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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Santa Barbara Developing a Reflexive Framework for Sustainable Development – The Case of Save Lamu A Thesis submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree Master of Arts in Global & International Studies by Michael Joseph Starks Committee in charge: Professor Mark Juergensmeyer, Chair Professor Jan Pieterse Professor Raymond Clemencon March 2013 The thesis of Michael Joseph Starks is approved. ____________________________________________ Raymond Clemencon ____________________________________________ Jan Pieterse ____________________________________________ Mark Juergensmeyer, Committee Chair March 2013 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to acknowledge my appreciation to my fellow students in the MAGIS program. Their criticisms and support enabled me to write this thesis and I will remain forever indebted to their brilliance, compassion and commitment. A special thank you to Chris Hortinela, Jamila Benkato and Levi LaChappelle. Doctor Phil McCarty and Professor Aashish Mehta were springboards for ideas. Their patience and understanding were invaluable as I explored one route, then another, then another. Professor Pieterse, whose views on development thinking transformed my own, challenged me to explore outside of the lines. Professor Juergensmeyer inspired me by his passion and optimism for the human spirit. Professor Clemencon became the steady voice in my head, reminding me to make it practical, to take abstractions and make them relevant. Finally I would like to thank my family, for they make everything possible in my life. A special thank you to my brother Brian who helped me leap the final hurdles. iii ABSTRACT Developing a Reflexive Framework for Sustainable Development – The Case of Save Lamu by Michael Joseph Starks The challenge of sustainable development in an emerging Africa is how to negotiate between increasingly complex competing views and interests. This is especially relevant in the face of rising global risks. I use a case study of the ongoing construction of the LAPSSET Corridor megaproject in Kenya to highlight the complexities and intersections of competing interests. I focus on the relationship between the Government of Kenya and a transnational coalition called Save Lamu. I argue that understanding the process of development, which involves reflexivity as a central element, helps us explore the complexities and intersections. Knowing the interests of stakeholders and how they intersect helps point us towards how these interests may be balanced. The result is a precautionary approach to development which leads to sustainable development. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1 Chapter I. Development: From Progress to Sustainability .......................................... 7 A. Roots in Progress ................................................................................... 7 B. Development as 'Catch Up' .................................................................... 9 C. Modern Development Thinking .......................................................... 10 D. New Formulations ............................................................................... 20 Chapter II. Emerging Africa ..................................................................................... 29 A. Sub Saharan Africa .............................................................................. 29 B. Kenya ................................................................................................... 36 C. LAPSSET Corridor ............................................................................. 39 Chapter III. Exploring Reflexivity in Lamu .............................................................. 47 A. Lamu ................................................................................................... 47 B. Save Lamu ........................................................................................... 55 C. The Process of Development ............................................................... 63 Conclusion. Developing a Reflexive Framework for Sustainable Development....... 61 Bibliography ............................................................................................................... 80 v LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Emerging SSA ............................................................................................ 30 Figure 2. SSA GNI per capita distribution ................................................................. 33 Figure 3. Emerging East Africa ................................................................................. 36 Figure 4. Kenya GDP ................................................................................................. 37 Figure 5. Growth patterns in Kenya ........................................................................... 38 vi Introduction Discussions about development and the world we live in are increasingly framed by arguments about sustainability. The idea of sustainability has come to supplement— and occasionally supplant—the idea of progress as the model of human advancement. Within the development field sustainability is an ideology; not what (energy, for example), but how (solar/wind). It imposes limitations, yet opens up often suppressed opportunities. In a general sense, the idea of sustainability attempts to provide the answer for three of the largest failures of progress: ecological destruction (the green economy), extreme poverty (inclusive economic growth) and corruption (democratic institutions). Yet how do we get there? How do we fuse horizons, as Charles Taylor put it, towards a more sustainable future? Nowhere are these questions more pertinent than in an emerging Sub Saharan Africa, which remains the battleground for implementing sustainable development. In this thesis, I ask whether reflexivity in development can lead towards a more sustainable future. Using the case of a transnational coalition called Save Lamu and their engagement with the construction of the LAPSSET (Transportation) Corridor by the Government of Kenya, I explore the benefits and challenges of using reflexivity as a tool for understanding development. The development field is increasingly reflexive (self-aware), as it reflects on, and reacts to, previous and ongoing development theories and practices, what Jan Pieterse (2009) terms layers of reflexivity. Through the process of collective 1 learning, the development field has increasingly shifted towards promoting sustainable practices and adopting a more precautionary orientation informed by the notion of risk. However, the field is not homogenous and thinking about sustainability is diverse and contested. For example, development agencies help draft National Development Plans, which are then opposed by other development agencies on behalf of local communities. This is the case with Save Lamu in Kenya, the focus of the later chapters of this thesis. Indeed, Pieterse argues there are different standpoints, subjectivities, and cost-benefit equations for each actor, community, and stakeholder involved in development. Local, national, and global interests intersect and conflict. In a world where risks are increasingly deterritorialized and global in nature, reflexivity in development insists that actors and the development field explore the complexities to find where the balance of interests lies. My research suggests that balancing environmental, social, cultural and economic interests—dispersed across local, national and global spheres—for the common good is the essence of sustainable development. This balancing requires interaction and dialogue between actors at all levels. But why should balancing these interests lead to sustainable development? The answer lies in how we view risk and our ability to solve complex, interrelated problems. With the rise of global problems, development has been put on its heels, with these problems obscuring a definitive path forward. One might ask, will increasing people’s wealth allow them to mitigate environmental problems, or is it 2 better to focus on preserving the environment? Will training in modern employment help improve livelihoods of young people, or should we ensure that the traditional skills they have be put to use? Especially in the case of large scale development projects, we do not know the answers; it depends on a multitude of factors which vary by location and change by the moment. I find that reflexivity in the process of development becomes an essential component of moving ‘forward’, of exploring the complexities, of balancing interests and achieving sustainable development through a precautionary approach. In Chapter One I review development thinking over time. I find that reflexivity provides a general basis for understanding policy and planning decisions for the development field; as layers of reflexivity compound and collective learning increases, a greater focus on sustainability becomes seemingly inevitable. In Chapter Two I explore development interests within an emerging Sub Sahara Africa (SSA), shifting the focus from SSA to Kenya and its largest development project, the LAPSSET Corridor. I argue that historically economic success has been an ideal ending, yet as the development field increasingly shifts towards sustainability additional questions are now asked. How environmental, social, cultural and economic interests can be balanced remains the key challenge for

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