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&-!&+(3?!&+,!%&(11!(&!2"),!1-'!/4"9"3/!:,!&+'-4/+!&+,!E'-/'(:A!Paula Platt, Lisa Tate, Rachel

Zepada, and Bev Konzem all contributed in this way. Library staff and archivists also paved the path for this piece of scholarship. To all those who lent assistance at Columbia Theological

Seminary, Emory University, the Virginia Historical Society, Union Presbyterian Seminary,

University of Virginia, Duke University, University of North Carolina, Furman University, and

Wofford College, I am grateful.

Colleagues also eased this processes. My cohort at Rice provided support during coursework and continued to do so after I left Houston. Ben Wright is always a helpful sounding board for ideas in progress. Andy Lang’s help with the military aspects of war has been indispensible. Carl Paulus shared an interest in the Internet. Conversations, serious and silly, with Ben, Andy, Carl, Wes Phelps, Drew Bledsoe, Allison Madar, Jim Wainwright, Joe Locke,

Sarah Paulus, Angela Prattas, Uzma Quraishi, Blaine Hamilton, Andrew Baker, and Andrew

Deas made my time at Rice better. At Virginia Tech, Matt Saionz and Joe Forte were great office mates. The History Department there provided an invaluable start in the classroom, and the counterbalance of teaching with scholarship helped me keep the significance of this project in

! ! "

Many educators have influenced my path toward this academic life. At Emory & Henry

College, Tom Little, Jack Roper, Fred Kellogg, Jim Dawsey, Maurice Luker, and Joe Reiff introduced me to the study of history and religion and made it impossible to choose between the two. At Yale, David Blight first suggested that I might want to study Civil War era religion. At

Rice, John Zammito piqued my interest in intellectual history and introduced me to the field.

Although the final shape of this dissertation veered away from that subject, its influence on my thought processes is still discernible throughout. Rebecca Goetz shaped my understanding of

American religion, guiding me to see the influence of race and importance of lived practice.

Working at the Journal of Southern History helped me understand the production of history much better and improved my writing in the process, thanks to the direction of Bethany Johnson and Randal Hall.

My dissertation committee has been particularly easy to work with and very helpful.

Jeffrey Kripal’s scholarly commitment to taking belief seriously informs my own approach to the study of religion. This project began in Caleb McDaniel’s research seminar, and he has asked probing questions and offered productive criticism throughout the writing process. John Boles has been a model advisor, encouraging steady progress through his perceptive comments and close readings of drafts even when I doubted the quality of my own work. His energetic approach to this profession is infectious.

Finally, this project would not have been possible without the efforts of those closest to me. My parents, Harry and Ava, have always supported my decisions, and their positive and

! !

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

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Chapter Three The Boundaries of Zion: Southern Denominationalism in the Civil War and Reconstruction 125

Chapter Four “Can We Maintain Our Zion?”: Education, Morality, and the Religious Liberation of the Reconstruction South 178

Chapter Five

“To Become Like the Conquerors:” Economic Theology in the Postwar South 252

Epilogue 304

Bibliography 324

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Whether conniving or naïveté informed this logic, the effect was the same: the vagaries of defining spirituality provided southern religious leaders with room to offer guidance on pressing social issues.Ul!

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! XV!

Chapter Two

Providence Revised: Defeat, Doubt, and Providential Theology in the Postwar South

Writing in the months following Appomattox, Ella Gertrude Clanton Thomas of

Savannah, Georgia, confessed that the events of the Civil War had led her to doubt God. Until that point, Thomas had likely followed the cyclical logic shared throughout the Confederacy and the Union. Military advances signaled divine favor; loss represented divine chastisement.

However, abolition was no ordinary wartime event. Thomas confessed upon hearing the news of

Lincoln’s proclamation, “I did not know until then how intimately my faith in revelations and my faith in the institution of slavery had been woven together.” She, like other southerners, believed that the Bible offered unequivocal proof that God supported slavery, even if that institution were

“evil.” Slavery done away with, Thomas found her “faith in God’s Holy Book … terribly shaken.” Normally a source of solace, religion provided yet another reminder of defeat: “When I opened the Bible the numerous allusions to slavery mocked me. Our cause was lost.”1

Emancipation, defeat, and widespread destruction presented an unprecedented challenge to the faith of white southerners in a sustaining Providence. Was God truly in control of earthly events, if 620,000 (or more), were allowed to perish and an entire landscape—houses, churches, roads, bridges—razed?2 Or, worse, did God oppose the Confederate cause? Confederates had largely restrained themselves from thinking the worst, identifying their cause as that of God until

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1 Virginia Ingraham Burr, ed., The Secret Eye: The Journal of Ella Gertrude Clanton Thomas, 1848–1889 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990), 277 (October 8, 1865).

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! XZ! the very end. But defeat changed the intellectual possibilities. War tore apart many of the personal and institutional connections that had bound people together in antebellum America.

Sectionalism and war engendered feelings that split most of the national denominations into sectional organizations. Especially in the South, physical edifices crumbled along with the spiritual. Churches were damaged or destroyed, and destitute parishioners struggled to raise funds to repair or rebuild. Civilians and soldiers alike turned to their faith for security in chaotic times, but the scale of destruction and the ubiquity of death posed difficult theological questions.

As Thomas cried out in her diary, “ Earnest prayers had ascended from honest hearts —Was so much faith to be lost? I was bewildered—I Felt all this and could not see God’s hand.”3

For decades, the scholarly output concerning the cultural changes wrought in the 1860s was quite slim in comparison to the amount written about political and military events. This situation has begun to change in recent years, and many historians now find that the experience of unbridled carnage, for both those on the front lines and on the home front, represented, in

Louis Menand’s words, “a failure of culture, a failure of ideas.” The characterization of the era as one of cultural destruction recurs in the literature on the religious impact of the war, which is still relatively slim. Historians frequently speak of religion in the mid-nineteenth century as being in “crisis.” Mark Noll labels the war itself as a “theological crisis,” and Drew Gilpin Faust argues that widespread suffering induced a “crisis of belief” that “propelled many Americans to redefine or even reject their faith in a benevolent and responsive deity.” The selection of this word, crisis, is appropriate in its ability to communicate the seriousness of Americans’ sudden inability to use religion as a common language and their doubts about a loving God’s !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 3 On the preservation of the Confederate spirit, see Jason Philips, Diehard Rebels: The Confederate Culture of Invincibility (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2007); Burr, ed., Secret Eye, 277.

! XY! providential design. But at the same time it also suggests that the result of these challenges was a kind of intellectual gridlock in which creative solutions were unlikely to be found within tradition. The title of Drew Faust’s chapter on the religious impact of Civil War death,

“Believing and Doubting,” sums up the way in which the subject is now understood. Put simply, some kept believing without modification after the war, and others doubted.4

This division into two camps—believers and doubters—is useful insofar as it acknowledges the shaking of cultural foundations that occurred in the Civil War era, but the either/or dichotomy obscures more subtle transformations that occurred somewhere between faith and disbelief. Ella Thomas, writing in October 1865, was a doubter. But slightly more than two months later, she expressed confusion about the role of God in the end of slavery.

“Sometimes I am inclined to look upon our defeat as a Providential thing and then I grow skeptical and almost doubt whether Providence had anything to do with the matter.” Historians have demonstrated an over-reliance on the writings of northerners who never had a conventional faith in the first place, skewing the historical interpretations too far in the direction of doubt.

Ambrose Bierce, Emily Dickinson, Walt Whitman, and Herman Melville were certainly astute critics and observers of wartime culture, but their exceptional capacities for creative, individual thought and their willingness to depart from tradition necessarily set them apart from the majority of Americans. A full accounting of the impact of the Civil War on belief requires !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 4Louis Menand, The Metaphysical Club (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2001), x; Drew Faust, This Republic of Suffering: Death and the American Civil War (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2008), 210.

On death and the Civil War, see Faust, This Republic of Suffering; Mark S. Schantz, Awaiting the Heavenly Country: The Civil War and America’s Culture of Death (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Univ. Press, 2008); and Kent A. McConnell, “’There must be tears in the houses;” A Search for Religious Meaning from the Carnage of the American Civil War,” (Ph.D. Diss., Univ. of Virginia, 2007).

! Xd! historians to alter their approach to the problem and investigate the thoughts of more representative Christians professing traditional beliefs.5 By expanding the time frame through both the Civil War and Reconstruction, I suggest that we will find a category of believers who averted “crisis” by modifying—not fully rejecting—traditional concepts to maintain their faith during changing times. The southern Presbyterian Old School was one such group. 6

One reason for this expansion of chronological focus is regional setting. Aside from the excellent work on the Lost Cause, the cultural developments of the postwar South have hardly been studied. But with three times as many Confederate soldiers falling in battle as Union troops—adjusted proportionately—and the devastation of the southern landscape, the South must be considered in the measurement of grief caused by the Civil War. And southerners’ pain did not end at Appomattox. Current historiography takes for granted that the war itself was the defining event of the mid to late nineteenth century, but for white southerners the humiliation and suffering provided by defeat extended at least until the end of Reconstruction, a trial almost on par with the loss of the war itself. Adding to the political and military upheaval, the late

1860s and 1870s also presented the faithful with serious new intellectual challenges from science !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 5 Burr, ed. The Secret Eye, 278; Faust, This Republic of Suffering, XXXX.

The individuals studied in this chapter also present problems in terms of representativeness. Most examples in the following come from Presbyterians, who occupied a slim minority of the southern population in comparison to Baptists and Methodists. Dabney and Palmer, the prime subjects of this study, were far more intelligent than the average believer and likely more wealthy, although the Reconstruction economy reduced both men to paupers along with the majority of southerners. However, their intellectuality offers a glimpse into the thought processes involved in understanding defeat that is simply not accessible for the average Baptist or Methodist southerner.

6 Randall Fuller, From Battlefields Rising: How the Civil War Transformed American Literature (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), Faust, 196–208, George M. Fredrickson, The Inner Civil War: Northern Intellectuals and the Crisis of the Union (New York: Harper & Row, 1965).

! XX! and philosophy, as Darwinism and logical positivism threatened the intellectual defensibility of orthodox Christian belief. Some well-known thinkers such as J. S. Mill and Herbert Spencer directly challenged the doctrine of Providence in the “modern” world. It would be difficult to isolate the impact of any of these factors on southern belief; rather, the Civil War,

Reconstruction, and new ideas were experienced in tandem by believers working to make sense of a radically new world. 7

If any group could have weathered the turmoil of the era and emerged intellectually unscathed, it would have been the southern Old School Presbyterians. These Presbyterians placed a heavy emphasis on tradition and orthodoxy. They valued intellectual development and logical argumentation over the passion and zeal of the evangelical revivalists, although the southern branch of the Old School was certainly not as anti-revivalist as the northern division could be. As such, despite the destitute conditions of the 1870s, publications like the Southern

Presbyterian Review remained in print. But even this stalwart institution did not survive the

Civil War era unscathed. The intellectual careers of Robert Lewis Dabney and Benjamin

Morgan Palmer reveal that the most conservative Calvinist estimations of the way God works in the world changed during this time. Both Dabney and Palmer fundamentally altered their theologies of providence, but the changes in their belief systems by no means weakened their faith. Rather, with the utmost sincerity, they attempted to breathe new life into old forms while remaining true to their theological heritage. Beginning with an exploration of the problem of !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 7 Charles Reagan Wilson, Baptized in Blood : The Religion of the Lost Cause, 1865–1920 (Athens: Univ. of Georgia Press, 1980). Daniel Stowell addresses questions of faith and doubt, but the primary thrust of his book is the institutional rebuilding of the southern church after the war. See Daniel W. Stowell, Rebuilding Zion: The Religious Reconstruction of the South, 1863– 1877 (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1998). Charles D. Cashdollar, “The Social Implications of the Doctrine of Divine Providence: A Nineteenth-Century Debate in American Theology,” Harvard Theological Review 71 (July– October , 1978), 265–84, 275–77.

! Xl! doubt and Providence in the postwar South, this chapter focuses on Dabney and Palmer as case studies demonstrating the complications involved in incorporating defeat and Reconstruction into a theology of Providence. 8

Nearly everyone had some sort of theology of Providence during the Civil War, not just the professional theologians. As George C. Rable argues, American Protestants, Catholics, and

Jews “shared a providential outlook on life” despite their vastly differing theologies. During every stage of the war, they saw God’s involvement in all events. Quoting Rable again,

“Everything—storms, harvests, illnesses, deaths—unfolded according to God’s will.” The language of God’s providential control suffused American parlance, even permeating the vocabulary of noted non-traditional believers like Abraham Lincoln. Southerners detected

Providence even in tragic events, most notably the death of Stonewall Jackson. But while providential phrasing could appear in any context for the general population, nineteenth-century

American theologians had specific definitions in mind when speaking about the matter. They wrote about “general” and “special” providences. The former category referred to the general plan God had devised to govern the world, such as God’s sustained maintenance of nature through consistent laws. God’s interventions in history, momentarily breaking the normal order, were known as special providences. Southern theologians separated their formal discourses on providence apart from other technical topics such as grace or predestination, but the questions

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 8 Morton Smith, “The Southern Tradition,” in David F. Wells, ed., Reformed Theology in America: A History of its Modern Development (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1985), 189–207.

