(ISSN 0043-6534) WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY

The State Historical Society ofWisconsin • Vol. 70, No. 3 • Spring, 1987 THE STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF WISCONSIN

H. NICHOLAS MULLER III, Director Officers MRS. L. PRENTICE EAGER, JR., President GERALD D. VISTE, Treasurer WILSON B. THIEDE, First Vice-President H. NICHOLAS MULLER in. Secretary GEORGE H. MILLER, Second Vice-President

THE STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF WISCONSIN is both a state agency and a private membership organization. Founded in 1846—two years before statehood—and chartered in 1853, it is the oldest American historical society to receive continuous public funding. By statute, it is charged with collecting, advancing, and disseminating knowledge ofWisconsin and of the trans-Allegheny West. The Society serves as the archive of the State of Wisconsin; it collects all manner of books, periodicals, maps, manuscripts, relics, newspapers, and aural and graphic materials as they relate to North America; it maintains a museum, library, and research facility in Madison as well as a statewide system of historic sites, school services, area research centers, and affiliated local societies; it administers a broad program of historic preservation; and publishes a wide variety of historical materials, both scholarly and popular. MEMBERSHIP in the Society is open to the public. Individual membership is $15, or $12.50 for persons over 65 or members of affiliated societies. Family membership is $20, or $15 for persons over 65 or members of affiliated societies. Contributing membership is $50; supporting, $100; sustaining, $200—500; patron, $500 or more. THE SOCIETY is governed by a Board of Curators which includes twenty-four elected members, the Governor or designee, three appointees of the Governor, a legislator from the majority and minority from each house, and ex officio, the President ofthe University of Wisconsin System, the designee ofthe Friends Coordinating Council, the President ofthe Wisconsin History Foundation, Inc., and the President ofthe Administrative Committee of the Wisconsin Council for Local History. A complete listing of the Curators appears inside the back cover.

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ON THE COVER: Arthur Henderson Smith and Grandfather "Hoe," Father Hoe, and Baby Hoe. The baby was the fourth generation of the family baptized by Dr. Smith. By permission ofthe Houghton Library, Harvard University. Volume 70, Number 3 / Spring, 1987 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY

Published quarterly by the State Historical Society ofWisconsin, 816 State Street, Madison, Arthur Henderson Smith and the American Wisconsin 53706. Distributed American Mission in China 163 to members as part of their dues. (Individual membership, Theodore D. Pappas $15, or $12.50 for those over 65 or members of affiliated societies; family membership, $20, or $15 for those over 65 or "Strikes Are War! War Is Hell!": American members of affiliated societies; Responses to the Compulsory Arbitration contributing, $50; supporting, $100; sustaining, $200-500; ofLabor Disputes, 1890-1920 108 patron, $500 or more.) Single Peter J. Coleman numbers from Volume 57 forward are $2. Microfilmed copies available through University Microfilms, 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Gentle Knight: Michigan 48106; reprints of Edwin Forrest Harding 211 Volumes 1 through 20 and most issues of Volumes 21 Thomas Doherty through 56 are available from Kraus Reprint Company, Route 100, Millwood, New York 10546. Communications should be Book Reviews 217 addressed to the editor. The Society does not assume Book Review Index 232 responsibility for statements made by contributors. Wisconsin History Checklist 233 Second-class postage paid at Madison, Wisconsin. Accessions 237 PO.STMASTER: Send address changes to Wisconsin Magazine of History, Madison, Wisconsin Contributors 240 53706. Copyright © 1987 by the State Historical Society of Wisconsin.

The Wisconsin Magazine of History is indexed annually by Editor the editors: cumulative indexes PAUL H. HASS are assembled decennially. In addition, articles are abstracted Associate Editors and indexed in America: History WILLIAM C. MARTEN and Life, Historical Abstracts, Index to Literature on the American JOHN O. HOLZHUETER Indian, and the Combined Retrospective Index to Journals in History, 1838-1974. Mrs. Arthur H. Smith and a Bible woman—Mrs. Hu. By permission ofthe Houghton Libraiy, Harvard University.

162 Arthur Henderson Smith and the American Mission in China

By Theodore D. Pappas

I STORY has largely forgotten Boxer Rebellion, he played a significant role in H Arthur Henderson Smith. Al­ influencing the President of the United States though he was a Protestant missionary in and, as it turned out, the course of Chinese- China for fifty-four years and the most promi­ American relations for more than a genera­ nent and prolific writer on China at the turn of tion. The date was March 6, 1906. President the century, he is rarely mentioned today even Theodore Roosevelt had agreed to meet at the in the footnotes and bibliographies of contem­ White House with the renowned missionary porary scholars. This is surprising, for his rep­ whose writings he admired and whose counsel utation was universal and his scholarship was he invited. beyond question. In his day he was known as Both men were in the prime of their ca­ "the American Statesman of China," and pres­ reers. Well into his second term, Roosevelt idents and diplomats the world over turned to had captured the world's attention and imagi­ his books for their information on Chinese af­ nation with his feats and his rhetoric. He had fairs.^ Nor was Smith merely an observer and defused a potentially explosive coal miners' commentator on the Celestial Empire. At one strike in Pennsylvania, "bullied" the Germans pivotal point in history, just after the so-called out of Venezuela, "taken" Panama and begun the canal, dominated the election campaign of 1904, challenged the trusts, denounced the "muckrakers," invigorated the conservation AUTHOR'S NOTE: I owe a word of thanks to the members of movement, and negotiated the treaty that the Beloit College history department, who critiqued an ended the Russo-Japanese War and earned earlier and much-abbreviated draft of this paper; to Pro­ him the Nobel Peace Prize for 1906. Roosevelt fessor Robert Irrmann of Beloit College, who supplied me was the most popular personality in the with a generous amount of knowledge ofthe college's past and who gave me the picture of Smith and his son; to Pro­ United States and one of the most powerful fessor Wade Provo of Rockford College; to Professor men in the world. David Buck of the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Arthur Henderson Smith had likewise and Charles Hayford of Northwestern University, who reached the zenith of his career. He had be­ suggested research sources; to Wallace Dailey of Harvard University, who responded to my queries about Smith's come the most respected authority on China correspondence with Theodore Roosevelt; to Professor of the early twentieth century, and he had Bernard Bailyn of Harvard, whose signature enabled me written the most widely read and influential to complete my research on time; and to the research li­ brarians and archivists at the Andover-Harvard Theolog­ ical Library, Beloit College Archives, Harvard-Yenching Library, Houghton Library, and the Library of Congress, 'The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign who graciously accommodated my requests for books and Missions (ABCFM) gave Smith this title during his speak­ manuscripts. ing tour of the United States in early 1906.

Copyright © 1987 by The State Historical Society ofWisconsin. 163 All rights of reproduction in any form reserved WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1987

Smith was nearly sixty-one at the time ofthe meeting, and his receded hair, whitened beard, and controlled demeanor stood him in stark contrast to the ex-Rough Rider with his famous face and infamous temper. Smith w-as fatherly and affable in manner, serious and in­ tellectual in character. Neither the opulence of the White House nor the aura cast by the President daunted him from the business at hand. Firm in conviction and confident in ap­ proach. Smith seized the opportunity to set forth a plan designed to solidify friendly rela­ tions between China and the United States. He was known for his ability to hold "his acquaint­ ances at command for use as occasions de­ mand," and Smith described his plan with power and persuasion."* "I agree with you ex­ actly," exclaimed Roosevelt repeatedly. "Now tell me what you want me to do."-' Smith explained, and Roosevelt was swayed. The meeting lasted little more than thirty minutes. What resulted would affect the course of Chinese-,American relations for more than thirty years.

MITH was born in the small town Arthur Henderson Smith, about the time he left for China in S of Vernon, Connecticut, on July 1872. By permission of the Houghton Library, Harvard 18,1845. His family was modest in wealth but University. rich in respectability, and he was descended book on China ofthe day: Chinese Characteris­ from a distinguished line of scholars, clergy­ tics (1890). Published in numerous languages men, and philanthropists. His father, the Rev. and editions, it traveled the globe for decades Albert Smith, was a well-respected pastor in as the foremost study of Chinese affairs and Williamstown, Massachusetts, and his grand­ culture.^ Smith had also written the much- father, a pastor in Greenwich, Connecticut, heralded Cinna in Convulsion (1901), a two- had become president of Marietta College in volume set that the President considered the Ohio. Smith's mother descended from the dis­ best book on China ever written. As Roosevelt tinguished Stoddard family of Northampton, w-rote to Smith in 1906: "... I feel that I have Massachusetts, and was a direct descendent of got far and away more real information as to the famed Solomon Stoddard—a fiery Puritan China out of them than out of any others that I preacher who was Jonathan Edwards' mater­ have ever read."-^ nal grandfather and predecessor in the

^For one of the lew analyses of Smith's writings, see •"Letter of recommendation for Smith from A. L. Cha- Charles W. Hayford's excellent studv, "Chinese and pin, president of Beloit College, to the Rev. S. B. Treat of American Characteristics: Arthur H. Smith and His the .A.BCFM, January 9, 1872, in ABC:6, vol. 31, ABCFM China Book," in Suzanne Wilson Barnett and John King Manuscripts (hereinafter ABCFM Mss), Houghton Li­ Fairbank, eds., Christianity in China: Early Protestant Mis­ brary, Harvard University. .All quotations from the sionary Writings (C-eimhT'idge, 1985), 153-174. ABC:FM MSS are by permission ofthe Houghton Library 'Roosevelt to Smith, March 16, 1906, m series 2, vol. 62 and the United Church Board for World Ministries. (microfilm reel 341), Theodore Roosevelt Papers, Library ^"Theodore Roosevelt and Arthur Smith," in the Mis­ of Congress. sionary Herald, 121:4-5 (January, 1925). 164 PAPPAS: ARTHUR HENDERSON SMITH

Northampton pulpit, one of New England's most powerful and prestigious parishes. Her uncles were Arthur and Lewis Tappan, the affluent philanthropist-merchants of New York City.6 Arthur Smith spent his early years in Illi­ nois. His father's health had deteriorated rap­ idly by the early 1850's, and the severe New England climate merely accentuated his dif­ ficulties. This prompted the family's move in the autumn of 1855 to Godfrey, Illinois, a small town just north of St. Louis. Godfrey housed the Monticello Seminary, where Smith's father became pastor of the seminary church. Smith's father died in the spring of 1863. As his son later wrote, "this necessitated my making specific plans for future study, my brother having already begun to learn a trade." After teaching elementary school for a brief time. Smith decided to attend college. He considered four "western colleges": Wabash, / Marietta, Illinois, and Beloit. He then wrote to his Uncle Henry Smith at Lane Seminary out­ , ( side Cincinnati, asking his opinion ofthe four 1. * schools. Having long known and respected . ^•.. one of Beloit's most distinguished professors, James J. Blaisdell, he responded swiftly and predictably: "Beloit I can quite confidently recommend." Smith heeded his uncle's advice Emma J ane Dickinson Smith, also about 1872. By permission of and enrolled in Beloit College for the spring the Houghton Library, Harvard University. term of 1864.7 The Civil War soon interrupted his studies. "We had scarcely begun the spring term," re­ discharged in September, just in time to begin called Smith, "when there was a ringing call the fall term. for 75,000 One Hundred Day Men to relieve Graduating with honors in 1867, Smith re­ the soldiers that were doing picket duty, etc., turned to New England. He immediately fol- and might better be at the front. . . . Fiery lo-vv-ed his father's career path and enrolled in meetings were held every evening . . . rousing Andover Theological Seminary. His room­ addresses were made, and enlistments be­ mate at Andover was Henry Porter—a native gun."** Receiving a bounty of ten dollars. of Green Bay, Wisconsin, who had served in Smith enlisted with the Fortieth Wisconsin the army with Smith and become Smith's clos­ Volunteers in May and that summer partici­ est friend at Beloit. Inseparable throughout pated in the campaigns in Tennessee. He was their college days and wartime experiences. Smith and Porter continued their intimate friendship on the East Coast as they prepared ''Arthur H. Smith, "Arthur Henderson Smith" and "Outline ofthe Early Life Story of A. H. S. Beloit Class of together for missionary service abroad.^ 1867," both in the Alumni Files, Beloit College Archives. China was their desired destination. As 'Henry D. Porter, "Arthur Smith in Microscope," Jan­ Smith wrote in 1869 to the Rev. N. G. Clark of uary, 1908, in ABC; 16.3.12, vol. 23, ABCFM Mss, the American Board of Commissioners for Houghton Library; Smith, "Outline of the Early Life Story," Alumni Files, Beloit College Archives. Foreign Missions (ABCFM): "I am committed "Smith, "Outline of Early Life Story," Alumni Files, Beloit College Archives. nbid. 165 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 198'

... to the Chinese mission, provided I am dies would have been out of the water all the wanted. It would be the greatest disappoint­ time!"i2 ment of my life if I cannot go."'° Porter com­ pleted his studies at Andover in 1870, but Smith yearned for a taste of "city life" and HE three arrived in Tientsin in transferred in 1869 to Union Theological August of 1872. They found a Seminary in New York City, earning his de­ T' China torn by civil strife and political disorder. gree the following year. Embracing the com­ Turmoil abounded, despite the many reforms mon notion of the day that medical training which China had enacted during the Self- was sine qua non for missionary service abroad. Strengthening Movement ofthe 1860's. China Smith and Porter next attended a series of lec­ had introduced modern agricultural meth­ tures at the College of Physicians and Sur­ ods, initiated tax reform, opened new schools geons in New- York. While awaiting their mis­ and libraries, begun mining and textile indus­ sionary appointments, they returned to the tries, built new ships and harbors, reorganized Midwest and eventually settled in Chicago. the military, and united vast portions of the During this period, Arthur Smith married empire with a labyrinth of railroad and tele­ Emma Jane Dickinson, a native of Mt. Zion graph lines. The serious problems which per­ (Crawford County), Wisconsin, who also as­ sisted, however, meant that these small but pired to a missionary career. Porter attended significant steps towards modernization had classes at Chicago Medical College while Smith little chance for lasting success. Powerful fac­ worked in a south side parish. The Great Fire tions within the government remained pe­ of 1871 drove them out and left them "drift­ trified in Neo-Confucian orthodoxy and sty­ ing about for several months." Both were or­ mied attempts at further reform; corruption dained by the Congregational church in early ran rampant; smallpox, diphtheria, typhus, 1872, and then Smith and Porter received the and cholera were rife; the empire teetered on long-awaited news: the ABCFM had assigned territorial dismemberment; drought, famine, them to the North China Mission." and floods ravaged the countryside; and soci­ After a brief farewell meeting in Boston ety still reeled from the effects of the Taiping with other members of the ABCFM, Smith Rebellion and the Tientsin Massacre of 1870, and Porter boarded a train for San Francisco. in which a mob had destroyed an orphanage They were accompanied by Smith's new bride. and cathedral, murdered ten nuns and a Their enthusiasm ran high as they prepared priest, and killed and mutilated several to depart on the greatest adventure of their French residents.'^ lives. Indeed, the sense of adventure was Yet, in one respect, it was an advantageous heightened by the vessel they sailed on—an time for Westerners to enter China. The sign­ antiquated paddle-wheel steamer of the type ing of the Treaties of Tientsin in 1858 and the on w-hich one expected to see Huckleberry supplementary Convention of Peking in 1860 Finn traveling down the Mississippi. "The ab­ had significantly upgraded the status of for­ surdity of putting such a vessel on an ocean eigners in China and enabled Western powers route was evident," noted Smith. "We had to extend their control far into the interior of good weather, but in a storm one of the pad- China. Diplomats of foreign governments were to be appointed to the Manchu Court '"Smith to Clark, May 10, 1869, in ABC:6, vol. 31, and might now, for the first time in Chinese ABCFM Mss, Houghton Library. history, reside in Peking; eleven new ports "Arthur H. Smith, "For the Class Letter; One Hun­ dredth Issue," September, 1921, in the Alumni Files, Be­ loit College Archives; Chapin to Treat, January 9, 1872, '^Smith, "For the Class Letter," Alumni Files, Beloit ABC;6, vol. 31, ABCFM Mss, Houghton Library. Porter College Archives. and Smith eventually received additional degrees. Porter "Arthur H. Smith, "How Mission Work Looked When received his M.D. from Chicago Medical College in 1872, I Came to China," in the Chinese Recorder, 55:9 (January, and Beloit College honored him with a D.D. degree in 1924). For an analysis of China's Self-Strengthening 1890. Smith received an honorary D.D. degree from Be­ .Movement, see Immanuel C. Y. Hsu, The Rise of Modern loit College in 1895. C/ima (New York, 1970), 317-318, 336-352. 166 ».,-,M''!, 1 ihrdr\ ot (-onjrress A Street m Peking, 1860. The .sign above the horse and cart is for an inn. were opened to foreign trade, among them Christians in the Celestial Empire, both West­ the all-important harbors of Tientsin, near the ern missionaries and Chinese converts. Mis­ capital, and Shanghai, the protector of China's sionaries were suddenly free to travel, preach, main artery, the Yangtze Valley; and for­ acquire property, and establish residencies eigners were now afforded the privilege of virtually anywhere in China. Not surprisingly, traveling beyond the area of the treaty ports. '^ Protestant and Catholic missions quickly took These treaties materialized at a time when advantage of the situation and penetrated the West was growing increasingly interested nearly every province in the years after 1860. in missionary activity. Just as the wealth pro­ Although there were only a few hundred Prot­ duced by the Industrial Revolution furnished estant missionaries in China when Smith ar­ the means for the West to establish and sup­ rived in 1872, there were nearly 1,300 by port missions abroad, a revival in Roman Ca­ 1890, principally from Great Britain, but also tholicism (following the Napoleonic Wars) from the United States. The number of Prot­ and in Protestantism (a result ofthe Evangeli­ estant communicants rose steadily as well, cal Movement ofthe early nineteenth century) from approximately 5,700 in 1869 to over provided the incentive for Christians of all 55,000 in 1893.15 faiths to spread their messages throughout the world. These treaties greatly facilitated mis­ sionary service in China, for, in addition to the '•"Hsu, The Rise of Modern China, 258-265. trade and the political agreements mentioned '^Kenneth Scott Latourette, The Chinese: Their History above, thev afforded full toleration to all anrfCa/tarc (2 vols.. New York, 1934), 1:39.S. 167 -WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1987

The Smiths and Porter joined a host of that the Chinese were as intelligent and as cul­ other missionaries in Tientsin. The foreign turally oriented as any race, if not more so. But settlement consisted of the London Mission, without moral conviction—which could only the American Board, the Methodist New Con­ derive from "the one, true religion"— nexion, and the American Methodist Mission. intelligence w-ould be squandered and culture The missions had adjoining premises, "like corrupted. In other words, from the perspec­ four fingers on a hand, only a boundary -wall tive of the missionary community, internal re­ separating each from its neighbor." Although forms and Western technology might mod­ the missionaries tended to use the same, tradi­ ernize Chinese society and eradicate cultural tional methods by which to spread the Word— backwardness, but if achieved in a moral preaching, personal contact, and the printed vacuum—without the concomitant develop­ page—cooperation among the various mis­ ment of moral character, without individual sions was rare. As Smith noted, "each went [its] conviction and devodon to a higher cause—all own way with no apparent cognizance of the accomplishments and progress would be for others." The mission compound included a naught. "What China needs is righteousness," school for the children, a dispensary for the Smith insisted, and "it w-ill be met perma­ distribution of medicine, and Western-style nently, completely, only by Christian civiliza­ houses and gardens for the missionary fami­ tion."'^ lies. Each mission also had its own church, or Protestant missionaries moved principally "street-chapel," in or on the outskirts of Tient­ among the commoners of Chinese society. sin, The chapels usually were comprised of a Smith claimed that 95 per cent of his auditors few wooden benches, a raised dais, a black­ w-ere farmers, rebels, coolies, barbers, loafers, board displaying the sermon of the day, and and yamen-runners. Whether preaching in tables filled with Bibles and tracts. They were the congested street-chapels of Tientsin or in often located on the narrow and congested the disease-ridden countryside of Shantung thoroughfares of the market areas, and they (as he did after 1874), Smith's maxim was: were open to all comers; as rice-sellers, musi­ "Christianity always and everywhere begins cians and ox carts thronged the streets of the with the lowest stratum of society and works marketplace, beggars and peasants, chickens upward."'-' This approach w-as in direct con­ and dogs freely roamed in and out of the trast to that taken by the Jesuit missionaries in street-chapels. Smith wrote that a "motley as- China during the sixteenth and seventeenth scjrtment of gazers" wandered into the centuries. The Jesuits believed that the only chapels: "Tired coolies who wished to rest effective way to bring "the greater glory of their legs, idle yamen-runners [governmental God" to China was first to win favor with the office clerks] . . . and loafers, attracted by the heathen ruling class—the governmental wide open doors and the comfortable seats officials, scholars, and other literati who w-ere within."'*' the mainstays of Chinese society and the Con- Although denominations and missions of­ fucion ideal—and, then, by their conversion, ten differed over points of dogma, two ideas secure the Christianization of the people at remained paramount among Protestants of all large.^° This elitist, but time-honored, method faiths: China was a heathen nation in desper­ of evangelization was probably the safest and ate need of God and righteousness, and it was the divine duty of the missionary to bring about China's moral rebirth. "What the Chi­ "Arthur H. Smith, Chinese CJharacteristics (New York, 1894 ed.), 316-317. nese lack," wrote Smith, "is not intellectual '^Ibid., 330. For a brief discussion of the missionary ability . . . [but] Character and Conscience."" community's general attitude towards the Chinese, see The missionary community had long known Franz Schurmann and Orville Schell, eds., The China Reader: Imperial China (New York, 1967), 269-271, '•'Arthur H. Smith, "The Best Method of Presenting '^Smith, "How Mission Work Looked," Chinese Re­ the Gospel to the Chinese," in the Chinese Recorder, corder, 55:12; see also Pat Barr, To China with Love: The 14.5:400 (September-October, 1883). Lives and Times of Protestant Missionaries in China, 1860- ^"Kenneth Scott Latourette, A History of Christian Mis­ 1900 (Garden City, 1973), 23, 59. sions in China (New York, 1929), 92-93.' 168 1

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> Iii" -..,-^fi wni(x:()4;i26o China, about 1910. most sagacious strategy open to the Jesuits of medicine, Chinese patients soon wondered that period, for they were protected by no law whether such Western healers did not also or treaty and were in the empire solely at the have religious truths worthy of attention.^^ sufferance ofthe Chinese government. How­ Accepting this challenge to heal both bocfies ever, the protection afforded Christians un­ and souls. Porter became a peripatetic doctor der the treaties of 1858 and 1860 offered mis­ in famine-stricken areas. "I have no doubt," he sionaries of the nineteenth century the wrote in 1881, "that we [missionaries] get a lit­ opportunity to exercise a more democratic ap­ tle stronger hold upon the people because one proach tow-ards the propagation of their faith. of us is, as the people say, 'A soar seer,' "'•^'^ Smith saw this access to the poor and unlet­ tered as the key to the missionary community's chances for success. As he wrote, Christianity was most powerful when it was "mingling with HILE Henry Porter traveled the poor and the low-ly as did the Master him­ w from mission to mission and self, upon a level with the poor and the lowly."^' ^'Smith, "The Best Method," Chinese Recorder, Missionaries combined the propagation of 14.5:401. their faith with a specific duty or occupation. '•^'•^Jesuit missionaries in CJhina during the sixteenth and In keeping with tradition, they emphasized seventeenth centuries often used their vast knowledge of education, medical work, and the distribution science and astronomy to wield influence with the court at of literature; and ofthe three endeavors, they Peking. Protestant missionaries employed the same evan­ gelization approach in China during the nineteenth cen­ considered medical work to be the most fruit­ tury by using medicine as a means of propagating their ful. Because they could relieve great suffering faith. Whether using mechanical clocks and astronomical and pain, physicians w-ere able to break down maps with the court at Peking or vaccinations and antisep­ many of the prejudices against the Christian tics in the countryside of Shantung, both Jesuit and Prot­ faith and to gain the confidence ofthe Chinese estant missionaries aroused Chinese curiosity with the wonders of Western science. in a way that missionary sermons and tracts ^•'Letter from Henry D. Porter tolheMts.sionaryHerald, could not. Witnessing the wonders of Western 77:307 (August, 1881).' 169 «" •''^^'n^mM

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"I iS-jau \VHi(X3)43259 A farm cottage in China, about 1910.

Emma Smith assisted in missionary schools (1899). He wrote dozens of articles for such and hospitals, Arthur Smith became the publications as the Celestial Empire (Shanghai), "keen-eyed observer" and recorder of Chi­ the China Mail (Hong Kong), the Chinese Re­ nese affairs and culture.^'* He wrote indefati- corder (Shanghai), the International Review of gably throughout his fifty-four years of com­ Missions (London), the Missionary Herald (Bos­ bined service in Tientsin, P'ang Chuang, ton), and the Outlook (New York). He also T'ung Chou, and T'ung Hsein. His early writ­ wrote countless stories and editorials for the ings were sociological in nature and anthropo­ North-China Daily News and Herald, China's logical in scope. Chinese art, dialect, dress, principal English-language paper. "Almost food, music, nomenclature, politics, religion, from my arrival in China," said Smith, "I was traditions, and work habits—all formed chap­ asked to act as correspondent."^-' ters in Smith's early writings. He described the Although the size of the missionary com­ overland journey ofthe tea-laden camel cara­ munity remained small compared to the bur­ vans and the river routes ofthe flat-bottomed geoning population of China as a whole, the trading boats; the donkey-pulled carriages of repercussions of their ministry were great. the city and the ox-pulled carts ofthe country­ Friction ran high between the missionary com­ side; the stench of burning opium and the munity and the non-Christian populace. The smell of wheaten bread-cakes. No aspect of source of the friction was fourfold. P4rst, be­ peasant life and Chinese culture escaped him. cause their work took them far into the inte­ His early missionary experiences were com­ rior of China, the missionary w-as the most visi­ piled in three major works: Proverbs and Com­ ble and accessible member of the foreign mon Sayings from the Chinese (1888), Chinese community. Not surprisingly, then, mission­ Characteristics (1890), and Village Life in China aries became the easiest target on which to vent antiforeign sentiment; to the Chinese

^-•Lucius C. Porter, ".4rthur Henderson Smith and Henry Dwight Porter," in the Beloit Alumnus, 21:7 (De­ ^''Arthur H. Smith, "Note on Literary Work of .\. H. cember, 1927). S,," in the .Alumni Files, Beloit (College Archives. 170 PAPPAS: ARTHUR HENDERSON SMITH who had long resented the territorial de­ and bloody persecutions. As foreign powers mands and gunboat diplomacy ofthe Western came to the defense of their nationals, the world, the missionary became the hated sym­ Manchu government sought to curb the activi­ bol of foreign power and aggression. Second, ties of the Christian community by modifying many Chinese took offense at the mission­ existing treaties. But Western governments aries' claim to ultimate truth and to their out­ rejected the modifications, and the status of spoken conviction that China was spiritually missionaries and their Chinese converts re­ empty and morally corrupt. (This did not sur­ mained virtually as outlined in the Treaties of prise Smith, w-ho WTote that "however the lofty Tientsin and Convention of Peking.^* claims of Christianity may be set forth, they Throughout the last quarter ofthe century, cannot fail in China, as they have failed else­ vile rumors circulated about Christian prac­ where, to give offense."^'') The members of tices. Missionary doctors reportedly extracted China's gentry class were particularly annoyed eyes and hearts for experimentation; for­ by missionary activity, for they were the soci­ eigners kidnapped and sexually molested Chi­ etal stalwarts oi Confucian values and ideas. nese children. "Tales of digging out the eyes Third, many Chinese resented the missionary of the sick and dying by foreigners under the community's degradation of long-standing pretense of curing the patients were univer­ Chinese customs and traditions, such as ances­ sally circulated . . . ," wrote Smith. "While tral worship and feng shut (the belief that in those better informed knew that the stories every locality forces exist that effect the well- were false, the people believed them, and so did being ofthe living and the dead). Finally, the many if not most ofthe officials."^^ special toleration given missionaries and their converts angered large segments of the Chi­ nese populace and officialdom alike. It was not uncommon for miscreants to accept conver­ HESE decades of fervent anti- sion merely to gain the privileges afforded T' Christian and antiforeign senti­ Christians in the empire. For example, tenants ment culminated in 1900 in what is known as involved in land disputes often converted to the Boxer Rebellion. Simply stated, the rebel­ Christianity and then complained to the mis­ lion was a government-supported peasant up­ sionary community that they were the victims rising which attempted to drive all foreigners of religious bias. The missionary, in return, from China.^" The peasant revolutionaries be­ would protest to the local magistrate in the longed to a secret society called I-Ho Ch'uan name of religious toleration; and the miscre­ ("Righteous and Harmonious Fists") and were ant well knew that a magistrate who refused a called "Boxers" because of their boxing-like missionary claim ran the high risk of removal rituals and calisthenics; they believed that from office. As a British attache WTOte: "The these strenuous physical exercises endcjwed mass of the upper classes regard the mission­ them with particular superhuman powers, aries as political agents and fear them. The such as the ability to block the penetration of poor know this, and look, in many cases, to the foreign bullets. Waving sabers and wearing missionary—the honest for protection, the red sashes and turbans, mobs of Boxers dishonest to further their own ends."^^ burned, butchered, raped, and pillaged every­ thing in their path. The Empress Dowager, Friction between the Christian and non- leader of the Manchu government, then per- Christian populace led to innumerable riots ^*'Latourette, History of Christian Missions, 468—472. ^''Smith, China in ('Amvulsion (2 vols.. New York, 1901), ^'Smith, "How Mission Work Looked," Chinese Re­ 1:40. corder, 55:9. ^'Cited in Victor Purcell, The Boxer Uprising: A Back­ '"Originally the Boxers sought merely the overthrow ground Study (Cyeimbridge, F.ngland, 1963), 124. For analy­ of the Manchu dynasty, and there remains much debate ses ofthe growth of anti-foreignism in China, see Paul A. over when this aim paled before the group's overriding Cohen, China and Christianity: The Missionary Movement and xenophobia. There is also much debate about how much the Growth of Chinese Antiforeignism, 1860—1870 (Cam­ of this xenophobia was directed against foreign mercan­ bridge, 1963), 127-148; and Latourette, A//!itor)'o/C/ira- tile interests in CJhina and how much was specifically anti- tian Mts.sions, 466—485. Christian. 171 A group of .American missionaries who were present during the B oxer siege of Peking. Smith and his wife Emma are in the back row: she is third from the left and he is second from the right. From Smith's China in Convulsion (1901). mitted ajoint attack by Boxer and government slaughtered hundreds of foreigners and Chi­ forces against the foreign legation quarters in nese converts. Smith and the others waited pa­ Peking. Some 3,000 diplomats, missionaries, tiently in the legation quarters for relief from and Chinese converts w-ere besieged in these abroad; and all the while, wrote Smith, "the quarters when fervent attacks began in June.'" heavens were aglow- with the lurid glare of Arthur Smith was in Peking during the burning buildings. . . ." summer of 1900, and he recorded the tumul­ 4 he difficulties ancl discomforts of life un­ tuous events of the Boxer Rebellion in a two- der siege mounted with the passage of each volume work entitled China in Convulsion. Al­ day. Flies infested the areas where horses and though Smith's proximity to the events mules were slaughered for food; unexploded prevented his writing an entirely accurate and shells, broken masonry, and glass littered the objective analvsis of the rebellion in general, courtyard; animal and human waste piled up his study w-as the most vivid and well- in the compound's canal. 4"he minister's office documented contemporary account of the of the U.S. Legation w-as in "dire confusion," fifty-five-day "Siege of Peking." As Boxers wrote Smith, "covered w-ith dust from the burned churches, pillaged missions, and bricks and glass broken bv bullets. Legal di­ gests. Congressional Records . . . overturned ink bottles, w-astepaper baskets and curtain "Chester C. Tan's The Boxer Catastrophe (.New York, poles litter the floor. . . ." An international re­ 1955) remains the definitive analysis ofthe Boxer Rebel­ lief force of American, Austrian, British, lion. George N. Sle'iger's China and the Occide?it CSew York, French, German, Italian, Japanese, and Rus­ 1926) was the leading scholarly study until Tan revealed the shaky ground on which many of Steiger's arguments sian troops finally arri\ed in China in July to stood. attempt a rescue. The allied army fought its 172 WHi(X3)4.'!261 The commercial day school at the YMC.A in Canton, 1910. way to Peking and defeated the Boxers on Au­ Having occupied Peking and defeated the gust 14. Venturing out into Peking a day or so Boxers, the allied forces now faced the dif­ after the relief. Smith wrote that "dead bodies ficult and laborious task of making peace and of soldiers lay singly or in heaps, in some in­ assessing damages. Except for a general con­ stances covered with a torn old mat . . . dead sensus on the need for China to punish Boxer dogs and dead horses poisoned the air of leaders and sympathizers and to pay a puni­ every region. 4"he huge pools of stagnant wa­ tive indemnity, the allies disagreed about how ter were reeking with putrid corpses of man to proceed and whom to include in the peace and beast; lean cats stared wildly at the pass­ talks. Not surprisingly, the rough harmony erby from holes broken in the front of which had prevailed during military opera­ shops. . . ." tions underwent severe strain when discus­ Smith delivered the keynote address at a sions began, for national interests differed service of thanksgiving on the Sunday after widely, with some powers advocating savage the siege had been lifted. In his speech, "4'he retribution and others urging restraint. Hand of God in the Siege at Peking," Smith Cries for s-wift, punitive action issued most stated that the siege and rescue were "fully vehemently from the foreign residents in and cofnprehensively anticipated in Psalm China, particularly from the missionary com­ cxxiv, especially the seventh verse, which w-as munity. For example. Dr. D. Z. Sheffield, a sent home as a telegram the day after relief member of the ABCFM, suggested eradicat­ came. We honour the living for their heroism ing "satanic wickedness" by executing the Em- in defending us. We cherish the inemory of the brave dead. But most of all we thank the Lord who brought us through fire and w-ater •«Smith, China in Convulsion, 1:237, 318; 2;508, 516, into a healthy place. "32 519-520. 173 Smith and his son in China, about 1885. Smith's son, Henry Dickinson Smith, graduated from Beloit C^ollege in 1902 and was a divinity student at Yale when he drowned m Lake Geneva, Wisconsin, on August 7, 1906. Photo courtesy Robert Irrmann, Beloit. press Dowager and her ministers as "a blessing cessive indemnity" might bankrupt China, to the future generations of China."•''^ U.S. Secretary of State John Hay pleaded for Not all missionaries agreed. 4"he need for restraint and urged the other powers to scale China to pay an indemnity, however, w-as as­ down their claims to China's ability to pay. Few sumed by everyone, without question. The listened to Hay, and "equitable indemnities" quandary, of course, centered on how, how paled before inflated claims and outright much, and to whom China would pay. I he fraud. The Italians, for example, charged an French called for "equitable indemnities," and exorbitant amount to reconstruct their lega­ everyone supported this—in theory. Magna­ tion, and the French and the Belgians bla­ nimity, ho-wever, was quickly lost amid the tantly double-charged China for the same vir­ scramble for concessions. Worried that an "ex­ tually undamaged railroad.'"

''Terence Eldon Brockhausen, "The Boxer Indem­ nity: Five Decades of Sino-American Dissension" (doc­ •'-'/ferf., 72, 109. See also John S. Kelley's A Forgotten toral dissertation, Texas Christian University, 1981), 33- Conference: The Negotiations at Peking, 1900-1901 (Geneva, 34. 1963). 174 PAPPAS: ARIHUR HENDERSON SMITH

FTER exhaustive negotiations, a sponded that the plan interested him greatly, A'protoco l of peace was signed on that he held Smith in high esteem, and that he September 7, 1901. In it, China agreed, personally would like to accompany Smith to among other things, to ban the importation of Washington to arrange for an interview with arms, to punish Boxer leaders and sympa­ the President. The ABCFM thereupon ex­ thizers, to allow the stationing of foreign cused Smith from further conferences so that troops between Peking and the sea, and to pay he could make the trip. Abbott -was unable to an indemnity of 450 million taels ($333 mil­ leave for Washington at that time, but he lion) to all pow-ers incurring losses as a result of asked his son, Lawrence Abbott, to accompany the uprising. The United States' share Smith.38 amounted to $24,440,778.81. It quickly be­ On March 6, 1906, Abbott and Smith had came apparent, however, that the losses lunch with the President at the White House. caused to American citizens and businesses, Roosevelt was entertainingly outspoken, con­ including the cost of sending the military ex­ fiding to his guests that "there has never in the pedition, amounted to no more than half the history of this country been so little corrup­ specified amount. The American indemnity tion," and calling Thomas Jefferson "the was clearly inflated, and American diplomats, greatest demagogue this country ever pro­ missionaries, and scholars in both China and duced, in comparison with whom William the United States began at once to press for a J[ennings] Bryan is only a pale understudy!" remission ofthe surplus.'^^ Then the men left Mrs. Roosevelt in the din­ Arthur Smith became intimately involved ing room and retreated to the parlor, where with the Boxer indemnity and remission dur­ Roosevelt invited Abbott and Smith to sit ing a visit to the United States in 1906. He re­ down and tell him about their ideas on the turned specifically to speak at the ABCEM's Boxer Indemnity. "The President," Smith series of winter conferences—the first at wrote his wife, "has a mind like an electrical Burlington, New Jersey, the second at St. machine—it is simply impossible to keep it Johnsbury, Vermont. In his addresses. Smith still, but it is so sensitive that the least magnet­ referred to the portion ofthe indemnity which ism moves it. I knew- exactly what I wanted to was in excess of the losses and expenses actu­ say, and was firing it off at a good rate, when ally sustained by Americans. Fhis unex­ every little while the President interrupted pended portion, he suggested, should not with an emphatic: 'Dr. Smith, I agree with you only be returned to China as an act of interna­ exactly; now tell me what ycju want me to do.' " tional goodwill, but should be used to solidify Later that afternoon, with Roosevelt's bless­ friendly relations between the two countries ing. Smith and Abbott gained an audience for years to come.-^** with Assistant Secretary of State Robert Ba­ Presently Cornelius Patton of the ABCFM con, to whom Smith repeated his proposal.^^ asked Smith to elaborate on his plan for an American remission. Smith proposed return­ ing the unexpended balance (approximately $12 million) with the understanding that •'-"For a detailed account of protocol stipulations and indemnity schedules, see Stanley F. Wright, The (Collection China would use the money to finance the ed­ and Disposal ofthe Maritime and Native Customs Revenue Since ucation of Chinese students in American col­ the Revolution ofl 91 UTaipe'i, 1966), 102, III, 117; for the leges and universities and to establish and relevant documents, see John V. A. MacMurray, Treaties maintain an American college in China. Smith and Agreements With and Concerning China, 1894—1919. Vol. added: "I do wish I could have a chance to 1: Manchu Period (1894-1911) (New York, I92I), and U.S., Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United place this plan before President Roosevelt be­ States, 1908. fore I return to China.""" Patton replied that •'^Cornelius H. Patton, "Dr. Arthur Henderson Smith such a meeting might be possible, and that he and the Boxer Indemnity Money," in the Missionary Her­ would write to Dr. Lyman Abbott, a confidant ald, 120:414 (September, 1924). of Roosevelt's, a close friend of Patton's, and '•''Ibid. ^Hbid. one ofthe leading clergymen of his day. ^'"Theodore Roosevelt and .Arthur Smith," in iheMis- Patton indeed wrote to Abbott, who re­ sionary Herald, 121:4—5 (January, 1925). 175 WHi(X3)4326.T Canal Street, Peking, 1900. From a collection of photographs of incidents in the Boxer Rebellion 111 tlie Society's collections.

Ten days later, Roosevelt wrote warmly to co-operation with outsiders, such as the au­ Smith, praising his writings on China as the thorities of Harvard, Yale, and the other col­ best source of information about the country leges, I shall do.'"" he had ever read and inviting him to remind him of the particulars of his plans for the in­ demnity.'"' On April 3 the President wrote HE significance of Arthur once again: "Your very kind and pleasant let­ T Smith's audience with Roose­ ter has come. I agree with all you say and if we velt can best be measured in light of the many can adopt the policy you recommend I shall plans which existed for use of the remitted heartily favor it. I had been in doubt whether funds. Roosevelt and Congress had myriad to try to use the indemnity as you suggest, proposals from which to choose: Minister merely because I hesitated as to -w-hether the Liang, William Rockhill (the American Minis­ Chinese would not interpret it as an act of ter to China), and Edmund James (president weakness; but I am inclined to take your judg­ ofthe University of Illinois) suggested an edu­ ment in the matter, and shall do so unless I see cational use for the remitted funds; Professor very strong reasons to the contrary are pre­ Jeremiah Jenks of Cornell University and sented. I will take it up with [Elihu] Root forth- Charles Conant, a popular w-riter on China's w-ith. Meanw-hile I need hardly say to you that political and economic affairs, promoted crea­ I can in no way control the action of Congress. tion of a gold reserve for Chinese currency; But what I can do bv executive action and by Yuan Shik-K'ai, China's politically influential commissioner of northern ports, pushed to •'"Roosevelt to Smith, March 16, 1906, in series 2, vol. see the funds devoted to China's mining and 62 (microfilm reel 341), Theodore Roosevelt Papers, Li­ brary of Congress. Roosevelt's handwritten postscript reads: "The German Ambassador, Sternberg, told me to­ "Eking E. Morison, John M. Blum, and John J. Buck- day that he thought your books the best books on China he lev, eds.. The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt (8 vols., Cam­ had ever read." bridge, 1951-1954), 5:206. 176 WHi(X3)43258 The railroad depot at Houang-Ho, about 1910.

railroad needs, particularly in Manchuria; vorable action by Congress [on the remission] and Fleming D. Cheshire, the United Staters will be greatly interfered w-ith by the failure of consul-general at Mukden in Manchuria, sug­ the Chinese to do justice themselves on such gested using a portion ofthe remission to erect matters as the boycott and the Hankow [rail­ consular quarters throughout China.''^ road] concession.'"''^ Minister Liang, long Despite the many plans, the remission issue known as one of the most outspoken propo­ lay dormant. The reason for this was simple. nents of a return ofthe surplus funds, pressed Three events in 1905 had enraged Roosevelt hard for some sort of remission when the boy­ and left Chinese-American relations too cott ended in the fall of 1905, but the events of strained for talks about the remission to con­ that year had severely weakened his ability to tinue: an anti-American boycott which China lobby effectively.'*'' had instituted to protest the treatment of Chi­ Everyone agreed on the need for a remis­ nese nationals living and laboring along the sion, Roosevelt included; but, in light of the Pacific Coast ofthe United States; China's re­ recent disputes, no one was in a hurry to send purchase of an American company's contract the first check. With the remission issue stag­ to build the Canton-Hankow- railway; and a nating, what was needed was a fresh face: a massacre of American missionaries at Lien- person of prominence from outside the diplo­ chow in Kwangtung province. As Roosevelt matic corps who could bring objectivity and wrote Rockhill, "The chance of my getting fa- sincerity to the issue; someone, more impor­ tantly, who would carry weight with the •'^Arthur H. Smith, China and America 'To-day: A Study m Roosevelt administration. With the boycott Conditions and Relations (New York, 1907), 213-218; Mi­ lifted and tensions cooling, it w-as Arthur chael H. Hunt, "The American Remission of the Boxer Indemnity: A Reappraisal," in the Journal of Asian Studies, 31:548-550 (May, 1972); Brockhau.sen, 'The Boxer In­ •••'.Morison, Blum, and Buckley, The Letters of Theodore demnity," 137 — 146; and Richard H. Werking, "The Roosevelt, 4:1310. Boxer Indemnity Remission and the Hunt Thesis," in Dz/i- •'''Hunt, "The American Remission," Journal of Asian lomaticHistory, 2:103-106 (Winter, 1978). Studies, 31:544-545. 177 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRINCi, 1987

Smith who filled this void with a timely ancl thirty years. The annual remissions enabled forceful conversation with Roosevelt and a China to send 50 to 100 students to the United particular plan of action. The President threw- States each year; by 1929 nearly 1,300 Chinese his weight behind using the indemnity to set students had studied at American institutions up education and cultural institutions which on Boxer Indemnity scholarships. Since the w-ould cement relations between the United Chinese students sent abroad during these States and China. '^ years were ill-prepared for an American-style Convinced of the wisdom of Smith's pro­ college education, a portion ofthe annual re­ posal, Roosevelt put the events of 1905 behind missions went towards the building and main­ him, reinstituted talks w-ith Minister Liang, tenance of Tsing Hua College, northwest of and ordered the first thorough audit to deter­ Peking, where American teachers and mine the exact amount of the surplus indem­ Western-trained Chinese were to prepare the nity.'"' Progress tow-ards a remission, however, students receiving Boxer Indemnity scholar­ was slow- in coming. Time-consuming audits ships for their studies in the United States. In of army and navy expenditures, the tallying of the beginning, Tsing Hua offered the equiva­ personal claims, the scheduling of remission lent of an American high school education; payments, and Secretary of State Root's per­ but it steadily increased its level of education, sonal dislike of Minister Liang all added to the achieving university status in 1925.''^ drag that prevented a successful conclusion of This partial remission ofthe indemnity w-as the remission issue in 1906 and 1907. hailed as a genuine act of international good Roosevelt, meanwhile, pushed on for congres­ w-ill. Contemporary accounts ran out of super­ sional support of Smith's education plan. As latives with w-hich to describe American mag­ he stated in his annual message to Congress in nanimity. The World's Work called the remis­ December, 1907: "This nation should help in sion "sheer openhanded generosity"; the every practicable way in the education of the Outlook claimed that this "altruistic" act of "in­ Chinese people, so that the vast and populous ternational friendship" had "few similar prec­ Empire of China may gradually adapt itself to edents" in history; Lawrence Abbott cited the modern conditions. One way of doing this is remission as evidence "that governments can, by promoting the coming of Chinese students in practice, be altruistic"; and the Missionary to this country and making it attractive to them to take courses at our universities and higher educational institutions."'' ^''The Joint resolution passed by C^ongress was not Fcjllowing the President's lead. Congress enough to activate the remission, for presidential ap­ supported Smith's proposal and approved the proval was needed as well. .According to the wording of indemnity remission by joint resolution on the passed resolution, remission payments would begin only at "such times and in such manner as the President May 25, 1908, authorizing that the surplus shall deem just." Roosevelt officially authorized the in­ funds be returned in annual installments, be­ demnity remission by an Executive Order on December ginning in 1909 and ending in 1940.''** Con­ 28, 1908; see U.S., Department of State, Foreign Relations gress thus set the stage for an educational ex­ of the UnitedStates, 1908, pp. 64—75, and Congressional Re­ change program that would last for more than cord, 60 Cong., 1 sess., 1:720, 722, 809; 3:2627; and 7:6815, 6841-6845, 6871, 6908, 6954. •"Tsing Hua opened in the fall of 1911. Closed shortly thereafter because of the turmoil of the Chinese Revolu­ ••^Brockhausen, "The Boxer Indemnity," 137 — 145; tion, it reopened in May, 1912, and sent its first students to Hunt, "The American Reniiss'iorx," J ournal of A.sian Studies, the United States later that year. Qualifying examina­ 31:543-544,549-550. tions, at-large scholarships, and political patronage en­ '"'Total United States costs were finally set at abled many non-Tsing Hua students to receive Boxer In­ SI 1,655,429.69. Of this, 37,186,310.75 was in War De­ demnity scholarships in these early years. Although the partment expenses, S2,469,181.94 in naval expenditures, \ast majority of the students sent abroad were men, and $2,000,000 in private claims. See Brockhausen, "The women were able to study in the United States on special Boxer Indemnity," 146-149. grants after 1914. See Brockhausen, "'Fhe Boxer Indem­ ••'U.S., Department of State, Foreign Relations of tfie nity," 157 — 158; Y. C. Wang, Chinese Intellectuals and the UnitedStates, 1907, p. Ixviii; see also Hunt,'The American West: 1872-1949 (Chapel Hill, 1966), 71 -73; Wright, The Remission," Journal of .\.sian Studies, 31:544—545, 549 — Collection, 102; and U.S., State Department, Foreign Rela­ 550. tions ofthe UnitedStates, 1908, pp. 64-75. 178 VVHi(X3)43262 W. K. Chung in his office in Canton, sometime between 1906 and 1914. At various times, Chung was commissioner of education m Canton city and province and president ofthe YMCA in Canton.

Herald called it "one of the greatest acts of indemnities. Malone's conclusion merely statesmanship of which our land can boast."^" echoed the popular belief: that Roosevelt and Congress spontaneously and unconditionally returned the surplus funds, and, as an expres­ sion of gratitude, China had freely agreed to CHOLARLY accounts of the re­ use the money for the education of Chinese mission echoed these laudations. S students in American colleges and universi­ A brief article by Carroll Malone in the 1926 ties.^-' American Historical Review was the first schol­ arly analysis of the remission, and it quickly became the standard secondary account.'' '''("arroll B. Malone, "The First Remission of the Malone's principal research resources were Boxer Indemnity," in the American Historical Review, copies of official correspondence from the ar­ 32:64-68 (1926-1927). As implied bv Malone's title, the chives of Tsing Hua College. Containing a United States made more than one remission. In return for C'hina's support in World War I, the .'VUied Powers fuller account of the diplomatic negotiations that had incurred losses because of the Boxer uprising than that in the Foreign Relations series,•''^ these agreed to defer indemnity payments for five years, begin­ letters proved to be the earliest discussions be­ ning on December 1, 1917. When the indemnity pay­ tween "Secretary of State Hay and Minister ments resumed, China still owed the United States some Liang regarding the rebellion and subsequent $12,000,000 in principal and interest. The United States remitted this remaining sum by a joint act of Congress on May 21, 1924. The remitted funds were entrusted to the China Foundation, ajoint Chinese-American committee '"Silas Bent, "Building Good-Will for America in the formed to promote culture and education. Orient," in World's Work, Ncjvember, 1918, p. 57; George ^^U.S., Department of State, Foreign Relations of the Marvin, "An Act of International Friendship," in The Out­ United States, 1901, "Affairs in China" appendix. look, 90:582 (November 14, 1908); Lawrence F. Abbott, '•'Malone's conclusions echoed the traditional story of Impres.sions of Theodore Roosevelt (Garden CAty, 1919), 146; the magnanimous remission, and subsequent studies and •dnd the .Missionary Herald, 121:3 (Januarv, 1925). textbooks merely echoed Malone. For examples, see 179 WISCONSIN MAGAZI.NE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1987

Michael Hunt's 1972 article in the Journal of and Voltaire looked enviously to the East for Asian Studies, however, advanced a different hope and inspiration. In the nineteenth cen­ point of view. Hunt drastically revised the tra­ tury, China was backward, decadent, and ditional story of America's magnanimous re­ (most disturbingly) heathen. From this mission and, in so doing, turned Malone's the­ clouded, ethnocentric perspective, China's sis on its head. Hunt convincingly argued that only hope for salvation lay in conversion to the self-interest, not altruism, motivated Ameri­ moral, economic, and political values of the can policy throughout the incident. By per­ Western World; in other w-ords, w-hat was ceiving the education program as an easy good for the West w'as sincerely regarded as means of imprinting a pro-American stamp being also good for China. Moreover, China's on China's future leaders, he claimed that secular salvation lay in education, that quintes­ American officials resolutely pressed the mat­ sential modernizing force and the cure-all for ter upon a reluctant, but powerless, Chinese social and political ills. As William Parsons government. As Hunt concluded, "The de­ wrote in American Engineer in China: "Educa­ bate over the use to which the funds would be tion will sweep away the incrustations that put began long before the United States had hamper progress. . . ."^'' formally announced its decision to return Arthur Smith's plan, therefore, found fa­ them. . . . The American government made a vor with Roosevelt, Congress, and the public prolonged and determined effort to have the at large not only because it offered the possi­ funds set aside for education."'''* bility of influencing the course of China's fu­ In fact Hunt's analysis provided a much- ture leaders, but also because it synthesized needed perspective. Early accounts of the re­ two of the most firmly held convictions of the mission concentrated heavily on the benefits day: that China's only hope for salvation lay in that the education plan could bring to China, "God" and the "West," and that education but said little ofthe benefits that the plan could held the key to social and political progress. confer upon the United States. As Hunt The adoption of Smith's plan had a w-ide- showed, the benefits and opportunities that ranging effect on both Chinese society and could evolve from a corps of American- Chinese-American relations. The most obvi­ educated Chinese leaders did not go unno­ ous dividend of the education plan w'as the ticed among the American diplomats of the hundreds of Chinese w-ho left for the United day. (Smith himself acknowledged this, and States as students and returned to China as agreed that "the nation which succeeds in edu­ doctors, engineers, scientists, and teachers. In cating the young Chinese of the present gen­ addition to enabling Chinese students to study eration will be the nation which for a given ex­ at colleges and universities in the United penditure of effort will reap the largest States and at Tsing Hua College in China, the possible returns in moral, intellectual and annual remissions aided a number of diverse commercial influence.")^^ schools and universities throughout China—a However, any analvsis ofthe motives which result of the education plan that Smith never induced the remission must consider the cli­ envisioned. This occurred because a portion mate of the times. Long gone were the days ofthe remission payments subsidized a variety when Western intellectuals such as Quesnay of China's academic institutions. For example, grants from the China Foundation (the joint Chinese-American committee established to oversee the allocation of the remitted funds) Thomas A. Bailey, A Diplomatic Histoiy of the .American Peo­ maintained the Boone Library School of Hua- ple (Englewood Cliffs, 1980 edition), 482; Samuel Flagg chung University, the Lingnan and Nanking Bemis, A Diplomatic History ofthe United States, (New York, schools of agriculture and sericulture, the 1965 edition), 488; and John M. Blum, Bruce Catton, Ed­ medical schools of Cheeloo and West China, mund Morgan et al.. The \'ational Experience (New York, 1968 edition), 536. '•"Hunt, "The .-Vmerican Remission," Journa/ of Asian Studies, 31:547. •'''William B. Parsons, .An American Engineer in CChina ""Smith, China and .America To-day, 214. (New York, 1900), 311-312. 180 PAPPAS: ARTHUR HENDERSON SMITH and the chemistry departments of numerous Chinese universities.-" Many Boxer Indemnity scholars achieved prominence both in and out of China. In sci­ ence, for example, Hsien Wu received his un­ dergraduate degree from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and his graduate de­ grees from Harvard; his doctoral dissertation, completed in 1919, suggested a new method of blood analysis and represented an impor­ tant contribution to medical research. The half-dozen men who studied physics in the United States between 1920 and 1925 re­ turned to China with their doctorates and be­ came the first Chinese to teach physics in China. Hu Shih—a renowned scholar, politi­ cal commentator, and confidant of Chiang Kai-shek—received his start on a Boxer In­ demnity scholarship at Cornell University in 1910. Numerous Boxer scholars wrote impor­ tant scholarly books: Chen Shao-kwan, The Ec­ onomic Principles of Confucius and His School (1911); Mabel Ping-hua Lee, The Economic His­ tory of China, with Special Reference to Agriculture (1921); and Ta Chen, Chinese Migrations, with Special Reference to Labor Conditions (1923).-'''^ To be sure, not all Boxer Indemnity scholars experienced such success. Of the 22,000 Chinese students who studied in the United States between 1854 and 1954, almost half received no degree at all.^'-* The reasons for this are varied. In regard to the Boxer scholars, many were ill-prepared for a university-level education, even after their studies at Tsing Hua; some experienced financial hardships because their scholarships included insufficient stipends for living ex­ penses; and others found it difficult to adjust to life in a foreign country, particularly one that was not always cordial to members of "the yellow- race." Chinese students abroad realized that a high rate of unemployment existed WHi(X3)43264 among their fellow graduates of Western insti­ A picture taken about 1905, which the photographer labeled tutions because ofthe inability ofthe underde­ "contrasts in Chinese faces." veloped Chinese economy to provide posi­ tions commensurate with their advanced

training. But even financial security did not ^'Jessie G. Lutz, China and the Christian Colleges, 1850- ensure academic success; for example, some 1950 (Ithaca., I97I), 307, 521. Boxer Indemnity scholars who came from 58Wang, Chinese Intellectuals, 72, 166, 386-389, 393- 415. China's more affluent provinces went abroad y-Tbid., 166-167. merely for the prestige of doing so, with the 181 C;ourtesv Beloit Coilei^e .Archives Arthur Henderson Smith in his study at T'ung Hsien early in 1926. idea of academic excellence far from their paternalistic attitude of the United States; minds.*'" they viewed the linking ofthe remission to the The difficulties of scjme ofthe students not­ education of Chinese youth in American insti­ withstanding. Smith's plan put higher educa­ tutions as simply the latest chapter in the on­ tion in China and in the United States within going saga of Western interference in Chinese the reach of thousands of Chinese students— affairs. As a Chinese editor w-rote in December and it also planted the seeds for one of the of 1908, "It is truly as if our country were a most bitter and enduring conflicts in the his­ guest whose affairs were to be managed by tory of Chinese-American relations. Little has these nations w-hich make arrangements to­ been written about this aspect of the problem, gether."''' but remission bred some five decades of dis­ sension. Amid the self-congratulatory rheto­ ric which attended the passage of the remis­ EMISSION bred problems from sion legislation, Americans tended to forget the very outset. In addition to that their government was conditionally return­ R' the dispute over the legitimacy of a condi­ ing monev gained through an exces.sive claim— tional remissicjn, Tsing Hua College became a money that rightfully belonged to China, not hotbed of debate. The initial contention con­ the United States. I he Chinese were not slow- cerned who would govern Tsing Hua's aca­ to discern this fact. Moreover, underlying the demic and administrati\'e policies. The United conditional remission was the conviction that States wanted an American-controlled admin­ China could not be trusted to use the remitted istration and advisory board; China naturally funds wisely. Proud and patriotic Chinese nat­ resisted. Americans wanted Fsing Hua to be urally took offense at this condescending and immune to the vicissitudes of Chinese politics while serving as a breeding ground for Ameri-

