From the Arab World to the American World: Transition and Adjustment Experiences of Muslim Women

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

From the Arab World to the American World: Transition and Adjustment Experiences of Muslim Women Western Michigan University ScholarWorks at WMU Dissertations Graduate College 8-2017 From the Arab World to the American World: Transition and Adjustment Experiences of Muslim Women Nancy Hammoudah Western Michigan University, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/dissertations Part of the Counseling Commons Recommended Citation Hammoudah, Nancy, "From the Arab World to the American World: Transition and Adjustment Experiences of Muslim Women" (2017). Dissertations. 3172. https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/dissertations/3172 This Dissertation-Open Access is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate College at ScholarWorks at WMU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Dissertations by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks at WMU. For more information, please contact [email protected]. FROM THE ARAB WORLD TO THE AMERICAN WORLD: TRANSITION AND ADJUSTMENT EXPERIENCES OF MUSLIM WOMEN by Nancy Hammoudah A dissertation submitted to the Graduate College in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Counselor Education and Counseling Psychology Western Michigan University August 2017 Doctoral Committee: Patrick H. Munley, Ph.D., Chair Mary Z. Anderson, Ph.D. Mark St. Martin, Ph.D. FROM THE ARAB WORLD TO THE AMERICAN WORLD: TRANSITION AND ADJUSTMENT EXPERIENCES OF MUSLIM WOMEN Nancy Hammoudah, Ph.D. Western Michigan University, 2017 This qualitative study explored the experiences of Muslim women from the Arab world who came to live and study in the U.S. This study gave voice to their daily lived experiences of transitioning to and adjusting to life and study in the American world. Nine bilingual women provided in depth responses to interviews and follow up phone calls. Women were raised in predominantly Muslim countries and attended institutions of higher education for the first time in the U.S. as international or domestic students, including refugees. Interviews were in English. Any spontaneous Arabic that was used by participants was immediately translated by the bilingual researcher and verified for accuracy with the participant. The constructivist and critical ideologist paradigms shaped this phenomenological research. Low inference descriptors and direct quotes were primarily used to tell their story. Their story began from the point in time before they left their home country to the present time when they were interviewed. Seven themes emerged from the stories of the women in this study. Themes were grouped into three processes of transitioning, adjusting, and succeeding. In the transitioning process, women paint a picture of what life was like for them back home and when they first made the move to the U.S. This process included the themes titled (1) It’s hard to say goodbye, which was about complicated goodbyes, and (2) Just like in the movies?, which was about the differences between expectations and reality they experienced. In the adjusting process, women describe how they adjusted over time and experienced many challenges including discrimination. This process included the themes titled (3) I miss this, which was about the life they missed from back home, and (4) Life in America is hard work, which was about hard work and effort they were making in their life here. In the succeeding process, women shared the final part of their story on what aided or eased their adjustment and led to success. This process included the themes titled (5) Home away from home, which was about how they successfully coped with the loss of family and friends by developing their social support network here, (6) Inner strength and independence, which was about how they developed through faith, advocacy, and skills, and (7) Respect and understanding, which was about how changes occurred over time in their views on discrimination, America and Americans, people back home, and their own selves. A recipe for success emerged from the stories of these women, as well as requests from them for others to accept and accommodate them. Connections to the literature on discrimination and the media, acculturation, ethnic identity, and religious identity are made in the discussion, as well as recommendations for higher education, psychology, counseling, and future research. A strong recommendation for individuals working with this population was given to become familiar with the requests women in this study made for acceptance and for accommodations. Keywords: Muslim women, Islam, Arab, Arabic, refugees, international students, higher education, counseling, psychology, discrimination, acculturation, ethnic identity, religious identity ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ﺑﺴﻢ ﷲ اﻟ ﱠﺮﺣﻤﺎن اﻟ ﱠﺮ ﺣﻲ Bismillaahir-Rahmaanir-Rahiim “In the name of God, Most Beneficent, Most Merciful.” In Islam, it is encouraged to begin an endeavor with the words, Bismillaahir-Rahmaanir- Rahiim (in the name of God, Most Beneficent, Most Merciful), Alhamdulillah (all praises and thanks be to God Almighty), or purely Bismillah (in the name of God). Peace and blessings to those who have supported and aided me in this journey of mine. To my family, my dissertation chair, my dissertation committee, my colleagues, and my friends. I love and cherish you all. I feel that Allah sent each of you to help me in this life. I believe the best thanks I can give you is to pray privately from the depth of my heart to see goodness come to you and your loved ones. Nancy Hammoudah ii Copyright by Nancy Hammoudah 2017 TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...........................................................................................................ii CHAPTER I: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ..............................................................................1 Overview of Chapter I .........................................................................................1 Islam .....................................................................................................................3 Beliefs of Islam ........................................................................................4 Embracing Islam ......................................................................................7 Women in Islam .......................................................................................11 Resources on Islam ..................................................................................14 Arab ......................................................................................................................16 Terminology .............................................................................................16 Arabic Defining “Arab” ...........................................................................18 Arab Muslim Immigrants .....................................................................................20 Immigrant Demographics ........................................................................20 Population Statistics .................................................................................24 Higher Education Statistics ......................................................................27 Media and Public Image ......................................................................................31 American Image of Arab World ..............................................................32 Arab Image of American World ..............................................................34 Discrimination Towards Arabs and Muslims ......................................................36 iii Table of Contents---Continued CHAPTER Discrimination Reports ............................................................................37 Impact on Migration ................................................................................43 Response to Discrimination .....................................................................45 Transition and Adjustment of Arab Muslim Women ..........................................47 Literature Base .........................................................................................48 Acculturation ............................................................................................50 Identity .....................................................................................................57 Acculturative Stress .................................................................................64 The Research Gap ................................................................................................72 Purpose of this Study ...........................................................................................74 Research Questions ..............................................................................................75 II. METHODS ..................................................................................................................77 Research Paradigm ...............................................................................................78 Research Methodology ........................................................................................79 Participants ...........................................................................................................80 Criterion Selection ...................................................................................80 Recruitment ..............................................................................................82 Setting ......................................................................................................85
Recommended publications
  • Middle Eastern Music and Dance Since the Nightclub Era
    W&M ScholarWorks Arts & Sciences Book Chapters Arts and Sciences 10-30-2005 Middle Eastern Music and Dance since the Nightclub Era Anne K. Rasmussen William and Mary, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.wm.edu/asbookchapters Part of the Ethnomusicology Commons Recommended Citation Rasmussen, A. K. (2005). Middle Eastern Music and Dance since the Nightclub Era. Anthony Shay and Barbara Sellers-Young (Ed.), Belly Dance: Orientalism, Transnationalism, And Harem Fantasy (pp. 172-206). Mazda Publishers. https://scholarworks.wm.edu/asbookchapters/102 This Book Chapter is brought to you for free and open access by the Arts and Sciences at W&M ScholarWorks. It has been accepted for inclusion in Arts & Sciences Book Chapters by an authorized administrator of W&M ScholarWorks. For more information, please contact [email protected]. B E L L .v C)ri enta ·l•i S.:I_I_ Transnationalism & Harem Fantasy FFuncling�orthe publication ofthis v\olume w\ as pro\Iv idcd in part by a grant from ✓ Ther Iranic a Institute, Irv\i ine California and b)y TThe C A. K. Jabbari Trust Fund Mazda Publisher• s Academic Publishers P.O. Box 2603 Co st a Mesa, CCa lifornia 92626 Us .S. A . \\ ww.mazdapub.com Copyright © 2005 by Anthony Shay and Barbara Sellers-Young All rights resserved. ' No parts of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted by any form or by any means without written permission from the publisher except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and re iews. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Belly Dance: Orientalism.
