Minorities, Mother Countries, Majority on the Western Balkans

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HAOL, Núm. 27 (Invierno, 2012), 83-101 ISSN 1696-2060

MINORITIES, MOTHER COUNTRIES, MAJORITY ON THE WESTERN BALKANS

Andor Végh1

1University of Pécs & Center of the Eastern Mediterranean and Balkan Studies, Hungary, E-mail: [email protected]

Recibido: 6 Agosto 2011 / Revisado: 18 Agosto 2011 / Aceptado: 23 Septiembre 2011 / Publicación Online: 15 Febrero 2012

Abstract: The most significant changes of At the same time the ethnic territories in Europe have happened on development/establishment of the ethnic core the Western Balkans. The majority of changes territories lagged behind the blossom of the are related to wars in former Yugoslavia national ideologies. The hiatus between the between 1991 and 1995, but processes that ideologies and the real ethnic spacial structure have started around the crisis are lasting ever in the mentioned one hundred and fifty years is since. We are trying to outline these changes mostly known via the „revolutional” (war and reveal some of the weak spots of the issue period) and not by the „evolutional” (peace using three categories of ethnic spaces: core period) ethnic spacial structure area of an ethnic territory, ethnically mixed transformations. In our opinion the system of territory, contact zones. Furthermore, the relations that join and unite or separate certain article gives a complex overview of the major groups or let them float in the state (identity) territorial rearrangements, and the causes of instability or multi affiliation till today are leading to them: the parallelly changing especially important in these processes. identities and ethnic territories. Keywords: West-Balkan, ethnicity, ethnical Of course, the real ethnic proportions based on core areas, ethnicaly mixed territory, contact data survey (e.g.: census) should be the basis zones, ethnic processes. of our examination, however, these data mean ______significant problems of methodology at the examination of the Western Balkans. In case of INTRODUCTION Yugoslavia covering the area before 1991 unified statistical data survey and methodic he question of minority and majority is elaboration is available, at the same time mostly a system of relations along the Albania is unreliable due to its aloofness; this T legal frames determined by the state period does not reach even the category of borders and states. The state (and its borders) guesses. With the falling apart of Yugoslavia on the territory of the Western Balkans – after 1991, the states becoming independent similarly to their democratic system of legal developed their own data survey, data institutions – are much younger than the elaboration and statistical practice with various mental borders and the system of relations that periods, methodology, let alone Kosovo are rooted in the past and determine the without official census since 1981, and Bosnia relations of the single ethnic and regional and Herzegovina with similar condition of the identities. The national integration processes lack of statistics since 1991. As our analysis is that started and mostly completed also here not exact and uses comparative data, our aim is since the 19th century (depending on the not to display a perfect mapping, but to territory and the ethnic group on even such a examine the trends of ethnic changes from a small place with even one hundred – one certain territorial aspect. hundred and fifty years difference) made the concept of nation the basic element of the system of relations of minority and majority.

1. BASIC TYPES OF THE ETHNIC often altering, considering their neighbours as SPACIAL STRUCTURE, THE absolute extreme. In ethnography and cultural VIEWPOINT SYSTEM OF OUR anthropology often the contact surface between EXAMINATION the more or less segregated zones (on the level of the micro region but rather at least of a The ethnic geographical examinations often settlement) of the mixed ethnic territories is result in a regional division considering the called contact zone or sometimes the contact ethnic homogeneity and regional extension, at surfaces of the characteristics of such huge other times they trace or classify the cultural anthropological areas where a kind of development of the different genetic types of mix of characteristics of the neighbouring units the various ethnic groups (specially the occur. The concept of ethnic contact zone used minorities), or their historical-regional by us can be rather compared to this later development. Above all, the primary target for ethnographic category, with the difference that us is the first system of viewpoint, to set the the most important criteria for us is the change single regional types of quantity and of self-definition in the course of time (the homogeneity, where we mainly differentiate frequent change of the group identity). between three different territories: There are several divisions in addition to the Ethnic core territory – an ethnic region mostly above categories and are used in the ethnic homogeneous from ethnic viewpoint, at the geographical surveys but primarily we are same time regionally extended and coherent, tracing the development and changes of the which is usually the most important (often mentioned categories in the Western Balkans highlighted by the organization of the state) for in our study. a given ethnic group, nation (apart from some exceptions). There are ethnic groups that have 2. THE ETHNIC PROCESSES OF THE several such territories of similar importance, 19TH CENTURY IN THE WESTERN however, such a territory plays the role of the BALKANS primary (prime), while the others play the role of the secondary (minor) ethnic core territories. In case of the ethnic core territories the centers In the 19th century, in the area of the Western (capitals) cities, national centers, places of Balkans, two Great Powers – the Hapsburg emphasized status play important roles, which (later the Austro-Hungarian Empire) and the are mostly missing from the secondary ethnic Ottoman Empire – could be found. The peripheries at the same time. continuous fragmentation of these two has formed the states and nations determining the Mixed ethnic territories – an extended territory current situation and positions which up to the that is ethnically inhabited by two or more present can create new spatial units (e.g., ethnic groups, nations where none of the Kosovo), partly as a result of internal ethnic- groups form absolute only relative majority. It political potentialsand partly due to the is (usually) typical for such territories that the influence of the external great powers. spacial, mental and cultural borders of the various ethnic groups are well separated, The two Great Powers lost their 19th century respectively certain segregation types occur positions and character of multiethnic (micro-regional, via settlements, within the European empires in different ways. The settlements, occupation-specifically.., etc.), as Ottoman Empire gradually lost out, its Western well as the development of certain contact and Eastern Balkan areas ceded to Europe zones. piece by piece, while theHapsburg Empire disintegrated in one, at the end of the long 19th Ethnic contact zones – primarily the territories century, following World War I (on the with mixed ethnic groups are called ethnic surface; internal processes had already contact zones, where the characteristics weakened the structure in its depths). separating the ethnic groups (language, religion, cultural traditions, common fate- In this still ongoing process, some of those consciousness, institutions and toolsystems of nations and ethnic groups which had enjoyed society organizations, etc.) prove to be some measure of preliminary sovereignty in partially penetrable and even within a short mediaeval times, before the Great Powers were period of time. Thus such groups may develop born (i.e., Croats and Serbs) were again given or transform, whose identity is of common set, sovereign states; therefore, their self-

84 © Historia Actual Online 2012 HAOL, Núm. 27 (Invierno, 2012), 83-101 ISSN 1696-2060 determination was not unprecedented. On the independence, primarily in the second part of other hand, new nations and states were also the century (NIEDERHAUSER 1972). The born whose independent positions were formation of the Bulgarian and Greek determined not so much by their precedents in kingdoms, not covered in this study, as well as the Middle Ages but their positions, difference, of the Serbian Kingdom, shaped such a regional or religious consciousness in the development process (JELAVICH 1996)1. Due empires (such as the Albanians, Bosniaks, to a fresh nationalism, these newly established Macedonians and Montenegrins). This of states immediately started to shape the ethnic course does not mean that the latter never had homogeneity of their independence-minded some preliminary state formations, but we do territories which were ethnically very believe (and not necessarily in agreement with heterogeneous almost everywhere (of course the self-conceptions of certain nations and there were also ethnically homogeneous peoples) that the occasional precedents were territories) and to dream of the present much less important than the later period of the realisation of the mediaeval great statehood. birth of regional and ethnic self-identity – and These ambitions promptly resulted in conflicts this took place in the system of Great Powers between each other as well as a significant mentioned above. emigration of the population which would now simply be called ethnic cleansing or 'peaceful The specified Croat and Serb examples were population exchange' (BANAC 1995). These stressed because these nations had kept their power vectors of opposite directions came up independence to a degree within a greater unit: against each other mostly in connection with the Croats through the institution of the Sabor the Western Balkans, but the direct, developed (the assembly of a province) and the Serbs conflict was already transferred to the early through the Patriarchate of Pec´ which was years of the 20th century (MENDÖL 1948). revived by the permission of Sultan Suleiman in 1557. 3. THE ETHNIC PROCESSES OF THE 20TH CENTURY IN THE WESTERN Apart from the above nations and peoples, BALKANS there were and there are still a significant number of groups living on the territory that up As the Ottoman Empire lost almost all its to the present do not form states (the European territory at the beginning of the 20th Aromanians, the Roma, etc.), as well as groups century, events causing significant ethnic living in minority whose homeland is not on changes occurred. Bulgaria, Greece and Serbia the territory of the Western Balkans almost completely drove the former empire (Hungarians, Italians, Turks, etc.). from Europe once and for all in the First Balkan War; however, the Second broke out The previous erosion of Ottoman control over Macedonia between Bulgaria and its two during the 17th and 18th centuries primarily erstwhile allies. Macedonia as a state and the concerned the northern and western part of the Macedonians did not receive recognition in area under analysis, namely the Pannonian this period. Nevertheless, for another Western areas of the Western Balkans and the frontier Balkan nation, the Albanians, this was the region defended by the Bosniaks and Croats. point (1913) the independent state structures These territories had also shown a typical and significant milestone of self-determination ethnic identity-development progress, partly were formed2, though often questioned by its due to their role as frontiers (the Croatian neighbours at the time. krajinas or military frontiers) and partly to the resettlements during and after the Ottoman The borders drawn after the wars were brand period.The South Slav peoples rearranged new when World War I broke out. This war themselves during the Ottoman period, after tore the Western Balkans from the Austro- which there was a significant settlement of Hungarian Monarchy as the Central European non-Western Balkan ethnic groups – Germans, Great Power disintegrated after the World Rusyns, Slovaks – primarily on the southern War. In 1918 the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats territories of the Carpathian Basin. and Slovenes was founded, which did not even consider other Slavic ethnic groups to be 'real In the 19th century, secession of parts from the nations' as the name implies, and a large Ottoman Empire was continuous, first with a number of people making up the category of kind of autonomy, then progressively creating 'other nations' – i.e., Albanians and Hungarians

– left the Kingdom that was becoming Yugoslavia in general) where people in larger ethnically homogeneous (PAP – TÓTH 2008). numbers accepted the 'Yugoslav nation' The Western Balkans then meant the territory concept. of Albania and Yugoslavia. These state structures survived World War II, right up until The factors influencing the ethnic processes of 1991; just the same, the World War was a very the period 1945-1991 were inner migrations in important historical and ethnic-revolutionary the first place, as well4. Within Yugoslavia a event in the region. very important internal colonisation took place in the 1940s, mainly from the Dinaric region to Yugoslavia fell apart in 1941. Its place was the Pannonian (KOCSIS 1991). At the same taken by smaller state formations, one large time, until the late 1950s some non-Yugoslav state (Croatia, which also included the territory peoples emigrated from the country in larger of Bosnia and Herzegovina, although large numbers (Albanians, Hungarians, Italians and areas were occupied by the Italians), and a Turks). smaller puppet state called Nedic´’s Serbia. In addition, large areas were occupied by Both processes contributed to the Hungary, by Greater Albania functioning as a Yugoslavisation of the state and the puppet state of Italy, and by Bulgaria and homogenisation of the individual member Germany. During these four years, the larger republics. Migrations among the member part of the Jewish population of the region fell republics had the same result until 1991, as did victim the to terror, similar to the Roma and employment abroad that had selective impacts the Serbs who also suffered considerable losses in the respective nations, ethnic groups and – even though not as significantly – especially member republics. in the territories occupied by Albania, Bulgaria and Croatia. The number of victims of the In 1991, the declaration of the sovereignty of (Communist and Partisan) terror following the Croatia and Slovenia disintegrated Yugoslavia, war was also significant, but the victims were and at the same time war events began which – of other ethnic groups. The main targets were by applying ethnic cleansing, concentration the Germans (who completely disappeared camps and forced population exchange – tried from the territory of Yugoslavia), the to achieve what history had refused, the Hungarians, the political opposition and, creation of ethnically pure areas and nation regarding ethnic identity, the Croats in states. These violent actions took most of its particular. victims in Bosnia, which had had the most ethnically mixed population. The other As we have already mentioned, developments significant war zone was Croatia, where the in the period following World War II more or conflict between the Croats and the Serbs less took place within the international borders caused serious human, material and emotional of 19183, but the number of internal borders damage. Hostilities actually occurred in each and of nations significantly increased. In member republic, and the cause for conflict Yugoslavia, the Macedonians and the was always ethnic or religious affiliation. In Montenegrins were also acknowledged as Macedonia the conflict between the large nations, in addition to the nations already numbers of Albanians and Macedonians recognised prior to 1941, together with the resulted in minor armed exchanges, while in independent federative member republics. This Serbia, the Albanian Kosovars erupted in time it was only the Muslims of Bosnia and the armed conflict. Only Montenegro avoided Sandžak who were not recognised as a nation, active fighting, if we neglect the considerable which did take place later, in 1969. damage done by the NATO bombings and if we do not consider it a separate actor in the In this period considerable ethnic changes and Croat-Serb conflict, as it had been a member processes were initiated under the category and state of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia idea of ‘constituent Yugoslav nation’, with Serbia at the time. This is difficult, introduced in the times of its first formation. In considering the occupation of the Dubrovnik this country of strong nationalist feelings, this area by the Montenegrin army. category could not integrate the majority, while in the second state it was only areas with In 1995 in Dayton (and a month later, on 14 very mixed ethnic composition (the major December, also in Paris) the parties signed the cities of Bosnia, and the big cities of peace treaty in which they accepted the

86 © Historia Actual Online 2012 HAOL, Núm. 27 (Invierno, 2012), 83-101 ISSN 1696-2060 principle of the inviolability of the external Kosovo also declared its independence in a borders among the republics, but this almost euphoric manner, as a result of the 'technique legitimated the war's inner ethnic cleansing of slow crawl into sovereignty'. Kosovo again (even if the document rejected it in principle). raises the issue of Albania, which in the future will probably strengthen its relations to the Ethnic fragmentation continues as an ongoing former Yugoslav province, but the inner process, as in May 2006 Montenegro declared changes it may cause in the two actors are sovereignty after a problematic referendum currently difficult to define. and its national identity had less and less in common with that of the Serbs. In 2008,

Figure 1 Transformation of the ethnic landscape on Western Balkans

Source: Federalni statistički zavod FBiH, Državen zavod za statistika Skopje, Macedonia, Republički zavod za statistiku Srbije, Zavod za statistiku Crne Gore, OSCE Mission in Kosovo, Popis Stanovnistva Hrvatske 2001, Atlas of Abania 2009. Veliki geografski atlas Jugosavije 1987. Ed.: VÉGH 2011.

4. ETHNIC PROPORTIONS, RELATIONS inhabiting the territory in majority and OF ORDER OF MAGNITUDE ON THE minority on the Western Balkans. In present WESTERN BALKANS case we counted also the areas as minority that are secondary ethnic core territories, though If we review, how the ethnic structure of the are not /yet/ united with the state of their Western Balkans looks today, we can find an mother nation, independently from the fact that interesting system, in both in its proportions they may be in majority in that region (here we and territorial location. mean the Serbian entity located within the frame of Bosnia and Herzegovina – BiH and The largest ethnicity is the Serbs, then the the cases of Republika Srpska – RS). Albanians followed by the Croats and Bosniaks, Macedonians, finally the The proportions mentioned above show well Montenegrins, who just precede the Roma in that the two ethnic groups, the Serbs and the their number, who have no state; moreover Albanias have the greatest ethnic potential they are less than together the three greatest outside the mother country. As these two ethnic groups without sate in the Western nations represent the case of „one nation – two Balkans (Yugoslavians, Vlahs, and Roma). states” in the Western Balkans via Kosovo and RS BiH mentioned earlier. Croatia has the third most significant group outside the mother The picture gets more interesting if we country though this proportion lags far behind compare the proportion of the given nation the previous two.

The nation parts outside the mother country are case) border on the mother country, at the concentrated typically on one rarely on two same time they are without any centre (city, territories (but in this case they somehow join more dense core territory), as the present outer on the territory). Such are the Sangria state borders were only administrative ones Bosniaks, the Croats in Herzegovina, the earlier, and during their transformation some Montenegrins in Serbia, in addition to the two territories got separated, as they were on the outstanding Serbian and Albanian examples. other side of the border, thus they remained These territories mostly (though not in every without a centre.

Chart 1 The Proportion of the Major Ethnic Groups of the Western Balkans Today Source: national statistical ofices

Chart 2 Minority – Mother Nation Relations on the Western Balkans Today Source: national statistical ofices

88 © Historia Actual Online 2012 HAOL, Núm. 27 (Invierno, 2012), 83-101 ISSN 1696-2060

Finally let’s see the ethnic relations of the even exceeds the former one. Montenegro, BiH single countries in the view of the proportion and Macedonia belong to this group. The of the nation forming a state, the majority and second group consists of the states where the minorities. proportion of the minority is noticeable but not dominant besides the largest ethnic group Typically there are three types. The first is forming the state, such are Serbia and Croatia. where in addition to the majority forming the The „Albanian states” Albania and Kosovo are state the number of inhabitants of the minority included in the third group, where the (or the ethnicity forming the state that does not proportion of minorities is insignificant and belong to this group) is significant sometimes hardly noticeable.

Chart 3 Majority – Minority Proportions in the States of the Western Balkans Source: national statistical ofices

5. SINGLE TERRITORIAL-ETHNIC ethnic islands (which ceased after 1995) make TYPES IN THE WESTERN BALKANS the Croatian ethnic core territorial character atypical, and divided. In addition to these three 5.1. Core territories mentioned ones, the Macedonian ethnic Examining the Western Balkans from the structure shows some kind of concentration, viewpoint of ethnic core territories we can however, the extension of the Southeastern state that we can talk about classic ethnic core Macedonian territories and their lack of a territories only in a very restricted sense, and centre (both the national centre/capital and the only according to the scale of the Western most significant cities are located in regions of Balkans. Of course, the reasons for this are mixed ethnicity) can be called as an ethnic core various and an outstanding one is the lack of territory only with strict restrictions. the coherent central basin territories, which e.g. also helped the development of a Should we look at the role and geographical completely different ethnic group in the location of the national centers in the Albanian, Eastern Balkans. Serbian and Croatian examples, we can see the national centers in the centers of the most The following roughly outlined ethnic map extended ethnic territories in the previous two. (presenting no settlements but opstinas5 – the Besides we can talk about the availability of smallest statistic units or county like regions) well-developed regional ethnic centers clearly shows that we can speak about the (Prishtina in Kosovo and Banja Luka in RS ethnic core territory defined by us mostly in BiH) which function as the centers of the the case of Serbs and Albanians examining it regional (and slightly being of quasi state in the dimensions of the Western Balkans. status in both cases) territories with separate Partly the shape of the state (very stretched identity – ethnic peripheries. out) and the separating role of the Serbian

In case of the Croats the national centre plays a Balkans contain more significant inner kind of joining role by location. Though it is differences today than the ethnic differences. located within the Northern ethnic core This regional identity difference makes Croatia territory, its influence, especially as the result rather similar to the European Mediterranean of the centralizing politics since 1991, is very countries (Spain, Italy). strong also on the seaside regions, where the dominancy of the centers similar to the The two remaining examined and described secondary Serbian or Albanian ethnic centers ethnic groups (nations) the Montenegrins and did not develop. In case of Croatia the self- the Bosniaks have no ethnic core territory that consciousnesses uniquely based on the could be compared even to the previous ones. regional historical development and cultural differences (often in language) in the Western

Figure 2 The ethnic composition of the Western Balkans 2001 – 2005

90 © Historia Actual Online 2012 HAOL, Núm. 27 (Invierno, 2012), 83-101 ISSN 1696-2060

The Bosniaks can consider only a BiH (that the war between 1992-1995 were Bosniaks, seems to be maintained artificially coherent) exactly this war process developed the with several nationalities as their own state. territorial concentration of the Bosniaks, which According to the Dayton Agreement 49% of showed even a more sporadic picture till 1991 the territory of this state is the territory of RS than today, as against the concentration of BiH, where the resettlement of the Bosniak Serbs and Croats inhabiting Bosnia preceding minority is a small scale and problematic 1991. process till today. Although most victims of

Figure 3 The location of the three main ethnic groups of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1991.

Source: Federalni statistički zavod. Ed.: VÉGH 2004.

The case of Montenegrins is even more centre of Montenegrin self-consciousness surprising as this state of really small territory (following a different way from the Serbian is an onion-skin like ethnic structure, whose one) based on the tribal structure grew only very tight core is made up by continuously in territory, through which the Montenegrins. Getting away from its centre, its regions of expansion grew less and less outer skin is more and more covered by the attached to the Montenegrin identity separating Serbian ethnic layers and they are getting itself from the Serbs, which can be primarily continuously moulded into any of the core originated from the privileges of the Osman territories in the West or North. Montenegro period, and the tight territorial independence seems rather a minority centre in the that started in the 18th century. Southwestern part of the Serbian state on this map not depicting the state borders. This is primary the result of the territorial growth of Montenegro in the 19th century, where the

5.2. Mixed ethnic territories After the Second World War the Autonomous With the national integration processes and the Province of the Serbian Vojvodina, the spreading of the ethnic core territories the majority of BiH with the Serbian Sandžak, a mixed ethnic territories were continuously significant part of the former frontier region of loosing there extensions and each war action Croatia and certain parts of the Istrian resulted in ethnic homogenization (through the Peninsula and Kosovo and Macedonia kept ethnic cleansing) continuously from the wars their mixed ethnic character. On the majority in the Balkans. The effects of these were the of these territories the single ethnic groups most intensive first of all on the territories of were well-separated, however, there are the multi-ethnic groups and on the edges of the transitional groups among the Southern Slavic shaping ethnic core territories. groups (Croats, Serbs, Bosniaks, and Montenegrins) till today, but this already belongs to the category of contact zones.

Figure 4 The Territorial Development of Montenegro in the 19th-20th Century

Legend: 1 – The borders of Montenegro in the 18th century 2 – The territorial growth of Montenegro in 1830 3 – The territorial growth of Montenegro in 1859 4 – The territorial growth of Montenegro through the Berlin Congress in 1878 5 – The territorial growth of Montenegro through the wars in the Balkans in 1913 – Certain territories of Sandžak and Metohia 6 – The Albanian territories under short Montenegrin military occupation after the I. World War 7 – The territorial growth of Montenegro following the foundation of Yugoslavia of Tito 8 – Present state and administrative borders of Montenegro

The last series of war actions started in 1991 ethnic territories (they are mostly peripheral with the dissolution of Yugoslavia. This territories from social and economic affected all former member republics and as a viewpoint) fall victim, as the primary targets of result of the war actions first of all the mixed the arising nationalist ideas. The territories

92 © Historia Actual Online 2012 HAOL, Núm. 27 (Invierno, 2012), 83-101 ISSN 1696-2060 inhabited by the Serbs in Croatia decreased The proportion of the Albanian nationalities dramatically, their proportion fall to 1/3 of that was already 21.73%7 at the proclamation of the of 1991 (according to some people even to ¼). independence of Macedonia according to the The focus of Serbs moved from the former official data. This population densely frontier region to the regions along the concentrated in the NW border region of the Danube, which borders on Serbia. country, in an almost homogeneous Albanian medium, which on one side is dangerously It is interesting to examine the region of Istria close to the centre of the country, on the other from several viewpoints, whose multi-ethnicity side it counts as the ethnic Albanian is preserved till today. We can find here Vlahs “appendix” of Kosovo desiring autonomy. (Istroromans), Montenegrins, and other former Yugoslavian ethnic groups (mostly Serbs, Due to the situation that got more and more Albanians, Bosniaks), which settled here in the heated and bloody in Kosovo for the second Yugoslavian period, in addition to the two half of the 1990ies, more and more Albanians largest groups, the Slavs (Croats and Slovenes) fled from Kosovo and settled in Macedonia. As and Italians. The homogenization of Istria is a result of that and of course due to the natural primarily also the result of the 20th century, increase of the Albanians that is much higher parallel to the mentioned examples. Compared than that of the Macedonians, the proportion of to the data taken on the territory of Istria in the Albans became 25.17% for 2002 at the 19106, when the proportion of the Slavs and time of the next census. The territorial the Italians (Slovenes and Croats together) was concentration of the Albanians got denser for 52.5%, respectively 38.8% , the proportion of this time and extended also to SE (East from the Slavs decreased to 41% to 1921 – thanks to the Kičevo–Struga line). Of course, also the their massive emigration to and opting for the armed solution was imported to Macedonia citizenship of SHS kingdom. Following the with the mentioned refugees from Kosovo. Second World War in 1955, after the London The Albanians demanded greater rights and Agreement abolished the Free Territory of territorial and cultural autonomy for Trieste (Zone B) and finalized the border of themselves and this lead to armed conflicts Yugoslavia and Italy only 44,000 Italians between the Macedonian forces of defense and (21.53%) lived on the part of Istria attached to the separatist Albanian irregular troops in Yugoslavia. Small Slavic groups also 2001. emigrated from Istria with the Italians. Peace was concluded in the Ohrid Framework The war polarized the ethnic division also Agreement, which made satisfied none of the territorially in BiH, which member republic extremist parties (Macedonians or Albanians) was an example of the earlier mentioned mixed but it is the only document to be followed for ethnic territories. Thus the ethnic territory the cohabitation of the two ethnic groups since inhabited by the Bosniaks, Bosnian Serbs and that time. Bosnian Croats developed and got largely homogenized. Only the Middle-Bosnian This framework agreement specified an inner Croatian-Bosnian territories preserved border-restructuring and decentralization, at something from their mixed ethnic character, the same time the reconsideration, and merging though the segregation of the settlements and of the administrative units based on within the settlements became significantly nationalities, which was based on the data of higher than before 1991. The Croatians are the census in 2002. According to this 84 continuously moving out from the territory, općinas were formed from the 123 ones only some inclusions remained, the most (provided that we do not divide the capital, striking loss of Croatian territory can be Skopje into its units functioning as općinas, witnessed at the border of the Croatian like then it is only 75), and the 33 općina groups Herzegovina and the Bosniak like Bosnia and eight regions. Parallel to their creation the (Bugojno, Jablanica, Konjic). The Serb entity new territorial units received important rights of BiH continues to set strong barriers and and self-management functions (which they nationalist rhetorics (e.g.: Milorad Dodik) in did not exercise before) for example on the the way of the few dispelled non-Serbs who field of public service, regional development, intend to return. improvement of local economy, finance, education, health and social tasks.

The Albanian Macedonian mixed ethnic region that got extremely homogeneous and territories continuously grew by gaining segregated on every level. The ethnic ground increasingly in numbers, politics and homogenization of the former South-Serbian inhabited areas, however, the segregation province took place in several steps, in various indicators (small number of mixed settlements, social-political environments. One of the small proportion of mixed marriages) between demographic sections, the „peace period”, the the two groups are specifically high, the ethnic era under the Yugoslavia of Tito, when there separation is visible also on macro, meso and was an absolute Albanian majority on the micro levels (region, district, settlement, territory8 (with the exception of some općinas) settlement section). However, this due to the higher natural increase of the phenomenon is not related to Macedonia Albanian ethnicity in Kosovo, and the getting more independent, but to the inherited intensive emigration of the Serbian ethnicity in lines separating the ethnic groups (different Kosovo. The Serbian government tried to stop religion, the ethnicization of the level of social the emigration of the Serbs from the territories hierarchy, etc.). by laws at the end of the 1980ies, but these measurements came too late9. The example of Kosovo cannot be included in the range of problems of mixed ethnic regions from any viewpoint, as Kosovo is an ethnic

Chart 4 The Proportion and Location of the Albanians according to the New and the Old Administrative, Općina Arrangement (1-new administrative border, 2-old administrative border)

The second homogenization period is the Kosovo, only the Serbian party acknowledges period that started with the dissolution of it), there are only estimations, however, based Yugoslavia of 1991, which lasts till today. on them it can be stated, that the Serbs grow There are no statistic data about this app. 15 less, emigrated and were forced to leave on a years (even the census of 1991 cannot be much higher scale, and even the most considered as official data on the territory of optimistic estimations say that the proportion

94 © Historia Actual Online 2012 HAOL, Núm. 27 (Invierno, 2012), 83-101 ISSN 1696-2060 of Serbs is only 5-6% . This at the moment district, which lost about 50% of its Bosniak small Serb group lives in a united block, only population between the censuses of 1991 and North from the Ibar River, in the Northern part 2002. In the same period, their number in the of a divided Kosovska Mitrovica općina, towns and opsˇtinas of Nova Varoš, Sjenica furthermore in the općinas of Zvečan, Zubin and Tutin decreased 12–20%.Some of the Potok and Leposavić. The central political will migrants moved to Novi Pazar, which served of Kosovo governed by Albanians cannot be as a centre (which still lost 6-7% of its even felt on these areas, and when at the last population), not to mention the fact that many time, in the summer of 2011 the government of left Serbia and settled in Western Europe, Prisina wanted to extend its scope of authority Turkey or right in Bosnia. The Serb proportion also on these territories, again actions took declined in these territories as well, primarily place that received international coverage. due to its negative natural increase indices and to migration towards economically and Sandžak was never autonomous in any sense, ethnically more secure Belgrade and Central although since its annexation it has been Serbia. ethnically different, and in certain historical moments the question of its autonomy has With the conclusion of the Dayton Agreement been raised10. The province, inhabited by and the secession of Kosovo and Montenegro, Bosniaks, assumed its ethnic character during the situation of the Serbian Sandžak became a the Ottoman Empire through Islamisation, as typical border position, where the territory is did Bosnia, and certain phases of its ethnic surrounded by 'three Serbias'11 and Kosovo. development are also very similar to those of Since the fall of the Milošević regime – and the former member republic. This appeared especially since the pro-Europe turn in Serbian most of all in the ethnic difference of the politics – the changes still have not reached the migration and natural increase indices, which roots of the tensions although the chance of were unlike to those of the neighbouring ethnic conflicts decreased. Many sources of regions – and this difference derives primarily conflict still exist: the low standard of living, from the Islamic influence. By the time of the high unemployment rate (up to 70%), and the disintegration of Yugoslavia, a considerable presence of religious and political extremist part of the Muslims living here defined their groups, or the political rivalries of the ethnic character by the Bosniak identity. Bosniaks among each other, which results Among the Muslims of Sandžak this group internal groupings with serious conflicts forms the majority, they form a majority of (Ljajić, Ugljanin, Zukorlić). The Wahhabi approximately; however, a demonstrable group groups there are frequently in the media. These remained – although in a quite insignificant groups are supported from Saudi Arabia number compared to the others – who do not through Sarajevo, by the imams of certain identify themselves according to the Bosnian mosques, although Serbian Grand Mufti (and state area but declare themselves Muslims, the Sandžak Mufti) Muamer Zukorlić, a Yugoslav category that is set to their religion committed member of his community, believes (about 20,000). The proportion outlined above in a more modern and progressive Islam12. will probably change in favour of the larger, Bosniak group in the future, since besides the After Serbia met its obligation to establish a certain statelessness of the Muslim identity (in national/minority council for (primarily) Bosnia this category is not welcomed for being educational, native language and cultural out of date), the Bosniak nationality promises matters of the ethnic groups in November the security and a possible external support of 2009, the Bosniak Cultural Community list led the mainland. by the Chief Mufti received the majority of the council’s mandates in the June 2010 Sandžak The beginning of the 1990s did not differ much elections. Since then, Zukorlić has introduced in Sandžak from in the Serbcontrolled Bosnian the idea of cultural-educational autonomy as territories, with the exception of the period of the realisation of the political aims of the local open war. The mixed ethnic villages, towns Bosniaks. This was not acceptable for Serbia, (Serb-Bosniak) on the Serbian-Bosnian border which has recently lost its Kosovo province were changed into Serb dominated areas by the which referred to its autonomy and had a same measures as in Bosnia (ethnic cleansing, majority Albanian population. In July 2010, displacement, terror etc.). The centre of this the Bosniak National Council was formed, type of ethnic cleansing was Priboj and its although it is not recognised by the Serbian

Ministry of Human Rights and Minorities, assimilation increased but resulted in the referring to its anti-constitutional formation emigration of certain minorities (in addition to (two thirds of the elected persons were not that of the Germans first of all that of the present, though it is not a constitutional Hungarians and Croats). Today’s ethnic requirement). During the months that have structure developed in the province that passed since then, there has been continuous regained autonomy as the result of the conflict between the Ministry and Zukorlić, described processes (the government of who called for international observers to come Belgrade abolished the autonomy of Vojvodina at the beginning of September 2010. Due to the and Kosovo in the Milosevic era), where situation, the OSCE is more and more active in multiethnicity is characteristic only for some of promoting a solution. its smaller parts. Significant question is whether these remaining multicultural regions Vojvodina is the other province in Serbia represent a value for Serbia, which turned its beside Kosovo, which had significant back to the nationalism of the 1990ies, and autonomy in Yugoslavia after 1945. Similarly choose a European perspective, or are they to Kosovo the state of autonomy was granted going to become the targets of further national here also because of the minorities. The core territories with the loss of Kosovo. biggest minority in this province, which consists of several regions (Bacska, Banat, 5.3. Contact Zones Syrmia) historically are the Hungarians (the The territories of the Western Balkans are proportion of the Serbs showed relative covered by such states in addition to Albania majority also on this territory after 1945), and Kosovo, where the ethnic dominance is however, there are Slovaks, Rusins, Romans, given by some Southern Slavic ethnicity Croats and Montenegrins as well in smaller group. The differences between them are first numbers. This classic multi-ethnic region of all determined by religious and regional developed due to the Post-Osman resettlement attachments. An important element of the later policy of the Habsburg Empire from the 18th one is, to which part of the Empire the century. Its excellent agricultural potentials population on the given territory belonged to, attracted the immigrants, of whom the to the Osman, or the Habsburg, and in what Germans were outstanding, but disappeared way and when the national integration process from the ethnic palette of the territory because of the single groups took place. The Serbs, of the retorsions following the Second World Croats, Bosniaks and Montenegrins can be War. Vojvodina has been continuously the well separated along these variables, but not basis of the centrally directed and spontaneous the groups, where there is a multiple regional immigrants since 1918, since when its territory attachment, or the regional affiliation is not belongs to Serbia. The soldiers of the Serbian necessarily parallel with the national majority. army received lands here in the greatest proportion after 1918, in the 1920ies the The most contact zone like territory and group primary target was Vojvodina for those who of the present Western Balkans means the opted for citizenship, after 1945 the most Montenegrin Serbs, which we wrote about at people searching for new home flooded this the mentioning of the (lack of the) place during the period of socialist land reform Montenegrin ethnic core territory. This was the and colonization (the presence of the most altering “ethnic landscape” during the Montenegrins in the province is due to that). successive 10-year-period censuses of the Between 1950 and 1990 most Serbs from other former Yugoslavia. Of course, this developed member republics migrating to Serbia through not as a result of the active emigrations and the inner Yugoslavian migrations preferred the migrations, but due to the plasticity of the self- territory of Vojvodina as the target of definitions. The plasticity of identity in the resettlement (following the capital and its territory is due to the tight interweaving of the neighbourhood), then also the most refugees Serbian and Montenegrin self-consciousness, (from BiH, Kosovo and Croatia) of the wars which continuously advanced and came closer following the falling apart of Yugoslavia or withdrew from the 19th century. The politics settled here. These Serbian immigration waves of Belgrade always considered the in addition to continuously increasing the Montenegrins a regional Serbian identity, proportion of the Serbs in the province also while they never doubted the attachment to the raised the level of intolerance against the Serbs in the core territory of Montenegro, minorities at the time, due to that not only the though they always emphasised the difference.

To belong to the Montenegrin tribal structure cultural diversity (the schoolbooks with special was more important, which, however, ceased Montenegrin sonants differing from the to be a dominant force to shape the society due Serbian and all other Southern Slavic to the aspiration for modernisation in the 19th languages are creating a stir recently). century. This process was due to the efforts of Contrarily to that Serbia is continuously the Montenegrin sovereigns, who considered drawing closer to Europe, which goes hand in themselves the crown of the “Sparta of the hand with its (slowly commencing) economic Serbs” and imagined a leading role for boost, by which this option is to be themselves in the Serbian national integration reconsidered as well. What is more, in spite of process that started at this time. However, the the geographical characteristics of the country Serb national integration process developed on (it is difficult to access, the seaside is other roads, and the Montenegrin separation obstructed by mountains) it counts as the most became rather a burden. Due to that the central important exit by sea for the landlocked Serbia government in Belgrade and its local till today. The duality continues to prevail and promoters endeavoured to wipe out any it is a question on which side the self- supporter and also the memory of the consciousness of the Montenegrin Serbs are Montenegrin statehood and independence in going to land. the Yugoslavian Kingdom founded after the First World War. Partly due to the resistance The group of Yugoslavs is another significant that developed at this time and the socialist element of the question of contact zones in the ideas (and Montenegrin communists who had Western Balkans. As this ethnic category was important position in the later socialist state) born out of the Southern Slavic national and that gained strength among the Montenegrins, state integration (it is not a specific territory, it Montenegro appeared as a separate member is rather determined by a specific sociological, republic (and with significant growth in social group) of the 20th century, no territory of territory) in the federative socialist Yugoslavia living of this ethnic category developed in founded on the basis of AVNOJ of 1943. The strict sense. A further problem is that not all Montenegrin self-consciousness meant the the states formed after the Yugoslavian mixing of the national and regional disintegration preserved this category in their characteristics in this state but it did not censuses, only the Serbs and the Montenegrins became estranged from the Serbian one to a (though they do not reach even two-thousand great extent. In 1991 and 1992 when the Titoist in Montenegro), however, we can see from the form of the state dissolves the Montenegrins censuses of 1991 and the previous ones that we stuck to idea of the “remainder Yugoslavia” can meet this category on a larger scale lead by Serbia all along. This participation in primarily on the territories with mixed the war as the fellow-in-arms of Serbia and the ethnicity. This ethnic group meant and means a accompanying loss of prestige and economic kind of self-definition category for the people embargo resulted in the strengthening of tightly attached to the Yugoslavian state (work Montenegrin identity, which was lead by the place – military forces, police, and political elite of the Montenegrin core territory, membership in the socialist party): Note that expressing and fulfilling its independence. those who did not agree with the nationalist However, on the way to independence the ideas forcing apart Yugoslavia from the mostly (but not only) Northern territories with 1980ies will have chosen the Yugoslavian self- stronger Serbian attachment (in identity and definition at the census in 1991. In Croatia, the economy) insisting on their Serbian identity self-definition Yugoslav did not appear in the did not follow the ideas of the area around published ethnic data, among the listed 23 Cetinje. This is visible from the results of the ethnic categories (contrarily to the Vlahs census, from which it is apparent that the state amounting to 12 people in the country, or the is formed of two Serbian parts, the Austrians amounting to 247 people). The Montenegrins and Serbs (there are other census in Serbia in 2002 registered more than minorities in significant proportions in addition 80,000 citizens with Yugoslavian identity, to these two ethnic communities). Montenegro 67.7% of them lives in Vojvodina with mixed as an integrant state counting on its ethnicity, and 27.4% lives on the economically significant tourism on the administrative region of Belgrade. The seaside tries to provide an alternative to its remaining little bit more than 10% falls to the citizens without Montenegrin linkage through lot of Old Serbia, where no territorial its standard of living and (not Serbian-like) concentration of theirs can be demonstrated. Is

© Historia Actual Online 2012 97 Minorities, Mother Countries, Majority Andor Végh it possible that Serbia especially undertaking (14,056) from that of the Croats then the the Yugoslavian past, and within it Vojvodina question of Bunyevac and Sokac means app. of mixed ethnic groups could be the “mother 56,000 citizens in Vojvodina in addition to the country” of the former Yugoslavs in the registered Bunyevac (of course, this is only an future? At the same time it may happen that estimation, as for example there were about this ethnic-social group will continuously 50,000 people living in Vojvodina who did not disappear – probably for the good of the ethnic name their ethnic group in 2002 according to groups in majority. the census). The uncertainty of these groups is also important, as provided they get The question of the identity of two Catholic assimilated to the majority, again a piece of the ethnic elements is also bound to Serbia and multi-ethnic society of Vojvodina will become Croatia, that of the Sokac and Bunyevac in a part of the thickest ethnic category, Vojvodina. This two groups are close to the decreasing the several-hundred-year-old mixed Croatian Catholicism concerning their religion, ethnic character of the territory. while their territory of living Bacska rather belongs to the Serbian ethnic territory In connection with the contact zones the ethnic phyisically. History, ethnography and the groups of the Western Balkans with Slavic linguistic evidences and tradition itself clearly mother tongue are important that were strengthen the Croatian attachment, and converted to Islam in the Osman period. The certifies it, however, the political interests are biggest such ethnic group is the Bosniaks, often stronger than the rational arguments and whose national problems were earlier the „divide-and-conquer” technique is a mentioned. The Bosniaks at the same time are frequent political instrument. The identity of a national group recognized by everyone these two groups (the Bunyevac represent a through successful national integration separate ethnic category, while Sokac do not) advancement in the 20th century. Deriving was not a central topic before 1991, however from this the question of contact zones is not following the dissolution of Yugoslavia recent in spite of the fact that it is still a nation especially the Bunyevac became divided. Thus that is still building its territory of living, at the moment there are “three types” of creating the system of state institutions Bunyevac on the territory of Bacska in (functioning state, or at least a unit with Vojvodina. One of them is the group of the functioning military/entity within BiH), and Croatian Bunyevac, the other is that of the the corner points of communal memories Serbian Bunyevac, while there is a third one, (there are history-consciousness anomalies till they identify themselves only as Bunyevac. today). We can talk about two other smaller According to the census in 2002 20,012 groups in addition to the Bosniaks, who have Bunyevac lived in Serbia and only 1% not in similar characteristics, but have immatured the mentioned historical region; there are ethnic self-consciousness compared even to the 70,062 Croats, 80% of them lives in Bosniaks. These are the Gorans (Gorani, Vojvodina. The Serbian Croats consist of 3 Goranci, Goranian) and Torbes. groups, the people in Bacska (Sokac and Bunyevac), in Syrmia and the people migrating The Torbes or the Islamic Macedonians by to Serbia during the Yugoslavian era. The first other name live in the western and middle parts of this three categories was already mentioned, of Macedonia, mainly on the Albanian- the third is the smallest which is bound first of Macedonian territories with mixed ethnicity. all to the cities (often the work that was in They were converted to Islam in the Osman connection with the united Yugoslavian period, however they have kept their Slavic factories, or the military produced this language, and though their certain groups category). The third group is that of the Croats became Albanian in their language (due to the in Syrmia, who mainly fall victim of the attraction of the biggest Islamic group) they nationalist atmosphere following 1991. To mostly kept their Macedonian language. As force the population of complete villages, to they are located in a very sensitive area, in the destroy their religious and cultural monuments, probable expansion zone of the Albanians, it is and to resettle Serbs instead of them was not very important for the Macedonians to keep even rare – according to the census in 2002 the this group, therefore we cannot experience number of the local Croats is hardly more than here any Anti-Islamic feeling, which e.g. 10,000. If with that together we deduct the determined the Serbian and in smaller extent number of the people living in Old Serbia the Croatian attitude in connection with the

Bosniak question in the 20th century. Their fate during the stationing of international peace and ethnic development is related to the future keepers!) we cannot see a real chance for the of the Macedonian state first of all. Presumably growth of the Serb identity. Should the they are going to maintain their duality in a Albanians of Macedonia follow the path of working state inhabited also by Albanians and secession the small appendix of the Sar Macedonians, but it is incalculable which Mountains in Kosovo may get into group they would approach in a conflict international limelight. situation. SUMMARY The situation of the Gorans differs from the previous ones so far that they live in a fairly We tried to outline the trends of change, and closed region in the high mountains in the Sar development of the ethnic structures in the Mountains and three states share their territory Western Balkans using three ethnic categories of living. The majority of their settlements is and raising questions considered important by located in the region of Dragaš in Kosovo, the us. We did this from the unconcealed aspect, app. 10-15 inhabited settlements belong to through which we contrasted the multi-ethnic Macedonia and some (4-6) villages to Albania regions that developed due to the long-lasting (it is difficult to determine the concept of (mostly peace) processes with the ethnic core settlement in this region due to the alteration of territories gaining ground gradually. Of course, the summer and winter pasture lands). The you may reproach us for being partial in favour Gorans were significant bridge-heads for the of multi-ethnicity but we profess that the Serbs in Kosovo getting gradually Albanian, ethnic expansion developed by force and at the through the dispatched Bosniak teachers. Due expense of ethnic cleansing is not an to that the majority of that group declared alternative to the peaceful coexistence, which themselves Bosniak (Muslim) or Serb till the we hope will commence also in the Western 1990ies. This significantly changed with Balkans, as well. Macedonia getting independent, when their group in Macedonia started to have significant BANAC, I. 1995. Nacionalno pitanje u influence on the Gorans living in Kosovo still Jugoslaviji. Duriex. Zagreb, p. 374. under Serbian supremacy getting in worse BERTIĆ, IVAN (ED) 1987. Veliki geografski situation. Therefore during the turmoil in atlas Jugosavije, Liber, Zagreb. Pp48 – 50, 228 Kosovo a part of the Gorans living there fled to – 240. Skopje and other Macedonian cities (due to the BËRRHOI, ARQUIE, - DOKA, DHIMITËR - atmosphere of wars and Serbian general Anti- HARTMAN, ACHE (ED) – 2003. Atas of Abania Islamic feelings and also due to the closeness – Demografic Atas of Abania. Shtypshkronja of Macedonia). After returning to the now Iar, Tiranë. P. 115. independent Kosovo they mainly defined GASHI A. Shqipëria etnike – Ethnic Albania. themselves not as Serbs or Macedonians but as Térkép kiadó és évszám megjelölése nélkül. Gorans. In addition to that they expressed their HAJDÚ Z. 2003. Az intézményes Balkán- claim for autonomy within Kosovo and even kutatás kialakulásának és fejlődésének they raised a claim for a major state (according problémái Magyarországon 1948-ig, különös to this opinion the majority of the Albanians in tekintettel a földrajzi kutatásokra. – in. M. Kosovo are Slavs who became Albanians, thus Császár Zs. (szerk.) Balkán Füzetek, No.1. they are part of their ethnic group). It is no PTE TTK FI K-MBTK Pécs, p. 71. wonder that the Albanians in Kosovo do not HAJDÚ Z. 2006: A magyar–horvát határ feel drawn to the Gorans, whom they mostly történeti, közjogi, közigazgatási kérdései 1918- believe to be renegade Albanians and they ig (Történeti és politikai földrajzi vázlat) in. M. consider their becoming conscious of Császár Zs. (szerk.) Balkán Füzetek, No.4. themselves as rather a propaganda of the Slavs. PTE TTK FI K-MBTK Pécs, pp. 18–34. The Serbs continue to consider the group as HÁRY SZABOLCS – M. CSÁSZÁR ZSUZSANNA Islamic Serbs, and the Macedonians try to mix 2008: Az albán kisebbség és oktatása their case with that of the Torbes (by common Macedóniában. In: Balkán Füzetek No. 6. A interest group organs and NGOs) thus Balkán keresztútján: Macedónia a XXI. század maximizing their basis among the Muslims. As elején. Pécs pp. 60–68. their territory of living borders on Macedonia HERCZEG EDINA - PAP NORBERT (2004.): A and the rest of the Serbs in South-Serbia szlovén-olasz határ menti együttműködés diminished in the last ten years (note that sajátosságai. In: Pap Norbert – Végh Andor

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SOKCSEVITS D. – SZILÁGYI I. – SZILÁGYI K. 1994. Déli szomszédaink története. Budapest. Italian population. Smaller ones had also taken place on the Albanian without any particular ethnic SOKCSEVITS D. 2007. Horvátország Európa és factor, compared to those of 1918. a Balkán között. Kreatéka kiadó. 4 Until the 1990s, there were only assumptions in SCHÜTZ I. 2002. Fehér foltok a Balkánon. Albania considering the albeit small number Bevezetés az albanológiába és a ofminorities, and we have very little knowledge balkanisztikába. Balassi Kiadó. about the internal ethnic structures and about how Budapest pp. 117–186. theyhave changed since 1945. 5 Opstinas (opština) or općinas are such ŽIVIĆ, D. – POKOS, N. 2004: Demografski administrative, self-managing units (rarely even one gubici tijekom domovinskog rata kao settlement or in cases of cities even their parts can odrednica depopulacije Hrvatske (1991.– function as opstinas) including several settlements, 2001.). In.: Društvena istraživanja 72–73. where the most significant administrative and Zagreb, Institut društvene znanosti Pilar. 2004 public service functions occur in the smallest julius–október. pp: 727–750. territorial unit. There is such a system first of all in the successor states of Yugoslavia. ŽULJIĆ, S. 1989. Narodnosna struktura 6 The listed statistic data apply to the complete ex- Jugoslavije i tokovi promjena, Ekonomski Yugoslavian Istria, the Slovanian and Croation part institut- Zagreb 1989, pp. 61–75. together. 7 Date of the 1991 census, which was not accepted ЈОВАНОВСКИ, ПАНЧЕ 2002: Миграциони by the Albanians, therefore a new census was движења на албанската популација во ordered in 1994, where this proportion was 22.67%. Пепублика Македонија. In: Прилози 8 The proportion of the Albanians in the province Contributions XXXIII 1. Macedonian showed and absolute majority even at the moment Academy of Sciences and Arts, Section of when Kosovo was attached to Serbia, however the Social Sciences. Skopje. pp. 67–85. migration of the wars and the following periods on ТРИФУНОВСКИ, ЈОВАН ДР. 1988: Албанско the Balkans reduced this and tranformed it on some territories (BANAC 1995). становништбо у Социјалистичкој 9 Републици Македонији– These decrees restricted the trading of the lands and other real estates among the ethnic groups. Антропогеографска и етнографска 10 During World War II, between November 1944 истраживанја. Книжевне новине НИРО. and March 1945, an autonomous administrative Београд, pp. 27–178. unit came into being in the practice on Sandzˇak Попис на населението, домаќинствата и territories liberated by the Partisans. After this, it становите бо Република Македонија 2002 was divided between Montenegro and Serbia, and the six Serbian municipalities – with Muslim година / дефинитивни податоци. Bosniak majorities – formed an autonomous 'Novopazari' District up to 1947, after which it was Notas divided and annexed to administrative units with Serb majorities (with their centres in Kragujevac and Uzˇice. 1 For this reason we believe in a significant 11 We refer here to the southern part of Central traditional desire for autonomy and such as an Serbia situated to the east, in the south, to the 'entrance to independence' and that nation-building northern parts of Montenegro which declare with an analogue character can be found even up to themselves mainly Serb, in the west, to the Serb the present (Kosovo as the best example). entity in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Republika 2 Although the winners of the wars would have Srpska, and to its opsