressionism and, 72 French Revolution, 21, 22 Sartre and, 104 Fascist Iron Legion (Romanian), 120 Gabor, Andor, 75 Fear and Misery of the Third Reich Galileo Galilei (Brecht), 83 (Brecht), 70–1 Gebrauchmusik. See “useful music” Feuchtwanger, Leon, 71 Genet, Jean, 96, 117 fin de siècle, 23, 45–6, 47, 51 genocide, 45, 142, 149 First World War. See World War I George Bernard Shaw and the Socialist Flags (Piscator), 55 Theatre (Davis), 34 Flies, The (Sartre), 12, 88, 97, 98–101, Germany 112, 161, 162 Brecht and, 11, 49, 67, 83–4 Flight of the Lindberghs. See Lindbergh’s fin de siècle, 50–1 Flight (Brecht), 60 Hitler’s, 82, 88 formalism political theatre in, 7, 8 Brecht and, 50, 71–5, 163 Rhinoceros’s reception in, 140 communist ban of, 67 Shaw and, 31, 32–3, 38 estrangement effect as, 69 World War I and, 52 Lukács’s attacks on, 71–4, 76, see also East Germany and West Germany 147, 163 Giraudoux, Jean, 122 socialist realism and, 68 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 55 Soviet crackdown on, 130, 147, 163 Good Person of Szechwan, The (Brecht), fourth wall, 57, 80 152–3 206 ● Index

Gorky, Maxim, 69, 76 Improvisation (Ionesco), 130 Great Britain. See England India, 7 Great Terror, 69 Indonesia, 6, 7 Great War. See World War I industrialization, 52 Greece, 5, 7 Intelligent Woman’s Guide to Socialism Grimes, Charles, 24 and Capitalism, The (Shaw), 26 “Grosse und Verfall’ des International Literatur (magazine), 68 Escpressionismus” (Lukács), 68 interwar period, 119 Guardian (newspaper), 118–19 “Ionesco and the Phantom” (Tynan), guilt, in Sartre, 97–8, 99, 100, 101 132–4 Gulag, 69 Ionesco, Eugène, 2, 8–9, 21, 117–19, 149, 151 Harding, Desmond, 38 absurdism and, 9, 14, 117–18, 119, Hartlaub, Gustav Freidrich, 53 121–3, 130, 164 Hasenclever, Walter, 52 as accidental playwright, 123 Havel, Václav, 164–5 antipolitics of, 9, 132, 134, 136, He Said No (Brecht), 62, 156–7, 161 140–5, 158, 165 He Said Yes (Brecht), 61–2, 63–4, authoritarianism and, 141 156, 161 bourgeois realism and, 123 “Heartbreak House and Horseback bourgeois theatre and, 147–8 Hall” (Shaw), 36–7 career arc of, 13–14 Heartbreak House (Shaw), 20–1, 35–9, Collège de ‘Pataphysique and, 120–1 42–3, 47, 52 communism and, 140–1, 147 Heidegger, Martin, 87, 89 early life of, 117 Hindemith, Paul, 54, 60, 61 estrangement effect and, 130 Hitler, Adolf, 52, 67, 82, 88, 148, 163. Fascism and, 119–20, 136, See also Nazism 140–1, 158 Hobspawn, Eric, 21 France and, 13–14, 117, 119, 120 holocaust, 45 humanism and, 121, 128, 129 Honig, Bonnie, 16 as inspiration to Eastern European Horations, and the Curations, The dissidents, 164–5 (Brecht), 67, 70 London Controversy and, 118–19, House Un-American Activities 130–6 Committee, 83 Marxism and, 130 humanism, 154 “mass man” and, 160–1 Brecht and, 11 Nazism and, 163 Ionesco and, 121, 128, 129 as pessimist, 148, 151, 153 – 4, 159 of Marxism, 157 as political playwright, 14, 119, 145, in Rhinoceros, 154 150, 162, 164–5, 166 Sartre and, 88, 106, 113, 115 as proto-postmodern playwright, 9 Hungary, 111, 112 psychodrama and, 14, 142–3 Husserl, Edmund, 87, 89 resistance in, 13, 128, 131, 140, 144, 158, 159 Ibsen, Henrik, 27 Sartre’s condemnation of, 147–8 Idea of Progress, The (Bury), 22 socialism and, 123 Index ● 207

