DOCSLIB.ORG

Timelinejs Date Formatting and Displays the Contents of This Cell Instead

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Timelinejs Date Formatting and Displays the Contents of This Cell Instead End Year Mont Day End Month End End Display Media Credit Media [1] h [2] [3] Time [4] Year [5] [6] Day [7] Time [8] Date [9] Headline [10] Text [11] Media [12] [13] Media Caption [14] Thumbnail [15] Type [16] Group [17] Background [18] transformation of southern society during 1865 reconstruction https://cdn.britannica.com/24/187924-050-D8384718/Andrew-Johnson-soldiers-Confederate-White-House-Washington-1865.jpgBrittanica title The purpose of the 13th amendment was to abolish slavery and involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for a crime. Radical Republicans believed that this was WikiMedia Celebration of the passing of 1865 13th Amendment necessary to defeat slave power. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:AdoptionOf13thAmendment.jpgFoundation the 13th Amendment #333333 January 1, 1863, all enslaved people in the states currently engaged in rebellion against the Union “shall be then, thenceforward, and forever free.”The document applied only to Emancipation enslaved people in the Confederacy WikiMedia Emancipation Proclomation 1863 Proclomation https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Emancipation_Proclamation_WDL2714.jpgFoundation Document http://knightlab.northwestern.edu/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/front-page-image.jpg effectively ended the Reconstruction era. Southern Democrats' promises to protect civil and political rights of blacks were not kept, and the end of federal interference in southern affairs led to widespread 1877 Compromise of 1877 disenfranchisement of blacks voters. https://www.history.com/.image/t_share/MTY5ODE1Nzk3NzgxMjQzNzA3/compromise-1877-04504v.jpgHistory Channel Senator Hiram Revels of mississippi and Representative Joseph Rainey of south Carolina became the first African Americans to serve in 1870 Election of 1870 congress. https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/resources/graphic/xlarge/RevelsHiram.jpg Lincoln plans for quick re-admittance of former states into the Union. The proccess was a three part proposal known as the 10% plan which outlined how states would return to the union which also included 1863 10% Electorate Plan pardons for southern military leaders. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-hostos-ushistory/chapter/restoring-the-union/ The federal government adopted a policy of providing arable land to former black slaves during the last stages of the American Civil War in 1865 Federal Aid 1865. https://www.archives.gov/files/publications/prologue/2010/summer/images/slave-pension-broadside-l.jpg A chapel build by african americans in 1866 that also doubled as a Construction of Tolsens school, providing education to african 1866 Chapel in 1866 americans in the community https://www.nps.gov/articles/images/Tolson-s-Online-Content-1-IMG_7502_cropped.jpg?maxwidth=650&autorotate=false A series of violent events that occurred in Memphis, Tennessee. A shooting altercation between white policeman and black union veterans that eventually lead to mobs of white men and policmen rampaging through black neighborhoods and killing black soldiers and citizens, Wiki Media Attack on Black citizens in 1866 Memphis Riots of 1866 some who were freed slaves. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Black_Americans_attacked_in_Memphis_Riot_of_1866.jpgFoundation Memphis. Congress passed “An Act to establish a Bureau for the Relief of Freedmen and Refugees” to provide food, shelter, clothing, medical services, and land to displaced Southerners, including newly freed Wikimedia 1865 Freedmen's Bureau African Americans. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Certificate_of_Matrimony_from_the_Freedmen%27s_Bureau.gif/220px-Certificate_of_Matrimony_from_the_Freedmen%27s_Bureau.gifFoundation A peacful demonstration of black Freedmen were engaged by a mob New Orleans Massacre of white rioters who were soldiers Wikimedia Rioting that happened during 1866 of 1866 from the Confederacy. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RiotInNewOrleansMurderingNegros1866.jpegFoundation Massacre. Starting in 1865 and 1866, the laws were designed to replace the social controls of slavery that had been removed by the Emancipation Proclamation and the Thirteenth 1865 Black Code Amendment to the Constitution. https://sheg.