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Jewish Subjects and Their Tribal Chieftains in Kurdistan Jewish Subjects and Their Tribal Chieftains in Kurdistan ZAKEN_F1_i-xxi.indd i 8/15/2007 2:43:54 PM Jewish Identities in a Changing World General Editors Eliezer Ben-Rafael and Yosef Gorny VOLUME 9 ZAKEN_F1_i-xxi.indd ii 8/15/2007 2:43:54 PM Jewish Subjects and Their Tribal Chieftains in Kurdistan A Study in Survival By Mordechai Zaken LEIDEN • BOSTON 2007 ZAKEN_F1_i-xxi.indd iii 8/15/2007 2:43:54 PM This book is printed on acid-free paper. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available on http://catalog.loc.gov. ISSN 1570–7997 ISBN 978 90 04 16190 0 © Copyright 2007 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands. Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Hotei Publishing, IDC Publishers, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers and VSP. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill NV provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. Fees are subject to change. printed in the netherlands ZAKEN_F1_i-xxi.indd iv 8/15/2007 2:43:54 PM CONTENTS Preface ......................................................................................... ix Transliteration Notes .................................................................. xi Table of Transliteration ............................................................. xv Foreword ..................................................................................... xvii Historical Setting ........................................................................ 1 The Land and the Peoples ..................................................... 1 The Position of the Jews in the Previous Centuries .............. 9 PART I URBAN JEWS AND THEIR TRIBAL AGHAS Preliminary Remarks on the Tribal Kurdish Society ................ 21 A. The Division between Urban and Rural, Town and Tribe .................................................................................. 21 B. The Dual System of Government ................................... 23 C. Patronage of the Jews by Kurdish Aghas ........................ 24 D. Social, Economic and Religious Institutions .................... 26 Chapter One Zakho ................................................................ 33 A. The Family of Shamdin Agha ......................................... 33 B. Tribal Aghas and Their Jewish and Christian Subjects .... 43 C. The Murders of Assyrians in Bersibi and Kestaye .......... 46 D. bjj Sad q Bro of the Gulli Tribe and His Jewish Protégé Na4um Sabto ...................................................... 52 Chapter Two Aqra ................................................................... 59 A. Khawaja Khinno’s Household ......................................... 59 B. The Barzn Tribal Chiefs and the Jews .......................... 67 Chapter Three Dohuk ............................................................. 79 A. Sa d Agha Doski, His Sons and the Jews of Dohuk ...... 80 B. Shaikh Abdallah Barifkan ................................................ 93 C. The Feud between bjj Malo and Shaikh Nr ............ 95 ZAKEN_F1_i-xxi.indd v 8/15/2007 2:43:54 PM vi contents Chapter Four Amadiya ............................................................ 97 A. Amadiya in the Previous Centuries .................................. 97 B. Relations with Local Of\ cials and Aghas ........................ 99 Chapter Five Sulaimaniya ....................................................... 107 A. The Establishment of Sulaimaniya from the Jews’ Perspective ......................................................................... 108 B. Incident against the Jews .................................................. 108 C. The Aghas and the Jews: Shaikh Ma4md Berzenj ...... 110 Chapter Six Shino, Mull Mu>af and the Jews ................... 113 A. Barzn ’s Jewish Liaison .................................................... 114 B. Urban Jews and Their Aghas: Concluding Remarks ...... 120 PART II RURAL JEWS AND THEIR TRIBAL AGHAS Chapter One The Experience of Rural Jews ......................... 125 A. Sandur, a Jewish Village ................................................... 129 B. Tribal and Non-Tribal Societies ....................................... 133 C. Tribal Patronage ............................................................... 135 D. The Image of the Jews ..................................................... 137 E. The Status of the Jews ..................................................... 139 F. The Jewish Subjects as Assets ........................................... 156 G. Loyalty of the Jews ........................................................... 159 H. Helping the Agha ............................................................. 163 Chapter Two Guardianship and Justice by the Aghas ........... 167 A. Physical Escort .................................................................. 168 B. The Justice of Tribal Aghas ............................................. 171 C. Rural Jews and Their Agha: Concluding Remarks ......... 183 ZAKEN_F1_i-xxi.indd vi 8/15/2007 2:43:55 PM contents vii PART III SOME ASPECTS OF DAILY AND PERSONAL LIFE Chapter One The Safety of Jews in Kurdistan ...................... 187 A. Motives for Migration ....................................................... 187 B. Murder of Jews in the Tribal Setting —The Tribal Response ............................................................................ 195 Chapter Two The Economic Position of the Jews ................. 213 A. Before the 20th Century ................................................... 213 B. The Main Occupations of Jews ....................................... 218 Chapter Three Conversion of Jews to Islam in the Kurdish Society ......................................................................................... 247 A. Conversion of Jews to Islam ............................................. 247 B. Main Causes for Conversion ............................................ 250 C. Mechanisms Applied by the Jews to Overturn Conversion ........................................................................ 258 D. The Role of Aghas and Shaikhs ...................................... 264 E. Conversion of Jewish Men ............................................... 266 PART IV THE LAST GENERATION IN KURDISTAN: BETWEEN WWI AND THE IMMIGRATION TO ISRAEL Chapter One Jewish Experience during World War I: Conscription and Evasion .......................................................... 271 A. Evading Military Service .................................................. 276 B. Migration because of Scarcity of Food ........................... 284 C. Forced Labor ..................................................................... 286 D. Casualties of Jewish Soldiers ............................................ 288 Chapter Two The End of the War and the Years Following 290 A. New Political Developments ............................................. 295 Chapter Three Jews, Kurds and Arabs, 1941–1952 ............... 300 A. Effects of the Farhud Pogroms ........................................... 301 B. Effects of the Establishment of the State of Israel .......... 310 C. Accusations and Imprisonment of Jews ........................... 325 D. Economic Pressure before the Emigration to Israel ........ 333 ZAKEN_F1_i-xxi.indd vii 8/15/2007 2:43:55 PM viii contents Concluding Remarks .................................................................. 338 Glossary ....................................................................................... 345 Bibliography ................................................................................ 347 Notes on the Informants ............................................................ 361 Map: Kurdistan Region .............................................................. 363 Index ........................................................................................... 365 ZAKEN_F1_i-xxi.indd viii 8/15/2007 2:43:55 PM PREFACE With the completion of this book, I would like to express my appre- ciation to those who helped me in the pursuit of this research. I am grateful to my mentor, Prof. Moshe Sharon, whose excellent scholarship has inspired me, and to Professors Gideon Goldenberg and Benjamin Z. Kedar of the Hebrew University and Norman Stillman formerly of SUNY Binghamton for their kind and attentive guidance. Much grati- tude goes to three outstanding scholars who kindly enriched me with their knowledge: Prof. Joyce Blau, previously from the Institut National des Langues et Civilisations Orientales in Paris, Dr. Michael Chyet, currently the Middle Eastern Language Cataloger at the Library of Congress and Prof. Yona Sabar of UCLA. I would like to extend my gratitude to all the informants interviewed for this book, for sharing with me their reminiscences and for making me feel welcome for more interviews and clari cations. Without them, I could not have completed this book.1 I am grateful to those who encouraged me in various ways, notably my friend Professor Joshua Korzenik, who hosted me twice at Yale University and the late Patri- cia and Ernest Worth who hosted me during research conducted in London. Special thanks go to the English readers of the manuscripts: Carol
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