™Brockhausen, "The Boxer Indemnity," 195; Hunt, "The American Remission," Journal of Asian Studies, ^'Cited in Hunt, "The American Remission,^' J ournal of 31:558; 'Wang,ChineseIntellectuals, 148-149. Asian Studies, 31:558—559. 182 PAPPAS: ARTHUR HENDERSON SMITH can ideals and values; the impossibility of this munist government into a giant polytechnical unrealistic aim quickly became apparent w-hen university in the 1950's; it became one of Chi­ trouble followed the signing of the Treaty of na's foremost universities and remained at the Versailles in 1919. Angered by Japan's occu­ forefront of Chinese politics. Deng Xiao-ping, pation of Shantung and frustrated by the fail­ for example, used the school to defend his ac­ ure of President Woodrow Wilson's peace tivities in the 1950's, and the Red Guard origi­ plan to benefit China, ultranationalistic stu­ nated there in 1966. Closed for "retraining" dents from Peking University took to the by radical adherents of Mao Tse-tung in the streets in protest. A general student strike fol­ late 1960's, Tsing Hua reopened in 1970 as a lowed which closed Peking University and school for peasants, soldiers, and workers. nearby schools, including Tsing Hua College. However, with the death of Mao in 1976 and Far from remaining oblivious to the currents the ascendance of Deng, a more traditional of the time, Tsing Hua students joined the approach towards education developed at protesters, organized demonstrations, and de­ Tsing Hua, with a renewed emphasis on Chi­ manded a voice in the administration of the na's technological needs.''^ college.*'^ Thus, the remission of the Boxer Indem­ Unrest continued at Tsing Hua throughout nity had undergone the most ironic of fates. subsequent decades. Chinese nationalists Far from solidifying friendly relations be­ found the education plan offensive and tween China and the United States, the educa­ deemed it counter-productive to China's pro­ tion plan had engendered a multitude of gress. They hated Tsing Hua's objective of problems and decades of dissension. Smith's preparing Chinese students for an American plan for the education of Chinese youth and education; they resented the fact that, of the the betterment of Chinese-American relations ninety-four Chinese full-time professors at gave birth to an institution that, for more than Tsing Hua, only one had studied in China; five decades, sat at the center of China's anti- they abhorred the college's close ties with for­ Western, anti-Christian, anticapitalist revolu­ eign ideologies; and they loathed the YMCA's tion. seemingly ubiquitous recruiting of Tsing Hua However, contemporary accounts ofthe re­ students. Not surprisingly, this strong mission hailed Arthur Henderson Smith as American-Christian influence made Tsing the hero of a "genuine act of international Hua a primary target of anarchists, commu­ goodwill." "His point of view was not that of nists, and the Kuomintang (China's National the conventional missionary," declared Law­ People's Party) during the 1920's and 1930's. rence Abbott, "it was really that of the states­ Student radicalism intensified at Tsing Hua man."''-' Beloit College likewise looked with during the 1940's, particularly during China's great pride to the role Smith had played. An civil war (1945-1949). Indeed, students at editorial in the Round Table, the Beloit student Tsing Hua w-armly welcomed the arrival ofthe newspaper, cited the two Chinese students communist People's Liberation Army in De­ studying at the college on Boxer Indemnity cember, 1948.''-'' scholarships as evidence of the beneficial ef­ Having lost the civil war to Mao Tse-tung's fect of Smith's education plan: "4'. H. Mai and Communists, the Nationalist Chinese opened L. S. Li are supported by the Boxer Indemnity a new National Tsing Hua University at Hsin- Scholarship. Fhe benefits they enjoy through chu, Taiwan; this new school became a major the good-will of America will not fail to bear center of nuclear research in the 1950's. The fruit in the future. They believe that America original Tsing Hua, relocated in Peking in the is China's greatest and best friend and will try late 1940's, was transformed by China's Com­ to understand America and make America

•^^Brockhausen, "The Boxer Indemnity," 183-188; ''^Ibid. See also William Hinton's Hundred Day War: The Lutz, China and the Christian Colleges, 204-270, 434-443. Cultural Revolution at Tsinghua University (New York, ••^Brockhausen, "The Boxer Indemnity," 192-193, 1972). 286—289; Wang, Chinese Intellectuals, 180; Lutz, China and •'•'Bent, "Building Good-Will," World's Work, Novem­ the Christian Colleges, 474-475. ber, 1918, p. 58. 183 Wlii(X3)24yy2 A group of street urchins at a school run by the Shanghai YMCA, about 1905. understand China to the best of their abil­ Dr. Smith. I had forgotten his name, but I ity.'"^'^ know that it was through your father [Lyman The importance of Smith's role in the re­ Abbott, who arranged Smith's meeting w-ith mission of the indemnity can not be over­ Roosevelt] that I first became interested in us­ stated. Simply put, he did what others had ing that indemnity for educational purposes. long tried but failed to do: he inspired govern­ I he idea was suggested to me as you describe mental action on an important but stagnant is­ it; and I then asked Root to take it up and put it sue. Ten years later, Theodore Roosevelt him­ in operation."''' self acknowledged the significance of Smith's Smith, however, modestly discounted the role. While seated at a Princeton University role he had played in the matter. When he dis­ luncheon in late 1915, Law-rence Abbott fell cussed the indemnity remission and education into conversation with Dr. Robert McNutt proposal in China and America To-day: A Study McElroy, America's first exchange professor of Conditions and Relations (a book published in in China, about Smith's 1906 visit to Washing­ 1907 specifically to engender public support ton. McElroy told Abbott that he wished to in­ for the modernization of China and the edu­ clude the story of Smith's meeting w-ith cation ofthe Chinese), he quoted extensively a Roosevelt in his lectures. Abbott replied that 1906 letter to Roosevelt from Edmund James, he would first like to confirm his recollection president of the University of Illinois and a of the facts. Abbott therefore wrote to fellow proponent of the education idea.''*^ Roosevelt at Oyster Bay, recalling the White Characteristically, Smith often discussed the House visit and requesting a confirmation of tenets of the education proposal without ever the story. Roosevelt replied on January 24, mentioning his meeting and correspondence 1916: "My memory agrees w-ith yours about with the President.

•"••Editorial, "The Full Story of the Remission of the Boxer Indemnitv," in the Round Table, No\ember 8, 1918, ''"Abbott, Impressions of Theodore Roosevelt, 146. p. 2. ''^Smith, China and America To-day, 213—218. 184 VVHi(X3)43257 The Hall of (Classics, Peking, about 1910.

F Smith refused to acknowledge the most prolific and prominent WTiter on I the significance of the role he China of his day, supplying articles and edito­ played, his co-missionaries certainly did not. rials for publications around the world and To Smith's brethren in the field—those who eventually publishing four more books: Rex labored behind the public's eye in some ofthe Christus: An Outline Study of China (1903), The remotest areas of the w-orld, suffering war, Uplift of China (1907), China and America To­ famine, and persecution in devotion to their day: A Study of Conditions and Relations (1907), callings—his part in the remission had special and A Manual for Young Missionaries to China meaning. Although the leading diplomats, ed­ (1918). Upon completing his speaking tour of ucators, and polidcians of the day had pro­ the United States in mid-1906, Smith re­ posed numerous plans for use ofthe remitted turned to China as a missionary-at-large for funds, it was Smith, the missionary, who finally the ABCFM and setded in T'ung Chou; this held sway with the President. From the per­ new position freed him from the duties of field spective ofthe missionary community. Smith's work and enabled him to concentrate exclu­ influence w-ith Roosevelt and his role in the re­ sively on writing and lecturing. He was a dele­ mission of the Boxer Indemnity had legiti­ gate to the World Missionary Conference at mized the role ofthe missionary in modern so­ Edinburgh in 1910 and remained one of the ciety. As Lawrence Abbott concluded in a world's most sought-after speakers on Chi­ 1918 interview: "This remission really is a nese affairs. He retired from missionary serv­ monument to Dr. Arthur H. Smith. If the ice and returned permanently to the United American missionaries in China had never States in August of 1926, eventually settling in done anything else . . . their work would have southern California. Readjustment to life in been justified by this single accomplish­ the United States, however, was not easy to a ment."'''' Smith's prominence as a "Chinese expert" long outlived the era of the Boxer Rebellion '^'Bent, "Building Good-Will," World's Work, Novem­ and the indemnity remission. He remained ber, I9I8, p. 58. 18c WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1987 man who had just completed fifty years in the Arthur Henderson Smith died at the Mer- hinterlands of North China. He particularly ritt Memorial Home for Missionaries in Clare- detested the "whirling machines" that con­ mont, California, on August 31, 1932.''^ He gested the California highways and the Amer­ had weathered the Boxer Rebellion, disease, ican newspapers which contained a "muck- and famine in his half-century of missionary heap not worth raking over to find a few service abroad and, in the process, had out­ uncontaminated grains!"'" lived the ones he loved most: his only son, His books remained amongst the most re­ Henry, and his two daughters, Florence and spected in the field. A 1925 survey by the Chi­ Marie Jessica; his lifelong friend, Henry Por­ nese Recorder pointed this out. Surveying some ter, w-ho died in 1916; and his beloved wife, 100 foreigners who had worked in China be­ Emma, who died early in 1926. Although he tween five and fifty years, the Recorder sought was certainly not without the prejudices of his to rank the most "helpful" and "accurate" time. Smith had spent fifty-four of his eighty- books about China. Five of Smith's books ap­ seven years in pursuit of what he and others peared on the list of 211 titles, and his Chinese honestly believed w-ere the best interests of Characteristics (1890) and Village Life in China both China and the United States. His dili­ (1899) were ranked first and second, respec­ gence and devotion to his calling earned him a tively. "It is a remarkable fact," concluded the respect that no other missionary in the field Recorder, "that the author whose book heads commanded. As the American consul-general the list with the greatest number of votes has at Shanghai stated in a toast to "the first Amer­ the additional honor of having written the ican citizen in China": "There is a prevailing book which stands in the second place. It is power to w-hich our friend has attained in perhaps not surprising to find these books at character and in speech. If the New- China can the top ofthe list, w-hen we recall that the first be touched and moved by such leaders as Ar­ is in its thirteenth edition and the second has thur Smith, a great epoch of faith and love will been reprinted eleven times.""' have begun, [and] a great future of lives made noble by the richest of thoughts and highest of purposes, will have opened."'-' '"Smith to Stanley Lathrop, August 6, 1926, .Alumni Files, Beloit College .Archives. See also Lucius Porter, "Ar­ thur Henderson Smith and Henry Dwight Porter," Beloit '^For the obituarv of Smith, see the New York Times, Alumnus, 21:8. September 2, 1932. "L. Newton Haves, "The Most Helpful Books on '•'Henry Porter, "Arthur Smith in Microscope," ABC: China," in the Chinese Recorder, 56:301 (Mav, 1925). 16.3.12, vol. 23, ABCF.M Mss, Houghton Library.

186 "Strikes Are War! War Is Hell!": American Responses to the Compulsory Arbitration ofLabor Disputes, 1890-1920

By Peter J. Coleman

ELATIONS between labor and ployers and employees engaged in the ordi­ R=managemen t in the United nary process of collective bargaining, agreeing States have long been difficult, often costly, at the outset to be legally bound by the con­ sometimes violent. Ever since industrialization tract terms arrived at. The second stage, con­ accelerated after the Civil War (1861—1865), ciliation, followed if these private negotiations Americans have struggled to devise solutions, failed. The hearing panel, made up of an in­ turning first to private arrangements between dependent chairman and representatives of workers and owners and then, when those capital and labor, took evidence, conducted an efforts failed, to various kinds of public regu­ investigation, and recommended settlement lation. terms. If the parties accepted, the contract be­ By the late nineteenth century, some form came enforceable in the courts. The third of intervention began attracting widespread stage, binding arbitration, could be invoked by support, the most attractive model being an either side if the conciliation process broke imported one: New Zealand's Industrial Con­ down. ciliation and Arbitration Act of 1894, which The statute incorporated several innova­ gave the state the power to impose and en­ tive principles. First, its author, William Pem- force labor contracts. Though adopted only ber Reeves—then Minister of Labor but later by Kansas, and even then only briefly, this idea to become New Zealand's representative in the animated American thought into the 1920's.' United Kingdom, Director of the London Reduced to its essential provisions, the New School of Economics, and Chairman of the Zealand system combined both voluntary and Board in London ofthe National Bank of New compulsory principles in a three-stage mecha­ Zealand—sought to bring only responsible nism.^ In the first stage, associations of em- parties to the bargaining table. To obtain the benefits of his system, associations of employ­ ers and employees had to be formed and regis­ ter themselves under the act. In doing so, they 'With the support of organized labor, successive Lib­ made themselves legally liable in their corpo­ eral ministries enacted a broad program of reform. They gave votes to women and pensions to the aged, encour­ rate capacity should they break the terms of an aged closer land settlement, lent farmers and home buy­ award, whether achieved privately, through ers money at lower than commercial rates, found jobs for the unemployed, established a comprehensive industrial code, expanded educational and health services, built houses for urban workers, expanded the rail network, in­ troduced a system of workmen's compensation, and estab­ ^1 he full title ofthe statute was "An .'Vet to encourage lished a system of progressive taxation. These and other the Formation of Industrial Unions and Associations, and measures gave New Zealand its reputation as the world's to facilitate the Settlement of Industrial Disputes by Con­ most advanced democracy, a laboratory where reform ciliation and Arbitration." See New Zealand Statutes, 1894 ideas could be tested on a small scale. (Wellington, 1894), 22-44.

Copyright © 1987 by 'The State Hutoncat Society of W'isconsin 187 All rights of reproduction in any form reserved \VHi(IHA.-V)808 (Quitting time at McCormick's.

the conciliation process, or imposed on them Third, Reeves recognized the overwhelm­ by the Arbitration Court. ing pow-er of capital and its sometimes utter Second, the act encouraged both concilia­ determination to bend labor to its will. He tors and arbitrators to proceed in whatever sought to bring about a more equitable bal­ manner would best serve the system's objec­ ance by encouraging unionization. Once orga­ tive: an end to the war between labor and capi­ nized, w-orkers could, if necessary, take their tal. If the parties to a dispute agreed, either or grievances to the Arbitration Court. The mere both could be represented by legal counsel; threat of compulsion, he supposed, w-ould put but hearings were not to be formal trials ofthe so much pressure on employers that they issues strictly bound by traditional rules of ei­ would accept trade unions as a fact of modern ther evidence or procedure. Rather, the objec­ industrial life and would therefore engage in tive w-as the search for just solutions, ones good-faith collective bargaining. Fhat reflecting colonial standards of fairness and achieved, industrial cooperation would follow ones sufficiently acceptable to both sides as to without resort, except perhaps in exceptional achieve w-illing if not necessarily enthusiastic instances, to either state conciliation or state compliance. arbitration. In short. Reeves designed a rem- COLEMAN: COMPULSORY ARBITRATION edy for strikes and lockouts he never intended on the sidelines of these labor battles, and or expected to be invoked.'^ hundreds of lives snuffed out, mostly by capi­ tal's intransigence. The horror ofthe Ludlow Massacre in Colorado in 1913, in which five strikers and a dozen w-omen and children T would be no exaggeration to say died, w-as a stark example ofthe ultimate futil­ I that this colonial approach to la­ ity ofthe debate. 44uly, Ludlow underscored bor warfare dominated the American debate America's failure to deal with the fundamen­ for almost three decades. But likewise it would tal issues. be no exaggeration to say that there was never After all, the antipodean solution was de­ a place, Kansas excepted, where there w-as any signed as a method of promoting union recog­ serious possibility that the New Zealand rem­ nition and collective bargaining. These were edy would be enacted into American law. reasonable American objectives, and ones Though discussion lingered on into the surely well within the boundaries of tradi­ 1920's, early on the debate became so ritual­ tional American approaches to problems. The ized that no one had fresh things to say either New Zealand law encouraged capital and la­ in support or condemnation of the New bor to deal with each other by confronting and Zealand system. Rather the protagonists resolving the issues between them. If they merely reiterated their basic arguments, sup­ could not, the state stood ready to help, first plementing them from time to time with new- through conciliation, then through arbitra­ evidence from the Australasian record. Sim­ tion. These remedies became available only af­ ply put, they spoke past rather than to each ter the parties had failed to agree privately. other. Looked at in this way, the compulsory princi­ Not only did the debate fail to produce a ple must be seen as a red herring. genuine dialogue on so vital a question, it Americans never understood Reeves's might even be said that the debate did more intent—not labor, not interested observers, harm than good. For it may have diverted dis­ not the public at large. All allowed themselves cussion from other, more viable approaches to to be speared on the issue of compulsion ver­ labor-management relations. After all, Ameri­ sus voluntarism. And so they needlessly cans made little headway in resolving the wounded themselves during a full generation problem between the Homestead Strike in of futile debate and costly labor wars. Not until 1892 and the Steel Strike in 1919. 1935 and the Wagner Act were there the be­ Meanwhile, labor disputes cost the econ­ ginnings of a resolution. The irony is that omy millions of hours in lost output, even Americans then embraced the compulsory more millions of hours innocently disrupted principle—not arbitration, to be sure, but compulsion nevertheless—by requiring man­ agement to concede union recognition and ^Interested Americans first learned about the system engage in good-faith collective bargaining from several sources: W. P. Reeves, "Labor Troubles: when a majority of workers voted to organize. Hints of New Remedies from the Antipodes," in The Re­ view of Reviews, 10:178-184 (August, 1894); Introduction to The concept of forced settlements was not the Labour Laws of New Zealand (Wellington, 1895), 2-3; new to Americans when New Zealand enacted W. D. P. Bliss, Arbitration and Conciliation in Industrial Dis­ that remedy in 1894. It had been considered putes (Boston, 1895), a fifteen-page pamphlet reprinted as early as 1878 in the aftermath of the Great from the advance sheets of his Encyclopedia of Social Reform Railroad Strike,' but the antipodean law at- (New York, 1897); E. R. Gould, "Industrial Conciliation and Arbitradon in Europe and Australasia," in the Yale Review, 3:376-407 (February, 1895); J. G. Ward, "Sug­ gestions from New Zealand," in The Review of Reviews, ^See Carroll D. Wright, Eighth Annual Report, Massa­ 12:203-204 (August, 1895); "New Zealand's Legi.slators chusetts Bureau ofLabor Statistics (Boston, 1877); Car­ Seem to Rank People Above Property," summarizing a roll D. Wright, Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration (Bos­ lecture Reeves gave in London, in the New York Times, ton, I88I); Horace E. Denning to Henry Demarest Lloyd, June 28, 1896; W. P. Reeves, "Five Years' Political and So­ September 20, 1893, in the Henry Demarest Lloyd Pa­ cial Reform in New Zealand," in The National Review (Lon­ pers, State Historical Society of Wisconsin; Carroll D. don), 27:834-850 (August, 1896), esp. 847; and "Pro­ Wright, The Industrial Evolution of the United States (Mead- gressive Legislation in New Zealand," an unsigned article ville, 1895), 290-291; Charles H. Myers, "Compulsory in The Progressive Review (London), 1:225-239 (Decem­ Arbitration," in the Fifth Annual Report, Marvland Bureau ber, 1896), esp. 233. of Industrial Statistics (Baltimore, 1896), 184-201. 189 WHi(X3)14583 .4 toKi .Monn Company assembly line in Highland Park, Michigan, 1913, the first year that Ford used the assembly-line technique. traded little attention until 1899, when Henry and, wherever possible, pushing the reform Demarest Lloyd returned from Australasia effort far beyond what the little Pacific country with the first detailed account of the experi­ had achieved.' ment. In syndicated newspaper interviews, ar­ Thus he enthusiasdcally embraced its ap­ ticles in popular magazines, speeches in the proach to industrial problems while urging his Midwest and Northeast, a lecture tour of the fellow citizens to fashion their own legislative Far West, but most especially in his books, A remedies tailored to American conditions, in­ Country Without Strikes and Newest England stitutions, and procedures. Nevertheless, in (both published in 1900), Lloyd laid out the praising New Zealand's success—the abolition parameters of the labor-relations debate that for all time, he supposed, of disruptive war- was to continue for the next two decades. Lloyd set out to "New- Zealandize" America, 'Margaret W. .Morley spoke of Lloyd's "New Zealan- by w-hich he did not mean swallowing each and dising the rest of the world" in the Boston Evening Tran­ every colonial experiment whole, but rather script, November 9, 1901. Lloyd himself told Edward Ev­ adapting colonial models to American needs erett Hale on September 12, 1901: 'Teople constantly misunderstand my purpose. Thev seem to think I want the U.S. to imitate New Zealand; on the contrary, I want Wright opposed compulsory arbitration throughout his our country to give New Zealand something to imitate." career. His letter is in the Lloyd Papers. 190 WHi(X3)21362 Flywheel magnetos, the first manufactured part to be built on an assembly line. Ford Motor Company, Highland Park, Michigan, 1913. fare between capital and labor—he polarized ositions appeared over and over. They also American thinking about industrial relations sustained legislative efforts in at least nine by framing the policy choices narrowly. Either states, ranging from Massachusetts, New- compulsory arbitration as the solution of final York, and Pennsylvania in the East, Texas in and peaceful resort, or a continuation of bar­ the Southwest, Illinois, Minnesota, and Mis­ baric mayhem based on a laissez-faire system of souri in the Midwest, to Colorado and Califor­ might over right. nia in the Far West.'' Reduced to its essentials, Lloyd's support for state intervention rested on several basic propositions drawn from his preconceptions reinforced by his antipodean observations. IRST and probably foremost, Over the next twenty years these lines of argu­ F Henry Demarest Lloyd declared ment sustained the American drive for com­ pulsory arbitration. Whether in editorials, ar­ ••On the legislative efforts, see James T. Smith, ticles, bocjks, book review-s, speeches, Thomas P. Rixey, E. W. Harris, W. P. Potter, F. C. Chal- conferences, sermons, field reports from the fant, and Henry W. Cioodrich to Lloyd, June 22, August 6, November 17, and December 17 and 22, 1900, and May Antipodes, testimony before investigative 31 and September 12, 1902, all in the Lloyd Papers; Buf­ bodies, or interscholastic debates, these prop­ falo Express, New York World, Oakland Enquirer, Syracuse Post 191 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTt^lRY SPRING, 1987 that New- Zealand had achieved lasting indus­ willing ... to exchange [New- Zealand condi­ trial peace. In the six years since the system tions] with those prevailing in Europe and had gone into operation, lockouts and strikes America."** had become a relic of the past. To be sure, in These affirmations of success drew power­ the beginning both capital and labor had been ful reinforcement from reports that the Com­ suspicious of state intervention, but experi­ monwealth of Australia and some of the indi­ ence with the new- system had quickly taught vidual colonies had followed New- Zealand's them that owners, workers, and the public at lead by adopting their own systems of compul­ large all benefited. Though the parties in con­ sory arbitration. This export of a solution to flict gave up some freedom of choice, that loss industrial warfare from one side of the Tas- had been more than offset by the advantages man Sea to the other was the more impressive of continuous employment and sustained to Americans because it followed careful in­ profits. Neither capital nor labor wished to re­ vestigation and evaluation of New Zealand turn to "the bad old days."' results. The most enthusiastic and optimistic Until 1908, when for the first time some se­ Americans came to believe that it was only a rious difficulties appeared in the New Zealand matter of time before the antipodean system system, American supporters of compulsory would become universal in the western arbitration had little difficulty sustaining world. ^ Lloyd's first proposition, that a method of Second, Lloyd also appealed to America's achieving industrial peace had finally been noblest aspirations by arguing that New achieved. Both Victor S. Clark, reporting to Zealand had shown the United States a way the U.S. Bureau ofLabor in 1904, and Harris out of its industrial chaos. The colony had sub­ Weinstock, reporting to the governor of Cali­ stituted a rational and peaceful process for the fornia even as late as 1910, confirmed the ear­ old order of naked force—whether dynamite. lier accounts of antipodean success as well Catling guns, and thuggery, or martial law-, as the assessment that neither employers nor starvation, and eviction. The choice w-as sim­ employees w-anted to abandon the system, ple: a civilized remedy or barbarism.'" even though both Americans questioned the This appeal to the American heart evoked a suitability of the New- Zealand concept under powerful response, partly because Lloyd's fel- American economic and political conditions. As the journalist Florence Finch Kelly had re­ ported in the Craftsman in 1906, the "final "V'ictor S. C^lark, "Labor Conditions in New Zealand," clinching argument" was that compulsory ar­ in the Bulletin ofthe U.S. Bureau ofLabor Statistics, 8:1142- bitration "w-orks." She pronounced it "a prac­ 1281 (November, 1903), esp. 1184-1211; Harris Wein­ tical success." Similarly, Weinstock inter­ stock, Report on the Labor Laws and Labor Conditions of For­ eign Countries in Relation to Strikes and Lockouts viewed scores of colonial critics, who, he (Sacramento, I9I0), 98-144, esp. 143; Florence Finch reported, knew- little of foreign conditions. Kelly, "A New Civilization—What New Zealand Has Ac­ "When these were pointed out," he told the complished by Her Experiments in Social and Economic governor, "I do not recall one who was finally Legislation," in the Craftsman, 10: 551-556, 714-729 (August-September, 1906). 'Of the dozens of reports and assessments appearing between 1901 and 1910, three might be cited as illustra­ tive: "Compulsory Arbitration in New Zealand," a con­ Standard, .Newport Herald, San Francisco Bulletin, and Boston densation of the Backhouse Report to the New South Evening Transcript, March 20, May 30, December 11, 13, Wales Royal Commission of Enquirv, in Massachusetts La­ and 14, 1900,May21, 1901, and March 5, 1902; "Arbitra­ bor Bulletin, number 20:128-137 (Boston, November, tion Voluntarv and Compulsorv," in the Biennial Report of 1901); Hugh H. Lusk, "The Successful Prevention of the Colorado Bureau ofLabor, 1899-1900 (Denver, 1900), Strikes. Seven Years of Compulsory Arbitration in New 206 — 215; "Gov. Lind on Compulsory Arbitration," in the Zealand. The Adoption ofthe Law in Neighboring Colo­ Seventh Biennial Report of the [Minnesota] Bureau of Labor, nies," in Workl's Work, 3:1781-1783 (February, 1902); and 1899-1900 (St. Paul, 1900), 323-324; "The Strike," in Paul Kennaday, "'Victorian Wages Boards and the New the Independent, 54:2214 (September 18, 1902); and Wif Zealand Conciliation-Arbitration Act," in the Yale Review, Ham A. Stone, "Compulsorv Arbitration," in ibid., 2219- 19:32-54 (May, 1910). 2220. "'Lloyd's running headings in A Country Without Strikes 'Henry Demarest Lloyd, A Country Without Strikes: A made his case: "The Better Way"; "Debate Instead of Visit to the Compulsory Arbitration Court of New Zealand (New- War"; and "Compulsion Means Peace." He asked, "Is not York, 1900), esp. 178-180 for his summary of the sys­ this a civilised way for civilised people to setde their dif­ tem's results. ferences?" 192 ttHi(\3)13169 A photograph by J. Robert Taylor, the first staff photografdier ofthe Milwaukee Journal, about 1900-1910. low citizens were conscience-stricken about kidnapping, torture, [and] pitched bat- the chaos resulting from conflicts between des. . . ." New Zealand had "cured the chronic capital and labor, and partly because it was so war of industry." The colony had "made more easy to draw harrowing comparisons between progress toward industrial Harmony and Eco­ the tranquility of colonial industrial life and nomic Freedom than any other country in the the brutality of American conditions. Lloyd w-orld."'^ himself had set the tone in a commentary on William E. Smythe, the apostle of irrigadon, the Great Anthracite Strike in Pennsylvania in echoed Lloyd and Parsons in the West. He, 1902, declaring that America had become ha­ too, wanted to "New Zealandize" America, ei­ bituated to "the sight of blood on its daily ther as a Congressman in Washington or as bread," while the colonies in the Pacific had California's governor in Sacramento. He for­ fashioned "easier," "wiser," and "wealthier" mulated a broad reform program directed forums for the peaceful resolution of conflict. mainly at solving farm problems, but he also Americans built armories; Antipodeans built supported the concept of arbitrating labor dis­ courtrooms." putes. A recent San Francisco strike, he said, Lloyd's supporters enthusiastically rang the was "a blot on the hfstory of California. Thou­ changes on this theme. Frank Parsons, the sands of men were idle for weeks. The chil­ Boston reformer, for example, contrasted dren of some of them no doubt suffered the New Zealand's quiet hearings w-ith America's "shooting, eviction, dynamite, assassination. '^"The Abolition of Strikes and Lockouts," in Arena, 31:1-11 (January, 1904); and "The Political Revolution in "Henry Demarest Lloyd, "Australasian Cures for New Zealand Which Laid the Foundation for the Estab­ Coal Wars," in the Atlantic Monthly, 90:667-674 (Novem­ lishment of Industrial Arbitration on Demand," in ibid., ber, 1902). 464-471 (May, 1904). 193 WHi(X3)32192 The United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, Local 1074 of Eau Claire.