Soviet Union and, 130 Lehrstücke (teaching plays), 11, 50, 69, Stalinism and, 142 70, 76, 84 theatre criticism and, 134–5 analyses of, 60–7, 156–7 totalitarianism and, 118, 129, 130, definition of, 59–60 135, 140, 142, 158, 159 Leninism, 59 tragic theatre and, 127–8 Lenz, Jakob Michael Reinhold, 55 Tynan and, 118–19, 130–6, 143 Lernstücke (learning plays), 64–5 World War II and, 117, 120 Lesson, The (Ionesco), 121, 128, 130 Young Generation of, 1927 and, liberal democracy, 10, 87 119–20 liberalism, 5–6, 21–2, 164 “Ionesco: Man of Destiny?” (Tynan), “art of separation” and, 2, 10, 130–1 13, 163 Ionesco’s Imperatives (Lamont), 129 Life Force, 21, 25–6, 31, 34, 40, 45 Italy, 21 Lindbergh, Charles, 60, 61, 62–3 Lindbergh’s Flight (Brecht), 60–1, 62–3 Jackson, Barry, 42, 45 London Controversy (between Ionesco Jacques (Ionesco), 128 and Tynan), 118–19, 130–6 Jarry, Alfred, 120 Lukács, Georg Joe P. Fleischhacker (Brecht), 58–9 aesthetic judgment of, 74, 76 Johst, Hans, 52 Brecht’s dispute with, 75, 83, 84, 85, Journals (Ionesco), 143 147, 163 Journey among the Dead (Ionesco), 143, expressionism and, 71–3 144–5 Fear and Misery and, 70–1 Junkers, 32 formalism and, 50, 71, 72–3, 76 as Stalinist, 68 Kean (Sartre), 111 Luxemburg, Rosa, 76 Kellner, Douglas, 51, 114–15 Khrushchev, Nikita, 111 Macbett (Ionesco), 141–2 Kierkegaard, Søren, 89 Major Barbara (Shaw), 30, 151, 159–60 Korean War, 111 Man and Superman (Shaw), 31, 40, 42 Korsch, Karl, 59, 66, 67, 76 Man Equals Man (Brecht), 160–1 Kott, Jan, 142 Man with the Luggage, The (Ionesco), Kuhn, Tom, 70 142–3 Kundera, Milan, 165 Man’s a Man, A. See Man Equals Man Kurella, Alfred, 75 (Brecht) Manual of Piety (Brecht), 52 Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste, 25, 44 Marc, Franz, 51 Lamarckism, 21, 25–6, 44, 148 Marcos, Ferdinand, 6 Lamont, Rosette, 129, 130, 135–6 Marson, Michelle, 63 Lasswell, Harold, 135, 140 Marx, Karl, 22, 34, 59, 130 Latin America, 12 Marxism, 5–6, 72 Laurence, Dan, 23 Brecht and, 11, 58–60, 65–6, 76, learning plays. See Lernstücke 147, 156 “Legend of the Dead Soldier, The” Ionesco and, 130 (Brecht), 52 new objectivity and, 54 208 ● Index