    [Show full text]
  • Inspiring Passion for Arabic Poems Among Non-Native Speakers of Arabic in Malaysia
    8-10 September 2014- Istanbul, Turkey 983 Proceedings of SOCIOINT14- International Conference on Social Sciences and Humanities INSPIRING PASSION FOR ARABIC POEMS AMONG NON-NATIVE SPEAKERS OF ARABIC IN MALAYSIA Rahmah Ahmad Osman1 1Assoc. Prof. Dr. International Islamic University Malaysia, [email protected] Abstract The method of teaching literature at a secondary or tertiary level has always been a matter of interest and a topic of discussion in many countries. However, not until recently has the role and importance of literature in the English and Arabic as the first or second level classrooms been given emphasis. This study examines how Arabic poems and proverbs can be used as effective methods in the teaching and learning of Arabic to non-native speakers in Malaysia. It proposes that new and more innovative and effective methods should be introduced to replace the current conventional methods of teaching Arabic. The teaching of literature; i.e., Arabic poems and proverbs requires a passion for literature itself. When the passion for literature has been instilled, language learners will enjoy their literature courses, and find them to be easier than before they had this awareness. As a result of the learners‟ advancement and acquired appreciation, they are able to access the vast linguistic treasures Arabic literature has to offer and therefore, simultaneously improve their competence in Arabic. Keywords: Inspiring. Passion. Arabic Poems. Non-Native Speakers. Malaysia. 1 INTRODUCTION In order to comprehend and appreciate the notion that passion for literature itself is vital in the teaching of literature, a discussion on the methods employed in teaching Arabic in Malaysia at this juncture seems appropriate.
    [Show full text]
  • Poetry and the Arab Spring
    City University of New York (CUNY) CUNY Academic Works All Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects 2-2015 Poetry And The Arab Spring George A. Simon Graduate Center, City University of New York How does access to this work benefit ou?y Let us know! More information about this work at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu/gc_etds/624 Discover additional works at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu This work is made publicly available by the City University of New York (CUNY). Contact: [email protected] Poetry and the Arab Spring By George Simon A master’s thesis submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Middle Eastern Studies in partial fulfillment requirements for the degree of Master of Arts, The City University New York. 2015 i This manuscript has been read and accepted for the Graduate Faculty in Middle Eastern Studies in satisfaction of the requirement for the degree of Master of Arts. Approved by ______________________________________________ Date: ___________________ Prof. Christopher Stone Advisor ______________________________________________ Date: _____________________ Prof. Simon Davis Acting Director Master’s in Middle Eastern Studies THE CITY UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK ii Poetry and the Arab Spring By: George Simon Advisor; Prof. Christopher Stone Abstract: In 2010-11 the world saw the rise of the Arab Spring, a series of uprisings across the Arab world. These uprisings were attempts by the Arab peoples to over throw their governments and bring freedom and change to their societies in order to live in dignity and grace. These populist uprisings produced powerful poetry that of cuses on the corruption of Arab governments and the rampant economic social prob lems.
    [Show full text]
  • Homer: an Arabic Portrait1
    Edin Muftić Homer: An Arabic portrait1 Homer is rightfully seen as the first teacher of Hellenism, the poet who educated the Greek, who in turn educated Europe. But, as is well known, Europe doesn’t have a monopoly on Greek heritage. It was also present in the Islamic tradition, where it manifested itself differently. Apart from phi- losophy, mathematics, astronomy, medicine and pharmacology, Greek poetry, even if usually not translated, was also widely read among the Arab-Islamic intellectual elite. The author analyses the extent to which Homer’s works circulated, how well known were his poetics, and the influence his verses exerted during the heyday of Classical Arab-Islamic civilization. Keywords: Homer; translation movement; Al-Biruni; arabic poetry; Al-Farabi; Averroes INTRODUCTION The Greek and Arab epic tradition have much in common. Themes of tribal enmity, invasions and plunder, abduction of women, revenge, heroism, chivalry and love feature prom- inently in both traditions. While the Greeks have Hercules, Perseus, Theseus, Odysseus, Jason or Achilles, the Arabs have ʻAntar bin Šaddād (the “Arab Achilles”), Sayf bin ī Yazan, Az-Zīr Sālim and many others. When it comes to the actual performance of poetry, similarities be- Ḏ tween the two traditions are even greater. Homeric aoidos playing his lyre has a direct coun- terpart in Arab rawin playing his rababa. The Arab wandering poet often shares the fate of his Greek colleague (Imruʼ al-Qays, arafa and Al-Aʻšá, and Abū Nuwās and Al-Mutanabbī are the most famous examples). Greek tyrants who were famous for hosting poets like Ibycus, Anacre- Ṭ on, Simonides, Bacchylides or Pindar, while expelling others like Alcaeus, have a royal counter- part in An-Nuʻmān bin al-Mun ir, the ruler of Hira.