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/styles/content_image/public/lessons/2017-11/Reconstruction.jpg?itok=ULKYu20mStanford University Congress passed on July 2, 1864; it required not 10 percent but a majority of the white male citizens in each Southern state to participate in the reconstruction process, and it insisted upon an oath of past, not just of future, loyalty. This was vetoed by Wikimedia 1864 Wade-Davis Bill Abraham Lincoln https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Wade%E2%80%93Davis_Bill_%28final%29.jpgFoundation [1] (Required, except for 'title' type) [2] (Optional) [3] (Optional) [4] (Optional) [5] (Optional) [6] (Optional) [7] (Optional) [8] (Optional) [9] (Optional) Overrides TimelineJS date formatting and displays the contents of this cell instead. [10] (Optional) [11] (Optional) [12] (Optional) can be a link to: youtube, vimeo, soundcloud, dailymotion, instagram, twit pic, twitter status, google plus status, wikipedia, or an image [13] (Optional) [14] (Optional) [15] (Optional) Link to a image file. The image should be no larger than 32px x 32px. [16] (Optional) This indicates which slide is the title slide. You can also set era slides but please note that era slides will only display headlines and dates (no media) [17] (Optional) Groups are a way to show events that are related to one another [18] (Optional) Change the slide background by entering a hexadecimal color (#333333) or an image url (http://knightlab.northwestern.edu/wp- content/uploads/2015/03/front-page-image.jpg).
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Accountability Under the Freedmen's Bureau's Labour-Contract System
    1 Contracting, property rights and liberty: accountability under the Freedmen’s Bureau’s labour-contract system Abstract Purpose – The paper focuses on the labour contract system (LCS) established by the Freedmen’s Bureau (FB) after the American Civil War to normalise relations between freed slaves and their former masters and to uphold their rights as free citizens. In particular, it explains the lack of accountability of employers under the LCS and how this contributed to the system’s failure. Design/methodology/approach – The paper adopts an archive-based approach to develop and illustrate the labour contracting relationship between freed persons and property owners and the role accounting played in sustaining this relationship in the immediate post bellum period. Findings – The paper finds that the LCS was coercive compared to contemporary business practice in the U.S.; did not conform to the high ideals of contracting as portrayed by the abolition movement; and was adopted by default rather than design. In the event, the reluctance of the federal government to infringe individual autonomy by imposing an over-arching system of regulation to hold employers to account for upholding their contractual obligations prevailed over the desire to defend the freed-people’s property rights. Research limitations/implications – This research examines the relationship between labour contracting and property rights as well as the role of accounting in sustaining racial prejudice against freed persons after the American Civil War. As in many archive-based studies, illustrations are selective and not randomised. Originality/value – The paper examines the various accountings and accountabilities within the LCS in the context of the underlying ideological tensions and priorities in post-conflict U.S.
    [Show full text]
  • The African American Experience in the City of Memphis, 1860-1870
    THE AFRICAN AMERICAN EXPERIENCE IN THE CITY OF MEMPHIS, 1860-1870 by Nicholas Joseph Kovach A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts Major: History The University of Memphis May 2012 DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to my father, Ronald Joseph Kovach, my mother, Linda Marie Ireland, and my niece, Emily Elizabeth Hilkert. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my thesis advisor, Dr. Arwin Smallwood, for his guidance, patience, and support. Without him, this thesis could truly not have been written. I would also like to thank Dr. Aram Goudsouzian and Dr. Charles Crawford for their valuable insight and support. Finally, I would like to give a special thanks to Dr. Richard Rupp for the initial spark that inspired me to become a historian. iii ABSTRACT Kovach, Nicholas Joseph. M.A. The University of Memphis. May 2012. The African American Experience in Memphis, 1860-1870. Major Professor: Dr. Smallwood. This is a study of African Americans in Memphis, Tennessee. The primary focus is on the transition from slavery to freedom, 1860-1870, and how the changing social structure affected and was influenced by African American agency. City, county, federal and state records were used. Specifically, the Memphis Public Library, University of Memphis Special Collections, and Shelby County Archives served as sources of information. Additionally, a comprehensive bibliography of secondary sources was examined and utilized. Unique conditions existed in Memphis. Since its founding, extremely oppressive conditions existed for slaves and free people of color, which created a resonating struggle for the African American community.