Marxism—Continued “Offensive Political Theory” Sartre and, 106, 112, 114, 157 (Rehfield), 15–16 Shaw and, 26, 34 ontology, in Sartre, 89, 112–14 Soviet system and, 155 Orestia (Aeschylus), 98 Maxims of a Revolutionist (Shaw), 25 Measures Taken, The. See Decision, The Pachter, Henry, 64 (Brecht) pacifism, 22, 34 Memoir (Ionesco), 143 Paris Review, 128 Messingkauf Dialogues (Brecht), 65, 66 PCF. See French Communist Party Me-ti poems (Brecht), 70 Perspectives on Politics, 15 Mignon, Paul-Louis, 91, 94 Philanderer, The (Shaw), 29, 30 modernism, 120 Philippines, 6, 12 Molière, 130 Pinochet, Augusto, 6 Morgan, Margery M., 43 Pinter, Harold, 117 Mother Courage (Brecht), 129 Piscator, Irwin, 54–5, 58 Mother, The (Brecht), 50, 55, 69, Plays Unpleasant (Shaw), 29–30, 31 76–9, 84 “Playwright’s Role, The” (Ionesco), Mrs. Warren’s Profession (Shaw), 20, 131–2 151, 159– 60, 161–2 Poland, 88 analysis of, 28–30 political theatre, 5, 7–8, 9–10, 14–15, 21 censorship of, 26–7 bourgeoisie and, 164 of Brecht, 11–12, 57–8, 62, 84–5, National Socialism. See Nazism 162, 164, 166 nationalism, 22–3, 34 decline of, 16–17 Nausea (Sartre), 87 of Ionesco, 14, 119, 145, 150, 162, Nazism, 12, 128–9 164–5, 166 Brecht and, 64, 67, 69, 70, 83 of Sartre, 12–13, 88, 95, 98, 108, Ionesco and, 163 112–15, 162, 166 Sartre and, 88, 97, 98, 99 of Shaw, 10–11, 20–1, 23, 29–30, see also Hitler, Adolf 46, 47, 162, 164, 166 Nekrassov (Sartre), 111 political theory, 1–2, 5, 6, 15–17, 150 Neo-Darwinism, 40, 44 Popular Front, 68, 69–70, 71, 82, 104 Neue Sachlischkeit. See new objectivity positivism, 3 new objectivity, 50, 53–4, 56, 59–61, 73 postwar period, 128–9, 163–4. See also New People’s Army (Philippines), 6, 12 Cold War New Statesman (newspaper), 33 Prague Spring, 165 Nietzsche, Friedrich, 43–4, 52 proletariat, 11, 22, 34, 49, 65, 72 Nietzschean, 138 proletarian audience, 50, 60, 67 No Exit (Sartre), 12, 88, 101–4, 112, 151–2 propaganda, 33, 50, 64, 65, 79, 84–5, 132 Observer, The (newspaper), 130–1, prostitution, 20, 25–6, 28–30, 46, 134, 136 159– 61 Occupation (of France by Germany), Prussia, 21–2, 32, 61. See also Germany 12–13, 88, 91, 94–5, 97, 99, psychodrama, 14, 143 101, 104, 114, 163 Pygmalion (Shaw), 31–2, 159 Index ● 209

Queneau, Raymond, 120 communism and, 88, 104, 106–7, Quintessence of Ibsenism, The (Shaw), 27 111, 152, 157–8 condemnation of Ionesco by, 147–8 Rambeua, James, 23 Communist Party and, 106–7, 158 Rassemblement Démocratique early life of, 87 Révolutionnaire, 106 engagement in, 113 realism, 53–4, 68, 74–5, 76, 84, 123. existentialism and, 89–91, 122 See also socialist realism Fascism and, 104 Rehfield, Andrew, 15–16 France and, 12, 87, 111, 135, 163 Reichstag fire, 67 freedom in, 12, 89, 90, 104, 107, repentance, in Sartre, 97–8, 99–100 108, 112, 115, 158 resistance, 6, 8, 159, 162, 164, 165–6 guilt in, 97–8, 99, 100, 101 in Brecht, 53, 67, 83 hope in, 93–4, 162 in Ionesco, 13, 128, 131, 140, 144, humanism and, 88, 106, 113, 115 158, 159 Marxism and, 106, 112, 114, 157 in Sartre, 88, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 97, Nazism and, 88, 97, 98, 99 100, 101, 107, 115 Occupation and, 88, 91, 95, 97, 99, Resistance (French), 89, 94, 97, 104, 101, 104, 163 107, 108 ontology in, 89, 112–14 responsibility, in Sartre, 12, 97–8, philosophy of, 87–8, 