pangs of hunger. Assaults were committed declared that there was "a state of war between and blood w-as shed." Why should strikes have capital and labor. . . . May we . . . soon learn to be settled "by those tw-o grim arbiters, the that there are nobler and surer ways of settling Depleted Bank Account and the Empty Stom­ trade disputes than by wars against classes by ach"? That was "barbarism."'^ strikes and lockouts, by bullets and by bombs, Others agreed. Charles Francis in New- by intimidation of employers and by starva­ York City, president of a printing firm, pro­ tion of employees. . . . Arbitration courts are claimed "Strikes are War! War is Hell!" Strikes our only hope for industrial peace. Ours is the sometimes threw the nation into industrial solemn duty to turn that hope into reality."'-^ convulsion, shaking it from end to end. "Is Edward Tregear, a colonial official who that civilization?" he asked. Such conflicts published many articles in American reform were "a fight for the mastery by one class over journals and who corresponded with many the other . . . for the sake of pecuniary and American reformers, used similar images. selfish advantage."''' "Arbitration will one day eliminate injustice In Philadelphia, Rabbi Joseph Krauskopf

"The words quoted are from the title and pages 13 — '^Smythe set out his proposals in "A Program for Cali­ 14 and 23 of his pamphlet published in .New York, proba­ fornia," in the Land of Sunshine, 15:487-498 (December, bly in 1900. I90I); "The California Constructive League: .'Arbitration ''"Necessity oi Industrial Arbitration," in the Annals of and the Workers," in Out West, the same periodical under the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 36:311— a new name, 16:333-334 (March, 1902); and "New 320 (Philadelphia, July-December, I9I0). This was one of Zealand Institutions: The Lawof Compulsorv Arbitration nine essays on the arbitration question published in that at Work," in iftzrf., 82-88 (Januarv, 1902). issue. 194 WHi(X3)i:7813 Postal employees in Milwaukee parading to demand higher wages to meet the war-caused increase in the cost of living, 1919.

from industrial strife," he predicted, just "as claim to the uninterrupted flow of goods and arbitration will some day sweep away that services as well as to economic and social tran­ other form of war which now bases its argu­ quility. With the opening of the twentieth cen­ ments on the method of rending tender and tury and the growing interdependence of beautiful human bodies with the eloquent modern life, it was no longer possible to allow shell and logical bayonet.""' owners and workers the freedom to engage in Third, Lloyd argued that it was no longer private warfare. The stakes had simply be­ possible in the modern industrialized world to come too hiffh. Civilization was at risk.'' view labor-capital conflicts as private matters best left to the protagonists to settle for them­ selves by whatever means they could find. As a OS4^ supporters of the system socialist, he put great emphasis on the virtues of compulsory arbitration re­ of brotherhood, cooperation, and harmony in M' peated Lloyd's emphasis on society's stake in human affairs. He believed that the collective social harmony. The activist priest who led the interests ofthe community had to take prece­ American "living wage" movement, John A. dence over the private and often selfish inter­ Ryan, saw the New Zealand concept as "a tri­ ests of either corporations or unions. These umph of justice and social order over injustice private interests had to be subordinated to the larger needs of scjciety, which had a legitimate '"See A Country Without Strikes, especially chap. 2 ("The Shoemaker Sticks to the Last"), chap. 3 ("Better Commit­ """Compulsory Arbitration Under Storm-Sails," in tees Than Mobs"), and pages 114-116, 120, 122-123, Arena, 40:137-\4] (August-September, 1908). 154, and 166-168. 195 WISCONSIN MAG.'VZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1987 and economic anarchy. How- long," he im­ is impossible for these girls to live decently on plored, "will the practical American people al­ the w-ages you are now paying," declared the low the warring factions ... to afflict the com­ judge in a case involving a new- match factory, munity with senseless and costly strikes? Even w-hose owners had argued that they could not if capital and labor should be left to their own afford to pay more until the enterprise was se­ folly and obstinacy . . ., the public should not curely established. "It is ofthe utmost impor­ be compelled to suffer with them."'** Smythe tance that they should have w-holesome and wanted to know why "a few employers and healthsome conditions of life. The souls and w-orkingmen [had] any moral right to imperil bodies of the young women of New Zealand the welfare of the entire State [or] to inflict are of more importance than your profits, and w-anton injuries upon their own families? If so, if you cannot pay living wages it will be better why do we restrain men from committing sui­ for the community for you to close your fac­ cide? Why do we compel them to support their tory. It would be better to send the whole match in­ w-ives and children?"'-' dustry to the bottom ofthe ocean, and go back to flints The editor of the Arena, Benjamin O. andfiresticks, than to drive young girls into the gut­ Flower, followed the same line in 1904 in call­ ter. My award is that you pay what they ask."^^ ing for a law to "protect the public at large . . . The president of the Australian Court of from the inconvenience and suffering which Conciliation and Arbitration, Justice Henry follow . . . during such periods as the great Bournes Higgins, brought the same message coal-strike . . . legislation which would also to Americans in 1914. He reported a universal render impossible such spectacles of lawless­ growth in "the value of human life" and ness ... as recently witnessed in . . . Colo­ thought it "too valuable to be a shuttlecock in rado."^" Francis argued that the adoption of the game of moneymaking and competition." the New Zealand plan would be "a lasting The "injurious strain ofthe contest" should be monument in the social organization of the "shifted from the human instruments."^'* 20th Century."^' Finally, Henry Demarest Lloyd reported And Hugh H. Lusk, a former colonial poli­ that compulsory arbitration, by bringing New tician and attorney who came to the United Zealand industrial harmony, had promoted so States in the 1890's and w-ho joined Lloyd's re­ much economic expansion that the colony had form circle, urged the compulsory system on become the "most prosperous country in the Americans because it w-ould establish "the world." By every measure, the antipodean ex­ principle that society is charged, for its own periment had tC3 be counted a resounding suc­ protection, with the duty of seeing that justice cess. Employment, output, investment, is done to all classes . . ., even to the extent of profits, and living standards had all risen discouraging the growth of riches in one class sharply since the adoption ofthe new system. to the degradation of others."'- The United States, Lloyd predicted, would The "living wage" movement drew particu­ reap similar rewards as soon as it, too, became lar inspiration from this appeal to human val­ "a cc:)untry without strikes."^^ ues, pointing to a New- Zealand precedent. "It Such a vision appealed powerfully to the ambitious American growth ethic. 4'hose w-ho wanted state intervention in industrial affairs '*"A Country Without Strikes," in The Catholic World, embraced it enthusiastically. Economic 72:147-157 (November, 1900). growth and prosperity went hand in hand '^"A Program for California," 496. ^""Industrial Peace Through Arbitration," in Arena, 32:303. Flower declared that the American people should ^•'Rheta Childe Dorr, "What Eight .Million Women "act for their own protection, as well as for the mainte­ Want: Women's Demand for Humane Treatment of nance of law, order, and the principles of free govern­ Women Workers in Shop and Factory," in Hampton's Mag­ ment. New Zealand has shown the wav." azine, 23:794-805 (December, 1909). She reprinted this ^'Strikes are War! War is Hell!, 23. and other essays in What Eight .Million Women Want (Bos­ ^^"Compulsory Arbitration: The Experience of New ton, 1910), 115-182. Zealand," in John P. Peters, ed.. Labor and Capital: A Dis­ ^'Quoted from an interview he gave Mary CTiamber- cussion ofthe Relations of Employers and Employed (New York, lain in "Settling Labor Disputes in Australia," in the Sur­ 1902), 221-237. This was one of fifty papers, mostly re­ vey, 32:455-4,58 (August 1, 1914). printed from the Hearst newspapers as part of the pub­ ^=Henry Demarest Lloyd, Newest England: Notes of a lisher's effort to stimulate public debate on labor ques­ Democratic Traveller in New Zealand, with some .Australian tions. Comparisons (New York, 1900), 275. 196 i I MILWAtlKEE . VESTEH '•'WORKS.

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WHH,\3)17()9J WorAm«n posing in front ofthe Milwaukee Harvester Works, about 1912. Photo by J. Robert Taylor. with industrial harmony. Supporters cast their tion of colonial capitalists as "wingless birds" arguments in a variety of ways. In San Diego, who, far from taking ffight, chose to remain William Smythe asserted that compulsory arbi­ "to share the prosperity." Similarly, Columbia tration would "enhance the prosperity of University's political scientist, A. S. Johnson, manufacturers,of w-orkingmen, and of the . . . praised Reeves's two-volume study. State Ex­ community," while in Boston, Conrad Reno, periments in Australia & New Zealand (1902) and the organizer of a League of Industrial pronounced the reform program a success be­ Courts, told readers of the Hearst newspapers: cause "Capital is increasing, manufacturers "Strikes and lockouts and boycotts often . . . are thriving. . . ." In 1910 Weinstock con­ entail losses aggregating millions of dollars. If firmed the rise in investment and w-ealth, but such disputes w-ere averted, the annual pro­ also reported a decline in tax rates. Compul­ duction w-ould be much larger. . . . This in­ sory arbitration, Lusk asserted in 1912, had crease in wealth would constitute an addi­ brought New Zealand "an economic success tional fund, out of which larger dividends to far greater, in proportion to the numbers of its capital and higher wages to labor could be people, than that of any other national com­ paid, w-ithout raising the price to the con­ munity in the w-orld."^' sumer."^'' These interwoven arguments were also best Additional confirmation came from all summarized by Hugh Lusk, who declared that sides. Edward Tregear told American readers ^'Edward Tregear, "How New Zealand Is Solving the that "capital seems to thrive and grow fat in a Problem of Popular Government," in Arena, 32:569-577 marvellous way," reinforcing Lloyd's descrip- (December, 1904); A. S. Johnson in the Political Science (Quarterly, 18:710-713 (December, 1903); Weinstock, Re­ ^•"Smythe, "The Law of Cximpulsory Arbitration at port on the Labor Laws of Foreign Countries, 142; Hugh H. Work," 87; Conrad Reno, "Compulsory Arbitration: In­ Lusk, Social Welfare in New Zealand: The Result of Twenty dustrial Courts to Administer Industrial Justice," re­ Years of Progressive Social Legislation and its Significance for printed in Peters, ed.. Labor and Capital, 200 — 220. the United States and Other Countries (New York, 1913), 287. 197 Mnptr

The guard at the north gate ofthe Kissel Motor (7ar Company in Hartford, Wisconsin, WHi(X3)43163 1918-1919. this "great social and economic experiment ducers if they were to seize and hold interna­ . . . has substituted peace and good feeling for tional markets against British, French, and industrial war and bitterness; it has converted German competitors. "If law is to rule," Clark a large majority of its bitterest opponents into declared, "if democracy is to succeed and be­ supporters; it has steadily, and with amazing come permanent, if our country is to be rich, rapidity, increased the production of the col­ contented and fraternal and is to have its vast ony and the wealth of all classes of its people; strength available in the contest for the prizes and, finally, it has so impressed the people of of a world-wide commerce, a system of au­ the countries nearest to it,. . . that they are one thoritative arbitration is inevitable."^^ by one adopting its provisions for themselves. If these two commentators saw compulsory Such is the record. Of how many legislative ex­ arbitration as a system for promoting private periments yet tried for the benefit of society enterprise w-hile at the same time defending can as much as this be said?"^** the public interest, the British economist and lecturer, J. A. Hobson, saw it as a "half-way house to socialism." The growing concentra­ tion of capital, he predicted, would increase EW new- arguments in favor of strikes and lockouts and thus demands for F compulsory arbitration came state intervention. For the public would see over the years. None added much to the de­ the essentially "social" character of private in­ bate. Both Reno and John Bates Clark, a Co­ dustry and "no theoretic objections to social- lumbia economist, made industrial harmony an essential condition for American pro- ^°Reno, "Industrial Courts," 219-220; Clark's words are quoted in Frank L. M'Vey, "Minneapolis Conference of Employers and Employe," in the (Commons, 7:1-12 (No­ ^^Lusk, "The Successful Prevention of Strikes," 1783. vember, 1902). 198 Employees leaving the Kissel Motor Car Company factory in Hartford. EWD trucks which were WHi{X3)43164 normally made only at the Four-Wheel Drive Company m Clintonville were also being made in Hartford during the First World War. ism" would hold off demands that the public, leaders supported the compulsory principle, "for its security and convenience," be pro­ the principal exceptions being the electrical tected from the "fights of rival producing in­ workers and the iron, steel, and tin plate work­ terests." The "consumer-citizen of modern in­ ers, both fragile organizations with small dustrial states" would eventually seek the membership rosters.^' "experimental shelter" of the New Zealand Rather, the advocates of the antipodean system.-^" Hobson's was a fresh perception, but system came overwhelmingly from those who it was not one likely to carry much weight in could not be directly affected by what the soci­ the United States except perhaps among some ologist Nicholas Paine Oilman labeled the "le­ groups, such as Christian and Fabian social­ gal regulation of labor disputes" rather than ists. "compulsory arbitration."-'^ They came from Noteworthy in all of these arguments was the ranks of reform journalism—Flower, the almost complete absence of significant Lloyd, Lusk, and Smythe, or Julius Wayland, voices claiming to speak for either capital or la­ the Kansas editor oi Appeal to Reason—the so­ bor. Those who did, such as the dry-goods cial gospel clergy—Krauskopf, Ryan, Russell merchant Weinstock, the printer Francis, or H. Conwell, Josiah Strong—social scientists— even the secretary of the Association of West­ Clark, Hobson, Oilman, Parsons, Johnson, Ri­ ern Manufacturers, Walter Fieldhouse, spoke chard F. Ely, H. L. Wayland—labor bureau- either for themselves or for minor business constituencies. Similarly, few unions or their "Fieldhouse's article for the Hearst syndicate, "Need of a .National Court of Arbitration," also appeared in Pe­ ters, ed.. Labor and Capital, 179—184. '""Compulsory Arbitration. A Half-Way House to So­ '^See his Methods of Industrial Peace (Boston, 1904), esp. cialism?" in the North American Review, 175:597 — 606 (No­ "Legal Regulation ofLabor Disputes in New Zealand" and vember, 1902). "The Case for Legal Regulation," 364-408. 199 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1987 crats—F. N. Johnson (Minnesota), Charles evil system; and throughout the extended de­ McCarthy (Wisconsin), Charles H. Myers bate opponents systematically challenged the (Maryland), Thomas P. Rixey (Missouri), veracity of Lloyd's proclamations of New James T. Smith (Colorado)—and citizen-activ­ Zealand's achievements and his assertions that ists—Reno, Stanley Bow-mar, a single-taxer, the experimental system would work in the and Theodore Oilman, a Wall Street banker— United States. Although these opponents all of w-hcjm presumed to speak for the public spoke with many voices rather than a single interest and most of whom saw state interven- one, and although they shared no common tionism as the most effective way to deal with perspective on labor-management relations, America's economic and social problems.^^ they succeeded in frustrating the reform 4"heir ranks also included a few politicians, effort. such as Edward P. Costigan of Colorado, Indeed, these attacks put Lloyd and his suc­ Henry J. Allen of Kansas,^''John Lind of Min­ cessors so much on the defensive that they nesota, and William A. Stone of Pennsylvania. ended up spending more of their energies try­ But most legislative efforts appear to have ing to dispel criticism than in promoting their been headed by minor figures, which helps to cause. In effect, their critics waged a war of at­ explain w-hy the compulsory idea made so little trition, and over the long term, the reformers progress. Indeed, despite the "tons of news­ lacked the will to survive. Their hope that the papers . . . sodden" w-ith "New Zealandizing" antipodean solution to industrial warfare arguments, or the "oceans of atmosphere would find an American home as it had in stirred" up, as one opponent complained, an Australia certainly survived into the 1920's, effective constituency for the antipodean plan but the vitality of their effort had been drained never emerged in the United States, either in and even the most devoted supporters of the Congress or in state houses.-^-^ compulsory principle probably accepted, though reluctantly, the fact that the New Zealandization of labor relations had died a slow- but certain death. HY that w-as so has several ex­ The attack on compulsory arbitration can w planations. Faken together be summarized succinctly. Most capitalists op­ they tell us some important things about re­ posed the system as another unwarranted and form in America. Neither capital nor labor ac­ undesirable example of state intervention. As cepted the concept of compulsory arbitration a spokesman for the National Association of as a solution to their differences; other critics Stove Manufacturers put the case: compul­ expressed serious reservations about the con­ sory arbitration "is opposed to the principles stitutionality of forced interventions in labor- of individual liberty. . . . There is no law- that management relations: ideologues from both can compel a man to work if he does not want the Left and Right flatly rejected New to, nor prevent a man closing down his works Zealand's "state socialism" either as an unwar­ if he elects to do so."^'' ranted invasion of human freedom or as a cruel capitalistic hoax designed to prop up an Organized labor joined employers in de­ nouncing the New Zealand system though of­ ten on very diflerent and much more complex grounds, Martin Fox, speaking for the iron ''In addition to the sources cited in note 6 above, see, moulders, declared that there is "something for example, Stanley Bowmar, "Progressive New Zealand," in the Public, 15:628-630 (July 5, 1912); Ri­ chard T. Ely, Studies in the Evolution of Industrial Society '•"Thomas |. Hogan, "Voluntary Arbitration: Experi­ (New York,'l903), 351-353, 382-384; Richard T. Ely, ence of Stove Manufacturers," in Peters, ed.. Labor and "How to Avert Strikes," in the Boston Evening Transcript, Capital, 280-286. In Wisconsin, for example, the sponsor August 3, 1901; Richard T. Ely and George Ray Wicker, of an arbitration bill argued that without it, the slate Elementary Principles of Economics (New York, 1912), 285 — would have "to keep an army to maintain the peace be­ 287; Gilman to Lloyd, June 25, 1900, in the Lloyd Papers; tween capital and labor," but Governor William H. Up- and H. L. Wayland, quoted in Myers, "C^ompulsory Arbi­ ham (a conservative Republican businessman) opposed a tration," 192. compulsory system, questioning both its constitutionality '••On Costigan and Allen, see the text below at notes and the willingness of capital and labor to "surrender . . . 53-54. rights which men hold to be very sacred. . . ." Compare '"Quoted from the Louisville Courier in Smythe to the .Milwaukee Journal, February 22, 1895, and Wisconsin Lloyd, August 29, 1901, in the Lloyd Papers. Public Documents, 1:14 (Madison, 1895). 200 WHi(X3)9158 A "breaker boy" who worked in a Pennsylvania coal mine and testified at the trials of sir miners, 1902-1903.

201 WISCONSIN .MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1987 about the idea of compulsion that is repug­ harder to achieve industrial harmony and jus­ nant to American conceptions of liberty of tice through effective collective bargaining be­ action, and it's not difficult to conceive a case in tween parties of roughly equal power. More­ which working men would be compelled to over, the "paternalism which the system work under conditions or for wages that were necessarily exercises dwarfs rather than de­ obnoxious to them." Charles B. Spahr wanted velops individual character and initiative. It to know- how- the state could "make any man would not harmonize with the progressive except a criminal work against his will? Would ideas for the Western Hemisphere."'^ dissatisfied workers be sent around in chain Some critics did concede that compulsory gangs?" The machinists agreed, describing arbitration might be acceptable in two the system as "the absolute enslavement ofthe instances—where a very large firm so domi­ wage workers," The strike weapon "would be nated a particular industry as to make negoti­ striken from our hands, and we would become ated contracts impossible—and in some public subject to the Court's charity." Samuel Gom- services, transportation and utilities, for ex­ pers said the same thing, arguing that an arbi­ ample, where the public interest transcended tration award, no matter how unfair or unjust, the private interest of labor no less than capi­ would compel employees to work under pen­ tal.'"^ But these were exceptional circum­ alty of either fine or jail, neither of which was stances and scarcely affected the overwhelm­ "one jot removed from slavery."^' Though ing antagonism of organized labor to the not always stated explicitly, these arguments compulsory idea. rested on the protections against slavery and involuntary servitude guaranteed in the Thir­ teenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, Labor also opposed compulsion on several OWERFUL opposition came as other grounds. For example, Gompers and P w-ell from the American Right. It others saw- the antipodean idea as a not so sub­ drew its inspiration, of course, from deeply tle scheme by labor's enemies to subvert trade held philosophical opposition to state inter- unionism, partly by allowing the state to in­ ventionism, but it drew its ammunition pri­ trude between employers and employees, marily from abroad, mainly antipodean critics partly by depriving unions of control over of compulsory arbitration and the English and their own affairs, partly by exposing individ­ Scottish press, which gave credibility to colo­ ual members as well as union treasuries to nial complaints. On the whole, conservadve court-imposed fines, and partly by creating criticism contributed more heat than light. If it "made-to-order unionists," men "who have did little to elevate the quality of a debate, it not fought the battles of labor, who have little was primarily responsible for keeping the or no interest in the trade union ideal, to Lloyd forces on the defensive and thus helped whom class solidarity means nothing and delay any resolution to the labor-management wages and hours everything."''** crisis. Fven when w-ell-intentioned, any system of The main source for this opposition was compulsory arbitration would necessarily Australasia Old and New (London, 1901) by w-eaken the labor movement and thus make it James Grattan Grey, an Irish-born Australa­ sian journalist.'" His and several other ac-

"Compare Martin Fox, "Voluntary Arbitration: Ex­ '*See, for examples, Gompers in Labor and Capital, 72, perience of Iron Moulders," in Peters, ed.. Labor and Capi­ 448, and 456; N. F. Thompson, secretary ofthe Southern tal, 287-298; Spahr to Lloyd, October 2, 1899, in the Industrial Convention, as reported in the New York Eve­ Lloyd Papers; Myers, "Compulsory Arbitration," 201; Sa­ ning Post, June 13, 1900; and Paul Kennaday, "The Land muel Ciompers, "Labor Unions: Labor Unions and Without Strikes," in Outlook, 90:526-530 (March 5, Strikes," in Peters, ed.. Labor and Capital, 62-74; and Sa­ 1910). muel Gompers, "From the .Address [to] the Arbitration '•'E. E. Clark of the Railway Conductors, "Arbitration Conference, . . . December 17, 1900," in ibid., 448-457. ofLabor Disputes," in the Annals of the American Academy of After extensive reading on the subject of compulsory arbi­ Political and Social Science, 24:285-295 (July, 1904). tration, Gompers declared himself "unconverted." '"See, for example. Fox, "Experience of Iron Mould­ Though the system might work in good times, he pre­ ers," in Peters, ed.. Labor and Capital, 295, 297. dicted failure when hard nnies struck, and the punitive •"See pages 364 — 375 for his criticism. Compare an un­ provisions ofthe New South Wales law appalled him. signed review in the Nation, 72:259-260 (October 3, 202 \VHi(X3)43163 Block testing FWD trucks in the Kissel Motor Car (Company yards, Hartford, 1918. counts challenged the Lloyd assessment on dustrial peace.' " Yes, the colony was indeed many crucial points: New Zealand was either prospering, investment was increasing, and bankrupt or soon would be; the level of taxa­ taxes w-ere declining. Yes, the antipodean sys­ tion and the size of the national debt repre­ tem did "conciliate" and it did "arbitrate." Nor sented dangerous burdens on colonial enter­ was it "perpetrating a mere farce,. . .sanction­ prise; industrial harmony had not been ing hypocrisy and delusion." No, the concept achieved at the Antipodes; the Liberal minis­ was not "inimical to the principle of the open try in New Zealand had belatedly realized the shop. . . ." Nor did it support "men who are folly of its industrial experiment and was not skillful and do not care to be industrious." about to abolish it; and the arbitration system No, the system was not a "ghastly failure," and had sapped colonial character and vitality. New Zealanders had not become devitalized, Many of these assertions had no basis in fact; degenerate, and sapped of their initiative.''^ nor could the subjective assessments be ve­ Critics on the Left were no less devastating. rified. Lloyd and others struggled to set the re­ They, too, rested their arguments on ideologi­ cord straight. They learned to their sorrow cal assumptions, but their attacks had a surer that in journalism, truth rarely overtakes dis­ factual basis. For example, Julius Wayland in information. No, the New Zealand premier had not ad­ mitted that the "plan is a failure" and that "the abandonment of compulsory arbitration is ^^For examples, see "Compulsory Arbitration," in the 'imperatively necessary in the interest of in- Independent, 53:2372 (July 25, 1901); the Louisville Courier, quoted in Smythe to Lloyd, August 29, 1901, in the Lloyd Papers; the NewYorkTimes, May8, 1905, commenting on a proposal for compulsory arbitration in public service in­ dustries; B. K. Miller, a Milwaukee attorney, quoted from the Los Angeles Times in Bomar, "Progressive New 1901), and J. C, "I he Oisis of Industrial Arbitration," Zealand," 628; and "Compulsory Arbitration in Australia ibid., S\:50-52(]u\y 20. 190,5). Fails," in the New York Times, November 12, I9I5. 203 WHi(X3)43167 Machine shop of the Winther Motor Truck Company, Kenosha, 1921.

Kansas, an early and enthusiastic supporter of had only to follow. No more strikes! . . . What colonial reforms, soon came to regret his en­ a country! Joy be its portion and happy man be dorsement, concluding that New Zealand's his dole that thought of arbitration boards to state socialism was a "capitalist fake" designed supplant brick-bats and night sticks!" Yet five to prop up an evil system and deprive workers years later he condemned the system as un­ of their just rewards. The editor of The Nation democratic, repressive, unworkable, and agreed, cautioning "sincere Socialists" against harmful. Disputes between labor and capital appealing "to the example of New Zealand as could never be stopped "so long as you retain conclusive.'"'^ the present organization of society."** Both anticipated Charles Edward Russell's Russell and others supported the emer­ attack of 1911. On a previous visit to the col­ gence of labor militancy in the South Pacific ony he had praised the arbitration system. "New Zealand had blazed the world's way. We ''-'Compare Charles Edward Russell, Bare Hands and Stone Walk: Some Recollections of a Side-Line Reformer (New ^'See Wayland's column, 'The Economic Struggle," in York, 1933), 171, 178, and 179-182 for his puzzled the .Appeal to Reason (Girard, Kansas), April 25, 1903; and reflections of why he had initially praised the New an unsigned review of Lloyd's Newest England in The Na­ Zealand system; Charles Edward Russell, "The War on tion, 72: 322 (April 18, 1901). For examples of Wayland's Strikes and the Effect," in the National Post, 1:22-28, 28- earlier views, see the Appeal to Reason, December 31,1898, 32 (June 17, July 1, 1911); and "More Light on the Com­ August 31, September 7, November 2, December 7, 1901, mon Good: The Collapse of Compulsory Arbitration," in and April 12 and August 16, 1902. the (7omingNation, September 2, 1911. 204 The Nernst Lamp Company, Pittsburgh, about 1901. with its refusal to be bound by the system of many workers were restless and dissatisfied, in conciliation and arbitration. These unions, part because the economy had turned down­ mostly in mining and transportation, rejected ward and the Arbitration Court had become state intervention. Instead they looked for­ less willing than previously to grant wage in­ ward to bringing about the collapse of capital­ creases.'*'' ism and the creation in its place of a collectiv- ist, industrial democracy—Russell's "Co-oper­ ative Commonwealth."'^ ND so the American supporters Their support for militant industrial un­ ofthe antipodean system found ionism aside, these critics mounted a powerful A' themselves on the defensive from both the challenge to the Lloyd assertion that a solution Left and the Right as well as from less biased to industrial warfare had been devised. By critics, one of whom declared that the recent 1907, when packinghouse workers struck for strikes "shriek aloud that the alleged remedy higher wages in defiance of the Arbitration Court, it was no longer possible to call New Zealand "a country w-ithout strikes." Clearly, '"'For an analytical summary of industrial disputes in New Zealand, 1895-1912, see The Official New Zealand Year Book, 1912 (WelHngton, 1912), 684-700; and for confirmation of labor's restlessness with the system, see ••'Charles Edward Russell, "Lessons From the Anti­ Harry R. Burrill, "New Zealand Labor Questions," in U.S. podes: The Labor Party of Australia and How it Fares in Monthly Consular andTrade Reports, number 322 (Washing­ Political Policies," in the CjommgNation, ]ur\e 3, 1911. ton,July, 1907), 241-243. 205 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1987 for industrial troubles is, so far, no remedy at Second, academics emphasized attitudinal all."47 differences between Americans and New Zea­ From New- Zealand, Tregear tried some­ landers, which they also saw as fatal impedi­ what ingenuously to paper over these prob­ ments to the success of the New Zealand ex­ lems and reassure American supporters. He periment in the United States. Colonials made several clever if not necessarily plausible willingly deferred to government, law, and points. He appealed for patience, asserting authority—something Americans did only re­ that the colony had never supposed that a per­ luctantly. Americans were too individualistic, fect system could be created instantly. He ar­ too much lovers of freedom, too lacking in gued that the enactment of a law could no deference to authority to allow a judge to dic­ more abolish industrial conflicts than it could tate work contracts.^" abolish burglary or murder. And he mini­ Finally, some academics feared that a com­ mized the difficulties with the colonial system, pulsory system of resolving labor disputes trying to characterize them as "teething pains" would dry up the flow of investment capital. rather than fundamental design flaws. From Such a result could have a devastating impact the New Zealand perspective, Tregear may on the development of the nation's economic have been more right than wrong. But from infrastructure, particularly in the cities. These the American perspective, he had uninten­ analysts also challenged the proposition that tionally confirmed existing doubts about the New- Zealand's prosperity was best explained efficacy of the colonial idea, thereby making by the achievement of industrial harmony. To compulsory arbitration even more vulnerable the contrary, they looked to external factors, to criticism than before.'**' primarily the fundamental improvement in Academic assessments both helped and the terms of trade for agricultural exports and harmed the Lloyd campaign. Most observers the opening of European markets to New confirmed the reports that the New Zealand Zealand dairy and meat products.^' system worked and that the overwhelming In short, for almost every argument ad­ majority of employers, workers, and citizens vanced by Henry Demarest Lloyd there em­ alike did not w-ish to return to the conditions erged a counter-argument. Both cases rested prevailing before 1895. However, almost on a recitation of purported facts combined without exception these same analysts with emotional appeals. There were few doubted the exportability of the antipodean shared perceptions, few shared premises. In­ concept to the United States. Mostly, they stead of a genuine dialogue leading to agree­ shared tw-o perceptions. First, that the New ments on some middle ground of compromise Zealand economy was small, simple, and over­ for resolving labor disputes, the protagonists whelmingly agricultural and that what worked cast the discussion in the form of a debate in well there would probably not work at all in which policy makers and the public alike had large, complicated, and industrialized coun­ to choose between two incompatible and irrec­ tries. (The fact that the system had been oncilable solutions—either compulsory adopted in Australia did not ensure that it arbitration in some American form or a con­ would bring industrial peace to European tinuation of the existing; chaos. countries or to the United States.)*'-^

•••That was the position taken by Victor S. Clark in his report to the U.S. Bureau ofLabor Statistics in 1903 and •"P. Airey, "The 'Australian Remedv'," in the National in his doctoral dissertation, published as The Labour Move­ Review (London), 59:1030- 1035 (August, 1912). .See also ment in Australasia: A Study in Social Democracy (New York, "Doubtful Efficacy of the '.-Xustralian Remedy' for 1906). Strikes," in The American Review of Reviews, 46:367 — 368 -'"That assessment was reflected by Cornelius J. Doyle, (September, 1912), for a summary. chairman ofthe Illinois Arbitration Board, "Compulsory ^"Edward Tregear, "Compulsory Arbitration," in the Arbitradon in the United States," in the Annals of the Amer­ Locomotive Firemen's Magazine, 30:468—474 (April, 1901); ican Academy of Political and Social Science, 36:302 — 310 Edward Tregear, "The Labor Situation in New Zealand," (September, 1910). in The Independent, 53:2742-2743 (November 21, 1901); ••'Compare Richard T. Elv, Studies in the Evolution of In­ Edward 'Tregear, "C^ompulsory Arbitration Under dustrial Society (New York, 1903), 351-353, 382-384; and Storm-Sails," in Arena, 40:137-141 (August-September, .Arthur Twining Hadley, Economics: An Account ofthe Rela­ 1908); "Has Compulsory Arbitration Failed?" in The Inde­ tions Between Private Property and Public Welfare (New York, pendent, 72:885-887 (April 25, 1912). 1896), 356-362. 206 ^^^ *•

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\VHi{X3)43166 Equipment boxes being packed at the Kissel Motor Car Company, Hartford, 1918.