    [Show full text]
  • Four Roads to Emancipation: Lincoln, the Law, and the Proclamation Dr
    Copyright © 2013 by the National Trust for Historic Preservation i Table of Contents Letter from Erin Carlson Mast, Executive Director, President Lincoln’s Cottage Letter from Martin R. Castro, Chairman of The United States Commission on Civil Rights About President Lincoln’s Cottage, The National Trust for Historic Preservation, and The United States Commission on Civil Rights Author Biographies Acknowledgements 1. A Good Sleep or a Bad Nightmare: Tossing and Turning Over the Memory of Emancipation Dr. David Blight……….…………………………………………………………….….1 2. Abraham Lincoln: Reluctant Emancipator? Dr. Michael Burlingame……………………………………………………………….…9 3. The Lessons of Emancipation in the Fight Against Modern Slavery Ambassador Luis CdeBaca………………………………….…………………………...15 4. Views of Emancipation through the Eyes of the Enslaved Dr. Spencer Crew…………………………………………….………………………..19 5. Lincoln’s “Paramount Object” Dr. Joseph R. Fornieri……………………….…………………..……………………..25 6. Four Roads to Emancipation: Lincoln, the Law, and the Proclamation Dr. Allen Carl Guelzo……………..……………………………….…………………..31 7. Emancipation and its Complex Legacy as the Work of Many Hands Dr. Chandra Manning…………………………………………………..……………...41 8. The Emancipation Proclamation at 150 Dr. Edna Greene Medford………………………………….……….…….……………48 9. Lincoln, Emancipation, and the New Birth of Freedom: On Remaining a Constitutional People Dr. Lucas E. Morel…………………………….…………………….……….………..53 10. Emancipation Moments Dr. Matthew Pinsker………………….……………………………….………….……59 11. “Knock[ing] the Bottom Out of Slavery” and Desegregation:
    [Show full text]
  • The Irish, White Racial Identity, and the 1866 Memphis Riots
    'This is the White Man's Day': The Irish, White Racial Identity, and the 1866 Memphis Riots Barrington Walker' May 1, 1866 marked the beginning of a series of riots that rocked south Memphis for three days. The principal actors in these skirmishes were decom- missioned black Union troops, newly emancipated African American civilians, and a cross section of members of the city's Irish community. By the time the commanding officer in Memphis - General George Stoneman - was able to restore the peace, the south side of Memphis lay in ruins. The city's African American community in particular bore the brunt of the destructive force of the riot. The effects of the riot on Memphis' African American community are well documented in the House of Representatives committee report of the Thirty- Ninth Congress. On the basis of the testimony of a hundred and seventy wit- nesses, the committee was able to conclude that forty-six African Americans were murdered (as opposed to only two whites), seventy five African Americans were wounded, five African American women were raped, one hundred African Americans were "maltreated," one hundred were robbed, ninety-one homes in the black community - along with four churches - were burned, and twelve school houses destroyed. In total $130,981 worth of damage was inflicted upon the African American community as well as on various federal government properties and agen~ies.~ The existing historiography of the Memphis riot has tended to focus main- ly on themes such as "interracial hostility" and the role of white
    [Show full text]
  • Reconsidering the Role of the Irish in the Memphis Race Riot of 1866 by Millie Worley
    Reconsidering the Role of the Irish in the Memphis Race Riot of 1866 By Millie Worley On May 1, 1866, Memphis erupted in racial violence. That afternoon two horse- drawn hacks collided. One was driven by a white man and the other by a black man.1 The two men argued and eventually came to blows over the accident. White Memphis police officers John O’Neal, David Carroll, and James Finn, accompanied by former police officer John Stephens, attempted to arrest the black man, but a nearby group of African-American federal soldiers prevented the arrest. The two groups separated, promising to meet again to settle the matter. During that initial conflict, Stephens received a fatal wound. By nightfall, another group of federal troops, probably white, had restored order.2 A few white police officers returned to the scene that same night with reinforcements, but the black soldiers had already returned to nearby Fort Pickering. Army officers did not allow the black soldiers to leave after they had arrived at the fort, and most of the soldiers had already surrendered their weapons. The vast majority of the population of South Memphis (the African-American community around Fort Pickering) did not have weapons to defend themselves, and without the protection of the black soldiers the community had no protection from the mostly armed white mob.3 The white group split up and began wreaking havoc in the black community.4 1 James Gilbert Ryan, “The Memphis Riot of 1866: Terror in a Black Community During Reconstruction,” Journal of Negro History, 62 (1977): 243, 246; Jack Holmes, “The Underlying Causes of the Memphis Riot of 1866,” Tennessee Historical Quarterly, 17 (1958): 195.