88–91 101, 104–5, 107–8, 114–5, as political playwright, 12–13, 88, 152, 158 95, 98, 108, 112–15, 162, 166 Rhinoceros (Ionesco), 118, 119, 136–41, repentence in, 97–8, 99–100 153 – 4, 158, 160 –1 resistance (concept) in, 91, 92, 93, Rhodesia, 7 94, 95, 97, 100, 101, 107, 115 Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny, Resistance (French) and, 89, 94, 97, The (Brecht), 56 104, 107, 108 Romania, 8, 13, 117, 119, 120, 141 responsibility in, 12, 97–8, 101, Romanticism, 1, 50 104–5, 107–8, 114–5, 152, 158 Rome (ancient), 5 situation in, 89, 90–1, 95–6, 104, Round Heads and Pointed Heads 108, 109, 112, 158 (Brecht), 70 socialism and, 88, 106–7 Russia, 35, 38, 64, 69, 142. See also Soviet Union and, 104, 106–7, Soviet Union 111–12, 129, 148, 155, 157 Russian Revolution, 82, 142 Stalinism and, 88, 106–7, 114, 115 subjectivity in, 87, 90–1 Saint Joan (Shaw), 43 theatre of situations and, 96–7, 104, Salacrou, Armand, 122 107–8, 115 Sartre, Jean-Paul, 2, 8–9, 21, 119, 149, totalitarianism and, 115 150, 153, 161, 166 World War I and, 12 absurdism and, 96, 147–8 World War II and, 8, 13, 87, 88–9, authenticity in, 89–91, 115, 118, 159 91, 104, 115 bad faith in, 151–2, 154 Scandinavia, 11, 49, 67, 83 capitalism and, 88, 106–8, 111, 115 Schiller, Friedrich, 55 commitment in, 101, 108 Schweitzer, Albert, 87 210 ● Index

Second International, 34 as political playwright, 10–11, 20–1, Second World War. See World War II 23, 29–30, 46, 47, 162, 164, Señora Carrar’s Rifles (Brecht), 50, 76, 166 79–83, 84 prostitution and, 20, 25–6, 28–30, Shakespeare, Our Contemporary (Kott), 46, 159–61 142 as public figure, 23 Shakespeare, William, 37, 121, 128 public’s condemnation of, 33–4 Shavio-Lamarckian theory, 25–6. See Shavio-Lamarckian theory and, 25–6 also Creative Evolution as social pariah, 34 Shaw, George Bernard, 2, 8–9, 51, 52, socialism and, 24, 38–9 119, 149, 153, 155 theatrical technique of, 27–8, 30–1, aristocratic audience of, 42 40, 42–3 aristocratic background of, 19–20 totalitarianism and, 158 bourgeois audience of, 42 Wells’s castigation of, 33–4 as bourgeois radical, 9 World War I and, 10, 20, 23, 37, 43, as bourgeois thinker, 20 44, 46, 47, 151 Brecht on socialism of, 147 “Shaw and Revolution” (Weisel), 27 censorship of, 26–7, 29, 31–2 “Shaw’s Epic Theater” (Wilde), 27 Creative Evolution and, 26, 40, Shelley, Percy Bysshe, 37 41–7, 150 situation, in Sartre, 89, 90–1, 95–6, critique of aristocracy by, 20–1, 104, 108, 109, 112, 158. See also 24, 27, 30–1, 35, 36–7, theatre of situations 38–9, 151 “Situation of the Writer in, 1947” critique of bourgeois society (Sartre), 95 by, 20 social democratics, 104 critique of England by, 10, 20–1, 24, socialism, 68 29–30, 32–3 Brecht and, 75, 163 Darwinism and, 22, 25–6, 44, 46 Brecht on Shaw and, 147 early life of, 19 Fabianism and, 24–5, 39 elitism of, 24–5, 39, 44 Ionesco and, 123 evolution and, 21, 22, 25, 39–40, 44 