    [Show full text]
  • S1003186 Supervisor: John Bintlif Specialization: Classical and Mediterranean A
    Name: Eleni Christidou Stylianou Student number: s1003186 Supervisor: John Bintlif Specialization: Classical and Mediterranean Archaeology (Second Specialization: Archaeology of the Near East) University of Leiden Faculty of Archaeology Leiden 2012 1 To my father 2 Table of Contents Acknowledgements.....................................................................................................................6 1. Introduction.........................................................................................................................7 2. Historical Introduction......................................................................................................10 2.1 The Byzantine Empire................................................................................................10 2.1.1 The Emerging of the Byzantine Empire. Chronology......................................10 2.1.2 General Remarks..............................................................................................13 2.2 The Arab – Islamic World..........................................................................................14 3. Arab-Byzantine Literary Exchanges..................................................................................19 3.1 Conclusion.................................................................................................................24 4. Maritime Activities, Hostilities and Reconciliation in the Mediterranean......................27 4.1 Advanced Arab-Byzantine Trade Relations at the end of the tenth
    [Show full text]
  • The Fulla Doll, Identity, and Consumption in a Globalizing Arab World
    University of Alberta Boxes Fulla Fun: The Fulla Doll, Identity, and Consumption in a Globalizing Arab World by Lena O. Saleh A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Department of Political Science ©Lena O. Saleh Fall 2013 Edmonton, Alberta Permission is hereby granted to the University of Alberta Libraries to reproduce single copies of this thesis and to lend or sell such copies for private, scholarly or scientific research purposes only. Where the thesis is converted to, or otherwise made available in digital form, the University of Alberta will advise potential users of the thesis of these terms. The author reserves all other publication and other rights in association with the copyright in the thesis and, except as herein before provided, neither the thesis nor any substantial portion thereof may be printed or otherwise reproduced in any material form whatsoever without the author's prior written permission. For Ummi and Abbi: I love you both. ABSTRACT: This thesis uses the case study of the Arab-Islamic Fulla doll to examine the relationships among globalization, consumption and cultural identities. Beginning with the question of how cultural products like the Fulla doll come to exist, I argue that the Fulla doll serves as an example of the process of creolization whereby non-Western peoples mobilize local customs and beliefs to transform globally-distributted consumer goods, thus re-contextualizing and assigning new meanings to these goods. Through an analysis of thirteen animated Fulla doll advertisements, I argue that the Barbie doll’s ethnic, religious and gendered identity has been re-contextualized to transform her into an Arab-Muslim woman, the Fulla doll.
    [Show full text]
  • May 0 2 1993
    Segregation by Design? The Evolution of an Islamic Community in Michigan By Rula Habal Bachelor of Arts in Architecture and Sociology Wellesley College, Wellesley, Massachusetts June, 1989 SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREES MASTER OF SCIENCE IN ARCHITECTURE STUDIES AND MASTER OF CITY PLANNING AT THE MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY JUNE, 1993 @ RULA HABAL 1993 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED The Author hereby grants to M.I.T. permission to reproduce and to distribute publicly copies of this thesis in whole or in part. Signature of Author Rula labal, Depai-tmenfs of Architecture and Urban Studies, May 7, 1993 Certified by IMrry Vald, Assistant Professor of Urban Studies and Planning, Thesis Advisor Accepted by Ju an Beinart, ChajmN trtmentds92tinmittee onpeduate Students, Course IV Accepted by ak er, Professor, ChairmanMaiters PrograassusrMSTITTE MAY 0 2 1993 Page 2 * ABSTRACT Segregation by Design? The Evolution of an Islamic Community in Michigan by Rula Habal Submitted to the Department of Architecture on May 7, 1993 In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degrees of Master of Science in Architecture Studies and Master of City Planning Abstract Today, the notion of the melting pot can no longer explain the process of assimilation in American society. The current cultural scene is comprised of a mainstream group and a large number of subcultural enclaves. The coexistence of these groups leads to tensions between the mainstream culture and the various subcultures, in this case, the immigrant ones. Transformation of the ethnic enclaves occurs over generations of interchange with the mainstream environment and results in specialized communities that are a hybrid of the immigrant's culture and the prevailing American one.