N retrospect, it is clear that the than it did in New Zealand, but also because I Lloyd campaign suffered from they helped delay for almost a full generation three fatal ffaws. In the first place, though it the formulation of better methods of dealing tapped into a general American wellspring of with industrial disputes. desire for industrial harmony, the objective The fault was not entirely theirs, of course. was so amorphous that it was virtually impos­ Support for the New Zealand approach weak­ sible to create at the essential levels of political ened at crucial moments by growing Ameri­ activism the organizations capable of persuad­ can interest in the Canadian system, which ing state legislatures or the Congress to enact also involved the compulsory concept, but ap­ compulsory systems. Second, both parties plied it in a more limited way—an obligatory most vitally affected by the New Zealand cooling-off'period when a dispute threatened, concept—capital and labor—vigorously op­ so that the facts at issue could be investigated posed state intervention, though for very dif­ and publicized. The pressure of public opin­ ferent reasons. Without their acquiescence, ion, it was supposed, would force the contend­ whether active or passive, it was unlikely that ing parties to resolve their differences equita­ politicians would choose to lead where neither bly for the benefit of themselves as well as the employers nor workers chose to go. Third, public. That was the solution Weinstock rec­ Lloyd and his followers were naive and paid ommended for California in 1910; and the the price: they mistakenly assumed that the Commission on Industrial Relations, for the American people would enthusiastically and nation, in 19I5.''2 expeditiously embrace the antipodean solu­ tion simply because it was "right." And so they failed, not only in securing a system of com­ -'^Weinstock, Report on the Labor Laws of Foreign (coun­ tries, 152-157; Final Report and Testimony [of] the Commis­ pulsory arbitration, which probably would sion on Industrial Relations, Senate Document no. 415, se­ have no more worked in the United States rial 6929, 62 Cong., 1 sess. (Washington, 1916), 120-124. 207 WHi(X3)18.-i21 .Making zinc tubes at the French Batten and Carbon Company, Madison, about 1911.

Colorado, which had perhaps suffered as The Lloyd movement suffered from an­ much as any state from labor warfare, took up other crucial handicap. To win credibility for the Canadian idea in 1915 in the expectation the proposition that industrial warfare could that public opinion, "finally instructed and be abolished, the New Zealand solution had to aroused by the proven facts of industrial life be tested in the United States, preferably in a and the fair demands of human brotherhood, large, economically complex state. That never will eventually shape a new industrial order of happened. Other colonial ideas—minimum peace based on justice." That hope proved il­ w-ages for women, agricultural credit schemes, lusory, and in short order. Within a year, the village settlements, and systems for under- governor urged the legislature to repeal the w-riting worker compensation plans, for law, arguing that it had the opposite of its in­ example—were adopted, and some of them, tended effect. Not only had it exacerbated in­ American-style, spread from state to state; but dustrial discord, it had also subjected workers that essential breakthrough never happened to involuntary servitude.^-' This Colorado ex­ w-ith the compulsory arbitration concept. perience with its limited version of the com­ Fhere was one exception—Kansas—which pulsory principle raised additional doubts in 1920 was hardly a large and economically about the utility ofthe New Zealand plan. But complex state. In that year the legislature cre­ in the interim, scjme American interest had ated an industrial court and compelled certain been diverted from the Antipodes to Canada. "essential" industries and their workers to sub­ mit to compulsory arbitration if they could not resolve their differences between themselves. ='Edward P. Cosdgan, "The Compulsor) Investigation The governor claimed, perhaps accurately ofLabor Disputes," in Colin B. Goodykoontz, ed.. Papers though possibly out of ignorance, that the law of Edward P. Costigan Relating to the Progressive Movement in owed nothing to the New Zealand model. It Colorado, 1902-1917 (Boulder, 1941), 357; Edward P. really didn't matter. Capital and especially la­ Costigan, "Statement [to the Joint Industrial Relations Committee ofthe Colorado General .A.ssemblv, Februarv bor resisted, each for its ow-n reasons. Consti­ 19, 19171 on Industrial Relations," in ifo'rf., 359-360. tutional challenges came almost immediately. 208 COLEMAN: COMPULSORY ARBITRATION confirming the concerns expressed from the the world over—but their strategy was not to very C5utset of the American debate. Soon, the bring demands to the table so as to have points U.S. Supreme Court struck down the statute, to concede in the give-and-take of negotiation. at least as it applied to the meat-packing indus­ Rather, the demands were intended to make try, because it infringed "the liberty of con­ bargaining and conciliation impossible, tracts and rights of property guaranteed by thereby forcing the dispute on to the arbitra­ the due process clause of the Fourteenth tion court docket. Employers associations and Amendment." The Kansas legislature abol­ trade unions simply chose not to deal with ished the industrial court in 1925.-^* each other, preferring to take the easy way out That unfruitful episode put an end to fur­ by leaving decisions to a supreme court judge. ther American efforts to implement the New As a consequence, the Australasian colonies Zealand scheme. However, the end had prob­ never developed histories of responsible lead­ ably come much earlier, perhaps even by the ership in industrial relations. Americans time of Lloyd's death in the fall of 1903 and noted this trend as early as 1905, when The Na­ the loss of an energizing leader, but certainly tion, for example, reported that compulsion by 1908, when a series of labor disruptions had become the rule rather than the exception challenging the arbitration system gave the lie and that the arbitration court in New South to the claim that the South Pacific colony was Wales had a thirteen-year case backlog.^^ "a country without strikes." The strike on the Little noticed, too, was the fragmentation Waihi goldfield in 1912, with the Liberal gov­ of the New Zealand labor movement. Reeves ernment's resort to not only the militia but a certainly succeeded in promoting unioniza­ naval force as well to maintain "law and or­ tion—but not in the form he intended. Instead der," confirmed American doubts about the of large, strong unit^ns counterbalancing the utility of the compulsory idea.^^ power of capital, the system enabled workers But there were further problems with the in even the smallest establishments to register New Zealand model, only some aspects of themselves as separate bargaining units un­ which were appreciated at the time. "The fact affiliated with either regional or national that American critics paid so much attention unions. Fhese unions lacked the muscle to to the compulsc:)ry aspect of the colonial rem­ bargain effectively and therefore looked rou­ edy was not happenstance. They intuitively tinely to the arbitration court to give them understood, without necessarily comprehend­ what they were powerless to negotiate for ing, that the parties to New Zealand disputes themselves. Reeves and New- Zealand learned never engaged in either private collective bar­ that reform, no matter how well-intentioned, gaining or in good-faith conciliation. Rather, a does not always do good or produce the pre­ pattern quickly developed which made a dicted results. mockery of William Pember Reeves's inten­ tions. The parties only walked themselves per­ functorily through the motions of either bar­ gaining or conciliating. Ordinarily, both sides T would be a truism, of course, to staked out absurdly unreasonable positions— I say that the New Zealand model which was not unusual in collective bargaining was an idea whose time never came in Amer­ ica. 4"hroughout the long debate from 1895 to 1925, the weight of evidence, argument, and •'''Compare: Dominico Gagliardo, The Kansas Industrial policy preference opposed the adoption of the Court: An Experiment in Compulsory Arbitration (Lawrence, colonial experiment. Whether from capital or 1941); Henry J. Allen, The Party of the Third Part (New labor, from Left or Right, from the academy York, 192-1), esp. 221-240; Julia E. Johnsen, compiler, or the general public, Americans distrusted Kansas (7ourt of Industrial Relations (New York, 1922), a de- compulsion in industrial relations. Though baung manual; and Edith M. Phelphs, ed., "Kansas Court of Industrial Relations," in the University Debaters' Annual, Lloyd and his acolytes thought they detected a 1921-1922 ((SewYork, 1922), 1-51. The case quoted was conspiracy to block the "New Zealandization" Wolff Packing Co. vs Court of Industrial Relations, 262 United of America, the truth was probably very dif­ States Reports 522 (1923) and 45 United States Supreme ferent. Americans were simply highly selec- Court Reports 441 (1924). '-'For the breakdown of the antipodean system, see W. B. Sutch, The Quest for Security in New Zealand, 1840 — 1966 (Wellington, 1966), 99-122. '••J. C, "The Crisis of Industrial Arbitration,' 209 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1987 live. They accepted some foreign programs three decades diverted the American people while rejecting others. To be sure, compulsory from other, more effective ways of ending the arbitradon attracted and probably held con­ chronic warfare between capital and labor. siderable support in the United States; but Such can be the power of ideas, even ideas never enough, and never in the right places to whose time never comes.^' translate the principle into law. Meanwhile, Americans inched painfully and ever so slowly in their own time and in their own ways (through welfare capitalism, for example), to­ "That was the conclusion reached by J. Ramsay Mac- wards a very different method of achieving in­ Donald, one ofthe founders ofthe British Labour Party, dustrial harmony: the principles laid out in who declared in 1908 that under the antipodean system the Wagner Act of 1935. "practically nothing has happened—except that a genera­ tion's effort has been wasted." See his "Arbitration Courts But if the New- Zealand version ofthe com­ and Wages Boards in Australasia," in the Contemporary Re­ pulsory concept failed in the United States, it view, 93:308-325 (March, 1908), esp. 325. Like Russell, also succeeded, though in an ironical and MacDonald recognized that the law did not go to the cen­ tral problem: the maldistribution of wealth in a capitalist quite unfruitful way. For the colonial idea society, a criticism which Reeves himself had admitted took sufficient hold that it framed the Ameri­ earlier. See Reeves, 'Tive Years' Political and Social Re­ can debate over industrial reladons, and for form in New Zealand," 850.

62.000 LAWS r^*-x^ ^_.-- Enacted ^i* / •'• X '^ in Four -'"•«- :-jk Years in H... - •''^. = ™?^-^|.^ United P'* ^^Hu^ hm States. Many of ^S»^"^ SNOWED UNDER Them— ^^^~^x Unnecessarily ham­ pered your industry

Tell your legislator you >A ant fewer and better laws

W-Hi(X3)43l72 A poster issued by the National Industrial Conservation Movement of New York, about 1919. Gentle Knight: Edwin Forrest Harding By Thomas Doherty

N the past few years the big names to be removed in the heat of his first and only I of World War II have been heard battle? from once again. New biographies of Dwight Part of the answer is that Leslie Anders' Fisenhower, Douglas MacArthur, and George Gentle Knight: The Life and Times of Major Gen­ Patton have been released, plus a second vol­ eral Edwin Forrest Harding is a case study of the ume of autobiography by Omar Bradley. The role that luck can play in a soldier's career. final volume of Forrest Pogue's biography of Harding had the good luck to befriend George Marshall is due out soon. George Marshall during a low period in Mar­ Destined to be overshadowed by these shall's life and the bad luck to disappoint Mac- figures in print as he was in life is Edwin For­ Arthur during one of his lowest moments in rest Harding, who in late 1942 seemed poised World War II. to join that select list of names every war- Even more, you get a feeling—fair or not— generation American would remember for of the officer corps of the U.S, Army as a fra­ life. He was the commanding general of the ternity in which lockstep social ritual over­ 32nd Infantry Division, the National Guard shadowed the nuts and bolts of military outfit from Wisconsin and Michigan, and the proficiency. Mastery of a complicated, socially first U.S. Army division to go on the offensive demanding lifestyle here and now seems to in the Pacific. A quick and decisive victory in have taken precedence over skill at arms in the jungles of New Guinea could have led to some theoretical future conflict. bigger things: a corps command and possibly more. The war was young, the army desper­ ately short of proven leaders at all levels. Im­ ND it is Harding's social gifts portant people were watching him closely. A'tha t most emphatically emerge But over forty years later the question must from this book. A 1909 graduate of West be asked: why a biography of a man who com­ Point, Harding was assigned stateside duties manded his division for less than a year, only during World War I. In the mid-1930's he was editor of the Infantry J ournal, turning that for­ Gentle Knight: The Life and Times of Major Gen­ merly ho-hum house organ into a lively, at­ eral Edwin Forrest Harding. By LESLIE ANDERS. tractive, intellectually exciting periodical with (Kent State University Press, Kent, Ohio, a wide readership. Later he commanded the 1985. Pp. X, ,^84. Illustrations, notes, bibliog­ 27th "Wolfhound" Regiment at Schofield Bar­ raphy, index. ISBN 0-87338-314-1, $27.50.) racks, Hawaii, one of the peacetime army's 211 Copyright © 1987 try The State Historical Society of Wisconsin All rights of reproduction in any form reserved A

(.ourtcsv iheatuhor Edwin Forrest Harding and George Catlett Marshall in China in the 1920'.s

212 DOHERTY: EDWIN FORREST HARDING

most prestigious commands. But Harding the It was an uncanny forecast of the dilemma writer and thinker makes a sharper impres­ he faced five years later, when his own alleged sion on the reader of Anders' book than does failure to act cost him his division. Late in Harding the commander. As a leader he was 1942, on orders from MacArthur, Harding not primarily an intimidator, a motivator, an led elements of the 32nd—including both in­ organizer, or an innovator. If anything, Hard­ fantry regiments from Wisconsin—into the ing seems to have been the sort now called a jungles of Papua. Like every other American "facilitator." Clearly his colleagues found him division, the 32nd had trained for mecha­ an enormously attractive and admirable man, nized, European-style warfare. It had been and a good listener. He was a transcendently destined for Great Britain when MacArthur civilized man. As commander, writer, party- sent out a call from Australia for reinforce­ goer, and family man, it was his genial and lit­ ments. By then the 32nd was at Fort Devens, erate personal style that attracted aging loners Massachusetts, having arrived from Louisi­ like Marshall and eager young hot-bloods like ana, where it had been in training since Octo­ the poet and armor commander-to-be, ber, 1940. Charles "Buck" Lanham. In his modest, con­ Thereafter so much ofthe 32nd's time was tradictory way Harding appeared to be about taken up in travel—across the United States, as laid back as an officer could be, yet also the Pacific, and Australia—that what little ad­ tough and capable. ditional training its infantrymen received in He liked to recite long passages of Shakes­ Australia could not begin to prepare them for peare, and he had a lifelong interest in mili­ Papua. Harding had come aboard early that tary history as well as a professional interest in year, just as the division was about to embark the study of infantry tactics. He conceived and upon its globe-spanning travels. He replaced a edited an examination of small-unit actions in Milwaukee lawyer named Irving Fish, a long­ World War I unique for its realistic, nose-in- time power in the Wisconsin National Guard the-dirt perspective, as opposed to the abstract who was devastated by his abrupt removal. and schematic view of combat more typical of Harding's promotion to major general and to such studies. command of a division could only have come He also wrote light verse for special occa­ with the support, and in all likelihood at the in­ sions, a comic melodrama about life among stigation, of his old friend and admirer, Infantry School students at Fort Benning, and George Marshall, who was now the chief of a gossip column for a post newspaper, all of it staff of the army. At first, however, it was a gratefully received in the spartan, humdrum mixed blessing, because Fish's removal in fa­ settings of the peacetime army, judging from vor of an unknown Regular threatened to re­ Anders' book. As post gadfly and in more seri­ vive old intrigues and resentments between ous roles as student and writer on military is­ the Guard and the Regular Army. sues, Harding had a gift for homing in on the But with his gift for pouring oil on troubled unconventional point of view and working it waters Harding soon had morale higher than just provocatively enough to raise a smile or an ever. Everyone liked him and felt secure un­ eyebrow. der his command. He did not clean house of For instance, Harding wrote an editorial senior National Guard officers, resolving in­ for the Infantry J ournal that was critical of the stead to give them a chance to prove themsel­ "Do something!" attitude which had prevailed ves in combat. The one knock that had re­ in the army during World War I. Apparently curred in previous efficiency reports was that based on the assumption that it w-as better to he was not tough on weak subordinates, an­ sustain an aggressive defeat than to risk look­ other legacy that was to haunt him in Papua. ing like you've got cold feet, this attitude had By mid-November, 1942, infantrymen cost the lives of many soldiers, and Harding from Marshfield's C Company, South Milwau­ cautioned that sometimes the smarter and kee's K Company, Madison's G Company—in more courageous course for a commander fact from across both Wisconsin and was to simply stay put, regardless of pressure Michigan—were stalemated, worn down by from above to act. fevers and diseases of all types, and pinned 213 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1987

down by an enemy who, secure and unob­ line, and the heavy burden of great names im­ served in treetops and bunkers, watched patient for a quick success. But also, maybe a Americans who were often too sick, frus­ lifetime of team-play, of keeping an ironic dis­ trated, and demoralized even to take adequate tance from interpersonal conflict, of maintain­ cover. The Japanese had fragmented every at­ ing a cool demeanor in every circumstance, tacking force, then cut down the soldiers one had left Harding unequipped to deal with an­ by one as they filed through narrow jungle gry superiors in a straightforward manner. If paths. ever a moment in his life cried out for a fierce, Harding's pleas for tanks and artillery were direct, unequivocal expression of a point of not seriously regarded by MacArthur and his view—a proclamation nailed to the door—this advisors, who, having grossly underestimated was it. But the best he could muster was an an­ Japanese strength, persisted in the delusion gry toss of his cigarette, and later, as if in com­ that this should be an easy victory. Adding to pensation, still another plan for attacking Jap­ Harding's frustrations was the fact that even anese positions. But by then it was too late. before the Japanese began to reduce the divi­ Eichelberger had taken over. Harding flew sion, MacArthur and his band of rear area back to Port Moresby and a succession of com­ generals had already begun to break it up, mands in Puerto Rico and Panama, far from leaving the artillery behind in Australia and the war. At war's end he was directing the War reassigning some infantry elements to the Department's Historical Branch. He retired in Australians. 1946. Both men appear to have had posterity in mind. Harding had added to his personal staff iN December 2, MacArthur sent two young journalists, including E.J. Kahn o Harding's West Point class­ Jr., of The New Yorker, whose two-part profile mate. Lieutenant General Robert Ei- of Harding was appearing just as the 32nd chelberger, to clean house. In his own ac­ went into action. Later, the army published count, Eichelberger wrote that he found too Victory in Papua, perhaps the most exhaustive many men in rear areas, two few at the front. study of a single division in battle in all the ar­ Discipline had broken down, the division was my's historical volumes. While clearly it is the in disarray. Later he was to look back and see scholarly product of its author, Samuel Mil­ things in a very different light; but arriving ner, and not an apology for one general or an­ cold, with MacArthur breathing down his other, still you wonder whether the attention neck, he took his own anger out on Harding given the 32nd's campaign may have been and his senior officers. He implied that though prompted by Harding during his tenure as the he wanted to salvage Harding, Harding's army's first chief of military history. Harding avoidance and lack of candor made that im­ never wrote his side of the story, though he possible. was often urged to do so by his supporters. It is Much has been made of the confrontation tempting to speculate that this, too, would which culminated in Harding defiantly throw­ have been too direct and personal an ap­ ing down his cigarette and walking away. In proach for a man of his temperament. Maybe this book, as in Samuel Milner's Victory in Pa­ he decided to live with history's ambiguous pua and Lida Mayo's Bloody Buna, attention is verdict out of a genuine sense of humility and called to this uncharacteristic display of pique pride, a refusal to stoop to anything as self- as if it expresses the outrage that Harding was serving as autobiography. Whatever the rea­ too decent to put into w-ords. Perhaps, at the son for his silence, the decision apparently did moment, that was all Harding had left, for not give him much peace of mind, and those what is significant here is not what he did, but events in Papua weighed heavily for the rest of what he did not do. One has the sense of his his life. being worn down by an unceasing, piecemeal Eichelberger's account of his war, including accominodation to the conflicting claims of those same events, appeared in Our Jungle mission, conscience, the realities of jungle Road to Tokyo and many years later in Dear Miss warfare at the end of an inadequate supply Em, a more candid account based on letters 214 Courlesv itieaultior Harding, seated on the steps, with some of his staff in New Guinea. E. /. Kahn, Jr., of The New Yorker is to Harding's immediate left, under the hand rail.

home to his wife. Personally and in his writing 1970, death took their oldest son, Davis, a pro­ style, Eichelberger in retirement struck peo­ fessor of literature at Yale whose visits home ple as warm, likeable, and good-humored. each summer had been one of the highlights Many 32nd Division veterans and Harding of Harding's year. Forrest and Eleanor Hard­ loyalists recalled a different figure, one who ing had outlived three of their four children. they felt radiated a contemptuous indiffer­ Forrest Harding died several months after his ence to their plight in Papua. Some called him oldest son. "Eichelbutcher." Being fired at the peak of his career by a lifelong colleague was the first of a series of cruel setbacks for Harding and his wife. In N telling the story of Harding's 1951, their youngest daughter died of cancer I life, Leslie Anders reflects many at fifteen years. The next year, Forrest Junior, of his subject's strengths and some of his weak­ their youngest son, was seriously injured in an nesses. Anders is artful, compassionate, thor­ auto accident. A West Point graduate and a ough, and perhaps a little too loyal. Anders' colonel in the Air Corps, he was disabled for excessive reliance upon flattery culled from the rest of his life and died in 1967. Early in routine correspondence, testimonials made at 21: WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1987 the end of a tour of duty, and efficiency re­ Shakespeare given him by- his mother and ports (which historically tend to be inflated) aunts long before the Great War was on a shelf water down more meaningful evidence of at the head of his bed, along w-ith books by Harding's personal qualities. The reader feels Mary Baker Eddy (Mrs. Harding had taken up led to conclude that Harding's tragic flaw as a Christian Science). But the book within reach battlefield commander was his compassion; on the bedside table was the novel Flashman, a but in my opinion that is too protective and too gift from a man whose life Harding had saved simple. I suspect that there was a side to Hard­ on the way to Buna, after Japanese fighter ing that experienced doubt, played cards close planes sank their boat. George MacDonald to the vest, and felt anger, depression, and re­ Eraser's Flashman series tells the hilarious ad­ gret. Even his cautiously ironic, extremely cir­ ventures of a scoundrel whose pathological cumspect style of writing points towards a evasion of duty and pursuit of the wrong complex sort of man who revealed only a frac­ women are forever landing him in the middle tion of what he felt. A more hardheaded, of famous battles like the Charge of the Light "warts and all" approach to his story might Brigade and Custer's Last Stand. He sneaks to have been less generous in some ways but safety just as disaster closes in on legendary might also have resulted in a richer and ulti­ figures like Cardigan and Custer—and on mately no less sympathetic portrait. their overstuffed reputations. The huge old Harding home in Franklin, It is gratifying to think of Forrest Harding, Ohio, belongs to the Franklin Area Historical himself cheated by history, quietly cheering Society. When I visited several years ago, Harry Flashman as he reveals the fool's gold in things were pretty much as Harding and his those legends, celebrates human vulnerability, wife had left them. The leatherbound set of and reminds us how elusive the truth can be.