! le! raised by God’s allowing an irreligious North to overthrow a godly Confederacy produced a series of questions beginning in the realm of special providences and spiraling outward.9

Clergy of all denominations in the postwar South worried that the war had dealt a fatal blow to religion. Not only were many churches destroyed; membership was declining at those still standing. Postwar issues added to a problem many noted during the war. Methodist minister John T. James recalled in his 1894 memoir of the war and Reconstruction that “the novelty and excitement of war in a company made up almost wholy(sic) of youths, soon reduced the number of consistent professors of religion.” At first James himself was swept up in the irreligious environment of the camp, but before long the chaos of war subdued even the most reckless young soldier. “[A]s it settled down to a regular human slaughter, it became a most serious time; we were chastened and beaten down in spirit by Him who rode above the war clouds, into the seriousness of looking death and eternity into the face every day.”10

While the experience of living near death kept some from disbelief, the problem of creeping doubt was a frequent complaint among ministers after the war. Many denominational newspapers complained that doubt infected their territory. The Southern Christian Advocate noted, “Methodism in the country has lost (to use a French military term) its esprit du corps” and

“the war left many of our members somewhat demoralized.” The 1868 Eufaula (Alabama)

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 9 George C. Rable, God’s Almost Chosen People: A Religious History of the American Civil War (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 2010), 1,2. On Lincoln and providence, see Allen C. Guelzo, Abraham Lincoln: Redeemer President (Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans, 1999), 152–53,318–20, 325–39; Daniel W. Stowell, “Stonewall Jackson and the Providence of God,” in Miller, Stout, et al. eds. Religion in the American Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998) 187–207.

10 On the challenges to southern religious life see Stowell, Rebuilding Zion, chapter 1; ibid., 25; John T. James, Four Years of Methodist Ministry, 1865–1869 (Staunton, Va.: Stoneburner & Prufer, 1884), 19-20.

! lU!

Baptist Association reported its venue to be “cold and indifferent.” Where most religious outlets were content with a brief diagnosis of the doubt pandemic, Richmond’s Episcopal Methodist provided a more sustained prognosis. An article entitled “The Confederacy and Faith” looked for the root cause of “the tendency to a wide-spread unbelief” that grew out of “the shock which the fall of the Confederacy has given to the belief of many persons in the doctrine of Divine

Providence.” The problem came down to an over-estimation of human capability. To those who thought Confederate defeat overthrew “natural ideas of right and wrong,” the author countered,

“We are not authorized to identify the truth of God with any particular form of temporal prosperity, whether personal or national.” In other words, the wartime obsession with

Providence controlling political and military events had gone too far. God worked “through instrumentalities,” indirectly, and “he will not work a miracle to indemnify their defects.” Blame yourselves, not God, the paper effectively argued. Others, such as the Episcopal Bishop

Stephen Elliott, maintained that this postwar doubt was nothing special. Unbelief is “always the same in essence” even if it “assumes a thousand shapes to suit the times in which it may be circulating.” In 1868 the Ebenezer Baptist Association worried that gloom following defeat was leading to more serious moral problems than doubt alone: “The war and its results have largely demoralized many of our church members, and as such, there is too much intemperance, profanity, neglect of church duties, heresies, dissensions, and general unchristian conduct, tolerated by the followers of Jesus.11

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 11 “Enduring Hardships,” Southern Christian Advocate, Feb. 16, 1866; “Church Unity,” Southern Christian Advocate, March 12, 1869; Eufala Baptist Association, qtd. in Wayne Flynt, Alabama Baptists: Southern Baptists in the Heart of Dixie (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1998), 143; “The Confederacy and Faith,” Episcopal Methodist in Central Presbyterian, Oct. 5, 1865; Stephen Elliott, Sermons, by the Right Reverend Stephen Elliott (New York: Pott and Amery, 1867), 165; Minutes, Ebenezer Baptist Association, 1868, 6, qtd. in Gregory A. Wills,

! l`!

The solutions ministers offered for those in doubt repeated a constant theme: keep believing. They argued that admissions of doubt were not helpful techniques for assuaging either one’s own spiritual turmoil or that of questioning congregations. The Charleston Episcopalian intellectual James Warley Miles confessed to his friend that he was “often impatient,” but he constantly reminded himself of the difference between “worldly matters” and God’s work in the world. Miles wrote that he was “sometimes almost in despair as to worldly matters,” but he maintained that “Providence has never yet deserted me and sometimes light and help have come when all was black.” Nearby, the Presbyterian minister John Girardeau counseled his congregation to rely on the transformative and healing properties of prayer in moments of despair. Girardeau was realistic to the difficulties his congregation faced when asked to believe in difficult times. The advice simply to pray can easily seem insincere or even insulting in the face of the grimmest problems. Prayer, Girardeau recognized, was not easy in such times, “when confidence in its efficacy has been weakened if not impaired by the occurrence of afflictive and disastrous events against which its aid had been invoked.” Worse, believers also had to contend with “the sneer of the skeptic” who added to their trauma the constant inquiry “Where is now thy

God who professes to be the hearer of prayer”? To provide his audience with confidence to continue their own belief and ammunition against doubting accusers, the pastor delivered a series of typically Old School, well-reasoned disquisitions on the nature and power of prayer. 12

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! Democratic Religion: Freedom, Authority, and Church Discipline in the Baptist South, 1785– 1900 (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), 123.

12 Miles to!['%A!*+-:(%!W-+3!k-43/F! October 14, 1865, James Warley Miles Papers, David M. Rubenstein Rare Book & Manuscript Library, Duke University; John L. Girardeau, Sermons (Columbia, S. C.: The State Company, 1901), 249.

! li!

One leading Southern Presbyterian, William Swann Plumer, saw the Providence problem as the most urgent intellectual and religious dilemma in the aftermath of the Civil War. In 1866 he published a long defense of Providence’s continuing relevance, Jehovah-Jireh (God will provide). The book’s hopeful message began in the title and continued throughout the book.

Plumer consulted the words of eminent minds in Christian history, compiling testimony both scriptural and theological to affirm the uninterrupted faith in divine control of earthly events shared by believers throughout all of history. Judging from this book alone, this Presbyterian minister belonged firmly in the camp of those who kept believing after the war. Plumer repeated the refrain throughout his work: “God’s providence is over all creatures. … He governs by a plan.” The mysteriousness of that plan and the inadequacy of human faculties in comparison with the divine recur on nearly every page of the book. For those perplexed by the seeming absence of God’s hand in current events, Plumer reminded, “The Almighty does not settle his accounts with his creatures every thirty days.” Even minds as great as that of the renowned

English theologian John Owen admitted that “visible confusion” in earthly events such as “the oppression of tyrants” and “wasting of nations” shook the foundations of providential faith. The solutions were as old as the problems themselves, according to Plumer. Nearly every age has doubted God’s direct and indirect involvement in everyday affairs; this problem was not special to former Confederates. And like Christians of the past, southerners should continue to trust in

God and remain steadfast in the support of the church, the only institution God uniformly blessed. Although Plumer never addressed the war directly in the book, Jehovah-Jireh’s historicizing of providential doubts and reassurance that moral order remained intact was likely

! lV! written and interpreted as an assurance to keep calm, admit human failings, and continue believing as if a devastating defeat had not occurred. 13

Despite the steady posture of Plumer and most of the religious press, a more subtle process was going on, which can be seen in the postwar thought of Robert Lewis Dabney and

Benjamin Morgan Palmer. The uncertainty generated in the chastened South motivated Dabney and Palmer to reassess their understanding of the divine character as well as the very ability of humans to possess religious knowledge. Dabney and Palmer’s approach to the theological problems of the era was informed by a rich tradition of theological reflection on God’s role in the world. Dating back to the late colonial period, southern religious thinkers approached theological questions from a perspective that historian E. Brooks Hollifield has termed “rational orthodoxy.” Rationality, Hollifeld observes, was “the most noticeable feature of American religious thought in the early nineteenth century.” Although the emotional style of eighteenth- and nineteenth-century revivalism is most often seen as the defining characteristic of southern religion, conservative theologians such as Dabney and Palmer sought the experience of the divine primarily through reason. They believed the solution to any theological or philosophical problem could be deduced through argumentation drawing on Scripture, logic, and sensory perception. The world itself had a rational structure that the human mind, by God’s design, was able to understand. And, for the Old School, that structure necessarily comported with the doctrines of Reformed theology. If God’s power and goodness could not be seen in a particular instance, the believer could trust that with further reflection any supposed irrationality would be revealed as a failing of the theologian’s initial thinking and not a reason to doubt the existence of

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! lZ! the traditional theistic God. Relying on this tradition, Dabney and Palmer’s theological reformulations during the Civil War and Reconstruction never led them away from faith; rather, both men created a version of orthodoxy both steeped in tradition and applicable to the concerns of the times. 14

On June 13, 1861, Benjamin Morgan Palmer, the popular minister of First Presbyterian

Church, New Orleans, rose before his congregation to deliver a topical sermon entitled

“National Responsibility Before God.” From the lectern, Palmer looked over the packed pews of the South’s third largest congregation, which often attracted visitors who had expressly traveled to hear the pastor’s famed orations. The parishioners of this Old School Presbyterian stronghold were likely more restive than they would have been on a typical Sunday in a previous year; it had been only two months since the skirmish in South Carolina at Fort Sumter initiated what these southerners saw as a new war for independence. Palmer sought to galvanize those feelings, emphasizing the seriousness of the moment’s political reality. “We must renounce the shallow nominalism which would make such a word as ‘nation’ a dead abstraction, signifying only the aggregation of individuals,” Palmer exhorted. Instead, a nation should be understood as “an incorporated society,” possessing “a unity of life resembling the individuality of a single being.”15

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 14 E. Brooks Hollifield, The Gentleman Theologians: American Theology in Southern Culture, 1795–1860 (Durham, N. C.: Duke University Press, 1978), For rational orthodoxy, see ix, 3–4, 77–110, 186–99. The quote is from p. 3.

15 Haskell Monroe, “Bishop Palmer’s Thanksgiving Day Address,” Louisiana History 4 (Spring 1963), 105–18, 106. Benjamin Morgan Palmer, “National Responsibility Before God,” in David

! lY!

By adopting such an understanding of nationhood, southerners would be able not only to emerge victorious from the war but, more importantly, to stand righteous before the judgment of

God. Palmer reasoned that nations, like individuals, have moral responsibilities, and when those obligations are not met, the wrath of God is incurred. In Palmer’s words, “each [nation] has its own precisely defined character, fulfils its appointed mission, is developed through a providential training, and is held to a strict providential reckoning.” In other words, God acts in history, supporting nations in temporal affairs and, in return, expecting allegiance. When humans transgress this arrangement, God then punishes disobedience in this world, not waiting for final judgment. Sometimes, punishment is delayed for several generations, but it is

“unavoidable” nonetheless.16

The Civil War represented for Palmer the dénouement of tensions between the United

States and the Divine that had been building since the nation’s birth. The absence of God’s name in the Constitution served as one example among many of the nation’s failure to give proper reverence to God in all of its affairs. However, the Confederacy’s constitutional recognition of its obligations to God was merely a first step toward righting those wrongs. This decisive turn against past misbehavior, Palmer asserted, meant that the Confederacy would “feel the support of God’s immovable Providence.” The message was simple: the pious and righteous

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! B. Chesebrough, ”God Ordained This War”: Sermons on the Sectional Crisis, 1830–1865 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1991), 201–20, 202.

16 Ibid., 203, 206.

! ld!

