Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices Differs from My Pre- Vious Edition Islam: the Way of Submission (1987) in Several Respects

Islam S. A. NIGOSIAN ISLAM Its History, Teaching, and Practices indiana university press Bloomington and Indianapolis Publication of this book is made possible in part with the assistance of a Challenge Grant from the National Endowment for the Humanities, a federal agency that supports research, education, and public programming in the humanities. This book is a publication of Indiana University Press 601 North Morton Street Bloomington, Indiana 47404-3797 USA http://iupress.indiana.edu Telephone orders 800-842-6796 Fax orders 812-855-7931 Orders by e-mail [email protected] A previous edition of this book was published in 1987 under the title Islam: The Way of Submission by Crucible Press, Wellingborough, England. © 2004 by S. A. Nigosian All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. The Association of American University Presses’ Resolution on Permissions constitutes the only exception to this prohibition. The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1984. Manufactured in the United States of America Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Nigosian, S. A. (Solomon Alexander) Islam : its history, teaching, and practices / S. A. Nigosian. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. Originally published: Leighton Buzzard, Bedfordshire : Crucible, 1987. ISBN 0-253-34315-1 (cloth : alk. paper) — ISBN 0-253-21627-3 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Islam. I.Title. BP161.3.N54 2004 297—dc21 2003009549 1 2 3 4 5 09 08 07 06 05 04 To all those at Victoria College, University of Toronto, who encouraged and supported my research activities And to Debbie van Eeken for her readiness to cooperate with an author who often expects the impossible. O humanity! We created you from a single soul, male and female, and made you into nations and tribes, so that you may come to know one another. Truly, the most honored of you in God’s sight is the greatest of you in piety. God is All-Knowing, All-Aware. (Qur#an, 49:13) Contents List of Maps and Illustrations xi Preface xiii Introduction xv 1. Muhammad, Messenger of God 1 2. Islam in History 18 3. Muslim Groups 44 4. Qur#an 65 5. Sunnah, Hadith, and Shari"ah 80 6. Faith and Action 93 7. Observances and Festivals 120 Appendix 1. Key Dates 131 Appendix 2. Muslim Dynasties 133 Appendix 3. The Ninety-Nine Names of God 137 Glossary 141 Notes 145 Bibliography 155 Index 169 Maps and Illustrations Maps Arabia and Its Neighbors at the Time of Muhammad 3 Early Conquests of Islam 20 Illustrations The Prophet’s Holy Mosque in Medina, Saudi Arabia 14 Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, Israel 24 Daratagaha Mosque in Colombo, Sri Lanka 34 Aya Sofya Mosque in Istanbul, Turkey 38 Mosque in Washington, D.C., U.S. 42 Septennial Cyclic Pattern of Universe 53 Inscription from the Qur#an 67 Illumination of the Qur#an 69 Ritual of Ablution 105 Communal Prayer on Friday 106 Appointed Times of Prayer 108 Duty of Women to Pray 109 Annual Pilgrimage to Mecca 112 Islamic Calendar 125 Preface This edition of Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices differs from my previous edition Islam: The Way of Submission (1987) in several respects. The sub- ject matter has been recast and appropriate modi¤cations and additions have been made. But its basic character—to outline the essential aspects of Islam as a living force, not a systematic exposition of its history or philosophy—remains intact. From beginning to end, the focus is set on an overall theme: to identify a great world religion and recognize its contributions to human civilization. In this book, seven speci¤c issues are presented from an objective, scholarly point of view. I have sought to strike a balance between facts, traditions, current interpretation, and commentary. Consequently, these seven basic components of Islam will be treated in as much detail as possible within the scope and limi- tations of this book. A quick glance at the table of contents will con¤rm what most readers expect to see in such a volume. The introduction offers a general understanding of the vast and absorbing aspect of Islam. This is followed by seven chapters that en- capsulate and portray the unique spirit of Islam, which pervades every aspect of Muslim life and unites millions of individuals all over the world in a common bond. Chapter 1 presents the life of Muhammad, from both the traditional perspective and in light of modern research. Chapter 2 surveys Islamic political development and territorial expansion in history. Chapter 3 discusses the for- mation of three main groups and various subgroups