216 BOOK REVIEWS

Railroads of Southern &f Southwestern Wisconsin: Daniel J. Lanz has given us a readable ac­ Development to Decline. By DANIEL J. LANZ. count of the history of the former Milwaukee (Daniel J. Lanz, Monroe, Wisconsin, 1985. Pp. Road from Janesville through Monroe to Min­ xvi, 186. Illustrations, notes, bibliography, eral Point (with tributary branches). Included maps. $20.95, paper.) also are two branches once operated in our state by the Illinois Central (IC) and the inde­ pendent little Mineral Point and Northern. The Chicago Milwaukee St. Paul and Pa­ The Chicago and North Western, which had a cific, far better known simply as The Milwaukee long finger west from Madison and, at one Road, has had a substantial amount of litera­ time, a continuation down to Galena, Illinois, ture devoted to it in recent years. Books have is mentioned only briefly as part ofthe MP&N treated some of its rather obscure Iowa branch story. The Chicago Burlington and Quincy lines; the relationship ofthe Milwaukee to the (nctw Burlington Northern), which rests along village of Marquette, just across the Missis­ the Mississippi and within the book's territory, sippi River from Prairie du Chien; and a de­ is unmentioned. scription of railroading in northwestern Io­ Dan Lanz's depth of research is commend­ wa's lake country paired CMStP&P with able as he explains the multitude of projected, another railroad which has gone out of exist­ but never realized, railroads. Discussed in de­ ence, the Rock Island. tail is the Mineral Point Railroad, which was Now, in a similar vein, comes this grandly completed in 1857 to Warren, Illinois, to meet titled (including the ampersand) volume. A the IC. Later, the Mineral Point w-as acquired problem is that the book, even though ex­ by The Milwaukee Road, which then built a panded from its original concept, does not link between Monroe and Gratiot. meet the expectations of its title. For all practi­ Much attention is given to Monroe where cal purposes, there is no mention of railroad­ the Milwaukee and the Illinois Central inter­ ing in that part of southern Wisconsin east of sected but were not physically connected until, Madison, Janesville, and Beloit. almost at the end of this history, both majors Several of the photographs reproduce had evacuated, leaving the lines' operation to poorly as do some of the maps. Throughout state-regional sponsorship. There was, how­ the book, a major railway's name is presented ever, a track interchange for freight cars at as the Chicago and Northwestern (one word), Dill, the crossing of Milwaukee Road's "Min­ when that company has always used North eral Point Division" with IC's Dodgeville Western (in the best of English tradition). branch a short distance west of Browntown. 217 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1987

The Illinois Central's Dodgeville branch also be read by anyone with a serious attrac­ was noted for its several tall trestles and for the tion to Wisconsin history. way it uniquely went off to the Second World Lanz has done a most thorough job of re­ War. The IC's "Madison District" was widely search: he lists eight pages of source material! remarked among students of the iron horse His book represents scholarly effort and dis­ for its tunnel (one of the few in Wisconsin) plays a notable talent for uncovering detail. south of Belleville, fhis route survived to be­ This is a fine "first publicadon." Considering come part of the "new" Chicago Madison and his accomplishment at age sixteen, I look for­ Northern (now Wisconsin and Calumet) early ward eagerly to what Daniel Lanz may be able in 1981. The branch had been constructed un­ to produce ten years, or so, down the (rail) der that name by a subsidiary ofthe IC. road. The Mineral Point and Northern was con­ structed from "Highland Junction," a location JIM SCRIBBINS on the Milwaukee between Mineral Point and MILWAUKEE Calamine, northwesterly through Linden to Highland, which celebrated its completion for two days. MP&N's mission was to bring "black jack" ore to the Mineral Point Zinc Company, which was the largest plant of its type in the Wisconsin's Foundations: A Review of the State's country in 1904. The little railroad entered Geology and Its Influence on Geography and Hu­ Mineral Point over the track of the Milwaukee man Activity. By GWEN SCHULTZ. (Kendall/ from the Junction. By 1930, the zinc plant was Hunt, Dubuque, for the Cooperative Exten­ completely closed, resulting in abandonment sion Service, University of Wisconsin, 1986. ofthe small railroad. Pp. ix, 211. Illustrations, maps, glossary, se­ Lanz traces the railroads through their con­ lected references, index. ISBN 0-8403-3775- struction periods (the most interesting part of 2, $19.95, paper.) his book), their "heydey," and their "decline." He stumbles occasionally along the w-ay on de­ For seventy years, Lawrence Martin's The tails. He fails to point out that the LaCrosse Physical Geography of Wisconsin has graced the and Milwaukee (a Milwaukee Road predeces­ shelves of every student of Wisconsin's past as sor) never received a land grant he mentions. the standard physical geography and geology The projected Milwaukee and Dubuque text. Printed first in 1916, revised in 1935, and narrow--gauge was not absorbed into another republished (though not revised) in 1965, railroad. The Milwaukee Road's "Locomo­ Martin's work has become increasingly dated tor," a self-propelled (by steam) rail car is de­ while geologists made new discoveries, em­ scribed as a "locomotive" (which is wasn't). ployed the latest science to place rocks and Full-fledged passenger train service to Min­ other materials firmly in time, and argued eral Point, from Milwaukee, ended not in among themselves about what it all meant. A 1940 but a decade later. historian who needed to know the latest wis­ The author finishes with the complex ac­ dom about how- some spot on the Wisconsin count of attempts to "preserve" rail service in landscape came to be the way it is had two al­ much ofthe subject area through the coopera­ ternatives, once Martin had been exhausted: tive efforts of the State of Wisconsin, county flounder for hours in a geography or geology transit commissions, and small independent library, or telephone an expert. Fortunately, railroads known in the rail vernacular as Wisconsin boasts lots of experts who are habit­ "shortlines." His epilogue revives the myth of ually congenial and helpful. deliberate neglect of service and equipment Now comes Gwen Schultz with a most w-el- and rights-of-way on the part of the railroads come up-to-date synthesis, replete with "se­ to hasten abandonment. Nonetheless, he does lected references" and a fairly useful index, also, correctly, point out the adverse effects of and virtually all of it couched in layman's lan­ two government actions: regulation of rail­ guage. For years to come it will supplant Mar­ roads and subsidization of other modes of tin on Wisconsin reference shelves—though, I transportation at the rails' expense. hope, not for seventy years. Railroads of Southern i^ Southwestern Wiscon­ Schultz is not afraid to challenge the reader sin will be of particular interest to those per­ with information and theory, nor is she afraid sons preoccupied with railroading. It should to say "no one really knows" w-hen essential

218 BOOK REVIEWS

facts have eluded her and her colleagues. For the ground moraine on which my house example, she writes: "Until recently, all red stands. Clearly, it is an ice-block depression (p, drift of the Late Wisconsin glaciation in east­ 152; not indexed), I shall be ever grateful for ern Wisconsin was called Valders till. ... It is that fact and for having a permanent re­ now known that not all of eastern Wisconsin's minder outside my backdoor that a glacier red drift is ofthe same age, that not all of it was covered the area about 10,000 years agcj. deposited by the same spreading of ice that de­ Wisconsin's Foundations fills a definite need posited red drift at Valders. ... At this writ­ for a new summary of Wisconsin's geology. It ing, the questions of how- widespread or lim­ does indeed broaden understanding of Wis­ ited the 'Valders' till is, and what the relative consin's environment and past. But it is not yet ages of red drift deposits in various locations the great book it should be if it is to remain the are, and what they should be named, are un­ standard work for several decades. The for­ settled." mat is somewhat unwieldly, the index weak, The reader who hopes to find an index ref­ the historical facts (post-1634) shaky, and the erence to this passage under soils or Valders till table of contents inadequate. I implore the will seek in vain, though the Valders entries University Cooperative Extension Service and lead to it. Nor does the table of contents in­ the author to go the extra mile in subsequent clude the extremely useful section headings. editions. Reference works like this one deserve better JOHN O. HOLZHUETER indexing and reader helps: lists of illustrations State Historical Society ofWisconsin and maps, guides to sections which discuss general topics, and the like. Single-word in­ dexes do not suffice, though they take infini­ tely less time to prepare. From the Indian Land: First-hand Account of Cen­ Numerous geologists reviewed the manu­ tral Wisconsin's Pioneer Lifie. By MALCOLM script, and the book's interpretive nuances ROSHOLT. (Krause Publications, Inc., lola, demonstrate that Schultz heeded their criti­ Wisconsin, 1985. Pp. iv, 348. Illustrations, cisms and advice. Would that she had passed map, index. ISBN 0-87341-084, $17.95.) the completed text through the hands of a few equally critical historians. I read with astonish­ About 1915, Thor Helgeson, a school­ ment, for example, that 4,000 persons lived in teacher, wrote a book in Norwegian called Fra southwest Wisconsin by 1826. Odd, then, that Indianernes Lande, w-ith a second volume two census enumerators found only 1,587 persons years later. This book recorded a wealth of in Iowa County (which then embraced the en­ data concerning the early settlers in Waupaca tire area) in 1830 and 5,234 in 1836. And stu­ and Portage counties. In the 1950's, Malcolm dents of immigration and European impact Rosholt began to write a history of Scandina­ on mid-nineteenth-century Wisconsin will be via and lola townships in Waupaca County. As dismayed to read the old saw: "Many people a part of this work, he translated the two vol­ who emigrated from glaciated northern Eu­ umes by Helgeson, publishing about 75 per rope and settled in Wisconsin came here be­ cent in a weekly series in the lola Herald from cause this area resembled their homeland." 1965 to 1967. It is this material which has been That notion has been wholly discredited in re­ revised and edited for the present volume. cent years, and seems to have been the inven­ Although the author concentrates on the tion of early twentieth-century historians and tw-o townships of Scandinavia and lola, he in­ writers. Certain landscape traits may have cludes useful material on several other town­ been similar, but climate, agricultural tech­ ships in the area. He has devoted many pages nique, and overall landscape features were to the history of the Scandinavia Lutheran wholly dissimilar. Church, the mother church for the Norwe­ Schultz's principal goals are, however, geo­ gians in central Wisconsin, including many of logical and humanistic, not historical. And in the details ofthe controversy which resulted in these she succeeds admirably. She hopes to in­ a split in the church. Twenty pages provide spire her readers to "see things in a somewhat the story of Scandinavia Academy, a second­ different light," to give "the shape of a hill or ary school serving Norwegian Lutherans from valley . . . new- meaning." She does. She has en­ 1895 to 1932, including a list of the graduates, abled me, for example, to solve an utterly in­ year by year. significant personal riddle of a depressicjn in The last part of the book is especially de-

219 WISCO.NSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTC:)RY SPRING, 1987 lightful reading, with bits of frontier humor, index. ISBN 0-80I8-3094-X, $20.00, cloth; together with anecdotes from funerals and so­ ISBN 0-8018-3096-6, $8.95, paper.) cial gatherings. One chapter discusses the Civil War period, with translations of letters Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization ofi the from the battlefield, and a list of those who United States. By KENNETH T. JACKSON. (Ox­ participated. ford University Press, New York and Oxford, It would have been a service to students of 1985. Pp. X, 396. Illustrations, maps, notes, in­ central Wisconsin history if Rosholt had sim­ dex, appendix. ISBN 0-19-503610-7, $21.95.) ply provided a translation of Helgeson's books, but he has done much more. Whereas Teaford's Twentieth-Century American City Helgeson gave long recitations of names and and Jackson's Crabgrass Frontier are tw-o of the dates, Rosholt has added a great deal of bio­ best of a mid-decade wave of American urban graphical detail, especially for persons living history texts. Together with new or revised in Scandinavia and lola townships. This in­ works from Kenneth Fox, John H. Mol- cludes brief analyses of the names of earlier lenkopf, Raymond A. Mohl, Charles N. Glaab Norwegian settlers, based upon the best au­ and the late A. Theodore Brown, Howard P. thorities in Norway; minute details from gen­ Chudacoff and Zane L. Miller, and Patricia M. eral store ledgers; data concerning the com­ Melvin, these books help demonstrate that the munities left behind in Norway; and data urban sea is far from recession. In fact, after concerning migration and earlier settlement nearly two decades of monographs, tentative in other parts ofWisconsin. The latter should texts, and introspections—have the practition­ prove to be helpful to family historians, offer­ ers of any field ever reexamined their field so ing the key to a number of printed sources in often as urban historians?—these works rep­ the Norwegian language. resent a move toward a mature synthesis and The reader should not be misled by the the production of usable materials for future number of pages, 348. The volume is printed scholars of metropolitan America. in two columns and relatively fine print. Much Even in a work of synthesis, Jon Teaford has been packed into these pages. Helgeson does not waste words. Scarcely another histo­ included no illustrations. Rosholt has collected rian anywhere is so succinct in the presenta­ many photographs, not only of individuals, tion of major ideas. Having reshaped scholars' but also of old houses, stores, and churches, as views ofthe origins of colonial municipal gov­ well as of area activities such as lumbering, ernment, the annexation and consolidation blacksmithing, and railroading. This reviewer process, and the effectiveness of industrial-age is grateful for the inclusion of a personal name city government, Teaford now attempts an index, lacking in the Norwegian version. overview of tw-entieth-century urbanization. We have here an excellent source book for Although a good book, it is the least among his anyone interested in the history of the area, substantial products. relaying as it does original material about the Teaford's difficulties lie in his dogged devo­ community and its residents. In addition, it is a tion to brevity and his focus on the industrial collection of anecdotes and biographical data centers of the Northeast and Midwest. Often about one of the important early settlements Teaford fails to explain his arguments in suf­ of Norwegians in America. It will be a worthy ficient detail. For example, the full impact of addition to many public and personal li­ the New Deal urban-related programs is lost braries. because the author tells us little or nothing of Herbert Hoover's depression policies. Tea­ GERHARD B. NAESETH ford admits his regional bias, but he makes lit­ University ofi Wisconsin—Madison tle attempt to correct it, even in the postwar era of Sunbelt development. Teaford's emphasis on physical over politi­ cal development goes against the current tide of schcjlarship, but that approach may serve him well over the long haul. The book is a much needed summary of twentieth-century The Twentieth-Century American City: Problem, urbanization, a good competitor for Carl Ab­ Promise and Reality. By JON C. TEAFORD. (Johns bott's forthcoming volume on the same per­ Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and Lon­ iod. don, 1986. Pp. X, 177. Bibliographical essay, Kenneth Jackson's magnum opus on Ameri- 220 BOOK REVIEWS

can suburbanization was a long time in com­ tial interaction, including both communica­ ing. Jackson took over a decade to develop his tion and transportation. The road system has w-oric. Since he published many preliminary been, and continues to be, not only a major el­ reports along the way, much in this volume is ement of the cultural landscape, but also a already known. There are pearls of new infor­ reflection of the changes in both the national mation on such groups as the Home Owners and the regional cultures, past and present. Loan Corporation and its mortgage maps, but Roads have been the subject of many studies the book's main value is in Jackson's ability to of cultural change, as manifest in their chang­ keep afloat so many ideas and concepts in one ing spatial design and also in the landscapes entertaining stream of narration. and artifacts which are visible by the traveler Jackson's theme is the breakdown of a mu­ along them. The visible roadside landscape nicipal sense of community which resulted has been the subject of many studies by geog­ from suburbanization. (Picture Robert Wiebe, raphers, artists, anthropologists, historians, standing in front of a four-bedroom, split- and many other specialists. George R. Stewart, level ranch house, spatula and barbecue sauce in 1953, selected one of the transcontinental in one hand, the keys to a station wagon in the highways, U.S. 40, to demonstrate that the other.) The loss-of-community theme will landscapes along a road reflect the changes in trouble some, particularly immigration histo­ the societies which develop and use the roads. rians who question the extent of loyalty be­ More than three decades later, the present au­ yond ethnic groups. The lament which invari­ thor investigated the cultural artifacts along a ably follows—that the suburbs have killed a section of that road, crossing the State of Indi­ most buoyant life form, city dwelling a la Jane ana, as indicators of the past and present na­ Jacobs—will again bother those who have no­ tional and regional culture: as a "museum of ticed that the great mass of Americans have re­ history." Schlereth calls the process of his in­ jected that life style. vestigation "above ground archaeology." Moreover, Jackson's attempts to predict the Selection of U.S. 40 across Indiana as the lo­ future should remind historians of the dan­ cus of his study is especially appropriate, for gers of prognostication. His vision of a return several reasons. 'I he highway is the oldest fed­ migration to the cities presupposes high gaso­ eral highway in the Midwest, and served as a line costs, high interest rates, and frozen major axis of settlement of the region. Both home-building technologies. Perhaps in the the road and the area tributary to it under­ long run these are good assumptions, but at went several distinct stages of cultural, eco­ present they already seem dated. nomic, and technological evolution. Schlereth With Jackson's volume, however, one identifies four periods: the National Road, should step back, for the panoraiTiic view is im­ 1827-1849; the period of private highway as­ pressive. The sweep of the book, its clear and sociations, 1850—1925, when railroads sup­ convincing style, and its incisive analysis ofthe planted roads for all except local travel; the causes of suburban development insure its sta­ U.S. 40 era, 1925-1960, when the road was a tus as a classic. Future suburban historians conventional major highway; and the period should find Jackson's w-ork the high tide of this 1960 to the present, w-hen U.S. 40 was in part generation's efforts to understanding the ori­ supplanted by Interstate 70, which closely par­ gins of our modern metropolitan life. allels it. Each of these periods left tangible arti­ facts, not only in right-of-way alignment, but RICHARD M. BERNARD in buildings, land uses, utility lines, signs, and Auburn University at Montgomery other evidences ofthe successive cultures. Nearly half of the book is devoted to discus­ sion of how the material culture visible from, or in the vicinity of, a road may be used to "gain an increased awareness and under­ standing of life as lived in the past and U.S. 40: A Roadscape ofthe American Experience. present." Numerous examples are used to il­ By THOMAS J. SCHLERETH. (Indiana Historical lustrate the iTiethodology; these are drawn Society, Indianapolis, 1985. Pp. viii, 150. Illus­ from all parts of the United States, although trations, maps, bibliography. $13.95.) there is a preponderance of Indiana exam­ ples. Old maps and photographs of land­ The transmission and diffusion of culture, scapes, townscapes, and buildings are proli- both abstract and concrete, is the result of spa­ fically used. Some are scenes from the past; 221 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1987

Others are contemporary pictures of the uous deficiencies. One is the lack of an index. present appearance of the old buildings and Another is the lack of clarity in many of the scenes. Especially interesting are sketches, photographic illustrations, some of w-hich are copied from the geographer John Jackie, printed too darkly, or with insufficient con­ showing the changes in the architecture of trast. The reproductions would have been such ubiquitous highway-oriented features as much better had they been printed on a more gasoline stations. Schlereth shows how condi­ glossy or coated paper. tions of the past can be reconstructed through In spite of these shortcomings, the volume identification ofthe period when each charac­ is a significant interdisciplinary contribution teristic feature or architectural style prevailed. to interpretation of national and regional cul­ The second, and largest, portion of the tural historical geography as well as archaeol­ book is specifically devoted to discussion of in­ ogy- dividual types of artifacts associated with U.S. 40 in Indiana, ranging from rural agricultural HAROLD M. MAYER areas to densely developed portions of central University of Wisconsin—Milwaukee Indianapolis. Among the specific features which are considered are roadside eating es­ tablishments ranging from early country inns to the parabolic arches and other distinguish­ ing features of highway-oriented fast-food chains. The evolution of lodging places from private residences with overnight guests, James E. Keeler: Pioneer American Astrophysicist through the tourist cabin courts, to the motel, and the Early Development of American Astrophys­ and, finally, the motor hotel are depicted in ics. By DONALD E. OSTERBROCK. (Cambridge text and photographs. The growth of strip University Press, New-York, 1984. Pp. xii, 411. commercial areas, and the by-passing of them ISBN 0-521-26582-7, $39.50.) by limited-access expressways, which themsel­ ves stimulated the development of clusters of The road up Bascom Hill at the Uni\ ersity motels, restaurants, service stations, and other ofWisconsin in Madison is called, as all those highw-ay-oriented businesses at points of ac­ who have attended the university knc:)w. Ob­ cess and egress are presented very effectively. servatory Drive. Hidden on the next hill be­ Persons who are old enough to remember the hind Bascom is the observatory itself, cultural landscapes along the highways of the Washburn Observatory, named after Cadwal­ 1920's, 1930's, and 1940's, as described and il­ lader Colden Washburn. These days the oper­ lustrated in the volume, will view the presenta­ ating observatory is outside Madison, at Pine tions with nostalgia. Bluff, but this book takes us back to the glory The book concludes with an extensive, an­ days ofthe Washburn Observatory—though it notated bibliography of books, journal artic­ is true that James E. Keeler was not directly les, and other works, predominantly second­ concerned with Washburn. Yet he followed ary, which relate to the individual topics, as Edward S. Holden (in charge at Washburn well as to the "above ground archaecjlogy" of from 1881 to 1885) to the great Lick Observa­ highways in general. tory on Mount Hamilton in California, and he There is relatively little discussion of the was part ofthe circle of pioneer astrophysicists impacts of highways in general, and of U.S. 40 and astronomers whose points of observation in particular, on the spatial patterns of settle­ w-ere Allegheny (Pittsburgh), Washburn, and ment. For example, the rectangular grid pat­ Lick. tern, as developed as the result of the North­ Because Keeler died young (he was not yet west Ordinance of 1787, is largely overlooked, forty-three when he had a fatal stroke in as are the impacts of competitive transpcjrta- 1900), it was his successors rather than he him­ tion. The impacts of changing agricultural self who brought to fruition many of the lines practices and technologies upon the visible of inquiry he began. Moreover, because he landscape are not developed. In general, the died before the twentieth century began, he is author emphasizes individual types of cultural relegated to the realm ofthe predecessors and artifacts rather than what might be termed the we do not give him credit even for what he did "morphology of landscape." accomplish: as Osterbrock observes, w-hen we Although the book is very interesting and read today "about the forbidden lines in the intellectually stimulating, it has a few conspic- spectra of the nebulae, that do not arise in any 222 BOOK REVIEWS terrestial laboratory source, or about the or­ tific advance requires considerable politick­ bital velocities of the tiny particles in Saturn's ing' rings, or about the large numbers of galaxies Fhe astronomers and astrophysicists of in the universe, we do not associate these ob­ Keeler's day fit beautifully into the pattern of servations with him." But we should; he is re­ Thomas Kuhn's invisible college, the linked sponsible for them. group of workers within a discipline who are The straightforward history of science, as in fact establishing the fixed points of a sci­ distinguished from the philosophy of the his­ ence. To be sure, what Keeler was doing, first tory of science (brought to our attention by as a student at Johns Hopkins, then as an as­ Thomas Kuhn and others), is enjoying re­ sistant at Allegheny and at Lick, finally as di­ newed attention, I have noted, and in this re­ rector at Allegheny and then at Lick, was newed attention astronomy and astrophysics scarcely invisible, and public interest in astron­ take pride of place. The Heavens and the Earth, omy was high. But there was so little under­ winning the Pulitzer Prize for History in 1986, standing of his achievements that he was cho­ is admittedly political history as well as history sen as director of Lick, over a seventy- of science—but then, the history of science is two-year-old geographer, only after a tied first frequently political history. And Osterbrock's ballot and only by a vote of twelve to nine— story is no exception. (It is revealing, for ex­ and that was by the Regents of the University ample, that Holden was made President ofthe of California, who were committed to making University of California to get him to come to their observatory the best in the world and the Lick Observatory.) presumably knew something about what was Of course, since this is a biography, it is also going on in the field. personal history, but it is the history of a per­ For twenty years Keeler was one of the ma­ son's scientific work, and the scientific work of jor figures in American science, and for the those around him. The personality of James last ten of those perhaps the major figure in Keeler—a very appealing one, from what I American astronomy and astrophysics, even can see—is not Osterbrock's main concern. He (arguably) the major figure worldwide. It is is seeking to restore Keeler to his rightful good to have a carefully and pleasantly written place in the history of astrophysics, and, in the biography, based as this one is on research course of doing that, to give us a picture of both wide and deep. Osterbrock is to be com­ American scientific endeavor in the last years mended, and the book should have a w-ider of the nineteenth century. The discussion of circulation than it probably will. the World Congress on Astronomy and Astro- Physics, one of many congresses held in con­ JARED C. LOBDELL junction with the great World Columbian Ex­ New York City position of 1892 — 1893, in a brief compass reminds us that world's fairs can be more than expositions and might suggest a pattern for the events forthcoming in 1992 — 1993: but more than that, it is one of the clearest state­ ments ofthe profound excitement of scientific and academic work in those days. Bliss was it in Justice at War: The Story of the Japanese-American that dawn to be alive, and to be young— Internment Cases. By PEEER IRONS. (Oxford George Ellery Hale was twenty-two when he University Press, New York, 1983. Pp. xi, 407. undertook to organize the congress—was very Notes, bibliography, index. ISBN 0-19- Heaven. 503273-X, $18.95.) Besides the astronomers—Keeler, Holden, Hale, Sherburne Burnham, William W. When President Franklin Delano Roosevelt Campbell, Samuel Langley—a leading part is issued Executive Order 9066 on February 19, played by Alvan Clark, John Brashear, and 1942, little did he realize the terrible implica­ other lensmakers, and by photographers of tions surrounding the conscious decision to the heavens as well: the last astronomer who uproot and relocate 120,000 Japanese- did not depend on engineers and craftsmen Americans for the duration of the Second was, perhaps, Tycho Brahe in the sixteenth World War. FDR may have very well been a century, and it is well to be reminded of the leader w-ith "basically humanitarian im­ part that craftsmen play in scientific advance, pulses," writes Peter Irons, but his response to as well as being reminded (as noted) that scien­ the nisei indicates that he possessed "a limited 223 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1987 awareness of and attention to the plight of ra­ were a legal farce from the word go. The War cial minorities." Department's case against these innocent indi­ In what promises to become the definitive viduals was knowingly replete with doctored treatment on the subject. Justice at War investi­ or tainted evidence, half-truths, and outright gates the historical details behind the wartime falsehoods. "This documentary record," the relocation drama. The ideological atmo­ author goes on to observe, "reveals a legal sphere of hostility that made the displacement scandal without precedent in the history of of Japanese-Americans possible "rode on American law." The behavior of the Supreme powerful currents of nativism and prejudice" Court was also less than laudable. Except for which had existed deep within United States the dissenting opinions of those justices who society since at least the mid-nineteenth cen­ refused to approve the evacuation measures, tury. This shameful record of racism and big­ the trials of the Japanese-Americans were oted intolerance toward the imaginary "Yel­ nothing more than "perfunctory exercises in low Peril"—coupled with the mood of revenge legal formality, with their outcomes a fore­ following the disaster at Pearl Harbor—led to gone conclusion. . . ." Tragically, the conduct loud demands for swift retribution against ofthe Supreme Court serves to "illustrate in its Americans of Japanese ancestry. Although most naked form the dominance of politics Roosevelt could have flatly rejected public over law when the tw-o collide." pressure to evacuate Japanese-Americans by simply standing up to moral principles with ANDRE G. KUCZEWSKI calm and reasoned judgment, he caved in to McGill University burgeoning demands for action against the ni­ sei and all too easily granted sweeping powers for none other than politically expedient rea­ sons. Almost from the moment the evacuation "Let the Eagle Soar!": The Foreign Policy of An­ was set in motion, skeptics were heard among drew Jackson. By JOHN M. BELOHLAVEK. (Uni­ the highest echelons of the federal govern­ versity of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, 1985. Pp. ment. Two of Roosevelt's most powerful cabi­ X, 328. Illustrations, notes, bibliography, in­ net members—Attorney General Francis dex. ISBN 0-8032-1187-2, $28.95.) Biddle and Secretary of War Henry Stimson— expressed serious legal reservations on the le­ Belohlavek aims w-ith this study to add still gitimacy ofthe evacuation operation while In­ further luster to the reputation of Andrew terior Secretary Harold L. Ickes condemned Jackson, Surveying the concerns of American the entire event as a moral outrage that would diplomacy between 1829 and 1837, Be­ forever stain the American national con­ lohlavek portrays President Jackson as a clear­ science. sighted, careful, consistent, and firm cham­ Judicial and ethical doubts about the forced pion of American rights in international transfer of Japanese-Americans soon proved matters. He contends that both Jackson's dip­ prophetic. In 1943, four interned nisei— lomatic record and the diplomatic issues of Gordon K. Hirabayashi, Minoru Yasui, Fred this period were more significant and impres­ T. Korematsu, and Mitsuye Endo— sive than previously believed. challenged the constitutionality ofthe evacua­ Belohlavek's contention about Jackson is tion order -with petitions to the Supreme convincing. Making extensive use of primary Court following their convictions on misde­ sources, particularly long-neglected corre­ meanor charges arising from deliberate viola­ spondence files of the State Department, he tion of curfew regulations. Soon afterwards, amply demonstrates that Jackson gave consid­ the United States' supreme judicial body erable attention to diplomatic affairs. The unanimously upheld the verdict handed down western president devoted much effort to se­ by the lower court to Hirabayashi and Yasui. curing trade agreements that would benefit Eighteen months later, a divided Supreme American agriculture. He pressed his minis­ Court voted to similarly sustain Korematsu's ters and envoys to protect American interests conviction. The third case ended on a happier abroad. He investigated possibilities for a note and granted a writ of habeas corpus to transoceanic canal, challenged the hegemony Endo which discharged her from custody. of Great Britain over South American trade, Irons maintains that the legal proceedings expanded ties with the orient, and employed against Hirabayashi, Yasui, and Korematsu the navy to defend a growing merchant trade. 224 BOOK REVIEWS