South should be “prepared to recognize that gracious Providence which will work our deliverance.” 17

Less than a year later, though, New Orleans fell into Union hands, and Palmer fled to

Columbia, South Carolina, where he served as Professor of Theology at the Presbyterian seminary. His dedication to the Confederate cause, however, never flagged. During the war southern clergymen generally backed the Confederacy through victory and defeat, interpreting results on the battlefield as indications of Providence’s mood. In the words of Harry S. Stout,

“the clergy were virtually cheerleaders all.” Palmer was more energetic than most in his support, and he spent much of the war away from Columbia, speaking and preaching in various venues throughout the South. According to historian James W. Silver, Palmer “ranged up and down the country during the whole of the war, assuming the appearance of a prophet of the

Lord. A general in Mississippi declared Palmer to be worth a thousand soldiers to the cause.” 18

Given his firm conviction that Providence would secure Confederate victory, Palmer was understandably devastated by defeat. During the years of war, Palmer lost a beloved daughter to illness, his intellectual inspiration James Henley Thornwell also succumbed to disease, and his South Carolina house and library were burned by the Union army. When Palmer made his way back to New Orleans, an editorial in the New Orleans Times from July 17, 1865, noted that

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 17 Ibid., 219.

18 The literature on religion in the American Civil War is extensive. On the clergy, Providence, and nationalism, see especially, James W. Silver, Confederate Morale and Church Propaganda (Tuscaloosa, Ala.: Confederate Pub. Co., 1957); Mark A. Noll, The Civil War as a Theological Crisis (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006); Harry S. Stout, Upon the Altar of the Nation: A Moral History of the Civil War (New York: Penguin Books, 2006), quote on p. xviii. Silver, Confederate Morale and Church Propaganda, 78.

! lX! he “had lost none of those powers which gave such a charm to his pulpit oratory. He seemed, however, to be more chastened and subdued than he was before.”19

Reconstruction heaped more misery onto Palmer’s life. He had no hope in a nation led by

“a man who was a renegade and traitor to his own people,” Andrew Johnson. Indeed, Palmer’s

“only hope” was in the “expectation of seeing the United States go to pieces.” The end of the country was near, but not near enough. He feared that “in the meantime, [we] have to go through a terrible ordeal.” Although that day did not come, there was no end to Palmer’s invective against the North and despair over the South. In an 1872 tirade, Palmer bemoaned the poor South, “breathless and panting in its exhaustion at the close of a long and cruel war with three-fifths of its property practically confiscated by a single stroke of the pen, with its system of labor unhinged and its industry paralysed [sic], overwhelmed with a degree of taxation rendering the poor the envy of the rich, with a band of harpies fattening on the public revenue.”20

In a long letter written February 25, 1867, Palmer commiserated with his colleague

Robert Lewis Dabney about the state of the South, plotting with his denominational confrere an escape to a more southerly latitude where a replica of the Confederacy might be erected.

Mexico, Cuba, and the West Indies did not suit him, and Canada was out of the question, as it was “too cold.” Brazil had attracted much attention, but Palmer surmised that “the reptiles and insects would render life intolerable to a Virginian.” Brazilian society also lacked the “prejudice

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 19 Thomas Cary Johnson, The Life and Letters of Benjamin Morgan Palmer (Richmond: Presbyterian Committee of Publication, 1906), 74.

20 Palmer to Robert Lewis Dabney, February 25, 1867, William Smith Morton Library, Union Presbyterian Seminary, Richmond, Va.; Palmer, “The Tribunal of History,” Southern Presbyterian Review 23 (April 1872), 245–62, 248.

! ll! of race” and tolerated racial mixing. The answer, Palmer argued, was on the other side of the globe, in New Zealand. Its population was mostly English Protestant, and the natives would be dead in a few years. But Palmer’s distrust for the times led him to doubt even this idyllic location. He did not trust potential southern immigrants, as they “do not want to work but wish to get into positions where they can receive salaries.”21

Ultimately, Palmer chose to stay put in the South, but that decision introduced him to even more grief. Death seemed to follow Palmer wherever he went. Parishioners constantly asked him for solace and meaning in the death of loved ones. Yellow fever was a particularly heinous menace in New Orleans, taking young infants and healthy adults alike. The 1867 outbreak left him with scarcely a moment’s rest from the presence of death and suffering. The pestilence produced particularly distressing deaths, which worked against nineteenth-century notions of the “good death” by forcing a quick burial instead of a prolonged viewing of the deceased. An editorial in the New Orleans Daily Picayune described “something so repulsive in the nature of the pestilence itself that even affection does not wish to detain the body from an immediate burial.” Scholarly discussion of these disrupted funerary traditions is generally centered during the war itself, but the yellow fever epidemic serves as another example of the continued presence of abnormal death in the South. The personal tragedies that befell Palmer’s own family laid the minister low. The death of a daughter in 1875 left only one of his six children alive after Reconstruction. Reacting to her death, Palmer wrote, “For the first time in all my life, I find my public work to be oppressive. I do not understand it. …What a pity that faith is

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 21 Palmer to Dabney, February 25, 1867. Robert Lewis Dabney Papers. Union Presbyterian Seminary, Richmond, Virginia.

! Uee! not always steady and bright! But one swings so, from faith to sense again and all is dark as before.”22

As tragedy multiplied, Palmer felt no reprieve. “Each bereavement cuts its way down to the quick,” followed by “a return of the old grief, as it rises up to meet the new.” In response to the ever-presence of tragedy, Palmer formulated a theology of suffering. He counseled parishioners that “God has not made it a sin to mourn.” While grieving freely, the bereaved should consult the biblical story of Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son, Isaac, which now seemed to Palmer a “form of sacrifice … not so peculiar as it seems.” The death of a child presented an opportunity for a renewal of Christian “submission and faith.” In a memorial sermon, Palmer maintained, “Our blessed Redeemer has sanctified everything which he hath touched, even death.” Such a thought was startling, even unbelievable, but Palmer was adamant.

Although “[c]old reason may stagger at the metaphysics of the doctrine,” death presented a hidden blessing in forever imprinting the love of the deceased in the memory. Later that year,

Palmer wrote about “a depth in the utterances of grief that no philosophy can fathom.” Suffering and loss thus forced the believer beyond the rational in order to understand the relationship between human and divine. 23

The Civil War and Reconstruction failed to destroy the Presbyterian divine’s belief in

God’s active presence in the world. But Palmer’s experiences did lead him to revise his

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 22 On the notion of the “good death,” see Faust, This Republic of Suffering, 3–31.; Daily Picayune, October 6, 1867, quoted in Johnson, Life and Letters, 297. On Palmer’s work with the victims of yellow fever in New Orleans, see ibid., 298–299.;Palmer to Mrs. Edgeworth Bird, ibid., 512–13.

23 Palmer to Mrs. Lonsdale, March 23, 1876, in Johnson, Life and Letters, 493–94.; “Tribute to the Memory of Mrs. S. L. Hutson,” Southern Presbyterian, June 1873, in Johnson, Life and Letters.; “The Companionship of Grief,” Southwestern Presbyterian, Nov. 5, 1873.

! UeU! understanding of special providence in a way that removed rational certainty. In an 1872 essay entitled “The Tribunal of History,” Palmer sought to work out a theory of how God worked through human history. God, not “wholly unmindful of the affairs of earth,” nonetheless worked somewhat indirectly, through human agents. Palmer began by reinterpreting the meaning of the creation of humanity in God’s own image, a concept with a long trajectory in the history of theology. The image of God here becomes the capacity for understanding divine justice, i.e., an innate ability to understand how things ought to work in this world. The fall of Adam, however, clouded the human understanding, but it did not destroy the human ability to tap into the knowledge of the true divine order. “This rugged sense of justice,” Palmer asserted, “remains, shattered and defaced it may be, warped by passion, obscured by prejudice, blundering through ignorance and mistake into a thousand errors.” This sense of justice served as “the corner stone of religion and of law” and held “the very fabric of society together.” As such, Palmer reasoned that this sense was the means by which God acted on earth, through human agents endowed with the capability of meting out divine judgment—albeit imperfectly. 24

The upshot of all this was that Christians could be certain that the divine acted in the world, but unpredictably so. In the short term, Providence worked through humans, whose corrupted faculties and free will lead them not always to act in accordance with divine standards.

It was the long term, however, that truly mattered. And only the divine mind could comprehend the true course of events, which extended beyond time into eternity. In Palmer’s words, “not until the vast tapestry is unrolled before us in the pavilion of eternity itself, and the constituent figures are seen to be wrought with an exquisite unity of design, shall we be able to frame a judgment of the wisdom of the whole.” This world was merely a probationary period, during !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 24 “Tribunal of History,” 250, 251..

! Ue`! which both good and evil enjoyed periods of success and neither won entirely. Palmer backed down somewhat from this line of reasoning in the pulpit, but the main point remained the same.

He encouraged his parishioners to avoid trying to comprehend the workings of Providence in the world: “[N]o man is able to tell how the thread of his personal history is woven into the web of

God’s universal Providence. Neither you nor I, can tell why God should, in fatherly discipline, afflict us as He does.” Even if someone were to calculate the reasons for personal suffering,

Palmer averred, “We do not know how our afflictions are made to profit others—nor the extent to which we are bound up with thousands around us, in the delicate complications of life. We must wait until we sit upon the mount of God, and there read the [secrets] of His providence, as interpreted in their fulfilment (sic), … before we can comprehend either the wisdom or the love of God’s dealings with His Saints upon the earth.” No longer confident to predict the ways in which Providence operated, Palmer was nonetheless still convinced that God continued to work in the world, and this fact, if little else in the changing world of the South during Reconstruction, could provide vital solace for the southern Christian.25

The change in Palmer’s understanding of Providence since the outset of the Civil War was not merely a visceral reaction to the disappointments of the war and Reconstruction. It was one part of Palmer’s reworking of his religious epistemology—i.e., how humans are able to come to knowledge of the divine—in the postwar period. The Reconstruction era was not only a turbulent period in the realm of politics; it was also a period of major transition in the life of the mind. By the 1870s, the Darwinian theory of evolution had gained enough clout that ministers were beginning to wrestle with its implications for faith. Meanwhile, the rise of logical

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 25 Ibid., 254.; Palmer, “Christians Sometimes Left to Themselves,” A Weekly Publication Containing Sermons, December 3, 1876 (New Orleans: Clark & Hofeline), 111.

! Uei! positivism in philosophical circles threatened to undermine the combination of Scottish Common

Sense philosophy and inductive method that had allowed for the harmonization of religion and science in the antebellum period. Positivists admitted no a priori knowledge and held to a dogged empiricism, which demanded that the senses reign supreme. No amount of careful, inductive argumentation could make up for the absence of a phenomenon to the senses, e.g. God.26

Along with most other southern theologians in the first half of the nineteenth century,

Palmer saw no conflict between the goals of science and religion. Most conservative Christians of the South agreed that through the use of the inductive method—carefully building conclusions from the slow and patient collection of particular and dependable observations—trustworthy facts could be discerned from the natural order. Theologians believed that observation of the natural world, properly constrained by the bounds of induction, provided firm evidence of God’s design and ongoing care of the earth, and for many American scientists the end of their fields was to offer empirical proof for the existence of the biblical God.27

Palmer, like his antebellum contemporaries, was a true empiricist, believing that the mind was “destitute, at birth, of all knowledge, without power to create within itself a single material

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 26 On Darwinism in America, see Jon H. Roberts, Darwinism and the Divine in America: Protestant Intellectuals and Organic Evolution, 1859–1900 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988) and Ronald L. Numbers and Lester D. Stephens, “Darwinism in the American South: From the Early 1860s to the Late 1920s” in Numbers, Darwinism Comes to America (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998), 58–75. On the impact of positivism on American religious thought, see Charles D. Cashdollar, The Transformation of Theology, 1830– 1890: Positivism and Protestant Thought in Britain and America (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1989) and Cashdollar, “August Comte and the American Reformed Theologians,” Journal of the History of Ideas 39 (Jan.–Mar., 1978), 61–79.

27 On this arrangement, see Theodore Dwight Bozeman, Protestants in an Age of Science: The Baconian Ideal and Antebellum American Religious Thought (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1977).

! UeV! of thought, and depending upon experience for all…. It is furnished with the senses, the open avenues by which it enters the domain of nature.” By compiling the information discovered in nature, the mind could gradually ascend to knowledge of “the most general axioms.” True science transcended taxonomy by aiming toward the heavens. Science, philosophy, and theology were all aimed toward the knowledge of God. Scripture, Palmer asserted in 1852, must be included in the investigations of any of these three disciplines. As he put it, “The philosophy

… which will ignore the Bible … has apostatized from” proper methodology. Moreover,

Protestantism, in Palmer’s mind, was the wellspring of all the major scientific breakthroughs of the age of the Enlightenment. Palmer, again like many other southern theologians, focused on

Francis Bacon. “There never could have been a Bacon without the Bible,” Palmer wrote.