    [Show full text]
  • Adaptation of Arab Immigrants to Australia: Psychological, Social' Cultural and Educational Aspects
    ,l q o") 'no ADAPTATION OF ARAB IMMIGRANTS TO AUSTRALIA: PSYCHOLOGICAL, SOCIAL' CULTURAL AND EDUCATIONAL ASPECTS Nina Maadad,8.4., Dip. Ed., MBd. Studies Research Portfolio submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Bducation in the University of Adelaide, March 2007. ADDENDUM Table B (cont) Eclucational and Occupational Background of Respondents page 45b. ERRATA Page Line AMENDMENT 7 11 delete etc 10 13 l¡r should be lts 26 5 from that shouldbe thctn bottom 34 I4 group should be groups 53 6 from Add century afÍer nineteenth bottom 4 I Tuttisia should be Cairo 8 2 Insefi (Robinson, 1996) 19 1 Delete is and insert has an 2 Delete a 26 4 Delete of 28 2from Delete to the extent and delete lr bottom 70 9 suit case should be suitcase 98 4 there nationality should be their nationality 110 t7 ¿v¿r should be every t20 16 other shouldbe others 160 l7 than shouldbe then 161 t7 Arabian should be Arab r70 4 Arabian should be Arabic 1 9 1 4 from convent should be convert bottom 230 1 Abdullah, S. should be Saeed, A. 234 6 from Taric shouldbe Tarigh bottom TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Abstract lv Declaration vt Äcknowledgements vll Dedication lx INTRODUCTION TO PORTFOLIO Introduction 2 Støtement of the Problem 4 Arabian Cultural Background 7 Arøbían Core Values 7 Islnm ínthe Arab World t4 Hístory of Druze Sect 22 Educatíon ìn the Arab World 26 Muslíms ín Australía 30 Druze ìn Australia 32 Theoretical Framework and Research Method Theoríes of ImmigraÍíon ønd Interactíon 33 Assumptions 38 Research MethodologY 38 S ele ctíon of
    [Show full text]
  • Comparative Cultural Patterns
    09-Jandt 5e-(V-5).qxd 7/13/2006 1:35 PM Page 211 CHAPTER 9 Comparative Cultural Patterns Arab Culture What You Can Learn From This Chapter What defines Arab culture The major beliefs of the Islamic faith How Arab and U.S. cultural values compare The difficulties in intercultural communication between Arab and Western cultures ny two cultures could be compared as a way of learning more about both. A Knowledge of other cultures is critical. You remember that cultural aware- ness is identified as a critical intercultural communication skill. In this chapter, the same categories used to describe dominant U.S. cultural values are used to learn more about Arab culture—a culture often misunderstood in the United States. This chapter is devoted to how religion and language define Arab culture and then extends that with an examination of the conservative Arab state Saudi Arabia and the more tolerant state Oman. The chapter concludes by identifying some of the communication barriers among the Arab states and the United States. As you study this chapter, make comparisons to the previous chapter on dominant U.S. cultural values. What intercultural communication problems could arise between individuals from these diverse cultures? 211 09-Jandt 5e-(V-5).qxd 7/13/2006 1:35 PM Page 212 212 CHAPTER 9 THE ARAB STATES There is much diversity in the Arab world today, composed of 22 countries with a total population of 280 million. The population per country ranges from 600,000 in Qatar in 2001 to 65 million in Egypt in 2001.