Lukács and, 73 Fabianism and, 24–5, 28, 33, 39 in The Mother, 80 France and, 32–3, 38 Sartre and, 88, 106–7 Germany and, 31, 32–3, 38 Shaw and, 24, 38–9 on Ibsen, 27 World War I and, 34 Lamarckism and, 21, 25–6, 44, 148 Socialist Party, 88 Life Force and, 21, 25–6, 31, 34, socialist realism, 68–71, 73–4, 82–5, 40, 45 123, 132. See also socialism life in England of, 45, 158 South Korea, 7 Marxism and, 26, 34 Southern Africa, 7 as member of intellectual aristocracy, Soviet Union, 6 44 Brecht and, 49, 50, 66, 67–9, 73, 75, Neo-Darwinism and, 40, 44 83–4, 130, 147, 155–6, 163 optimism of, 26, 44, 150–1, 154 “Great Terror” in, 69 Index ● 211

Havel and, 164–5 Twentieth Party Congress, 111 Ionesco and, 130 Tynan, Kenneth, 14, 43, 118–19, Manichean worldview within, 74 130–6, 140, 143 Sartre and, 104, 106–7, 111–12, 129, 148, 155, 157 Uganda, 7 Spain, 7, 21, 76, 82, 148 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. See Spencer, Herbert, 22 Soviet Union Stalin, Josef, 45, 69, 111 United States, 7, 11, 21, 33, 49, 70, 83 Stalinism useful music, 61 Brecht and, 64, 67, 69, 70 USSR. See Soviet Union Ionesco and, 142 utopianism, 51, 72 Lukács and, 68 Sartre and, 88, 106–7, 114, 115 Valency, Maurice, 40 see also Soviet Union Velvet Revolution, 165 Star, The (newspaper), 24 Verfremdungseffekt. See estrangement Steinweg, Reiner, 66–7 effect subjectivity, in Sartre, 87, 90–1 Victorian Era, 22, 26 Superman, 10, 43–4 surrealism, 120 Wall, The (Sartre), 87 Switzerland, 84 Walzer, Michael, 2 War Diary (Sartre), 91 teaching plays. See Lehrstücke Webb, Beatrice, 33 Thailand, 7 Webb, Sidney, 33 Theater of the Absurd, The (Esslin), 121 Weigel, Helene, 82 theatre criticism, 134–5 Weill, Kurt, 54, 55, 60, 61, 63 theatre of situations, 96–7, 104, Weintraub, Stanley, 31 107–8, 115 Weisel, Martin, 27 theatre of the absurd, 117–18, 122–3, Welles, Orson, 134, 136 164. See also absurdism Wells, H. G., 33–4 theatre of the oppressed, 12 West End (London), 15 Theatrical Managers’ Association, 32 Widowers’ Houses (Shaw), 29, 30 Threepenny Opera, The (Brecht), 59 Wilde, Lisa A., 27 Toch, Ernst, 54 Willett, John, 70 Tolstoy, Leo, 73 working class, 159. See also proletariat totalitarianism, 8, 148, 154–5, 163 World War I, 21, 34–5, 82, 148, Arendt and, 3, 149, 155 159– 60 Brecht and, 130 Brecht and, 11, 49 Ionesco and, 118, 129, 130, 135, expressionism and, 51–2 140, 142, 158, 159 marginalization of critical voices political theatre and, 10 during, 32 Rhinoceros and, 136, 140, 159 patriotism and, 34 Sartre and, 115 Sartre and, 12 Shaw and, 158 Shaw and, 10, 20, 23, 37, 43, 44, 46, Turkey, 7 47, 151 212 ● Index

World War II, 7, 95, 148, 163–4 Wort, Das (magazine), 68, 71–2 Brecht and, 83 Dirty Hands and, 104 Young Generation of, 1927 Ionesco and, 117, 120 (Romanian), 119–20 Sartre and, 8, 13, 87, 88–9, 91, 104, 115 see also Occupation (of France by Zimbabwe, 7 Germany) Zorn, Christa, 32