“Francis Bacon was the offspring of the Reformation.” All human pursuits of knowledge— science, philosophy, and religion alike—were part of the same intellectual project, which was to be conducted using the same empirical method. 28

By the 1870s Palmer’s theory of knowledge had undergone fundamental changes. The intelligibility of Providence in human events, as we have seen, was put at a distance, potentially placing the ability to know God in peril. As the questions arising from contemporary geology,

Darwinian evolution, and pragmatism revealed seemingly irreconcilable differences with the

Bible and Christianity, conservative theologians were forced to take stock of science anew and evaluate whether its conclusions could be trusted to provide information about the Divine. For

Palmer, nothing could be more misleading in the quest for religious knowledge than science !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 28 Palmer, The Love of Truth, the Inspiration of the Scholar. An Address Delivered before the Philomathean & Euphemian Literary Societies of Erskine College, at the Annual Commencement, August 9th, 1854, 11; Palmer, “Baconianism and the Bible,” Southern Presbyterian Review 6 (October 1852), 226–53, 238; Bozeman, Protestants in an Age of Science, 63; Palmer, “Baconianism and the Bible,” 251, 250.

! UeZ! conducted improperly: “It is the shame of bastardy, which Science brands upon her own forehead, and the great scandal which tarnishes her proud name, that she is not, in every stage of her own progress, the interpreter of that God whom she finds in nature, and the witness of His being.”29

The problem, as Palmer framed it, was that “when we look out upon nature, there is the agency of God, it is true; but that agency, to a large extent, is obscured and hidden from us.”

Palmer’s solution to this dilemma was to devise an epistemological system in which sensory data, and thus scientific investigation, constituted true knowledge, but knowledge that was of an essentially different type than that by which humans cognize God. He spoke about this distinction between scientific and religious knowledge using the concept of separate spheres:

“Knowledge is acquired by us in one or other of two ways: either by the discoveries of reason, in the sphere of the natural; or by the revelation which is made to faith, in the sphere of the super- natural. The two are entirely distinct; for they relate to different spheres, and are addressed to two distinct faculties of the soul.” For Palmer religious truth existed on “a plane which is higher.” It would be impossible to leap to this lofty sphere from the earthly position to which the human mind is bound when confined to the data provided by sensory perception alone. As

Palmer put it, “The more successful we are in explaining any natural and secondary causes, all the facts which our senses observe, the further do we put from us the intervention of God.”30

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 29 Palmer, “The Church, The Kingdom of Truth,” in A Weekly Publication Containing Sermons, October 1, 1876 (New Orleans: Clark & Hofeline), 7.

30 Palmer, “Christians Sometimes Left to Themselves,” in A Weekly Publication Containing Sermons, December 3, 1876 (New Orleans: Clark & Hofeline), 106; Palmer, “The Church, The Kingdom of the Truth,” 6; Palmer, “Offense of the Cross, Unreasonable,” in A Weekly

! UeY!

True religious knowledge then could not begin with empirical investigation. Palmer held that it goes “directly to the heart,” from the revelation of God. Thus, even though the world appeared to be governed by chance, the believer could trust that “in the religious sphere ... God shall be in closer personal communication with us.” This “closer personal communication” occurred in a faculty each person possesses that was attuned to the reception of religious truth, what Palmer called the “testimony of consciousness.” His point was simple: the knowledge stemming from divine revelation was real knowledge and even more trustworthy than that provided by the senses.31

This argument marked a significant development. Relying on the thought of Scottish

Common Sense philosophers, Old School Presbyterian theologians commonly saw the senses as direct conduits between the objective world and a passive imagination, while frowning on any deductions that moved beyond demonstrable “fact.” By collecting many basic units of demonstrable truth, larger truths could slowly be proven. Palmer, like the Scottish Realists, defended the necessity of a priori mental structures in this assent to truth, arguing that “in every case of deductive reasoning we are pushed back to certain elementary and fundamental principles, so simple we are unable to press behind them.” The mind was necessarily active in

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! Publication Containing sermons, November 18, 1876 (New Orleans: Clark & Hofeline), 87; Palmer, “Christians Sometimes Left to Themselves,” 106. 31 Palmer, “The Church, The Kingdom of Truth,” 11; Palmer, “Christians Sometimes Left to Themselves,” 106.

! Ued! the process, and Palmer agreed that turning perception into knowledge did not occur automatically.32

From here Palmer’s argument broke with tradition. Whereas the Realists used arguments in favor of a priori cognition to contend against the weakness attributed to reason (and hence to religious belief) in Hume, Palmer used these very arguments to supplant the power of reason in favor of revelation. By demonstrating that the mind was active even when receiving data from nature, Palmer secured the ground from which to argue that there was a component of knowledge—scientific and religious alike—that did not appeal to experience. In the case of religious knowledge, this element was the conscience, which had the capacity to receive revelation directly from God. What was communicated in this way was not understood rationally, but by virtue of the authority of this sense alone it offered “proofs conclusive to the most sluggish understanding.” In short, while scientific knowledge was created by both the senses and the mind, religious knowledge was formed by God’s activity on the mind alone.

Revelation, by relying solely on divine input and not the corrupt data of the world, became the guiding principle behind Palmer’s religious epistemology. Palmer had thus constructed an intellectual system that allowed him both to take science seriously and to preserve the demands of faith against the intellectual currents of the times. 33

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 32 Bozeman, Protestants in an Age of Science, Chs. 1 and 2; Palmer, “Testimony of Consciousness,” in A Weekly Publication Containing Sermons, February 11, 1877 (New Orleans: Clark & Hofeline), 223. 33 Palmer, “Truth, The Law of the Intellect,” in A Weekly Publication Containing Sermons, April 1, 1877 (New Orleans: Clark & Hofeline), 315.

! UeX!

In 1860, when war was looking increasingly possible, Robert Lewis Dabney was not nearly as exuberant about the southern cause as was his denominational colleague Palmer. Love for one’s nation, Dabney declared to his audience at Hampden Sydney College, was an admirable and proper sentiment. However, unlike many of his contemporaries, Dabney held that the Christian’s duty was to smooth over conflict, to preserve peace, and eschew the divisions that politics often engenders. Prayer, confession of sin, and regular religious duties would serve the

Christian’s nation the best. For each sin attributable to others within the nation, each sincere

Christian could find one to match in his or her own heart. War could do nothing but disturb the two things that matter most in human life: the preservation of the family and the religious work of the Church. As a mistake, civil war would be “second only to that of the apostate church which betrayed the Savior of the world.” The effects on the church would be calamitous:

“[war’s] judgment will be rendered in calamities second only to those which avenged the divine blood invoked by Jerusalem on herself and her children.” Until war officially broke out, Dabney devoted much of his considerable energies to moderating the passions that were flaring throughout the South.34

Dabney, however, was a child of the South, and when the events at Fort Sumter forced his hand, he joined the southern cause with full vigor. More specifically, Dabney was a son of

Virginia, born in Louisa County in the eastern Piedmont and educated at Hampden-Sydney, the

University of Virginia, and Union Seminary at Hampden-Sydney. While his mind traversed

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 34 Robert Lewis Dabney, “The Christian’s Best Motive for Patriotism,” in Discussions, 4 vols. (1890-97; repr., Carlisle, Penn.: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1982), 2:401–6. On Dabney’s campaign for moderation, see Sean Michael Lucas, Robert Lewis Dabney: A Southern Presbyterian Life (Phillipsburg, N.J.: Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Company, 2005), 105–8.

! Uel! through the gamut of the Western world’s ideas, his body stayed firmly planted in the

Commonwealth. After seminary, he spent a few years in a rural parish but then found his true calling training the young minds of Virginia’s Old School as professor of Theology at his alma mater Union Seminary from 1853 to 1883. Even job offers from Princeton Seminary, the bastion of the Old School’s brightest minds, and New York’s Prestigious Fifth Avenue Presbyterian

Church, could not pry this Virginian from his home. Only alienation from his peers caused by his forever irascible personality drove him away to Texas in old age to serve at the new state university in Austin.35

So, when war came, Dabney took a stand for Old Virginia in the way he thought he could best serve the cause: by following the troops into battle as a military chaplain. During his four months with the 18th Virginia Volunteers, he witnessed firsthand both the Confederate victory and horrifying violence at the First Battle of Manassas. Despite his presence at the battle,

Dabney assured his sister, “I am a non-combatant, and intend to remain so. I have persisted in refusing to get any uniform or side arms.” Thus it comes as a surprise that in April 1862 General

Stonewall Jackson offered Dabney a position as his chief-of-staff. Dabney quickly accepted the opportunity to serve Virginia, much to the consternation of the professional soldiers he supplanted in rising to such an office. Jackson was pleased with Dabney’s performance, but, as

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 35 Morton H. Smith, Studies in Southern Presbyterian Theology (Phillipsburg, N.J. Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Company, 1962), 183–185; Charles Reagan Wilson, “Robert Lewis Dabney: Religion and the Southern Holocaust,” The Viriginia Magazine of History and Biography 89 (January 1981), 79–89, 80–81. On the rise of Princeton Seminary and its status in the nineteenth century, see Mark A. Noll, Princeton and the Republic, 1768–1822: The Search for a Christian Enlightenment in the Era of Samuel Stanhope Smith (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1989) and John W. Stewart and James H. Moorhead, eds., Charles Hodge Revisited: A Critical Appraisal of His Life and Work (Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2002).

! UUe! historian Wallace Hettle notes, it was likely because Dabney “never functioned as a general’s chief-of-staff; he more closely resembled the personal secretary of a friend.” The one time

Dabney was given responsibility for conducting military affairs (at the Battles of Seven Days), he passed the duty down the chain of command. Only five months after accepting Gen.

Jackson’s offer, the unlikely officer who showed up to camp decked out in a knee-length formal coat and a fancy beaver hat, returned home for the duration of the war. 36

The Civil War was a defining event in Dabney’s life. According to his most recent biographer, “The war was the dividing line of his mental history and the most significant event of his life. … While before the war he had been Virginian first American second, after the War

Dabney was Virginian first, Southerner second, and American maybe.” His antipathy toward the

North and its supposedly dishonorable inhabitants had no end. One former student recollected that he “became so embittered by the ruthless methods of Federal officers like Sheridan and

Sherman, and the efforts of Congress to impose Negro rule on the South that he almost went off his mental balance.” Moreover, Dabney was forced to suffer the indignity of manual labor in the years immediately following the war. In an 1865 letter, he lamented, “I must work or starve. I would greatly prefer to labor in the gospel rather than in the corn-field, if God … will let me.

My private income, small before, is now at an end.” For the holder of a prestigious professorship

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 36 Dabney to his mother, July 19, 1861 in Thomas Cary Johnson, Life and Letters of Robert Lewis Dabney (Richmond, Va.: The Presbyterian Committee of Publication, 1903), 239; Wallace Hettle, “The Minister, the Martyr, and the Maxim: Robert Lewis Dabney and Stonewall Jackson Biography,” Civil War History 49 (December 2003), 353–69, 360. On the wartime relationship between Dabney and Jackson, see Hettle, especially 359–62.

! UUU! and erstwhile Confederate officer, the struggles of Reconstruction life were almost too much to bear. 37

His postwar writings reveal the spirit of a man possessed, driven by a consuming passion to return to the way things were in the Old South. He became, in the words of historian Charles

Reagan Wilson, “ a prophet of the past.” But as Dabney weathered the storm of Reconstruction, he augmented his logical understanding of tradition with a new appreciation for the role of emotion in both the human psyche and the character of the divine. The role of Providence in the travails of Virginia—which Dabney never doubted—required a new set of tools to explain in a way that also stayed true to orthodoxy.

Given Dabney’s admiration of the past, it was fitting that his initial postbellum book was the first biography of his friend Stonewall Jackson, Life and Campaigns of Lt. General T. J.

(Stonewall) Jackson (1866). This hagiographic treatment of Jackson’s life and military career treated the subject as a Christian martyr for a noble, even holy, cause, thus laying a cornerstone for the Lost Cause myth that obsessed the southern mind until well into the twentieth century. A year later, Dabney printed an apologia for his home state entitled, A Defence of Virginia. First,

Dabney argued that northerners milked the southern economy in order to live plush lives of luxury, while southerners endured parsimonious, hard-working lives. The second argument was yet another return to the past, rehearsing a long tradition of using the Bible to justify slavery.

These two early publications set the tone for Dabney’s subsequent discussions of social and

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

37 Lucas, Robert Lewis Dabney, 130; Samuel Hall Chester, Memories of Four-Score Years (Richmond, Va.: Presbyterian Committee of Publication, 1934), 77. Qtd. in Ibid., 132; Johnson, Life and Letters of Dabney, 295.