    [Show full text]
  • The Sound of Culture, the Structure of Tradition Musicians' Work in Arab Detroit
    W&M ScholarWorks Arts & Sciences Book Chapters Arts and Sciences 2000 The Sound of Culture, The Structure of Tradition Musicians' Work in Arab Detroit Anne K. Rasmussen College of William and Mary, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.wm.edu/asbookchapters Part of the Ethnomusicology Commons Recommended Citation Rasmussen, A. K. (2000). The Sound of Culture, The Structure of Tradition Musicians' Work in Arab Detroit. Nabeel Abraham and Andrew Shryock (Ed.), Arab Detroit: From Margin to Mainstream (pp. 551-572). Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press. https://scholarworks.wm.edu/asbookchapters/99 This Book Chapter is brought to you for free and open access by the Arts and Sciences at W&M ScholarWorks. It has been accepted for inclusion in Arts & Sciences Book Chapters by an authorized administrator of W&M ScholarWorks. For more information, please contact [email protected]. The Sound of Culture, The Structure of Tradition Musicians7 Work in Arab Detroit Anne Rasmussen WITH THEIR LOUD sound systems and lively dance tunes, Arab Amer- ican musicians bring to community gatherings an all-encompassing sonic environment that replaces the host culture with the home cul- ture. Night after night, performance after performance, they supply "the language of Diaspora" (Clifford 1994). While I have framed musicians as "curators of culture" and their activity as "art," they have continuously referred to the same as "work" (Rasmussen 1989, 1991). Their work, as they have told me time and again, is audience driven, and they are surprisingly compliant with the sometimes abrupt demands of their clientele. Although this way of performing cannot be reduced to a simple formula, several patterns are apparent in the careers of Arab American musicians that help explain why they tend to discuss their "art" as "work,"1 and these patterns have been in place for much of the twentieth century.
    [Show full text]
  • A Study of Acculturation of an Arab-Muslim Community
    A STUDY OF ACCULTURATION OF AN ARAB-MUSLIM COMMUNITY IN DEARBORN BY Gisele Farah Presented to the American Culture Faculty at the University of Michigan-Flint in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the master of Liberal Studies in American Culture November 21, 1994 First Reader: Dr. Neil Leighton Second Reader: Dr. Nora Faires ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to extend special thanks to the women in the Dearborn community who consented to be interviewed and who graciously accepted my "stepping into their private lives", and to the ACCESS center which gave me that opportunity. I also want to express gratitude to Dr. Neil Leighton, who directed this study and to Dr. Nora Faires, who served as the second reader. Last, but not least, a special acknowledgment is due to my family and especially my husband, for his encouragement and moral support. i CONTENTS Acknowledgements i I. Arab-American Background in Perspective 1 II. The Assimilation of Arab-Americans on a local and National Level 12 III. Methodology 16 IV. Physical Factors contributing to the Unacculturation of the Arab-Muslim Community A. Arabic Environment 19 The South End 19 East Dearborn 22 V. Cultural Factors Contributing to the Unacculturation of the Arab-Muslim Community 27 A. The nuclear and extended family 27 Husband - Wife relationships 28 Parent - Children relationships 29 Kinship relationships 30 B. Traditional food habits 30 C. Socialization 31 D. Religion 32 Facts about Islam 35 Islamic Institutions 37 Islamic Schools 40 Muslims First 40 E. The prevalence of the Arabic Language 46 Children and the Arabic Language 49 The bilingual program 51 VI.
    [Show full text]
  • The Central Islamic Lands
    77 THEME The Central Islamic 4 Lands AS we enter the twenty-first century, there are over 1 billion Muslims living in all parts of the world. They are citizens of different nations, speak different languages, and dress differently. The processes by which they became Muslims were varied, and so were the circumstances in which they went their separate ways. Yet, the Islamic community has its roots in a more unified past which unfolded roughly 1,400 years ago in the Arabian peninsula. In this chapter we are going to read about the rise of Islam and its expansion over a vast territory extending from Egypt to Afghanistan, the core area of Islamic civilisation from 600 to 1200. In these centuries, Islamic society exhibited multiple political and cultural patterns. The term Islamic is used here not only in its purely religious sense but also for the overall society and culture historically associated with Islam. In this society not everything that was happening originated directly from religion, but it took place in a society where Muslims and their faith were recognised as socially dominant. Non-Muslims always formed an integral, if subordinate, part of this society as did Jews in Christendom. Our understanding of the history of the central Islamic lands between 600 and 1200 is based on chronicles or tawarikh (which narrate events in order of time) and semi-historical works, such as biographies (sira), records of the sayings and doings of the Prophet (hadith) and commentaries on the Quran (tafsir). The material from which these works were produced was a large collection of eyewitness reports (akhbar) transmitted over a period of time either orally or on paper.
    [Show full text]