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Draft Dissertation UNIVERSITETET I OSLO Technocratic dreams and troublesome beneficiaries The Sardar Sarovar (Narmada) Project in Gujarat Guro Aandahl Centre for Development and the Environment Thesis submitted for the degree of PhD in Human Geography Department of Sociology and Human Geography Faculty of Social Sciences University of Oslo TABLE OF CONTENTS Tables and illustrations vi Glossary viii Acknowledgements ix 1. Introduction 1 Purpose and research questions 3 The Sardar Sarovar Project in brief 4 Human geography, dams, and development 5 Outline of the dissertation 6 PART ONE. DAMS AND DEVELOPMENT: FROM TVA TO THE WORLD COMMISSION ON DAMS 9 2. Dams and development in a historical perspective 11 America, TVA and the Prototypical Development Project 11 Metaphors of modern irrigation 14 A model for foreign assistance 16 From TVA to Sardar Sarovar 17 The importance of British India 18 The colonial impact on Indian agriculture 20 Indian pre-colonial water technologies: managing rain, rivers and ground water 20 Monsoon agriculture and risk 21 Colonial canal construction: Famine prevention or exploitation? 22 Impacts of colonial canal irrigation 24 Key themes in critical irrigation studies 27 Warnings of expanded state power 27 Dams and “high-modernism” 33 Communities and ecological sensitivity 36 Did the British destroy traditional Indian irrigation systems? 38 New traditionalism and notions of ‘community’ 42 Development Utopias: high modernist or simple traditionalist? 44 Summary 46 3. Water in Gujarat 49 Rain, rivers, and groundwater 49 i Droughts and distress 53 Irrigation 55 Political economy of irrigation 57 British rule and groundwater policies 57 Escalating groundwater extraction 59 Surface water schemes and dams 61 Summary 63 4. The sixty-year project: A brief historical overview of the SSP 65 Inter-state water sharing disputes (1946-1979) 65 A growing resistance movement (1980-1993) 68 Exit World Bank 72 After the World Bank: Financial problems and delays (1994-2009) 74 Summary 77 5. Narmada and the international dam debate – an overview 79 The general critique of large dams 80 The role of Sardar Sarovar in the anti-dam movement 83 The World Bank and its critics 85 The consolidation of the transnational anti-dam movement 87 The World Commission on Dams 88 Some remarks on political strategy 91 Narmada as a research case 92 An overview of perspectives and findings 93 Assumptions about command area development 102 Academic neutrality, sympathy and critique: a fine balance 104 Concluding remarks: Narmada and the Western destruction narrative 107 6. Methodology 109 The data material 109 Sources on the planning process and ideas of ‘development’ 110 Government data on implementation 113 Snowballing for government informants 114 Village case study 115 Selecting case villages 115 Village field research 118 Reliability and validity of household survey 120 ii Complicating factors in field research 123 Identification or anonymity of informants and case villages 125 Case study as research strategy 126 Types of case studies 127 Theoretical generalization from case studies 129 SSP, Krushigam and Motugam – what kinds of cases are they? 134 Epistemological issues – pragmatism and hermeneutics 135 Theory as explanation 137 PART TWO. THE SARDAR SAROVAR PROJECT AND CHANGING IDEAS OF ‘DEVELOPMENT’ 139 7. Development, growth and modernisation 141 Modernisation theory 141 Development economics 143 Universalistic assumptions 145 Modernisation as ends or means? 147 Poverty as a residue of the past 149 Growing development critique 150 Changes in perspectives and concerns 152 Modernisation theory and India 154 Dams in modernizing India 156 Summary 158 8. Planning for everything – the Sardar Sarovar Project plan 161 The Narmada Planning Group 161 Main aims of the Sardar Sarovar Project 165 Innovative features of the SSP 168 Technological innovations 169 Regionalisation and integrated scientific planning 171 Managerial innovations: Participatory Irrigation Management 175 A development planner’s perspective 178 Water distribution as spatial injustice 179 The planners’ blind spots 183 Changing zeitgeist – shift in battlefield 191 The SSP - A “victim of time”? 192 iii The planners in defence 193 “No Cancelling Tomorrow” - Defending ‘Development’ 195 The environmental challenge 197 The human rights challenge – displacement and rehabilitation 199 Explaining planning processes 202 Interests or ideas? 203 Rendering development technical 206 Indian technocratic planning 207 Role of science 209 Summary 211 PART THREE. IMPLEMENTATION AND THE POLITICS BEYOND PLANNING 215 Explanations of implementation failure 217 9. Village stratification, water, and poverty 223 Does irrigation trickle down? 223 Krushigam 228 Motugam 232 Agriculture and poverty in Krushigam and Motugam 239 The landless poor 243 Labour relations 245 …as seen from the labourers 245 …and from the farmers’ perspectives 247 Whose reality counts? 