! UU`! political matters. He spoke out against the reunification of the Presbyterian Church, which had split during the sectional crisis before the Civil War. Public education represented in Dabney’s mind the death knell for the traditional, hierarchical family. The only promise capitalism and industrialization held for the South was the fragmentation of southern society and the destruction of republican values. Dabney looked out from his enclave at Union Seminary, and what he saw was not good. Before the war, slavery had assured a stable society built on rank, merit, and

Protestant faith. The developments of Reconstruction convinced Dabney that the South was headed for anarchy, racial mixing, and atheism.38

The horrors that unfolded before Dabney’s eyes during Reconstruction were reminiscent to him of the French Revolution. Southern slaveholders had long been influenced by the memory of the events in France and the waves they made across the Atlantic into Haiti, especially after Nat Turner’s revolt and other insurrection scares in the 1830s. For most slaveholders, these fears remained latent possibilities and ended with the war, but thoughts that the Terror had actually resurfaced in history permeated Dabney’s postwar writings on social issues. In the introduction to his Defence of Virginia, Dabney made the connection explicit, writing, “It will in the end become apparent to the world … that the conviction of the wickedness of slaveholding … is a legitimate corollary from that fantastic, atheistic, and radical theory of human rights which made the Reign of Terror in France which has threatened that country and which now threatens the United States, with the horrors of Red-Republicanism.” In response to charity efforts toward freedpeople in the South, Dabney responded by arguing that the “reign of !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 38 Wilson, “Robert Lewis Dabney,” 81. On Dabney and education, see Dabney, “Secularized Education,” in Discussions, 3: 272–94. On capitalism and industrialization, see for instance, Dabney, “Principles of Christian Economy” in Discussions 1: 1–28; Dabney, “Labor Unions, the Strike, and the Commune,” in Discussions 3: 295–322; and Lucas, Robert Lewis Dabney, 187– 92.

! UUi! terror” was the product of would-be philanthropists who desired human equality, and “from that day to this,” the products of the Jacobin party were the same—social upheaval and chaos.

Similarly, Dabney observed northern common school advocates “rapidly preparing … another sans culotte revolution,” as they sketched the designs for a public school system that did not include religious education. A near obsession with the parallels between the postwar South and revolutionary France filled Dabney’s imagination for the rest of his life. In a lecture delivered at the fledgling University of Texas in 1885, Dabney recalled America in 1865, where “we see the second harvest of death” from the Jacobin philosophy. He cautioned his audience to take up the study of philosophy so that they would not be deceived by the utopian dreams of egalitarian thought. A United States devoid of the social hierarchy and stability he believed had been furnished by slavery filled Dabney with terror.39

C. Vann Woodward summed up nicely the conflict Dabney waged on social and political grounds, writing “Never, of course, was there the remotest chance of Dabney’s goose quill prevailing against the clattering presses” of the New South’s proponents. But when it came to religious matters, being stuck in the past was no detriment. Dabney was a disciple of tradition in a denomination that reflected on the history of doctrine. By the time he received his seminary degree in 1846, the role of the conservative Calvinist theologian in America was well-defined.

At early nineteenth-century Princeton, the ideal of the full-time professor-theologian was forged.

Instead of ministering themselves, the ablest theological minds cordoned themselves off in the

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 39 Defence of Virginia, 21–22; “The Crimes of Philanthropy,” The Land We Love, December, 1866, in Discussions Vol. 4–5, 53–70, 56–57; “Free Schools,” Southern Planter and Farmer, January, 1879, in Discussions Vol. 4–5, 260–80, 261–62; “Commendation of the Study of Philosophy,” Lecture at the University of Texas, Dec. 1885, in Discussions, Vol. 4–5, 281–93, 292.

! UUV! seminary, training new generations of conservative ministers and writing endlessly to preserve tradition. The protection of orthodoxy served as the primary end of this system. As Charles

Hodge, who set the theological course at Princeton for almost forty years, famously proclaimed,

“I am not afraid to say that a new idea never was originated in this seminary.” This defensively conservative posture developed in Princeton informed the southern Old School Presbyterians. In the antebellum South, Robert Jefferson Breckinridge (1800–1871) and James Henley Thornwell

(1812–1862) took up the assault on heterodoxy, despite their distance from northern centers of liberal theology and New School Calvinism. Although doctrinal quibbles occasionally arose between the Princetonians and southerners —and even between southerners—, the Old School intellectual establishment represented a unified front for the defense of the faith, even as other national denominational ties crumbled during the Civil War.40

Dabney’s theological writing fits the category of “rational orthodoxy” well, as he applied a thorough rationality to the defense of tradition. Although he was widely published before the war, his main theological and philosophical works appeared after the war. His Lectures in

Systematic Theology (1878) drew on courses he had been teaching for decades by the time of its publication, but the work evidences no sign that the events and intellectual innovations of the

1860s and 1870s had disturbed his trust in the rationality of Christian belief. The Sensualistic

Philosophy of the Nineteenth Century Considered (1875) also displays an unwavering

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 40 C. Vann Woodward, Origins of the New South, 1877–1913 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1951), 174; Archibald A. Hodge, The Life of Charles Hodge (London: T. Nelson and Sons, 1881), 521; John W. Stewart, “Introducing Charles Hodge to Postmoderns,” in Stewart and Moorhead, eds., Charles Hodge Revisited, 1–40; E. Brooks Holifield, Theology in America: Christian Thought From The Age of the Puritans to the Civil War (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003), 370–94.

! UUZ! confidence in antebellum theological rationality in the face of the criticisms levied by innovative philosophers such as the Positivists August Comte and John Stuart Mill.

While Dabney and other southern conservative theologians affirmed the value of revelation and Scripture, they also held reason to occupy a powerful role in the operation of these traditional sources of religious authority. It was reason by which the human mind could recognize the truth contained in the Bible. In an exposition of the role of reason in theology,

Dabney encouraged students to “discard all the false and mischievous ideas generated by the slang of the ‘contest between reason and faith.’” For Dabney, “There is no such contest. The highest reason is to believe implicitly what God’s word says, as soon as it is clearly ascertained to be God’s word. The dictate of reason herself is to believe; because she sees the evidences to be reasonable.” Thus, revelation must be filtered through cognition before it becomes valuable.

As such, Scripture, by design, is fitted to the capabilities of the human mind: “The claim which the Scriptures address to us … is addressed to our reason.” 41

This of course implies that human reason had the power to apply the data from revelation to its proper ends. While Dabney saw reason as necessarily limited in its reliance on revelation to locate truth, his philosophy of mind displayed an optimistic confidence in the natural ability of the mind, operating properly, to understand truth. “I fearlessly assert,” he wrote, “that no erroneous belief on any important question can arise in a sane mind.” This ability made it the duty of the responsible Christian to develop a rational belief in the Bible, which could only be done through the logical assembly of evidence. In Dabney’s words: “Man is required … to

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 41 On reason’s operation in southern Biblical interpretation, see ibid., 72–109; Dabney, Lectures, 143–44, 141.

! UUY! believe and love the Bible. … He who says he believes, when he sees no proof, is but pretending, or talking without meaning.”42

Dabney’s view should not be confused with the destructive capacity latent in

Enlightenment rationalism, which granted reason the authority to chart its own path regardless of what stood in the way. His was a rationalism wedded to tradition, as would be expected of an orthodox theologian. On the one hand, reason operated in conjunction with Scripture as a corrective to scientific and philosophical flights of fancy. On the other hand, as “the laws of thought which necessarily rule in the human soul were established by the same God who gave the Bible,” the mind was given the role of first deciphering the categories of proper revelation and then, by those categories, judging the meaning of the revelation contained in Scripture. Thus, rational explanation demonstrated through logical evidence assumed a central place in Dabney’s understanding of how humans form religious knowledge. 43

This approach is evident in Dabney’s stance on Providence. That God both designed the world and continually guided its events in time struck Dabney as a matter of “common sense,” if

God were to be considered perfect. God, as perfectly good and wise, designed a world that required constant intervention in order to maintain a personal relationship with creation. Dabney reached this conclusion first through logical argumentation and only after this demonstration did he show that his conclusions comported with the Bible. Dabney’s refutation of the challenges that Deists and Pantheists presented to the orthodox doctrine of Providence shows the primacy of arguments from reason, rather than Scripture, in his polemical arsenal. His opponents both responded to the problem of theodicy (that is, if God is supremely All-Wise, All-Powerful, and

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 42 Ibid., 136–37, 141. 43 Ibid,141.

! UUd!

Just, why does suffering exist?) by distancing Providence from day-to-day affairs. Deists—as

Dabney understood them—argued that God acted in the world only at the Creation, and then left the world to run through mechanisms of natural law. Pantheists included God in the development of the world, making God mutable and, thus, imperfect. Dabney, of course, found such positions to be tantamount to atheism. Whereas Dabney’s opponents asserted that Providence could only be seen from a broad, general perspective, Dabney, ever the good Baconian, argued that without knowledge of the particular there could be no knowledge of the general. “It is a mere illusion,” he argued, “to talk of a certain direction of the general, which does not embrace the particular; for a general class is nothing, when separated from particulars which compose it, but an abstraction of the mind.” If the means by which God operated in the world on a quotidian basis were “contingent and fallible,” then “the providence must be such also.” Satisfied by the logical consistency of his argument, Dabney displayed an exuberant confidence in the divine plan directing natural and human history: “A multitude of elements and bodies are here seen connected by most multifarious influences, and yet the complex machine moves on, and never goes wrong. There is a guiding hand!”44

However, Dabney’s confidence in the ability of logical argumentation to prove the intricacies of dogma, as displayed in the Lectures in Systematic Theology, must be put in the context of his other writings from the 1870s. Such contextualization reveals a thinker having doubts about the sufficiency of strict logic to explain the full complexity of human experience and divine action. In the postwar period, Dabney wrangled with how to understand the role of emotion in the human mind, a problem that had not been developed in southern conservative

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 44 Ibid., 52, 280, 284. For Dabney’s full doctrine of Providence, see ibid., 276–91.

! UUX! theology until that point. That this problem arose during the trial of Reconstruction should not be surprising.

Emotion is presented as an alternate way to communicate religious truth aside from rigid argumentation in Dabney’s Sacred Rhetoric, A Course of Lectures on Preaching (1870). In his guidance for future pastors, Dabney asserted that the cultivation of emotion, properly curtailed of its excesses, has its place in religious knowledge. While Jonathan Edwards and other outstanding preachers were able to tap into the resources of emotion through logic, another tactic existed for the average pastor. Dabney called this strategy “descriptive painting,” which endowed the orator with the ability to communicate “affecting images of the truth” by involving the “faculty of imagination.” It seems that Dabney thought of imagination as the fullest possible use of the human mind, calling it “the imperial faculty of the soul.” His definition of imagination reveals the free-ranging power he assigned to this faculty: “The imagination is rather the recreative faculty: it is the power of combining the elements of conception furnished by the memory into organic forms which, as wholes, are new. It is that faculty by which the soul constructs complex images out of separate parts, with truth and distinctness.” The mind, Dabney suggested, is capable of creating intricate formulations that logical argumentation strains to put into language. These mental processes are the only cognitions possessing the powers necessary to tap into the faculty of emotion. In other words, only through the representational powers of the imagination, can one experience emotions corresponding to experiences that have not been experienced first-hand. So, just as Paul was able to forecast the emotional needs of future

Christian congregations, the average believer can approach unseen “sacred truth” and learn about

“the rational attributes and providence of God, or the glories and terrors of the judgment day,”— subjects beyond the ken of logic alone—but without falling prey to the fanaticism of evangelical

! UUl! revivalists. “The efficacious … movement of the feelings,” he wrote in 1887, “is just as essential a part of a true religious experience as the illumination of the intellect by divine truth.”45

Thus, it was paramount for Dabney that the imagination be put to the service of the gospel, but with logic failing to convey the message fully, he advised that ministers utilize

“description” as an alternate mode of exposition. Because the product of the imagination, as a divinely designed mental faculty, is necessarily trustworthy, the orator must only clearly set forth the image held within the mind. Dabney’s understanding of this process placed little, if any, stricture on the minister’s license to appeal to the Christian’s affections in this way. To be successful in this technique, Dabney instructed that a return to Scripture was necessary. While in his systematics lectures Dabney organized Scripture into religious knowledge by filtering it first through reason, here the theologian pointed to Scripture as a starting point for training in the art of description. Nowhere else in the entire Western canon were such brief, unadorned, and yet emotionally affecting narratives to be found. Following this example, eschewing literary flourish for concision, and employing biblical examples whenever possible, the greatest emotional impact could be achieved. Furthermore, by using scripture as a model for emotive narration, Dabney saw a way to avoid heterodox scriptural hermeneutic methods, notably allegory. As such,

Dabney’s method offered a way for the defense of doctrinal tradition, while taking emotions

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 45 Robert Lewis Dabney, Sacred Rhetoric, A Course of Lectures on Preaching Delivered in The Union Theological Seminary of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the U. S., In Prince Edward, Va. (Ricmond, Va.: Presbyterian Committee of Publication, 1870), 243, 245, 243, 244–45; Dabney, “Spurious Religious Excitements,” The Presbyterian Quarterly (October 1887) in Discussions 3: 1–20, 1.