following the death of Muhammad. Chapter 4 introduces the Qur#an, the record that contains God’s message to humanity as received by Muhammad. Chapter 5 deals with Sunnah, Hadith, and Shari"ah, the body of transmitted accounts reporting on the acts and statements of Muhammad, and the compilation of Islamic canon law, con- sidered to be divinely established. Chapter 6 deals with faith and action, the legal, theological, and moral principles as well as acts of worship that demand the performance of religious duties. Chapter 7 deals with observances and festivals. These include social practices, devotional exercises, holy days, and local feasts. Additional features included in this volume are key dates, Muslim dynasties, the ninety-nine names of God, two maps, numerous photographs, a glossary, and an extensive bibliography for further study or research. A few words regarding diacritical marks, the system of transliteration, trans- lation of Qur#anic passages, and key dates are in order. I have refrained from using any diacritical marks because the full use of diacriticals is confusing for beginners, while modi¤ed use often tends to be of little use in pronunciation. I have deviated from the standard system of transliteration of Arabic words and names and have instead used what are in common use in English, except for the “hamza” (similar to a regular apostrophe placed between two letters to indicate a glottal sound where a new syllable is to be pronounced, such as in Qur#an, ¤da#i, wudu#) and the “ayn” (a reverse apostrophe to indicate a sound pronounced further back in the throat, such as in "Abbasid, Ka"bah). The transla- tion and numbering of Qur #anic passages are according to Arthur J. Arberry. And ¤nally, to avoid confusion, dates are given in almost every case according to the Gregorian calendar (Western usage). Two important points, however, need to be reiterated. First, to understand Islam properly, it is necessary to see Islam as a major universal religion, with Muhammad as the last of a series of messengers sent by God. Second, to grasp something of the spirit of Islam, it is fundamental to appreciate the Islamic emphasis on an uncompromising monotheism, with strict adherence to cer- tain essential social, political, and religious practices, as taught by the prophet Muhammad and elaborated by tradition. A word of thanks is due to all those who were directly involved with the preparation of this volume: to the faculty and staff of Victoria College in the University of Toronto, my alma mater, for providing me with space, time, and cooperation, without which this book would never have been written; to Dr. Robert C. Brandeis, chief librarian of Victoria University, and to the staff of the library, for their unfailing courtesy, kindness, and ef¤cient help; to Dalia Eltayeb, a Ph.D. candidate, for taking time from her own work to read the en- tire draft and offer valuable suggestions for improvement; and to Jamsheed Choksy of Indiana University, who made many detailed and helpful comments on the manuscript of this book. I owe a special debt to Debbie van Eeken for her patience and cheerful cooperation. I am grateful also to Peter-John Leone, Robert J. Sloan, Kendra Boileau Stokes, and the other members of the editorial staff at Indiana University Press in seeing this book into production. Last, but not least, to my wife, whose sense of understanding is something very special to me indeed. Needless to say, I am solely responsible for whatever shortcomings the book may possess. S. A. Nigosian University of Toronto Victoria College xiv Preface Introduction Islam is the second largest world religion after Christianity. Its followers today extend from Morocco to the Philippines, and it includes among its adherents different races and peoples of Asia, Africa, Europe, Australia, and the Americas. In fact, more than three-quarters of the total Muslim population in the world is found in non-Arab countries. The word Islam has two meanings: “submission” and “peace”—submission to the will and guidance of God and living in peace with one’s self and one’s surroundings. The essence of Islam, therefore, lies in submission to God, which results in peace of mind and soul. The correct name for the religion is Islam, and the proper term for its adherents is Muslims. The origin of Islam is ascribed to one of two points in time: creation or the sixth century c.e. in Arabia. From the Muslim perspective, the story of Islam starts not with Muhammad (c. 570–632) but shares a common biblical tradition that begins with Adam—with God’s creation of the universe and human beings. The descendants of Adam are traced to Noah, who had a son named Shem.

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