249 What difference does water make for poverty? 251 Summary 252 10. The Troublesome Beneficiaries 255 The official SSP irrigation policy 256 Interim policy 260 Sardar Sarovar Project in Krushigam, Jambusar 262 WUAs, knowledge and participation 262 Process 1: Obstructing canal construction 266 Process 2: Farmers’ campaign for project performance 270 Is Jambusar exceptional? 275 Other villages 276 Other studies of SSP: Broken canals and broken promises 278 iv Irrigators in the past 279 Conclusion: Revisiting the disempowerment argument 282 11. Beyond corruption 285 “They are all percentage-wallahs” – the discourse of corruption 285 ”We are not social workers” 291 Farmer-government encounter at Khandha Test Farm 296 Dilemmas seen from the top level 300 The balancing acts of government engineers 305 Summary 307 12. Water: an unwieldy and political resource 309 The story of the Narmada baknari 310 The solution: the Panam High-Level Canal 317 The Shriraj check-dam scheme 319 Farmers prefer wells 320 The ups and downs of cooperative irrigation management 323 Resource allocation and political mediators 325 Summary 326 CONCLUSION 329 Technocratic dreams 331 The troublesome beneficiaries 332 Seeing like an engineer? 335 Ideas matter 337 Appendices 343 1. Informants 344 2. Questionnaires 346 3. Rainfall data for Gujarat and regionalisation 354 4. Members of Narmada Planning Group 360 5. Sardar Sarovar Project planning studies 361 6. Important events in the SSP conflict 364 7. Official letters to and from the sarpanch of Motugam 365 References 370 v Tables and illustrations Figures FIGURE 1. RAINFALL IN GUJARAT, 1951-2008 IN MILLIMETERS. ......................................................................................... 50 FIGURE 2. MONTHLY RAINFALL, AVERAGE 2004-2008, REGIONS OF GUJARAT ...................................................................... 51 FIGURE 3. FLUCTUATIONS IN AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION, GUJARAT, 1970-1990 .............................................................. 166 FIGURE 5. SKETCH OF CANAL NETWORK. ....................................................................................................................... 257 Tables TABLE 1. TYPES OF CASES FOUND IN BRYMAN (2004), CRESWELL (1998), FLYVBJERG (2003), AND YIN (2003). ..................... 128 TABLE 2. PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF ESTIMATED POPULATION BY PER CAPITA MONTHLY EXPENDITURE CLASSES AND HOUSEHOLD TYPES (1982).. .............................................................................................................................................. 184 TABLE 3. MAIN INCOME SOURCE OF HOUSEHOLD, KRUSHIGAM, % (N) ............................................................................... 229 TABLE 4. CASTE-WISE COMPOSITION OF POPULATION IN KRUSHIGAM, % (N) ....................................................................... 231 TABLE 5. LANDOWNERSHIP AND OPERATIONAL HOLDINGS, KRUSHIGAM, % (N). ................................................................... 232 TABLE 6. MAIN SOURCE OF INCOME, HOUSEHOLDS, MOTUGAM AND HAMLETS, %, (N) ......................................................... 234 TABLE 7. LAND OWNERSHIP AND OPERATIONAL HOLDINGS, MOTUGAM, % (N) .................................................................... 235 TABLE 8. MAIN CASTES OF MOTUGAM, % (N) ............................................................................................................... 236 TABLE 9. MEAN SIZE OF LANDHOLDING, CULTIVATING CASTES, MOTUGAM, ACRES ................................................................ 237 TABLE 10. WELL OWNERSHIP AMONG CULTIVATING CASTES, MOTUGAM, % (N) .................................................................. 237 TABLE 11. WELL OWNERSHIP ACCORDING TO LANDHOLDING SIZE, MOTUGAM, % (N) ........................................................... 238 TABLE 12. BELOW POVERTY LINE HOUSEHOLDS, % (N), KRUSHIGAM AND MOTUGAM .......................................................... 240 TABLE 13. HOUSEHOLDS WHERE THE RESPONDENT HAD LOST ONE OR MORE CHILDREN BELOW THE AGE OF 5, % (N) ................... 241 TABLE 14. FOOD SECURITY KRUSHIGAM AND MOTUGAM, % (N) ....................................................................................... 242 TABLE 15. WAGE LEVELS FOR MAIN LABOUR TASKS OF DIFFERENT SEASONS, KRUSHIGAM ....................................................... 248 TABLE 16. FARMERS' MEMBERSHIP IN WATER USERS’ ASSOCIATION, KRUSHIGAM, % (N)...................................................... 263 TABLE 17. DISTRICTWISE ANNUAL RAINFALL, 1951-1990 ..............................................................................................
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