! U`e! seriously as a way of coming to religious knowledge, a position that would have been unthinkable for the antebellum Old School. 46

As Dabney struggled to articulate the precise role of emotion in genuine religious knowledge, he also began to think about emotion as a way to understand divine action. The problem arose in an 1878 essay, in which Dabney took on the question of how the Christian God could willingly ordain some and not others for salvation—a perennial problem within the

Calvinist tradition. This question presented a vexing dilemma: “How can [God’s] power and wisdom be cleared, save at the expense of his sincerity? Or his sincerity at the expense of his wisdom and power?” Historically, conservatives had tended toward the first pitfall, emphasizing

God’s power over divine love. At the other end of the theological spectrum, liberals placed great stock in love as God’s essential aspect, maintaining that God loved creation enough to grant them free choice in matters of salvation. The issue boiled down to love: either God did not love universally and allowed the unloved to endure eternal torment, or God loved absolutely and wished for all people to be saved through the exercise of their own free will. 47

However, Dabney found parts of both positions objectionable. The answer, he held, was to be found in proper understanding of God’s own emotional composition. For Dabney, the only rational way to make sense of the doctrinal quandary between conservatives and liberals was to modify the rigidly logical approach theologians had taken to understand the aspects of God’s

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 46 Ibid., 67–69. For more on Dabney’s understanding of the cultural and religious value of literature, see “On Dangerous Reading,” Richmond Watchman and Observer, 1849 in Discussions 2: 158–69 and “John Milton,” The Land We Love, April, May, June, and July 1867. 47 Dabney, “God’s Indiscriminate Proposals of Mercy, as Related to His Power, Wisdom, and Sincerity,” Princeton Review 50 (July 1878) 33–67, also in Discussions 1: 282–313.Quotes on 282, 286–87. For another take on this essay, see Thomas E. Jenkins, “The Character of God in American Theology: 1800–1900” (PhD Diss., Yale University, 1991), 358–66.

! U`U! character. God had too commonly been depicted in Reformed theology as absolutely simple.

That is, in God thought and action were simultaneously one, so that all of God’s attributes blended into a logically consistent whole. If God did good, God was good, for instance.

However, the Bible, Dabney argued, showed a much more complicated God, one endowed with distinct capacities for “wrath, love, pity, [and] wisdom” producing ends that did not always cohere in human reason. This did not give the human power to elicit an emotional response in

God capable of changing God’s will. Dabney merely maintained that God possessed “active principles” that, while “not passions in the sense of fluctuations or agitations … none the less are they affections of his will, actively distinguished from cognitions in his intelligence.” Dabney had no problem with the scriptural depiction of a God who was displeased at times, joyous at others. “Why not let the Scriptures mean what they so plainly strive to declare?” Truly orthodox scriptural belief must work to apprehend “that God eternally has active principles directed towards some objective, which combine all the activity of rational affections with the passionless stability of his rational judgments, and which while not emotions, in the sense of change, or ebb or flow, are yet related to his volitions.”48

Despite Dabney’s characteristic rhetorical confidence, a sense of confusion is evident regarding how exactly the divine could experience something like emotion, if not true emotion.

As the composition of the divine persona was beyond human comprehension in Dabney’s estimate, the logic of the theologians had to be given up in favor of an explanatory strategy conforming more closely to human cognitive powers. The answer Dabney found was to look to the Bible as a stylistic guide. The authors of that sacred text had not shied away from using

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 48 Dabney, “God’s Indiscriminate Proposals of Mercy,” 289–90, 290, 291, 292, 293.

! U``! anthropomorphic analogies, leading Dabney to conclude that a bit of anthropomorphism would serve to make scriptural interpretation more accurate and would be easier to understand. The human mind could only process that with which it was familiar. “If we are forbidden to think after human norms,” Dabney argued, “we cannot think at all.” As such, by examining “the most rational and righteous human will,” one could, by analogy, “illustrate God’s will in its actions touching disputed cases.”49

To solve the problem at hand, Dabney developed an analogy comparing God’s action to that of the most virtuous human he could imagine: George Washington. As arguably the most cherished son of Virginia, Washington was an obvious choice for Dabney. The theologian presented an exegesis of Washington’s emotional response when faced with the treasonous acts of John André during the American Revolution. Like God, “Washington had plenary power to kill or to save alive. His compassion for the criminal was real and profound. Yet he signed his death-warrant with spontaneous decision.” Washington’s compassion was real, but it had to be weighed against duty to country and law. Despite the difficulty of the situation, Washington made the free choice to condemn the criminal to death, all the while feeling remorseful for doing so. If Washington was capable of such a complex arrangement of emotion and duty, could not a perfect God operate similarly? Dabney contended that there was no reason to answer this question in the negative, and a positive response offered the benefit of preserving God’s goodness, power, and wisdom in understanding the workings of predestination.50

Dabney’s theology shows that in the Reconstruction South a rational theology that did not adequately account for the reality of emotion was not reasonable at all. The wild swings of

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 49 Ibid., 297, 298. 50 Ibid., 285.

! U`i! popular mood accompanying the performance of the Confederate army in the field during the

Civil War—and the depressing lows privileged white clergy like Dabney felt as their traditional way of life was torn asunder during Reconstruction—created an environment in which even the most logical mind could not avoid the reality of emotion in the human composition. And, as the era’s science and philosophy pounded at the gates of orthodox theology, Dabney stood firm in unwavering support of Providence’s guidance of earthly affairs. That guidance, however, had to be understood as conducted by a deity whose actions were analogous to the best of humanity’s.

By working a complex understanding of emotion into his theology, Dabney constructed an orthodox vision that became authoritative among southern conservatives until the early twentieth century.

The lives and intellectual journeys of Palmer and Dabney, while following entirely different courses, both demonstrate that even the most determined believers had difficulty preserving the antebellum formulations unchanged through the trials of the Civil War and

Reconstruction. Belief was tested, but it was not defeated. The intellectual journeys of both men show that drawing a strict dichotomy between believing and doubting obscures the nuances that demonstrate how much of antebellum religious thought—like antebellum racial and political thought— survived war and defeat. Perhaps Palmer and Dabney were not even fully cognizant themselves of the changes that had gone on in their theology. After all, major points of doctrine, most notably belief in intervening Providence, appeared fundamentally unchanged. But the ways in which they approached those questions and how they decided what counted as genuine religious knowledge began to look different after the war. If belief itself was not defeated, yet at the least a blow was dealt to the cult of inductive reason practiced among southern Presbyterians before and during the Civil War. The best-laid plans produced by the human mind failed

! U`V! miserably, and Reconstruction-era cultural and economic poverty provided a constant reminder of that failure for decades after the war had ended. Dabney asserted to the end a rational orthodoxy, but he tempered the demands placed upon reason by allowing emotion a place in belief. Palmer similarly maintained a formal attachment to reason, but he granted the divine greater agency in formulating religious knowledge, having seen the failures of human attempts to decipher the will of God and the fragility of human life. Ironically doubts about human ability only strengthened trust in tradition—both of the church and of southern culture. Dabney and

Palmer became warriors for the past because, following Confederate defeat, the past was all they knew to be true.

! U`Z!

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Clark, James Osgood Andrew. 2'4=$-'8")',&$'D.*8*5-,*".'"8',&$'D.*:$)+*,0'"8'J$")G*-'-.6',&$' Z$."#*.-,*".-='("==$G$+1![()-3F!K(AF!UXdVA

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Dedication and Inauguration of the Vanderbilt University, L-+&:*==$;'%$..$++$$;'75,1'\;'^;'>@A?A! J(%+<"..,5!O4$."%+"3/!B-4%,!-1!&+,![,&+-9"%&!fE"%)-E(.!;+4')+F!7-4&+F!UXdZA!

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Graves, James Robinson. 7=6'R-.6#-)Y*+#K'H&-,'C+'C,['[,:E+"%5!L(E&"%&!L--?!B-4%,F!UXXeA! B(0/--9F!#&&")4%!KA!%&$'L$X'3"O,&K'J)-,*,O6$;'2#$.6#$.,;'!"M$1'2'%&-.Y+G*:*.G'3$)#".'8")' L":$#<$)'T\;'>@@BA!QG1-'9F!K(AF!UXXeA!

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Jones, John William. (&)*+,'*.',&$'(-#M;'")'9$=*G*".'*.'R$$U+'2)#0!g2")+:-395!LASA!W-+3%-3F!UXXdA! 8(0F!B,3'0!;A!%&$'(&O)5&'*.',&$'L-,*".K'4O)$'-.6'2M"+,"=*5-=;'J"6U+'2O,&")*Q$6'9$M)$+$.,-,*:$A!*+,! L"%+-E!O(99-)?!8,)&4',%F!UXXZA!J,C!k-'?F!UXXZA!

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O(.:,'F!L,3M(:"3![-'/(3A!%&$'R":$'"8'%)O,&;',&$'C.+M*)-,*".'"8',&$'35&"=-)1'2.'266)$++'Z$=*:$)$6' <$8")$',&$'4&*="#-,&$-.'i'WOM&$#*-.'R*,$)-)0'3"5*$,*$+'"8'W)+Y*.$'("==$G$;'-,',&$'2..O-=' ("##$.5$#$.,;'2OGO+,'S,&;'>@?^1'!>4,!6,%&F!7A;AF!UXZVA!

HHHA!%&$'R*8$'-.6'R$,,$)+'"8'V-#$+'!$.=$0'%&").X$==;'Z1Z1;'RR1Z1!2")+:-39F!UXdZA! HHHA!“Testimony of Consciousness.” A Weekly Publication Containing Sermons, February 11, 1877. New Orleans: Clark & Hofeline, 1877. ---.“Truth, The Law of the Intellect.” A Weekly Publication Containing Sermons, April 1, 1877. New Orleans: Clark & Hofeline, 1877. ! HHHA!“The Church, The Kingdom of Truth.” A Weekly Publication Containing Sermons, October 1, 1876. New Orleans: Clark & Hofeline, 1877.! HHHA!“Christians Sometimes Left to Themselves.” A Weekly Publication Containing Sermons, December 3, 1876. New Orleans: Clark & Hofeline, 1876. ! HHHA!“Offense of the Cross, Unreasonable.” A Weekly Publication Containing sermons, November 18, 1876. New Orleans: Clark & Hofeline, 1876.!

O.4:,'F!6".."(:!7A!V$&":-&_a*)$&K'2'%)$-,*+$'".'4)":*6$.5$A!2")+:-39F!T(A5!O',%$0&,'"(3!;-::"&&,,! -1!O4$.")(&"-3F!UXYdA! O-..('9F!f9C('9!#A!%&$'R"+,'(-O+$K'2'L$X'3"O,&$).'!*+,")0'"8',&$'H-)'"8',&$'(".8$6$)-,$+A!J,C! k-'?F!fALA!*',(&F!UXYYA! 4)"5$$6*.G+'"8',&$'W5O#$.*5-='/$,&"6*+,'(".8$)$.5$'!$=6'*.'(*,0'9"-6'(&-M$=;'R".6".;'3$M,$#<$);' >@@>A!;"3)"33(&"F!UXX`A! 4)"5$$6*.G+'"8',&$'P*<=$'(".:$.,*".'"8',&$'(".8$6$)-,$'3,-,$+'"8'2#$)*5-;'C.5=O6*.G',&$'/*.O,$+'"8' ,&$'7)G-.*Q-,*".'"8',&$'P*<=$'3"5*$,0;'2OGO+,-;'J-1;'/-)5&'>S,&FT>+,;'>@ETe'-.6'2=+"'-'3$)#".' 4)$-5&$6'P$8")$',&$'(".:$.,*".'<0',&$'9$:1'J$")G$'N1'4*$)5$;'Z1'Z1;'P*+&"M'"8',&$'/1'W1'(&O)5&;' 3"O,&A!#4/4%&(F!K(A5!Q11"),!-1!&+,!;-3%&"&4&"-3(."%&F!UXY`A!

2-$"3%-3F!7&4('&A!Slavery, As Recognized in the Mosaic Civil Law, Recognized also, and Allowed, in the Abrahamic, Mosaic, and Christian Church. Toronto: Rollo & Adam, 1865.

Ruffner, William Henry. 28)*5-U+'9$6$#M,*".K'2'Z*+5"O)+$'".'28)*5-.'("=".*Q-,*".'*.'*,+'/*++*".-)0' 2+M$5,+;'-.6'*.'*,+'9$=-,*".',"'3=-:$)0'-.6'2<"=*,*".A!O+".(9,.E+"(F!UXZ`A! HHHA!I*)G*.*-'35&""='9$M"),;'>@A>K'N*)+,'2..O-='9$M"),'"8',&$'3OM$)*.,$.6$.,'"8'4O<=*5'C.+,)O5,*".'8")' ,&$'`$-)'W.6*.G'2OGO+,'\>;'>@A>A!2")+:-39F!UXdUA ---. The Public Free School System. [n.p.], 1876.

Ryan, Abram J. N-,&$)'90-.U+'4"$#+A![-$".,F!#.(A5!UXdlA!

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! ii`!

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! iii!

K',,3F!f.3(!;A!%&*+'PO+*.$++'"8'9$=*$8K'(".8)".,*.G'4":$),0'*.'-'3"O,&$).'(*,0;'>A^BF>S^BA!#&+,3%5! R3"<,'%"&0!-1!K,-'/"(!O',%%F!`eeiA! K',/-'0F!L'(9!7A!\*+,!Q&+,'!;-31,%%"-3(.!B"%&-'05!Q3!7,)4.('!L"(%!"3!&+,!7&490!-1!2,."/"-3A]!!*+,")0' -.6'%&$")0F!VZ!g>,),:$,'!`eeYh5!Ui`mVlA! K'":%.,0F![('?A!%&$'!-)6'!-.6'"8'H-)K'D.*".'/*=*,-)0'4"=*50',"X-)6'3"O,&$).'(*:*=*-.+;'>@E>F>@E?A! ;(:$'"9/,5!;(:$'"9/,!R3"<,'%"&0!O',%%F!UllZA! Guelzo, Allen C. Abraham Lincoln: Redeemer President. Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans, 1999.

Guterl, Matthew Pratt. 2#$)*5-.'/$6*,$))-.$-.K'3"O,&$).'3=-:$&"=6$)+'*.',&$'2G$'"8'W#-.5*M-,*".A! ;(:$'"9/,F![(%%A5!B('<('9!R3"<,'%"&0!O',%%F!`eeXA! K4&"j'',DF!K4%&(<-A!2'%&$"="G0'"8'R*<$)-,*".K'!*+,")0;'4"=*,*5+'-.6'3-=:-,*".1'*'(3%.(&,9!$0!7"%&,'! ;('"9(9!P39(!(39!W-+3!f(/.,%-3A![('0?3-..F!JAkA5!Q'$"%!L--?%F!UldiA! HHHA!\[,:-'0!(39!O'-E+,)0F]!"3!>(3",.!KA!K'--90F!,9A!%&$'7M,*".'8")',&$'4"")'*.'(&)*+,*-.'%&$"="G0A! 7-4&+!L,39F!P39A5!R3"<,'%"&0!-1!J-&',!>(:,!O',%%F!`eed5!UdmiXA! K4&M(+'F!O(4.!;A!(&-)=$+'!"6G$K'JO-)6*-.'"8'2#$)*5-.'7),&"6"]0!gJ,C!k-'?5!QG1-'9!R3"<,'%"&0! O',%%F!`eUUA! K40(&&F!J")+-.(%A!4)":*6$.5$'-.6',&$'C.:$.,*".'"8',&$'D.*,$6'3,-,$+;'>EBAF>@AEA!J,C!k-'?5! ;(:$'"9/,!R3"<,'%"&0!O',%%F!`eedA! B($,'%?"F!2(0:-39!WAF!W'A!J"6'-.6'H-)K'2#$)*5-.'(*:*='9$=*G*".'+*.5$'>S^?A!J,C!L'43%C")?F!JAWA5! 24&/,'%!R3"<,'%"&0!O',%%F!`eU`A!

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B('.-CF!84?,!fA!\S'-:!L-'9,'!7-4&+!&-!7-."9!7-4&+5!2,."/"-3F!2(),F!(39!&+,![(?"3/!-1!;-31,9,'(&,! t,3&4)?0F!UXiemUXXeA]!O+A>A!9"%%AF!2"),!R3"<,'%"&0F!`eelA! B('E,'F![(&&+,C!W(:,%!=()+('"(%A!\8"<"3/!"3!K-9@%!*":,5!#1'")(3H#:,'")(3!S("&+!(39!O-."&")%!"3! O-%&Hf:(3)"E(&"-3!J-'&+!;('-."3(A]!O+A>A!9"%%F!R3"<,'%"&0!-1!J-'&+!;('-."3(F!`eelA! B('<,0F!O(4.A!9$6$$#*.G',&$'3"O,&K'9$=*G*"O+'(O=,O)$+'-.6'9-5*-='C6$.,*,*$+'-#".G'3"O,&$).' P-M,*+,+;'>@E?F>ST?A!;+(E,.!B"..5!R3"<,'%"&0!-1!J-'&+!;('-."3(!O',%%F!UlldA! HHHA!N)$$6"#U+'("#*.GK'9$=*G*"O+'(O=,O)$'-.6',&$'3&-M*.G'"8',&$'3"O,&'8)"#',&$'(*:*='H-)',&)"OG&',&$' (*:*='9*G&,+'W)-A!;+(E,.!B"..5!R3"<,'%"&0!-1!J-'&+!;('-."3(!O',%%F!`eedA! B,('3F!;+,%&,'!KA!H&$.',&$'Z$:*='(-#$'Z"X.',"'Z*]*$K'P$.'PO,=$)'*.'L$X'7)=$-.+A!L(&-3!2-4/,5! 8-4"%"(3(!7&(&,!R3"<,'%"&0!O',%%F!UlldA!

! iiV!

B,&&.,F!6(..(),!A!\*+,!["3"%&,'F!&+,![('&0'F!(39!&+,![(G":5!2-$,'&!8,C"%!>($3,0!(39!7&-3,C(..! W()?%-3!L"-/'(E+0F]!(*:*='H-)'!*+,")0!Vl!g>,),:$,'!`eeihF!iZimYlA! B-9/,F!#')+"$(.9!#A!The Life of Charles Hodge. London: T. Nelson and Sons, 1881.! B-.."1",.9F!fA!L'--?%A!The Gentleman Theologians: American Theology in Southern Culture, 1795– 1860. Durham, N. C.: Duke University Press, 1978.

---. \*+,!O,34'"-4%!O',()+,'q5!J"3,&,,3&+H;,3&4'0!;.,'")(.!6,(.&+5!J-'&+!(39!7-4&+A]!V"O).-='"8' ,&$'2#$)*5-.'25-6$#0'"8'9$=*G*".!ZX!g7E'"3/F!Ulleh5!UdmiYA ---. Theology in America: Christian Thought From The Age of the Puritans to the Civil War. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003. Hudson, Winthrop S. “Denominationalism as a Basis for Ecumenicity: A Seventeenth Century Conception,” Church History 24 (March 1955): 32–50.

Irons, Charles F. %&$'7)*G*.+'"8'4)"+=-:$)0'(&)*+,*-.*,0K'H&*,$'-.6'P=-5Y'W:-.G$=*5-=+'*.'("=".*-='-.6' 2.,$<$==O#'I*)G*.*-A!;+(E,.!B"..5!R3"<,'%"&0!-1!J-'&+!;('-."3(!O',%%F!`eeXA! [":%F!f9C"3A!!*+,")0'"8'I-.6$)<*=,'D.*:$)+*,0A!J,C!k-'?5!#'3-!O',%%F!UlddA! W('',&&F!;(.<"3!>A!\;(.<"3!BA!6".,05!7-4&+,'3!f94)(&"-3!8,(9,'F]!4$-<"60'V"O).-='"8'W6O5-,*".!VU! g[(')+F!UlYVh5!`dYmXXA' Jenkins, Thomas E. “The Character of God in American Theology: 1800–1900.” PhD Diss., Yale University, 1991.

W-+3%-3F!6(.&,'A!3"O='<0'3"O=K'R*8$'C.+*6$',&$'2.,$<$==O#'3=-:$'/-)Y$,A!;(:$'"9/,F![(%%A5!B('<('9! R3"<,'%"&0!O',%%F!UllXA! W43/F![--3HB-A!(""=*$+'-.6'(-.$K'9-5$;'R-<");'-.6'3OG-)'*.',&$'2G$'"8'W#-.5*M-,*".1'L(.&":-',5! W-+3%!B-E?"3%!R3"<,'%"&0!O',%%F!`eeXA! t".9,F!W,(33,!B(./',3A!H&$.'(&O)5&'P$5-#$'%&$-,)$K'%&$'%)-.+8")#-,*".'"8'W:-.G$=*5-=' 2)5&*,$5,O)$'-.6'H")+&*M'*.'L*.$,$$.,&'($.,O)0'2#$)*5-1'J,C!k-'?5!QG1-'9!R3"<,'%"&0! O',%%F!`ee`A Knight, Edgar W. 4O<=*5'35&""='W6O5-,*".'*.'L"),&'(-)"=*.-A!L-%&-35!B-4/+&-3!["11."3F!UlUYA

Leloudis, James L. 35&""=*.G',&$'L$X'3"O,&K'4$6-G"G0;'3$=8;'-.6'3"5*$,0'*.'L"),&'(-)"=*.-;'>@@BF >STBA!;+(E,.!B"..5!R3"<,'%"&0!-1!J-'&+!;('-."3(!O',%%F!UllYA Link, William A. 2'!-)6'("O.,)0'-.6'-'R".$=0'4=-5$K'35&""=*.G;'3"5*$,0;'-.6'9$8")#'*.'9O)-=' I*)G*.*-;'>@ABF>STBA!;+(E,.!B"..5!R3"<,'%"&0!-1!J-'&+!;('-."3(!O',%%F!UlXYA! 8-)?,F!W-%,E+A!\[(?"3/!&+,!L"$.,!L,.&5!O',()+,'%F!O'-+"$"&"-3F!(39!&+,!O-."&")"D(&"-3!-1!7-4&+,'3! 2,."/"-3F!UXddmUlUXA]!O+A>A!9"%%AF!2"),!R3"<,'%"&0F!`eU`A!

8-<,.(39F!#33,!;A!Southern Evangelicals and the Social Order, 1800–1860. Baton Rouge: Lousiana State University Press, 1980.

! iiZ!

Lucas, Sean Michael. Robert Lewis Dabney: A Southern Presbyterian Life. Phillipsburg, N.J.: Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Company, 2005.

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[);.4'?,3F!W,11',0!6A!%-Y$'(-)$'"8',&$'R*:*.GK'9$5".+,)O5,*.G'(".8$6$)-,$'I$,$)-.'N-#*=*$+'*.' I*)G*.*-A!;+('.-&&,%<"..,5!R3"<,'%"&0!-1!T"'/"3"(!O',%%F!`eelA! McConnell, Kent A. “’There must be tears in the houses;” A Search for Religious Meaning from the Carnage of the American Civil War.” Ph.D. Diss., University of Virginia, 2007.

McMillen, Sally G. %"'9-*+$'OM',&$'3"O,&K'3O.6-0'35&""=+'*.'P=-5Y'-.6'H&*,$'(&O)5&$+;'>@E?F>S>?A! L(&-3!2-4/,5!8-4"%"(3(!7&(&,!R3"<,'%"&0!O',%%F!`ee`A! [,3(39F!8-4"%A!The Metaphysical Club. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2001. [":%F!f9C"3A!!*+,")0'"8'I-.6$)<*=,'D.*:$)+*,0A!J(%+<"..,5!T(39,'$".&!R3"<,'%"&0!O',%%F!UlVYA

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J",$4+'F!BA!2")+('9A!%&$'3"5*-='3"O)5$+'"8'Z$."#*.-,*".-=*+#A!J,C!k-'?5!B-.&F!Ul`lA! J-..F![('?!#A!4)*.5$,".'-.6',&$'9$MO<=*5;'>AE@F>@TTK'%&$'3$-)5&'8")'-'(&)*+,*-.'W.=*G&,$.#$.,'*.' ,&$'W)-'"8'3-#O$='3,-.&"M$'3#*,&A!O'"3),&-3F!JAWA5!O'"3),&-3!R3"<,'%"&0!O',%%F!UlXlA! HHHA!%&$'(*:*='H-)'-+'-'%&$"="G*5-='()*+*+A!;+(E,.!B"..5!R3"<,'%"&0!-1!J-'&+!;('-."3(!O',%%F!`eeYA! J4:$,'%F!2-3(.9!8A!Darwinism Comes to America. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998.! QC3$0F!*,9A!3O<6O*.G'3-,-.K'9$=*G*".;'9$5)$-,*".;'-.6'/-.&""6'*.',&$'9O)-='3"O,&;'>@E?F>STBA! ;+(E,.!B"..5!R3"<,'%"&0!-1!J-'&+!;('-."3(!O',%%F!UlleA! O('?,'F!B('-.9![AF!W'A!%&$'D.*,$6'30."6'"8',&$'3"O,&K'%&$'3"O,&$).'L$X'35&""='4)$+<0,$)*-.'(&O)5&A! 6,%&E-'&F!;-33A5!K',,3C--9!O',%%F!UlXXA! O(''"%+F!6".."(:!fA!/*++"O)*'O.6$)'9-6*5-='9O=$K'>@E?F>@ABA!;-.4:$"(5!R3"<,'%"&0!-1!["%%-4'"! O',%%F!UlYZA! O,&,'%-3F!2-93,0!8AF!,9A!(&)*+,*-.*,0'-.6'(*:*='3"5*$,01'J,C!k-'?5!Q'$"%!O',%%F!UllZA! Philips, Jason. Diehard Rebels: The Confederate Culture of Invincibility. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2007.

Porterfield, Amanda. (".5$*:$6'*.'Z"O<,K'9$=*G*".'-.6'4"=*,*5+'*.',&$'L$X'2#$)*5-.'L-,*".1!;+")(/-5! R3"<,'%"&0!-1!;+")(/-!O',%%F!`eU`A! 2($.,F!K,-'/,!;A!J"6U+'2=#"+,'(&"+$.'4$"M=$+K'2'9$=*G*"O+'!*+,")0'"8',&$'2#$)*5-.'(*:*='H-)A!;+(E,.! B"..5!R3"<,'%"&0!-1!J-'&+!;('-."3(!O',%%F!`eUe! 2(3%-:F!2-/,'!8A!!(39!2")+('9!74&)+A!7.$'h*.6'"8'N)$$6"#K'%&$'W5"."#*5'(".+$fO$.5$+'"8' W#-.5*M-,*".1';(:$'"9/,5!;(:$'"9/,!R3"<,'%"&0!O',%%F!UlddA!

2,:"..('9F!#'&+4'A!3"O,&$).'(*:*='9$=*G*".+K'C#-G*.*.G',&$'J""6'3"5*$,0'*.',&$'4"+,_9$5".+,)O5,*".' W)-A!#&+,3%5!R3"<,'%"&0!-1!K,-'/"(!O',%%F!`eUUA! ! 2")+,0F!24%%,..!fAF!,9A!Z$."#*.-,*".-=*+#A!J(%+<"..,5!#$"3/9-3!O',%%F!UlddA! !

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2-('?F!W(:,%!8A!/-+,$)+'X*,&"O,'3=-:$+K'3"O,&$).'4=-.,$)+'*.',&$'(*:*='H-)'-.6'9$5".+,)O5,*".1'J,C! k-'?5!6A6A!J-'&-3!^!;-AF!UlddA! ! 2-$,'&%F!W-3!BA!Darwinism and the Divine in America: Protestant Intellectuals and Organic Evolution, 1859–1900. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988.

Rolle, Andrew F. %&$'R"+,'(-O+$K'%&$'(".8$6$)-,$'W]"6O+',"'/$]*5"A!J-':(35!R3"<,'%"&0!-1! Q?.(+-:(!O',%%F!UlYZA! ! 2-43,'F!8,'-0!7AF!,9A!(*:*='9$=*G*".'-.6'4"=*,*5-='%&$"="G0A!J-&',!>(:,F!P39A5!R3"<,'%"&0!-1!J-&',! >(:,!O',%%F!UlXYA! 2-0%&,'F!;+('.,%A!%&$'Z$+,)O5,*:$'H-)K'H*==*-#'%$5O#+$&'3&$)#-.;'3,".$X-=='V-5Y+".;'-.6',&$' 2#$)*5-.+A!J,C!k-'?5!T"3&(/,F!UlliA! 2-C.(39F!;+'"%&-E+,'F!,9A!%&$'(-#<)*6G$'("#M-.*".',"'R*<$)-,*".'%&$"="G0A!;(:$'"9/,5! ;(:$'"9/,!R3"<,'%"&0!O',%%F!UlllA! Rubin, Anne Sarah. A Shattered Nation: The Rise and Fall of the Confederacy, 1861–1868. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005. Schantz, Mark S. Awaiting the Heavenly Country: The Civil War and America’s Culture of Death. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Univ. Press, 2008.

Schweiger, Beth Barton. %&$'J"+M$='H")Y*.G'DMK'4)"G)$++'-.6',&$'4O=M*,'*.'L*.$,$$.,&_($.,O)0' I*)G*.*-A!J,C!k-'?5!QG1-'9!R3"<,'%"&0!O',%%F!`eeeA! 7)-&&F!O,&,'!(39!6".."(:!*A!;(<(3(4/+F!,9%A!%&$'P=-5YX$=='("#M-.*".',"'4"=*,*5-='%&$"="G0A![(.9,3F! [(%%A5!L.()?C,..!O4$."%+"3/F!`eeVA! 7)-&&F!7,(3!#A!2'I*+*,-,*".'"8'J"6K'L"),&$).'(*:*=*-.+'C.,$)M)$,',&$'(*:*='H-)A!J,C!k-'?5!QG1-'9! R3"<,'%"&0!O',%%F!`eUUA! 7+(&&4)?F!K('93,'!BA!2'3&*$=6'-.6'-'!*6*.G'4=-5$K'%&$'9$=*G*"O+'R*8$'"8',&$'(*:*='H-)'2)#*$+![()-3F! K(A5![,'),'!R3"<,'%"&0!O',%%F!UlXdA! 7+,,+(3H>,(3F!#('-3A!\*+,!8-3/!;"<".!6('5!#!B"%&-'"-/'(E+0!-1!&+,!;-3%,I4,3),%!-1!&+,!;"<".! 6('A]!I*)G*.*-'/-G-Q*.$'"8'!*+,")0'-.6'P*"G)-M&0'UUlF!3-A!`F!g`eUUh5!UeYHZiA Silver, James W. Confederate Morale and Church Propaganda. Tuscaloosa, Ala.: Confederate Publication Company, 1957. Smith, Morton H. Studies in Southern Presbyterian Theology. Phillipsburg, N.J. Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Company, 1962.

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7&,'3F!#39',C!BA![A!3"O,&$).'()O5*8*];'3"O,&$).'()"++K'(-,&"=*5_4)",$+,-.,'9$=-,*".+'*.',&$'7=6' 3"O,&A!*4%)(.--%(5!R3"<,'%"&0!-1!#.($(:(!O',%%F!`eU`A! Stewart, John W. and James H. Moorhead, eds., Charles Hodge Revisited: A Critical Appraisal of His Life and Work. Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2002.! 7&-4&F!B(''0!7A!DM".',&$'2=,-)'"8',&$'L-,*".K'2'/")-='!*+,")0'"8',&$'(*:*='H-)A!J,C!k-'?5!O,3/4"3! L--?%F!`eeYA! 7&-C,..F!>(3",.!6A!9$@E?F'>@AAA!J,C! k-'?5!QG1-'9!R3"<,'%"&0!O',%%F!UllXA! HHHA!\7&-3,C(..!W()?%-3!(39!&+,!O'-<"9,3),!-1!K-9F]!"3!2(39(..![A!["..,'F!B(''0!7A!7&-4&F!(39!;+('.,%! 2,(/(3!6".%-3F!,9%A!9$=*G*".'*.',&$'2#$)*5-.'(*:*='H-)1'J,C!k-'?5!QG1-'9F!UllX5!UXdm`edA! 7C,,&F!6".."(:!6('',3A!%&$'/$,&"6*+,'WM*+5"M-='(&O)5&'-.6',&$'(*:*='H-)A!;"3)"33(&"5![,&+-9"%&! L--?!;-3),'3!O',%%F!UlU`A! *+-:E%-3F!f."D($,&+!8,,A!%&$'9$5".+,)O5,*".'"8'3"O,&$).'Z$<,")+K'P-.Y)OM,50'-8,$)',&$'(*:*='H-)A! #&+,3%5!R3"<,'%"&0!-1!K,-'/"(!O',%%F!`eeVA!

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6,(<,'F!W-+3!LA!\*+,!#/-30!-1!>,1,(&5!;(.<"3!BA!6".,0!(39!&+,!O'-%.(<,'0!#'/4:,3&F]!"3!2(39(..![A! ["..,'!(39!W-+3!2A![)t"<"/(3F!,9%A!%&$'/"#$.,'"8'Z$5*+*".K'P*"G)-M&*5-='W++-0+'".'2#$)*5-.' C6$.,*,01!6,%&E-'&F!;-33A5!K',,3C--9!O',%%F!UllV5!ZZmdiA! 6,"3,'F!W-3(&+(3![A!3"5*-='7)*G*.+'"8',&$'L$X'3"O,&K'2=-<-#-;'>@EBF>@@?!gL(&-3!2-4/,5!8-4"%"(3(! 7&(&,!R3"<,'%"&0!O',%%F!UldXA! Wells, David F., ed. Reformed Theology in America: A History of its Modern Development. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1985.

Wesley, Timothy L. %&$'4"=*,*5+'"8'N-*,&'6O)*.G',&$'(*:*='H-)A!L(&-3!2-4/,5!8-4"%"(3(!7&(&,! R3"<,'%"&0!O',%%F!`eUiA!

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6"..%F!K',/-'0!#A!Z$#"5)-,*5'9$=*G*".K'N)$$6"#;'2O,&")*,0;'-.6'(&O)5&'Z*+5*M=*.$'*.',&$'P-M,*+,' 3"O,&;'>A@?F>SBBA!J,C!k-'?5!QG1-'9!R3"<,'%"&0!O',%%F!UlldA! HHHA!3"O,&$).'P-M,*+,'%&$"="G*5-='3$#*.-)0;'>@?SFTBBSA!J,C!k-'?5!QG1-'9!R3"<,'%"&0!O',%%F!`eelA! 6".%-3F!;+('.,%!2,(/(3A!P-M,*Q$6'*.'P=""6K'%&$'9$=*G*".'"8',&$'R"+,'(-O+$;'>@E?F>STBA!#&+,3%5! R3"<,'%"&0!-1!K,-'/"(!O',%%F!UlXeA! HHHA!“Robert Lewis Dabney: Religion and the Southern Holocaust,” The Viriginia Magazine of History and Biography 89 (January 1981): 79–89.

Woods, James M. 2'!*+,")0'"8',&$'(-,&"=*5'(&O)5&'*.',&$'2#$)*5-.'3"O,&;'>?>\F>SBBA!K("3,%<"..,5! R3"<,'%"&0!O',%%!-1!S.-'"9(F!`eUUA Woodward, C. Vann. Origins of the New South, 1877–1913 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1951

Woodworth, Steven E. H&*=$'J"6'*+'/-)5&*.G'7.K'%&$'9$=*G*"O+'H")=6'"8'(*:*='H-)'3"=6*$)+A! 8(C',3),5!R3"<,'%"&0!O',%%!-1!t(3%(%F!`eeUA! 6'"/+&F!>,3"%,!fA!\@Q$M,)&%!-1!B4:(3"&0@5!*+,!6+"&,!O--'!"3!;"<".!6('!(39!2,)-3%&'4)&"-3! K,-'/"(A]!"3!O(4.!#A!;":$(.(!(39!2(39(..![A!["..,'A!%&$'J)$-,'%-+Y'9$#-*.*.G'<$8")$'D+K' 9$5".+,)O5,*".'-+'2#$)*5-U+'(".,*.O*.G'(*:*='H-)A!J,C!k-'?5!S-'9+(:!R3"<,'%"&0!O',%%F! `eUe5!UeUm`UA! 6'"/+&F!K(<"3A!7=6'3"O,&;'L$X'3"O,&K'9$:"=O,*".+'*.',&$'3"O,&$).'W5"."#0'+*.5$',&$'(*:*='H-)A!J,C! k-'?5!B('E,'H;-.."3%F!UlXYA! 60(&&HL'-C3F!L,'&'(:A!3"O,&$).'!".")K'W,&*5+'-.6'P$&-:*")'*.',&$'7=6'3"O,&A!J,C!k-'?5!QG1-'9! R3"<,'%"&0!O',%%F!UlX`A! HHHA!%&$'3&-M*.G'"8'3"O,&$).'(O=,O)$K'!".");'J)-5$;'-.6'H-);'>AEB+F>@@B+A!;+(E,.!B"..5!R3"<,'%"&0!-1! J-'&+!;('-."3(!O',%%F!`eeUA!

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