    [Show full text]
  • Complete List of Contents
    COMPLETE LIST OF CONTENTS Contents ....................................................................... v Slavery and women .................................................... 69 Complete List of Contents ������������������������������������������ ix Slavery and race relations .......................................... 72 Slavery and the justice system ................................... 74 Volume 1 Stereotypes ................................................................. 77 OVERVIEWS West Indians ............................................................... 79 African-American cultural impact on US culture ........ 3 Black church ................................................................ 5 Agriculture ................................................................... 7 CHRONOLOGY OF EVENTS Sports ......................................................................... 10 The Middle Passage to American Slavery ................. 83 Literature .................................................................... 13 Africans Arrive in Virginia ........................................ 86 Science and technology .............................................. 15 Virginia Slave Codes .................................................. 87 Cowboys .................................................................... 18 Charles Town Is Founded .......................................... 89 Cubans and African Americans .................................. 18 Expansion of the Atlantic Slave Trade Demographic trends ..................................................
    [Show full text]
  • An Exploratory Study on the Attractiveness of Memphis, TN to Relocating Or Expanding Employers
    University of Tennessee, Knoxville TRACE: Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange Supervised Undergraduate Student Research Chancellor’s Honors Program Projects and Creative Work 5-2012 Does Memphis Have a Fighting Chance: An Exploratory Study on the Attractiveness of Memphis, TN to Relocating or Expanding Employers Melissa Bailey Molteni [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_chanhonoproj Part of the Business Commons Recommended Citation Molteni, Melissa Bailey, "Does Memphis Have a Fighting Chance: An Exploratory Study on the Attractiveness of Memphis, TN to Relocating or Expanding Employers" (2012). Chancellor’s Honors Program Projects. https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_chanhonoproj/1493 This Dissertation/Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Supervised Undergraduate Student Research and Creative Work at TRACE: Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange. It has been accepted for inclusion in Chancellor’s Honors Program Projects by an authorized administrator of TRACE: Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Does Memphis Have a Fighting Chance? An Exploratory Study on the Attractiveness of Memphis, TN to Relocating or Expanding Employers By: Melissa Molteni Advisor: Dr. Donald Bruce, Professor, Department of Economics University of Tennessee-Knoxville Spring 2012 ABSTRACT The focus of this study is on analyzing the attractiveness of Memphis, TN to companies that are looking to relocate or expand. This analysis examines the criteria that are used to evaluate “business-friendly” environments of cities, how Memphis ranks based on these criteria compared to competing cities, and what critical issues could hinder Memphis’s competitive expansion. The results confirm that Memphis is a top competitor in logistical infrastructure; yet, they also demonstrate that the future growth of Memphis’ business environment depends on its ability to invest in the education of its workforce and in crime reduction.
    [Show full text]
  • Rape in the Civil War and Reconstruction
    Wofford College Digital Commons @ Wofford Student Scholarship 4-30-2021 They Done a Very Bad Act: Rape in the Civil War and Reconstruction Nora Elizabeth Grace Williams Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.wofford.edu/studentpubs Part of the United States History Commons, and the Women's History Commons They Done a Very Bad Act: Rape in the Civil War and Reconstruction Nora Elizabeth Grace Williams Department of History, Wofford College In Partial Fulfillment of An Honors Thesis in History April 30, 2021 Committee Members: Dr. Tracy Revels, Dr. Mark Byrnes, and Dr. Nancy Williams Accepted by the Department of History as fulfilling the senior honors thesis. ________________________________________ Tracy J. Revels, Ph.D., Chairperson ________________________________________ Mark S. Byrnes, Ph.D. ________________________________________ Nancy M. Williams, Ph.D. Acknowledgements There are many people to whom I am immensely grateful for their continued support and encouragement of my work throughout this project. First and foremost, I owe my sincerest thanks to my thesis advisor, Dr. Tracy Revels, who spent countless hours with me over Zoom calls for the last year providing guidance and direction in my research and writing. There was never a moment when she doubted my ability to complete this project, and her kindness and encouragement has sustained me through the most difficult times in this research. Dr. Revels was often my voice of reason, and I am eternally grateful for her confidence in me as a student. I would also like to thank Dr. Mark Byrnes and Dr. Nancy Williams who complete this extraordinary committee, and both of whom I am grateful to have worked with closely during my time at Wofford College.
    [Show full text]
  • The Reconstruction Era
    THE RECONSTRUCTION ERA UNIT 3 BACKGROUND INFORMATION THEME ! THEME 2 How did the period of Reconstruction bring promise and progress for Black Americans? Reconstruction was a relatively short-lived era In addition to providing social and economic aid, following the Civil War that lasted from 1865 to the U.S. Congress also laid the legal and political 1877. During this time, many Americans grappled foundation for equality by passing the Recon- with the dramatic social, economic and political struction Amendments. The 13th Amendment, changes that were taking place in the nation. With the end of legal chattel slavery came many involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for questions related to the rights and opportunities crime…shall exist within the United States.” This for formerly enslaved people. They were now in charge of their own destinies. How would they addressed in the U.S. Constitution (though the move from chains to productive citizenship? phrase “except as punishment for crime” created a loophole that would later be used to persecute build independent lives be thwarted? Black people). The 14th 1868, granted former enslaved people citizenship The Reconstruction era was a time of great pos- rights, and “equal protection of the laws.” The 15th established the “Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen enslaved Black men the right to vote, stating: “The and Abandoned Lands,” with the goal of helping right of citizens of the United States to vote shall millions of “former black slaves and poor whites not be denied or abridged by the United States or in the South in the aftermath of the Civil War.”1 by any State on account of race, color, or previous The Freedmen's Bureau provided food, housing, condition of servitude.” By enacting these amend- medical aid, education and legal assistance to formerly enslaved people.
    [Show full text]
  • Amicus Briefs
    No. 19-292 IN THE Supreme Court of the United States ROXANNE TORRES, Petitioner, v. JANICE MADRID AND RICHARD WILLIAMSON, Respondents. On Writ of Certiorari to the United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit BRIEF OF AMICUS CURIAE NAACP LEGAL DEFENSE & EDUCATIONAL FUND, INC. IN SUPPORT OF PETITIONER SHERRILYN A. IFILL DANIEL HARAWA Director-Counsel Of Counsel JANAI S. NELSON NAACP LEGAL DEFENSE & SAMUEL SPITAL EDUCATIONAL FUND, INC. JIN HEE LEE* 700 14TH ST, NW SUITE 600 KEVIN E. JASON WASHINGTON, DC 20005 ASHOK CHANDRAN NAACP LEGAL DEFENSE & Counsel for Amicus Curiae NAACP Legal Defense & EDUCATIONAL FUND, INC. Educational Fund, Inc. 40 Rector St., 5th Floor New York, NY 10006 *Counsel of Record (212) 965-2200 [email protected] February 7, 2020 i TABLE OF CONTENTS Page(s) TABLE OF AUTHORITIES ..................................... iii INTEREST OF AMICUS CURIAE ............................ 1 INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY OF ARGUMENT ......................................................... 2 ARGUMENT ............................................................... 5 I. A Police Officer’s Discharge of A Firearm Is A Quintessential Fourth Amendment Seizure................................................................... 5 II. The Decision Below Risks Eviscerating the Primary Vehicles for Ensuring Accountability for Egregious Police Misconduct. ........................................................... 8 III. Preserving This Court’s Longstanding Precedent Regarding Fourth Amendment Seizure Is Especially Important Given Law Enforcement’s Historically Oppressive Use of Weapons in African- American Communities. ..................................... 12 A. Law Enforcement Historically Employed Oppressive Practices, Including Use of Firearms, to Control and Intimidate African Americans Before and After Emancipation. ................. 12 B. African-American Civil Unrest in the Mid-Twentieth Century, a Response in ii Part to Unconstitutional Police Violence, Led to the Expansive Use of Weaponry by Police. .................................... 17 C.
    [Show full text]
  • The Enforcement Acts, the Ku Klux Klan, and the Struggle Over Education in the Post-Bellum South
    Trinity College Trinity College Digital Repository Senior Theses and Projects Student Scholarship Spring 5-9-2011 “A General State of Terror”: The Enforcement Acts, the Ku Klux Klan, and the Struggle over Education in the Post-Bellum South Kathryn E. Murdock Trinity College, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalrepository.trincoll.edu/theses Part of the African American Studies Commons, American Literature Commons, American Material Culture Commons, Bilingual, Multilingual, and Multicultural Education Commons, Political History Commons, and the United States History Commons Recommended Citation Murdock, Kathryn E., "“A General State of Terror”: The Enforcement Acts, the Ku Klux Klan, and the Struggle over Education in the Post-Bellum South". Senior Theses, Trinity College, Hartford, CT 2011. Trinity College Digital Repository, https://digitalrepository.trincoll.edu/theses/1 “A General State of Terror”: The Enforcement Acts, the Ku Klux Klan, and the Struggle over Education in the Post-Bellum South Kathryn Murdock American Studies Program Senior Thesis Advisor: Louis P. Masur Spring 2011 Murdock 2 Table of Contents Acknowledgements ……………………………………………………………………....3 Prologue ……………………………………………………………………………….….4 Chapter 1: The Ku Klux Klan and the Enforcement Acts………………………….…....7 Chapter 2: The Testimony of Cornelius McBride: A Case Study………………...……36 Chapter 3: The Testimony Continues: Education in Post Bellum South……………….68 Epilogue ………………………………………………………………………………....88 Bibliography ………………………………………………………………………….…90 Murdock 3 Acknowledgements My mom and dad have always inspired me to be the best person I can be, and this thesis would not have been possible without their love and support. My mom is an invaluable editor and instilled in me a love for the well-worded sentence from a very early age.
    [Show full text]
  • A CRITICAL ANALYSIS Black Eco
    Real World Economic Development Academy A CRITICAL ANALYSIS: HOW AMERICA THROUGH ITS RACIST ACTS ATTEMPTED TO WIPE BLACKS OFF THE FACE OF THE EARTH ECONOMICALLY: How African American Economic Development was temporary, (I say temporarily because we are presently awakening the deep sleep of COWARDICE) ERADICATED in The United States of America - Real World Economic Development Academy (Real World EDA) www.realworldeda.com. First and foremost, in my hometown of New Orleans, New Orleans was the ORIGINAL BLACK WALL STREET IN AMERICA. Between 1865 and 1923, Blacks were at the height of Economic Development Success, until whites realized, they (Blacks) were the threat to their survival for economic superiority. Also make note, many Black progressive organizations in this era were on the move: The Colored National Labor Union, The National Afro-League, The Woman's Era, the first newspaper by and for African- American women, The Union League or Black and Tan faction, and Black Nationalist group, The UNIA, Marcus Garvey (originated "The Pan-African flag, also referred to as the UNIA flag, Afro- American flag or Black Liberation flag, consisting of three equal horizontal bands of colored RED, BLACK and GREEN, in New York City at a Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) conference, 1920, also within this era. On the flag, the RED stood for blood, both the blood shed by Africans who died in their fight for liberation and the shared blood of the AFRICAN PEOPLE. BLACK represents, Black people and GREEN, a symbol of growth and the natural fertility of 1865 til 1920 – The Era Blacks were Gaining Wealth and the Era Whites Destroyed it: The Turning Point for Black Economic Development in America! Blacks acquired more than 20 million acres of land during this time.
    [Show full text]