Clearly, Jackson did not neglect foreign pol­ ogi-aphy, index. ISBN 0-941702-11-1, $25.00, icy. Robert Remini has already made this case, cloth; ISBN 0-941702-12-X, $9.95, paper.) however, in his biography of Jackson. So just how important was foreign policy f he contributions of the Industrial Work­ during this time? On this matter, Belohlavek is ers ofthe World to the still on-going democra­ far less convincing. His survey touches upon tization process in America, especially during every incident that found its way into the dip­ the Wobbly heyday in the 1910's and 1920's, lomatic correspondence, and concerns every were considerable and accomplished in the part of the world in which the United States face of extraordinary opposition. And the still had any interests. Despite this completeness, continuing contribution of the IWW as a sub­ Belohlavek fails to make his case that this was ject for American writing is substantial. Ofthe an important period for American diplomacy. many books on the One Big Union appearing Belohlavek's failure lies partly in the fact in the last thirty years or so, a fair number are that he adds nothing new to the major foreign mediocre. Several are excellent—among issues ofthe time: the French spoliations con­ them, those by Joseph Conlin, Melvyn Du- troversy and the Texas revolution. These mat­ bofsky, Joyce Kornbluh, Fred Thompson, and ters have been thoroughly considered in ear­ Robert Tyler. Solidarity Forever, taking its title lier work. Partly, the problem lies in the fact from the great labor anthem written by IWW that the author's prose is too tepid. He cannot poet Ralph Chaplin, is a unique addition to the put any spark into his discussions of American first-rate works on the only indigenously revo- interests in southeast Asia, the Falklands crisis luticjnarv movement in the United States since of 1832, or any of the other subjects he thel77()'s. touches upon. Nor can Belohlavek, relying al­ What makes this book unusual is that it is a most exclusively on domestic research, carefully organized collection of oral inter­ present a strong unifying theme to his narra­ views provided w-ithin the past decade by the tive; Jackson's personality is simply not old-time Wobblies themselves. Utilizing the enough here. Had Belohlavek decided to material gathered initially for the excellent make use of British documents, tightly weav­ and well-received 1979 film. The Wobblies (First ing his narrative about the ever-present domi­ Run Features, New York, New- York), and able nance of foreign trade and influence of Great to incorporate much, much more oral history Britain, he may have strengthened a case for than can any film. Solidarity Forever tells a pow­ the importance of this era in American for­ erful and poigant story that lives. eign policy. A good introductory essay by author Dan It may be, however, that a monograph on Georgakas traces, in a thoughtfully interpre­ Andrew Jackson's foreign policy was unneces­ tative fashion with attention to its contribu­ sary. Diplomatic historian Thomas A. Bailey tions, the rise ofthe egalitarian Wobbly move­ wrote years ago that there was "little signific­ ment from its organization in 1905 and its ance to record" about foreign affairs during development of a uniquely frontier American the Jacksonian period. Despite Jackson's own variety of syndicalism (primacy of democratic energies, and Belohlavek's labors to acquaint revolutionary unions in effecting systemic us with the fruits of those energies, "Let the Ea­ change and administering the new, non- gle Soar!" fails to overturn Bailey's conclusion. bureaucratic cooperative society) through nu­ This book may be consulted by Jacksonian merous struggles in the blood-dimmed scholars or diplomatic historians, but it is not 1910'.s—and the relentless and pervasive witch essential reading. hunts and union-breaking campaigns of the World War I and Red Scare eras carried out by TERRY L. SHOPTAUC;H federal and state governments and vigilantes. Moor-head State University Additional interpretative material is provided at various other points in the book. There are twenty-seven oral interviews. These are presented in the context of various facets of the IWW's work and experience— mostly from the first twenty-five years of its Solidarity Forever: An Oral History of the IWW. life—with several veterans providing accounts By STEWART BIRD, DAN GEORGAKAS, and in each section. "Bindlestiffs" deals with the DEBORAH SHAFFER. (Lake View Press, Chi­ adventuresome, freight-riding Wobblies in cago, 1985. Pp. 247. Illustrations, notes, bibli- the harvest fields; "Women in Textiles" fo- 225 WTSCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1987 cuses on the great Lawrence, Massachusetts, black criminality. Lane's thesis is stated sim­ and Paterson, Newjersey, strikes. "The Home ply: structural inequalities and racism created Guard" concerns the eastern industrial w-ork­ a unique Afro-American criminal subculture ers, less migratory, but no less dedicated than that stood out in comparison with the rather their western kin. "Timberbeasts" and "Hard orderly, and less criminal, experience of Rock Mining" cover the IWW's broad base native-born and immigrant whites. Further­ and deep roots in the turbulent w-estern lum­ more, contemporary rates of black criminality ber and metal mining industries. "Civil Liber­ are "relatively simple projections out of the ties for All" deals with cruel repression w-hile past, products of a subculture of violence long "Comrade or Fellow Worker" dicusses the in­ nurtured by exclusion and denial." This proc­ creasingly jaundiced view with which the al- ess of exclusion can be traced to the emergent w-ays libertarian Wobblies came, early on, to "urban-industrial revolution" that rocked see the Communists. "On the Waterfronts" Philadelphia and the nation during the late treats not only the Wobblies' oft successful nineteenth century. work in the seafaring and longshore bastions Because of his previous work on "violent but, in conjunction with the former, the death" in Philadelphia (which informs much IWW's genuinely international connotations. of this book), the author would appear to be "Continued Repression and Decline" contains well prepared for this study. Lane has worked interesting accounts of prison life. And the closely with criminal and court materials, po­ final section, "A Better World," provides pro­ lice reports, newspaper accounts, census and vocative and essentially optimistic assessments city records, and he has a fine ability to present of the glittering vision of Industrial Democ­ quantified material in a coherent, readable racy and its relationship to the contemporary fashion. However, a major problem oi Roots of and future world. All of this tells us a good Violence in Black Philadelphia lies in an inconsis­ deal indeed—not only about the IWW, but tent use and interpretation of evidence. In uti­ also about the United States. lizing information about criminal individuals, Solidarity Forever contains, in addition to the drawn from court records and newspaper ac­ plainspoken and often colorfully vigorous counts, the author attempts to examine and (and surprisingly unembittered) testimony of explain group behavior and psychology, workingstiffs and agitators, many excellent thereby raising a methodological problem photographs of members and leaders, Wobbly with serious consequences. Although Lane posters and cartoons, and work and strike situ­ hesitates to survey the Afro-American experi­ ations. ence, his focus on a black criminal This is a rich vein. subculture—what one could term a "tangle of pathology"—has important implications for JOHN R. SALTER, JR. the study of that experience, past and present. University ofNtnth Dakota His case seems overstated in claiming that black criminal behavior "worked deep into the culture of black Philadelphia, as vice and vio­ lence reached well bevond those directly en­ gaged in them. . . ." In short. Lane looked for social problems, and he found them. Lane argues that the dichotomy between Roots of Violence in Black Philadelphia, 1860— white and black urban experiences grew wider 1900. By ROCJER LANE. (Harvard University through the nineteenth century, as black deni­ Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1986. Pp. zens of the city suffered increasing crime 213. Tables, maps, bibliographical note, notes, rates, partly prompted by their continued ex­ index. ISBN 0-674-77990-8, S25.00.) clusion from economic opportunities. The au­ thor then surveys black political influence by In tracing the "roots" of violence in Phila­ assessing the role of black elite leaders within delphia's black community, Roger Lane pur­ the corrupt, •i\'hite-dominated, Republican ports to follow the tradition of W. E. B. Du machine. His oddly argued thesis is that the Bois, the pioneering Afro-American sociolo­ line between crime and politics became gist and historian who examined "the Phila­ blurred, because, in part, "the mass of black delphia Negro" in the late 1890's. Lane fo­ voters in Philadelphia . . . had been bought cuses on an area of "social concern" by off." In his assessment ofthe criminal justice analyzing the causes and consequences of system in Philadelphia, Lane concludes that 226 BOOK REVIEWS the administration of justice was "surprisingly of the Afrcj-American. Du Bois, however, color-blind." He finds no evidence of system­ would contend that the problem of criminal atic oppression ofthe city's black community. pathology rested not with the Afro-American In the most imaginative and informative part community, but with American society at of this study, Lane investigates the sociology of large. Lane's study is skewed because it depicts black crime, balancing profits against the ulti­ an isolated community on the verge of ano- mate "cost" of criine. fie concludes that "the mie; a more complete and comparative con­ black population made a net profit out of ille­ text is needed before such an assessment can gal activity of all kinds," including theft, gam­ be made. bling, selling alcohol, and prostitution. An in­ teresting overview of the "hierarchy" of EARL F. MULDERINK III criminal activity underscores the continued University of Wisconsin—Madison economic subordination of blacks within the city. Prostitution proved to be the most profit­ able and significant criminal activity by Afro- Americans, partly because it transferred wealth from the white community to the black. Paths ofi Resistance: Tradition and Dignity in In- However, in contending that prostitution dustralizing Missouri. By DAVID THELEN. (Ox­ could be an "economically rational" choice ford University Press, New York, 1986. Pp. x, which offered freedom and high wages, Lane 274. Note on sources, notes, index. ISBN 0- would seem to miss the fundamental point 19-503667-0, $29.95.) that free choice is not possible within a dis­ criminatory environment. Lane needs to ex­ In his latest book David Thelen applies to plore more fully the structural factors that Missouri the same rigorous research and anal­ first placed vice districts in Philadelphia's ysis that he did more than a decade ago in The black neighborhoods. Lane uses questionable New Citizenship: Origins of Progressivism in Wis­ inference when he suggests that blacks lived in consin, 1885—1890. Admirably, in this newest a "preindustrial state" and directed their psy­ book dealing with the Populist and Progres­ chological feelings "outward rather than in­ sive periods, Thelen manages to cover both ward" because of their pattern of high murder with hardly a mention of either term. In Paths rates versus low suicide rates. The group of Resistance, Thelen examines the activities of psyche is difficult to gauge, and alternative various groups of Missourians to fight the at­ theories might be equally applicable; religious tempts by modern industrial capitalism to values, for example, may have lessened sui­ press its values on the traditional life-styles of cide attempts. Missourians, which revolved around their To improve this book. Lane would benefit families, their churches, and their rural com­ from additional research—and further reflec­ munities. The "modernists" were those who tion. Moreover, a comparative approach is promoted the values of work and life symbol­ needed, particularly as other "criminal" sub­ ized by the Louisiana Purchase Exposition of cultures co-existed with that of the black com­ 1904 held in St. Louis; its theme was to dem­ munity. The vast and varied patterns of inter­ onstrate "how changes in business and science racial vice, illustrated in sports, drinking, theft dictated changes in social life and culture." and prostitution, are worthy of elaboration as The major portion of Thelen's book deals these contradict the author's thesis of two dis­ with the ways in which various religious, eth­ parate racial cultures. In addition, this per­ nic, and racial groups tried to protect their tra­ spective would allow for some assessment of ditional values in the face ofthe changes being class, a concept oddly missing from Lane's dis­ imposed by outsiders. Such resistance in­ tinctly racial framework. Any investigation of cluded physical acts of violence against prop­ criminal activity should ponder the nexus be­ erty and people. Thelen supplies rich details tween race and class at the bottom ofthe social of the Jesse James gang's operations against order. railroads and banks, and the Bald Knobbers, In suggesting that black Americans have an Ozark Mountain based group, w-hich tried perpetuated a unique "social psychology" to prevent the commercialization of farming. founded upon exclusion and subsequent Thelen's strong sympathy with traditional criminal behavior. Lane partially reflects the groups and their values is quite overt. Thelen ideas of Du Bois, who lamented the "two-ness" says they had strong public support; local 227 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRINCi, 1987 prosecutors, juries, and judges were either in­ also played a major role in Missouri. The timidated by them or in basic agreement with struggle to control the arbitrary behavior of their goals. State officials such as the governor public utilities in St. Louis and Kansas City, and members ofthe state supreme court held and the strenuous effort of Governors Joseph out for harsh penalities in order to reassure W. Folk and Herbert Hadley against a variety eastern investors that Missouri was a safe place of corrupt practices between public officials to invest one's capital. and the private sector, made for what Thelen The struggle for the hearts and minds of calls "The Missouri Idea." With massive re­ the Show-Me State's citizens began soon after search Thelen sustains the point well. the Civil War and the process of change was In his "Epilogue" Thelen attempts to apply not yet complete when Thelen brings his story the historical lessons of these experiences to to a close around World War I. The first sign the contemporary needs of consumer-based of the change accompanied the swift growth groups. One need not accept all of his conclu­ of railroads. Fhe railroads were the agent sions in order to maintain the high regard for which shifted the economy of Missouri from a the basic historical assumptions of the book. local orientation to one which relied increas­ No doubt this book will become the definitive ingly on regional and national markets. This study of Missouri society for the period. It forced the rapid exploitation of Missouri's should serve as a model for authors who want timber and mineral resources and the shift of to attempt a comparable synthesis for other farming from subsistence to cash crops. The states. The writing and research are meticu­ high cost of constructing the railroads was as­ lous. Still, other historians will have to address sessed upon the local taxpayers even after they one concern which Thelen has ignored or in­ had frequently turned down such proposals in sufficiently understood. That is his tendency local referenda. Another area of contention to label all groups having traditional values as between traditionalists and modernists was worthy and condemning all individuals and the latter's drive to establish taxpayer- groups with new views as negative and selfish. supported public education. For modernists, This is simplistic and keeps the reader from schools would serve as the vehicle for inculcat­ appreciating the dynamics involved in a rap­ ing values that made more efficient and reli­ idly changing society. able workers. Many local taxpayers, especially those without children, resented such assess­ ALBERT ERLEBACHER ments. DePaul University Thelen offers a detailed consideration of how German, Jewish, and Italian ethnic groups developed fraternal organizations, charitable groups and educational associa­ tions to maintain their standards of life and Tombee: Portrait of a Cotton Planter. By THEO­ their cultural norms. Protestants and Catho­ DORE RosENGARTEN. With the Plantation J ournal lics joined a number of fraternal organizations of Thomas B. Chaplin (1822-1890). Edited and which had social and ecctnomic self-help func­ annotated with the assistance of SUSAN W. tions, and urban workers answered the call of WALKER. (William Morrow and Company, labor unions to preserve some vcjice for them­ New York, 1986. Pp. 750. Maps, notes, bibli­ selves concerning the conditions of work and ography, index. ISBN 0-688-05412-9, the cost of labor. The black community, w-hile $22.95.) w-elcoming the opportunity for publicly sup­ ported education, distrusted the white com­ On St. Helena Island, South Carolina, the munity's control of the curriculum and the celebrations for July 4, 1845, concluded with a lack of black teachers. A particularly strong firew-orks display and "a picnic in Dr. Scott's section ofthe book considers the role that rag­ piazza." Attending both events was Thomas time music had in clarifying the changing life­ ChapHn (1822-1890), the owner of Tombee style of Missouri's blacks, and the significance Plantation, whose daily record of such events of Scott Joplin on the black musical tradition. provides the basis for Theodore Rosengar- The last third of Thelen's book evaluates ten's latest work. Tombee is divided into two the degree of success that traditional groups parts: a lengthy introductory essay which dis­ had in maintaining their control of society. cusses Chaplin's life and the social context of The theme of cooperative action and con­ the Carolina low country in the antebellum sumer interest that characterized Wisconsin period, and Susan Walker's skillfully anno- 228 BOOK REVIEWS tated version of the journal which he kept on a center of political debate. Yet these seismic frequent basis from 1845 to 1858. Such an ap­ changes in American society rarely enter the proach allow-s Rosengarten to study one mem­ pages of Chaplin'sjournal. Indeed, despite his ber of the planter class, albeit a minor one, place in the South's ruling class, Chaplin ap­ whose life was thoroughly enmeshed in the pears to be a rather sad figure. Tormented by practice of plantation agriculture. his alcoholism and, folio-wing the Civil War, Until his departure for war in 1860, Cha­ opium addiction, Chaplin struggled vainly to plin's life was played out against the distinctive turn Tombee into a lucrative enterprise. In cultural backdrop of St. Helena which had spite of such failings, however, he was coura­ emerged during the eighteenth century fol­ geous in battle and, by all accounts, a caring lowing the dramatic increase in the slave pop­ husband and father. ulation, the consolidation of the plantation The narrative approach may also be due to system, and the successful cultivation of long- Rosengarten's unwillingness to engage in staple cotton. Nowhere else in the South was some of the key debates in southern history. agriculture so dominated by the plantation re­ We learn little, for example, about the role pa­ gime and, following the invasion by Union ternalism may have played in organizing the troops in 1861, nowhere else was it so compre­ social relations of production at Tombee. In hensively dismantled. bypassing much of the recent literature, Ro­ As one would expect, a majority of entries sengarten is not always successful in subjecting in Chaplin's journal reflects the problems in­ his rich descriptive material to any detailed volved in running an estate of 400 acres and analysis. some twenty-five slaves. When not ruminating Thus, Tombee is essentially an elegantly about the quality and yield of his crops, Cha­ crafted essay in local and family history. In plin compiles a litany of complaints against in­ charting the erratic course of Chaplin's life, dolent field hands, bad weather, and unscru­ Rosengarten offers a portrait ofthe low coun­ pulous cotton factors. Rosengarten takes such try gentry at both the height and nadir of their material and skillfully renders the texture of power. By 1865 little was left of the social or­ daily life in and around Tombee and St. Hel­ der over which Chaplin and his colleagues had ena Island. In describing the topography of presided. As their slaves celebrated the day of the island, elucidating the genealogy of the jubilee, the planters retreated to the main­ Chaplin family, or discussing the finer points land. No longer would Independence Day be of drum fishing, Rosengarten demonstrates concluded with a picnic in Dr. Scott's piazza. his mastery in writing local history. Yet, despite Rosengarten's undoubted nar­ E. A. PEARSON rative abilities, he rarely relates Chaplin's life University of Wisconsin-Madison to a larger historical context. For example, in February, 1849, Chaplin sat on an inquest jury to determine how- a slave of a neighboring planter had died. In his diary, Chaplin records that, despite the official ruling of accidental death, "my individual verdict would be deliber­ Paper Medicine Man: John Gregory Bourke and ately but unpremeditatedly murdered by his mas­ His American West. By JOSEPH C. PORTER. (Uni­ ter." Sadly, Rosengarten fails to exploit this in­ versity of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 1986. Pp. cident to explore either the relationships xviii, 362. Illustrations, maps, notes, bibliogra­ between masters ancl slaves or the nature of vi­ phy, index. ISBN 0-8061-1984, $29.95.) olence and coercion on the island's planta­ tions. The Western Apache called him "paper Rosengarten's emphasis on narrative ghost" or "paper medicine man"; the Sioux rather than upon an analytical approach is called him "ink man"; both found his interest due, in part, to the content of Chaplin's jour­ in their culture and his constant note-taking nal. In reading the diary, one is immediately unusual for a Washington warrior. John Gre­ struck by the apparent insularity of Chaplin's gory Bourke, captain in the Third Cavalry, world and his lack oi command over it. Born U.S. Army, earned these names during a ca­ in 1822, Chaplin came of age during the years reer which took him throughout the South­ when the South was becoming increasingly west and northern Plains between 1869 and alienated from the rest of the nation as the 1896. Joseph C. Porter details the life of this vexed issue of slavery moved inexorably to the soldier-scientist who earned an international 229 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1987 reputation as an ethnologist and military his­ the rest of his career patrolling the Texas bor­ torian, and places him within the context of der for Mexican revolutionaries, and then at a the emergence of anthropology as a legitimate military camp in Vermont. Suffering from intellectual endeavor and prcjfession. poor health as a result of hardships experi­ Bourke (1846-1896) was raised in a enced in the field, Bourke died at the age of middle-class Irish Catholic home in Philadel­ 49, leaving behind a wife and three daughters, phia. Educated at Jesuit schools, he went on to six monographs, numerous articles, papers, West Point after serving as an under-aged Un­ and correspondence, and over 124 diaries ion volunteer during the Civil War. Assigned containing valuable ethnological information. to duty in the Southwest, Bourke became the Porter's biography of Bourke is important aide and friend of General George Crook. Be­ on several levels. First, it is a comprehensive tween 1869 and 1876, Bourke served under biography of a significant figure in American Crook in his Apache campaigns and then fol­ ethnology, and second, it is a history ofthe de­ io-wed him to the northern Plains where he dis­ velopment of anthropology as a professional tinguished himself in battles with the Sioux and academic field. Through Bourke's activi­ and Cheyenne. Like many other military ties and relationships. Porter gives a detailed officers in the American West, Bourke came picture of the major figures involved in this with uninformed opinions about the "savages" movement, of the conditions and methods of which grew into a grudging respect for their early field work, and ofthe pervasive theory of physical and military prowess. But Bourke ac­ progressive social evolution. Third, Bourke's quired a deeper personal interest in the peo­ attitudes reflect the mixture of cultural relativ­ ple and manifestations of their cultures, and ism and ethnocentric judgment inherent in spent an inordinate amount of time recording that theory and prevalent among both theo­ his observations. rists and the elite corp of "government- Involved w-ith the Ponca Commission be­ sponsored scientists." While Bourke respected tween 1877 and 1881, Bourke came into con­ many of his Indian informants as individuals, tact with John Wesley Powell and his emerging he never desired to protect what he saw to be Bureau of American Ethnology. Powell recog­ "savage" in the Indians. Bourke maintained a nized Bourke's intellectual potential and belief in their inevitable progression from sav- helped secure his appointment as an ethnolo­ agism to barbarism to civilization, defined by gist for the U.S. Army. Between 1881 and the Euroamerican ideal. Ultimately they must 1886, Bourke returned to the Southwest to become self-supporting through agriculture study the Hopi, Zuni, and pueblos of the Rio or herding and be incorporated. Believing Grande. Here he met Frank Hamilton Cush­ that the Indian as "savage" was destined to ing and other influential bureau ethnologists vanish, Bourke and his contemporaries saw who encouraged him and promoted his ca­ themselves as "salvage anthropologists," des­ reer. Bourke w-as intrigued by pueblo cul­ perately trying to salvage details of aboriginal tures, but it was the Western Apache w-ho gar­ life—details w-hich w-ould reveal something nered his respect and ethnological interest. about the universal "savage stage" and devel­ Bourke spent much of his time gathering in­ opment of all societies. From such expert formation from Apache medicine men and knowledge, Bourke and others believed they scouts as Crook campaigned against the Chiri- would ultimately be in a position to direct In­ cahuas in Arizona and Mexico. dian policy in a rational and progressive man­ Between 1886 and 1891, Bourke's assign­ ner. Finally, Porter's work is significant as mili­ ment took him to Washington, D.C, where he ary and political history—tracing the outlines had access to collections ofthe Library of Con­ of military activities, personalities, and poli­ gress and Smithsonian Institution. During this tics, of federal Indian policy, and of white soci­ period as a scholar, Bcjurke produced several ety and politics in the frontier West—of internationally praised ethnologies from his Bourke's American West. voluminous set of field notes, as well as his In making this biography the wide-ranging most popular book. On the Border with Crook—a discussion it is, and yet thoroughly covering history of his Indian campaigns. He became Bourke's military and scholarly career. Porter known as a critic of federal Indian policy and has made some concessions. Little is said of the Indian Service by opposing the removal of Bourke's early life or of his family life, of Chiricahua Apaches to Florida, and his mili­ which most should be grateful. National poli­ tary career suffered accordingly. Transferred tics, social reform movements, and Indian pol­ back to the field in 1891, Bourke served out icy are only narrowly discussed as they impact 230 W-Hi{X3)38521 Pack inspection of the 139th Regiment Infantry, American Army Camp, from a stereograph by Keystone View Company.

Bourke or the Indians he studied. Similarly, MAN. (Oxford University Press, New York, the Indian cultures Bourke spent his life 1986. Pp. xii, 514. Illustrations, maps, notes, studying receive only surface description, with essay on sources, index. ISBN 0-19-503750-2, moments of insight used mainly to illustrate $35.00.) something about Bourke rather than about the people themselves. And finally. Porter struggles with the universal problem of over­ lapping topical and chronological events, forc­ ing him to backtrack or drift ahead to make his In recent years much has been written larger points. Most will find this bocjk ulti­ about the "new" social history. This book is a mately readable but repetitive. good example ofthe old social history. Profes­ Paper Medicine Man is a book to be wel­ sor Coffman states in his preface that the Old comed by those interested in military history Army "is the army that existed before the last and the development of American anthropol­ war. The evolution of that institution and the ogy. It provides an intriguing perspective of experiences of the people who made up the both through the eyes of one participant- several Old Armies between the War for Inde­ observer. Porter and the University of Okla­ pendence and the Spanish-American War are homa Press are to be commended for the the subjects of this book." He further states physical appearance of this book with its color that he is concerned with the army in the peri­ reproductions of Indian ledger art and ods between the wars: with the officers and sol­ Bourke's sketches, as well as the period photo­ diers, where they came from, what they did, graphs. what they thought, with their lives both as sol­ diers and with their families. He is also con­ DAVID RICH LEWIS cerned w-ith the evolution of the military pro­ American West Center, University of Utah fession. The book is divided into seven basic chap­ ters, and a brief concluding chapter. After a The Old Army: A Portrait of the American Army in first chapter discussing a variety of aspects of Peacetime, 1784-1898. By EDWARD M. COFF- soldiering in the years between 1783 and 231 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1987

1812, there are separate chapters on officers, has delved deeply into memoirs, diaries, and women and children, and enlisted men in the letters, as well as into a variety of official re­ years from 1815 to 1861, and the same three cords. He has also made good use of the con­ chapter divisions for the years between 1865 siderable amount of secondary material that is and 1898. Within each chapter there are a se­ available both in published form and as un­ ries of descriptive sections on different topics. published dissertations. Such questions as who joined the army, re­ For the most part the structure is eminently cruiting, training, education, entertainment, clear; Coffman is essentially interested in religion, health, desertion, punishment, atti­ peacetime garrison life and is not concerned tudes toward the army, attitudes tow-ard the with the life ofthe soldiers in the War of 1812, Indians, and a variety of other topics are ad­ the Mexican War, or the Civil War. One prob­ dressed. In the years after the Civil War lem, which is not completely solved, is that for among the special topics is a discussion of the many of the "peacetime" years in which the black regiments, and the handful of black author is interested the army was engaged in officers. hostilities against the Indians. Given the The book is a mine of detailed information framework of his book, the author is rightly on all aspects of peacetime soldiering in the not interested in Indian warfare, but for some nineteenth century. The careful reader will of these "peacetime" years it would seem that finish with a detailed knowledge of the daily clearer distinctions could have been drawn be- life and thoughts ofthe American soldier. He tween "peacetime" soldiering in years or areas or she will also have gained a good knowledge of actual peaceful monotony in contrast to of just who entered the army and why, and of "peacetime" soldiering in years or areas of the general composition ofthe army through­ high tension or actual hostilities. out these years. In the chapter on officers in The main strength of this book is undoubt­ the years after 1865 there is a good discussion edly its wealth of descriptive detail based on ofthe increasing professionalism ofthe army. extensive research. It draws together dispar­ "The schools, lyceums, professional associa­ ate materials into a comprehensive whole. For tions and journals, and innovations in training some readers a weakness will be the author's raised standards," writes Coffman, "while reluctance to advance broad generalizations promotion examinations and efficiency re­ or dra-w overall conclusions. Yet, Professor ports provided a means of maintaining them." Cof fman's accomplishment is that he has writ­ Coffman has based his book on extensive ten the standard account of the American research in both primary ancl secondary peacetime army in the nineteenth century. sources. There is, of course, a formidable amount of primary information available on REGINALD HORSMAN the nineteenth century army, and Coffman University o/ Wisconsin—Milwaukee

Book Reviews

Belohlavek, "Let the Eagle Soar.'": The Foreign Policy of .\n- Porter, Paper Medicine Man: John Gregory Bourke and His drewJackson, reviewed by Terry L. Shoptaugh . . . 224 American West, reviewed by David Rich Lewis .... 229 Bird et al.. Solidarity Forever: .\n Oral History ofthe IWW, re­ Rosengarten, Tombee: Portrait of a Cotton Planter, with the viewed by John R. Salter, Jr 225 Plantation Journal of Thomas B. Chaplin (1822-1890), C>)ffman, The Old Army: A Portrait of the American Army m reviewed by E. A. Pearson 228 Peacetime. 1784-1898, reviewed bv Reginald Hors­ Rosholt, From the Indian Land: First-hand .Account of Central man 231 Wisconsin's Pioneer Life, reviewed b\ derhard B. Irons, Justice at War: The Stoiy of the Japanese-American In­ Naeseth '. 219 ternment Cases, reviewed by Andre G. Kuczewski . 223 Schlereth, U.S. 40: A Roadscape of the American Experience, Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of Ihe reviewed by Harold M. Mayer 221 United States, reviewed by Richard M. Bernard . . 220 Schultz, Wisconsin's Foundations: A Review ofthe State's Geol­ hane. Roots of Violence in Black Philadelphia, 1860—1900, re­ ogy and Its Influence on Geography and Human Activity, re­ viewed by Earl F. Mulderink III 226 viewed by John O. Holzhueter 218 Lanz, Railroads of Southern t? Southwestern Wisconsin: Devel­ Tealord, The Twentielh-Centuiy .American City: Problem, opment to Decline, reviewed by Jim Scribbins 217 Promise and Recdity, reviewed bv Richard M. Bernard . Osterbrock,yam« E. Keeler: Pioneer American .Astrophysicist 220 and the Early Development of .American .Aslrophysics. re­ Thelen, Paths of Resistance: Tradition and Dignity in Industri­ viewed by Jared C. Lobdell 222 alizing Missouri, reviewed by Albert Erlebacher . . 227 232 Grossman, John R. Martin and Bridget Spelliscy From the Emerald Isle: Five Generations of De­ scendants: Spelliscys, Strongs, McGraws, Cross- mans, Fergusons and Related Families— Mannings—Tierneys—W etc hs. (Greendale, Wisconsin History Wisconsin, 1986. Revised Edition. 58 leaves. Illus. $ 17.50. Available from author, Checklist 5400 Middleton Drive, Greendale, Wiscon­ sin 53129.)

RercniK piibiishfcl und c iinciilK .u.iihihlc Wist onMaii.i added to the Societ\-,s l.il)rar\ arc lislcci Ixlou, Ihe Cultural Resource Management in Wisconsin: a compilers, Gerald R. Kggleslon, .Acquisilioiis Lii)rari.in. and SiLsan Dorst, Order Lihi.niaii, aie iiilei t-sled in Manual for Historic Properties. (Madison, obtaining intormaiion about {or cojjies ot) items ili.il aic Wisconsin, 1986. 3 vols. Illus. $35.00 plus not widoh a(bertised. siuli .is |nibli(aMons ot lo(al $2.50 postage and handling. Wisconsin res­ hi.storieal societies, famih brslories .nid genealogies, idents add 5 per cent sales tax. Available privateh printed works, and histories of i hiirehes, from Publication Orders, State Historical institutions, or organizations. .Amliors .md publishers Society of Wisconsin, 816 State Street, Mad­ wishing to reach a wider audience ,nid ubiitations, im luding die following informatifin: author, lille. location and n.line otpiiiilisher, date of publication, price, pagination, and address ot Cushing, Myrtle E. Cemetery Inscriptions of Sauk supplier. Write Susan Dorst. Accjuisitions Seelion. County, Wisconsin, Volume 7: Excelsior and Freedom Townships Plus Parts of Barahoo Township, Dellona Township, Reedsburg Town­ ship. (Sauk City, Wisconsin, 1986. Pp. 157. Behrens, P. L. The KD Line. (Hebron, Illinois, Illus. $7.00 plus $1.00 postage and han­ cl986. Pp. 182. Illus. $18.50. Available dling.) from author. Box 173, Hebron, Illinois 60034.) History ofthe Kenosha Division of the Chicago and North Western Railroad. Cushing, Myrtle E. Cemetery Inscriptions of Sauk County, Wisconsin, Volume 8: Walnut Hill Cemetery, Baraboo, Wisconsin (IncludingInfor­ Cams, James L. The Cams, Carnes, Cairns, mation on: Adams Gem., Old Settlers' Burial Cairnes, Kearns, Kearnes Family History and Ground and Mount Mercy Cem.) (Sauk Citv, the Adam Thompson Family. (Platteville, Wis­ Wisconsin, 1986. Pp. 188. Illus. $9.00 plus consin, 1986? 1 vol. Illus. $15.00. Available $1.00 postage and handling.) The above from author, 1658 County Highway B, two publications are available from author, Platteville, Wisconsin 53818.) 809 John Adams Street, Sauk City, Wiscon­ sin 53583.

Coan, Julie A. The Gruenhagen Family Scrap- book. (Madera?, California, cl986. Pp. 351. Descendants of Joseph Herb and Magdalene Illus. $50.00. Available from author, 35899 Ziegelmuller, edited by Brother Bede Marciel Avenue, Madera, California Stadler. (River Grove, Illinois, 1986. Pp. 93638.) 112, V. Illus. No price listed. Available from Brother Bede Stadler, C.S.C, 3000 80th Avenue, River Grove, Illinois 60171.) Crone, Frances May McCleery, and Wagner, Ethel Mae Seward. 50 Years of Lake Mills, Wisconsin, 1936-1985. (Lake Mills, Wiscon­ Driessel, Richard Henry, and Driessel, Marga­ sin, Leader Printing Company, Inc., 1986. ret Louise Otto. Genealogy of Richard Henry Pp. 299. Illus. $18:00 plus $2.00 postage Driessel: a Luxembourger Family in Wisconsin. and handling. Available from Fran Crone, (Fern Park, Florida, 1986. 2nd revised edi­ Secretary, Lake Mills-Aztalan Historical So­ tion. 221 leaves. No price listed. Available ciety, 425 Mulberry Street, Lake Mills, Wis­ from Richard H. Driessel, 207 Nettlewood consin 53551.) Lane, Fern Park, Florida 32730.)

233 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OE HISTORY SPRING, 1987

From Grez-Doiceau to Wisconsin: Contribution a Isensee, Martha Knoll. Knoll Genealogy: the I'etude de I'emigration wallonne vers les Etats- Heritage of August & Augusta Knoll. (Sparta, Unis d'Amefique au XlXeme siecle. (Brussels, Wisconsin, cl986. Pp. ii, 68. Illus. $8.50, Belgium, 1986. Pp. 175. Illus. $14.00. Available from Angelo Books, P.O. Box Available from Belgian American Heritage 145, Sparta, Wisconsin 54656.) Association/Wisconsin, c/o Mrs. Mary Ann Defnet, 832 South Quincy Street, Green Juza, Susan M. The Juza Family History. (Ne­ Bay, Wisconsin 54301.) French language braska City, Nebraska, 1986. Pp. 272. Illus. publication traces emigrants from the vil­ No price listed. Available from author, c/o lage of Grez-Doiceau in Belgium to the Wis­ Norman Zirbes, 2434 Cooper Avenue consin counties of Brown, Kewaunee, and South, St. Cloud, Minnesota 56301 or c/o southern Door. Thelma Juza, Route 2, Spencer, Iowa 51301.) Genealogical Research: an Introduction to the Re­ sources ofthe State Historical Society ofWiscon­ Kanne, Eunice. Pieces ofthe Past: Pioneer Life in sin, edited by James P. Danky. (Madison, Burnett County. (Grantsburg, Wisconsin, Wisconsin, 1986. Revised and enlarged edi­ cl986. Pp. 91. Illus. $7.00 plus $1.00 post­ tion. Pp. 50. Illus. $5.95 plus $1.00 postage age and handling. Available from Grants­ and handling. Wisconsin residents add burg Area Historical Society, 133 West Wis­ $.35 sales tax. Available from Publication consin, Grantsburg, Wisconsin 54840.) Orders, State Historical Society ofWiscon­ sin, 816 State Street, Madison, Wisconsin Kenosha: Historical Sketches, edited by Nicholas 53706.) C. Burckel. (Kenosha, Wisconsin, Kenosha Community History Committee, cl986. Pp. Gilmour, Stephen C. A Pioneer Family of Dane xiv, 187. Illus. $6.00. Available from County, Wisconsin: John and Mary (Lunny) Kenosha County Historical Society, 6300 Campbell and Their Descendants: Including the Third Avenue, Kenosha, Wisconsin Jones, Thomas, Patton, Collins, Thompson and 53140.) Other Related Families. (Sparta, Wisconsin, 1986. Pp. X, 410. Illus. No price listed. King, Katherine Cullen. The Cullens of Sheboy­ Available from Joy Reisinger, 1020 Central gan County, Wisconsin, 1850—1900. (Balti­ Avenue, Sparta, Wisconsin 54656 or Peter more, Marvland, Gateway Press, Inc., 1986. Gilmour, 1118 Loyola Avenue, Chicago, Il­ Pp. x, 149.'lllus. $25.00 plus $2.00 po,stage linois 60626.) and handling. Available from author, 8403 Wagon Wheel Road, Alexandria, Virginia Gordon, Bonnie. East Side Story: A Madison 22309.) Neighborhood Remembered. (Madison?, Wis­ consin, 1986? Pp. iv, 52. Illus. $2.00. Availa­ Kintz, Lorraine Janney. Israel & Elizabeth Jan- ble from Atwood Community Center, 2425 ney: Their Ancestors i^ Descendants. (Richland Atwood Avenue, Madison, Wisconsin Center?, Wisconsin, 1985. Pp. 512. Illus. 53704.) $20.00 plus $2.00 postage and handling. Available from author. Route 5, Box 558, Hirthe, Walter M., and Hirthe, Mary K. Richland Center, Wisconsin 53581.) Schooner Days in Door County. (Minneapolis, Minnesota, cl986. Pp. xi, 147. Illus. $19.95. Koppelberger, G. A History of the Winnebago Available from Voyageur Press, 212 Sec­ County Poor Farm. (Oshkosh?, Wisconsin, ond Street North, Minneapolis, Minnesota 1986? Pp. iii, 110. Illus. No price hsted. 55401.) Available from Paul W. Stevenson, Winne­ bago County Executive, Winnebago Index for Volumes 1 i^ 2 of Marriage Registrations, County, Wisconsin, P.O. Box 2808, Monroe County, Wisconsin. (Sparta, Wiscon­ Oshkosh, Wisconsin 54903-2808.) sin, cl986. Pp. 153. $10.00. Available from Angelo Books, P.O. Box 145, Sparta, Wis­ Link, Mike. Journeys to Door County. (Minneap­ consin 54656.) Cover title is Index to: Early olis, Minnesota, cl985. Revised and ex­ Marriage Registrations in Monroe County, Wis­ panded ediuon. Pp. 136. Illus. $11.95. consin, Registration Volumes 1 is' 2. Available from Voyageur Press, 212 Sec- 234 WISCONSIN HISTORY CHECKLIST

ond Street North, Minneapolis, Minnesota sin Board of Vocational, Technical and 55401.) Adult Education, 310 Price Place, Madison, Wisconsin 53705.) Lipman, Jonathan. Frank Lloyd Wright and the Johnson Wax Buildings. (New York, New Richland County, Wisconsin (Richland Center?, York, cl986. Pp. xiv, 192. Illus. $35.00, Wisconsin, Richland County Historical So­ hardcover; $19.95, softcover. Available ciety, cl986. Pp. 403. Illus. $54.45 plus from Rizzoli International Publications, $3.00 postage and handling. Wisconsin res­ 597 Fifth Avenue, New York, New York idents add $2.72 sales tax. Available from I00I7.) Richland County History Book, Route 2, Meyer, Faith. The History of the J ohn Deere Hori­ Box 328, Richland Center, Wisconsin con Works, 1861—1986. (Horicon, Wiscon­ 53581.) sin, 1986. Pp. 101. Illus. No price listed. Available from Lauren Miller, Manager, Personnel, John Deere Horicon Works, Roberts, Verna 'K.Jenkins Genealogy [sic']. (Mil­ 400 North Vine Street, Horicon, Wisconsin waukee?, Wisconsin, 1986? Pp. 249. Illus. 53032-1291.) A special anniversary issue of No price listed. Available from author, the John Deere employees' periodical The 8689 North 73rd Street, Milwaukee, Wis­ Open Door (October/November, 1986.) consin 53223.)

Mitchell, D. C. Steamboats on the Fox River: a Rosholt, Malcolm. Photos From Wisconsin's Past. Pictorial History of Navigation in Northeastern (Rosholt, Wisconsin, cl986. Pp. 176. Illus. Wisconsin. (Oshkosh, Wisconsin, Castle- $24.95. Available from Rosholt House, Box Pierce Press, cl986. Pp. 208. Illus. $29.95 104, Roshoh, Wisconsin 54473.) plus $2.05 postage and handling. Available from CBM Publishing, P.O. Box 2247, Ryf Samuelson, Grace. Reflections on Door County. Road, Oshkosh, Wisconsin 54903.) (Minneapohs, Minnesota, 1986? Pp. 186. $14.95. Available from Voyageur Press, Mount Horeb—Presettlement to 1896: a History 212 Second Street North, Minneapolis, Celebrating Mount Horeb's Qjaasquicentennial. Minnesota 55401.) Reminiscences of grow­ (Mount Horeb, Wisconsin, 1986. Pp. 157. ing up in Door County along with some of Illus. $25.00, hardcover; $10.00, softcover. the author's columns from the Door County Available from Mount Horeb Area Histori­ Advocate. cal Society, 138 East Main Street, Mount Horeb, Wisconsin 53572.) Schwedrsky, Stephen, and Schwedrsky, lone. John Fluno Family Register, Volume 1. (Maus- Names, Larry D. The History of the Green Bay ton, Wisconsin, 1986? Pp. 433. Illus. No Packers, Book I: the Lambeau Years, Part One. price listed. Available from authors. Route (Wautoma, Wisconsin, 1987. Pp. 224. Illus. 2, Box 165-A, Mansion, Wisconsin 53948.) $14.95. Available from Angel Press of WI, P,0. Box 643, Wautoma, Wisconsin 54982.) Sheffer Family History. (Sparta, Wisconsin, cl985. Pp. 74. Illus. $8.50. Available from One Hundred Years of Leadership. (Racine, Wis­ Angelo Books, P.O. Box 145, Sparta, Wis­ consin, 1986. Pp. 64. Illus. No price listed. consin 54656.) Available irom J ohnson Wax Magazine, 1525 How,e Street, Racine, Wisconsin 53403- Stamm, Paul Douglas. A History of St. George 5011.) The December, 1986, issue of the Melkite Greek Catholic Church. (Milwaukee, Johnson Wax Magazine is devoted entirely to Wisconsin, 1986. Pp. 40. Illus. No price a history of the Company. listed. Available from St. George Melkite Greek Catholic Church, 1617 West State Paris, Kathleen Anne. A Political History of Vo­ Street, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53202.) A cational, Technical and Adult Education in Wis­ parish history of the only Catholic Church consin. (Madison, Wisconsin, 1985. Pp. ii, in Wisconsin using the Eastern Melkite 225. Illus. No price listed. Available from Rite. It includes a history of the Lebanese Robert P. Sorensen, State Director, Wiscon­ community in Wisconsin. 235 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1987

Tellefson, Mary Dunlava. Rockdale: the Story­ Wisconsin Blue Books, 1975-1985. (Milwau­ book Town. (Cupertino?, California, 1986. kee, Wisconsin, cl986. Pp. 47. $6.00 plus Pp. iv, 178. Illus. $40.00. Available from au­ $1.00. Available from Badger Infosearch, thor, 22449 Cupertino Road, Cupertino, P.O. Box 11943, Vlilwaukee, Wisconsin Cahfornia 95014.) 53211.)

Tennis, Lyle. History ofthe Hibbard Families De­ Waukesha County Genealogical Society Pedigree scended From Paul Jones Hebard. (Racine, Charts. (Brookfield?, Wisconsin, 1986. 1 vol. Wisconsin, 1986. [29] leaves. No price $11.50. Available from Jeannette Hahn, listed. Available from author, 3722 North 17020 Patricia Lane, Brookfield, Wisconsin St. Clair Street, Racine, Wisconsin 53402.) 53005.) Collection of charts submitted by members. Unbehaun, Janice M. Ray—Unbehaun Families. (Richland Center, Wisconsin, 1986. 1 vol., Whiteis—Whitis—Whities: a Family History. various pagings. No price listed. Available (Huddleston?, Virginia, cl986. Pp. xvi, from author, P.O. Box 473, Richland Cen­ 944. nius. $69.00. Available from Dale ter, Wisconsin 53581.) Owen Whiteis, 100 Lee Drive, Huddleston, Virginia 24204.) Veblen, Andrew- A., and Gronlid, C. John M. Memoirs of Two Eccentric Personalities of Widen, Larry, and Anderson, Judi. Milwaukee Manitowoc's Norwegian Community. (Manito- Movie Palaces. (Milwaukee Wisconsin, 1986. •woc, Wisconsin, Manitowoc County Histor­ Pp. 172. Illus. $10.95 plus $1.00 postage ical Society, Occupational Monograph 60, and handling. Wisconsin residents add 1986 Series. Pp. [6]. $2.00. Available from $.55 sales tax. Available from Milw-aukee Newsletter, P.O. Box 574, Manitowoc, Wis­ County Historical Society, 910 North Old consin 54220-0574.) World Third Street, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53203.) History of Milwaukee movie the­ Waterstreet, Darlene E. Biography Index to the aters from 1896 to the present.

236 which harvested, bought, and sold ice at wholesale and retail, including minutes, finan­ cial records, union contracts, blueprints, per­ sonal papers of John C. Miller, and other re­ cords; presented by Irma Wilson, Green Bay. Original, typed transcription, and transla­ tion of a July 25, 1848, letter written by Theodor Schulte-Krueggel [1823 )to his fam­ ily near Lippstadt, Westphalia, describing his journey from Europe to New Orleans, and his Accessions purchase of land in the Town of Centerville, Manitowoc County, Wisconsin, with back­ ground information from C. Joseph Nuesse; Services for microfilming, xeroxing, and photostating al but certain restricted items in its manuscript collections presented by Mr. Nuesse, Edgewater, Mary­ arc provided by the Society. land (Restriction: Quotation or publication re­ quires permission of the donor during his life­ time.) Records, 1941-1983, of United Paperwork- ers International Union, Local 1166, the labor union at the Niagara paper mill owned by Area Research Centers Kimberly-Clark (1872-1972) and by a subsidi­ ary of Pentare, Inc. (1972 ), consisting pri­ Eau Claire: Minutes, 1972-1973, legislators' marily of papers from 1949 to 1969 when the responses, and other miscellaneous materials union was an independent local known as the of the National Organization for Women, Eau Paper Mill Workers' Union. Included is corre­ Claire Chapter; presented by Carol Fairbanks. spondence with officers of Kimberly-Clark, la­ Papers, 1960-1974, oi Donald 0. Peterson bor organizations, and labor-related govern­ (1925 ), a liberal leader of the Wisconsin ment agencies; and files pertaining to Democratic party, including papers on his collective bargaining and routine operations leadership of Eugene McCarthy's 1968 presi­ of the union; presented by Local 1166 via dential campaign in Wisconsin; his participa­ Martin Ponzio, Niagara. tion in the New Democratic Coalition, the Commission on Rules of the Democratic Na­ La Crosse: Papers, I939-I984, oi Raymond C. tional Committee, and the Democratic Char­ Bice (1896 ), a Republican legislator from ter Commission; and his unsuccessful guber­ La Crosse (1944-1968), documenting his natorial campaign of 1970. Also present are work on highway safety and a 21 -year-old beer papers on George McGovern. Presented by drinking law, his philosophy of government, Mr. Peterson, Eau Claire. and other topics from his legislative career; presented by Mr. Bice, La Crosse. Green Bay: Original drawings of cartoons, ca. Additional papers, 1896—1970, of Arcadia March, 1968-1979, by Lyle Lahey which were phys'lcian Elizabeth Comstock, including her cor­ published in the Green Bay News Chronicle and respondence with friends and relatives, dia­ its predecessor, the Brown County Chronicle, ries, and other personal papers; correspon­ concerning local, state, and national topics; dence of her mother Ellen and other family presented by Mr. Lahey, Green Bay. (Restric­ papers; and clippings and scrapbooks; pre­ tion: Literary rights are retained by the News sented by Grace F. McCandless, Wausau. Chronicle and Mr. Lahey.) Records, 1910—1982, of theLa Crosse Indus­ Records, 1929-1983, of the League of trial Association, a group founded to encourage Women Voters of Greater Green Bay, including a the development of business and manufactur­ history; scrapbooks; minutes; local study files ing in La Crosse, including bylaws, minutes, on county government, 1-43 and 1-57 high­ correspondence, financial and stock records, a ways, and other topics; membership books; history, and files on local businesses to which and other records; presented by the League the Association loaned money or made invest­ via Jean B. Sullivan, Green Bay. ments (1950's-1970's); presented by Mary H, Records, 1903-1975, of the Miller- Hebberd, La Crosse. Rasmussen Ice Company, Green Bay, a firm Records, 1924-1983, of the League of

237 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1987

Women Voters of La Crosse County documenting Records, 1934-1941, of the Alonzo their meetings, membership, finances, and ac­ Cudworth Squadron 23, Milwaukee, ofthe Sons of tivities, including studies of state and local is­ the American Legion, a youth organization sues such as marital property reform, educa­ which promoted patriotism, discipline, citi­ tion, government, transportation, welfare, zenship, and leadership; including minutes, and other topics; presented by the League via reports, correspondence, and other records Dea M. Oleson, La Crosse. primarily pertaining to the squadron's com­ Records, 1955—1984, ofthe Tomahawk In­ petitive drum corps; presented by Joseph vestment Club and its successor. Tomahawk II, Hrdlick, Milwaukee. La Crosse, documenting the financial and so­ Records, 1953 — 1966, of Stafford, Rosen- cial aspects of membership, including articles baum, Rieser, and Hansen from the Madison law of agreement, financial statements, corre­ firm's work as special counsel to the State of spondence, membership records, minutes, Wisconsin in its antitrust suit which sought to and evaluations of the club's standing; pre­ prevent baseball's Milwaukee Braves from sented by George Gilkey, La Crosse. moving to Atlanta; presented by the firm. Papers, 1899-1966, of Guilford M. Wiley Papers, ca. 1930—1980, oi Chester Joseph Szy- (1880—1955), a Trempealeau County Repub­ mczak (1915 ), a Polish-American author lican state assemblyman and school adminis­ and journalist from Milwaukee, including trator and his wife, Beulah Arnold Wiley. In­ brief correspondence, and manuscripts and cluded are files on legislative topics, a few notes for published and unpublished works of papers on his education career, personal dia­ nonfiction, poetry, short stories, plays, and ries, and school notebooks. Presented by other writings; presented by the Rare Book Beulah A. Wiley, Galesville, and by Mary Run- Room, University of Wisconsin Memorial Li­ nestrand, Ettrick. brary. Papers, 1940 — 1975, of Robert E. Tehan Milwaukee: Papers, 1961 — 1985, oiOdyJ. Fish (1905—1975), a liberal Wisconsin Democratic (1925 ) primarily documenting his work Party leader, state legislator, and U.S. District as Republican national committeeman (1971 — Court judge; consisting of microfilmed bio­ 1984) and as manager of the 1976 National graphical clippings, fragmentary correspon­ Republican convention; including correspon­ dence, speeches, and financial records. In­ dence, reports, election statistics, minutes, and cluded is information on two specific cases in other papers; presented by Mr. Fish, which he was judge, the Woodman Realty Hartland. Company bankruptcy case and the Milton Minutes, correspondence, reports, and Margoles case. Presented by Robert Tehan, financial records, 1880-1930, of Loca/5' of the Jr., Milwaukee. International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Records, 1940—1964, ofthe Young Christian Craftsmen, Milwaukee; a 1930 and a 1980 his­ Workers, Milwaukee Federation and of individ­ tory ofthe local; and minutes, 1893—1899, of ual chapters of this Catholic action youth Local 7 of Milwaukee; presented by Local 8. group, comprising minutes, financial records, Additions to the records, 1920-1981, of reports, correspondence, and other records the League of Women Voters of Greater Milwau­ documenting the group's activities such as in­ kee, including minutes, reports, committee re­ ternational days, studies on migrant workers cords, membership records, scrapbooks, and and racial discrimination, a pilgrimage to other records of the chapter plus records of Rome, and other events. Also included are pa­ the Inter-League Council w-hich coordinated pers on the Cardijn Center, the Milwaukee local league activities, of the Greendale chapter of the Association of Catholic Trade League, and of the West Allis League; pre­ Unionists, and other groups. Presented by the sented by the League via Frances B. Swigart. Young Christian Movement via John Donat, Records, 1896—1963, documenting several Mil-waukee. Milwaukee electric railway companies, including corporate histories; records concerning Northland: Miscellaneous papers, 1936—1962, equipment, accidents, labor, and construction oi Roland E.H. Kannenberg (1907 ), a programs; blueprints of equipment and former Progressive state senator from Mer­ routes; photograph albums with biographical cer, including minutes and membership mate­ information on employees; and cartographic rial of Wisconsin Townships, an organization records; presented by Donald J. Mueller, Kannenberg headed which sought an altered Madison. state spending policy; correspondence; clip- 238 ACCESSIONS pings; and a brochure from his unsuccessful Records, 1935-1968, of the Racine County Congressional campaign in 1953; presented Humane Society and its predecessor, preserved by Gloria Kannenberg Coates, Munich, Ger­ by long-time director Ruth Teuscher, includ­ many. ing financial records, reports of investigations by the Humane Agent, shelter statistics on Oshkosh: Papers, 1908—1952, of Beaver Dam strays, minutes, papers on the Red Star Relief seed farmer and Democratic Assemblyman Course for the Handling of Animals in War­ Henry Krueger (1882 ), including corre­ time, and other records; presented by Ruth spondence, clippings, cainpaign material, and Teuscher, Kenosha. certificates all of which pertain to both his po­ Records, 1921-1950, oi Zahn's Department litical career and his seed business. Included is Store, Racine, including papers documenting a speech and letters on 1940 support for John the store's marketing techniques and direct Nance Garner for president, and correspon­ mail advertising, blueprints, information on dence with C. W. Henny and Elmer Genzmer. fixtures and supplies, some personal papers of Presented by Henry Krueger, Jr., Beaver the owners, and other records; presented by Dam. Michael Strand, Racine. Addidonal records, 1925-1984, of the Oshkosh League of Women Voters, including a his­ Platteville: Biographical sketches of Norman tory, scrapbooks, local study files on the city Churchill (1826-1901), Monroe millwright manager form of government and other is­ and builder, and of Dr. Helen Bingham sues, and other records; presented by the (1845 — 1910), Churchill's niece and a resident League. of Monroe, Milwaukee, and Colorado; com­ piled by E. C. Hamilton; transferred from Ico­ Parkside: Records, 1954—1984, oi the National nography. Association for the Advancement of Colored Papers, 1892-1962, of Christ M. Stauffer People—Racine Branch concerning the group's (1896 — 1964), a Republican assemblyman action in the areas of open housing, school de­ (1957 — 1964) from Monticello, Wisconsin, in­ segregation, affirmative action, police- cluding speeches (1933-1962), prayers used community relations, and its own Youth to open 1961 Assembly sessions, and a tran­ Council, fund-raising, and administration. scription plus one original page of a minute Also present is information on other activities book (1892-1920) ofthe Monticello Fire De­ of President Julian Thomas and on related partment in w-hich Stauffer was active for Racine groups and activities. Presented by the many years; presented by Mrs. Christ M. Branch via Julian Thomas. Stauffer, Monticello.

239 Contributors

THEODORE D. PAPPAS is a doctoral candidate in PETER J. COLEMAN is professor of history at the Ainerican history at Harvard University. A University of Illinois at Chicago. Educated at summa cum laude. Phi Beta Kappa graduate of Victoria University of Wellington, New Beloit College in 1983, he served as assistant Zealand, the University of Texas, where he curator of The Time Museum in his home­ studied with the late Walter Prescott Webb, town of Rockford, Illinois, from 1983 to 1985. and at the Harvard Law School as a postdoc­ He then taught high school equivalency toral fellow- of the Social Science Research courses at the Wim-tebago County Jail in Rock­ Council, he has taught at various Canadian ford while conducting the research for his ar­ and American colleges and universities and ticle on .Arthur Smith. His current research in­ w-as book editor at the State Historical Society volves the influence of Social Darwinism on two decades ago, 1962—1966. He has pub­ the social gospel of Walter Rauschenbush and lished extensively in both American and New- the humanism of Irving Babbit. He is also a Zealand history, most recently an essay in the classical pianist, an aspiring poet, and an avid March issue of the Smithsonian Institution's follower of Soviet-American relations w-ho co- Wilson Quarterly. A book on the New Zealand led annual excursions to the Soviet Union be­ origins of the American welfare state is forth­ tween 1978 and 1983. coming. Earlier w-orks include The Transforma­ tion of Rhode Island, 1790-1860 (1963), Debtors and Creditors in America, published by the Soci­ ety in 1974, and three articles which appeared in the Magazine between 1959 and 1964. His w-ife, formerly Maribeth Salentine, grew up in Milwaukee. She is assistant archivist for the Alexian Brothers of .America at Elk Grove Vil­ lage, Illinois.

THOMAS DOHERTY graduated from Beloit Col­ lege and attended graduate school at the Uni­ versity of Iowa and the University of Wisconsin-Madison. He taught English at the University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire and now works at Central Wisconsin Center in Madi­ son. His article, "Blizkrieg for Beginners: The Maneuvers of 1940 in Central Wisconsin," ap­ peared in the Winter, 1984-1985, issue ofthe Magazine. 240 THE BOARD OF CURATORS

PETER ADAMS, Neenah KIRBY HENDEE, Madison THOMAS H. BARLAND, Eau Claire MRS. FANNIE HICKLIN, Madison MRS. B. L. BERNHARDT, Cassville MRS. PETER D. HUMLEKER, JR., Fond du Lac PATRICIA A. BOGE, La Crosse MRS. MICHAEL MCKEEVER, Prairie du Chien

DAVID E. CLARENBACH, Madison MRS. J. CARLETON MACNEIL, JR., Bayside

GLENN R. COATES, Racine GEORGE H. MILLER, Ripon

E. DAVID CRONON, Madison PAUL M. NORTON, Madison MRS. JAMES P. CZAJKOWSKI, Wauzeka FREDERICK I. OLSON, Wauwatosa

MRS. L. PRENTICE EAGER, JR., Evansville JERALD PHILLIPS, Bayfield C. P. Fox, Baraboo FRED A. RISSER, Madison PAUL C. GARTZKE, Madison PEGGY A. ROSENZWEIG, Wauwatosa MRS. VIVIAN GUZNICZAK, Franklin BRIAN D. RUDE, Coon Valley MRS. HUGH F. GWIN, Hudson ROBERT SMITH, Seymour

WILFREDJ. HARRIS, Madison WILLIAM F. STARK, Pewaukee MRS. RICHARD L. HARTZELL, Grantsburg WILSON B. THIEDE, Madison

MRS. WILLIAM E. HAYES, De Pere GERALD D. VISTE, Wausau

KENNETH SHAW, President ofthe University MRS. SHARON LEAIR, President ofthe Wisconsin History Foundation

MRS. JAMES H. CONNORS, PETER M. KLEIN, President ofthe Friends Coordinating Council Wisconsin Council for Local History

Friends ofthe State Historical Society ofWisconsin

JOHN W. WINN, Madison MRS. WILLIAM J. WEBSTER, Two Rivers, President Secretary MRS. GLENN COATES, Racine, Vice-President WILSON B. THIEDE, Madison, Treasurer HAROLD L. NELSON, Madison, MRS. JAMES H. CONNORS, Madison, Vice-President Past President

Fellows Curators Emeritus

VERNON CARSTENSEN JOHN C. GEILFUSS, Milwaukee RICHARD N. CURRENT ROBERT H. IRRMANN, Madison MERLE CURTI MRS. EDWARD C.JONES, Fort Atkinson ROBERT C. NESBIT HOWARD W. MEAD, Madison ALICE E. SMITH MILO K. SWANTON, Madison PAUL VANDERBILT THE HISTORICAL SOCIETY SHALL promote a wider appreciation ofthe American heritage with particular emphasis on the collection, advancement and dissemination of knowledge ofthe history of Wisconsin and ofthe West. —Wisconsin Statutes, Chapter 44

WHi(X3)43263 A passage boat leaving Canton, about 1910.

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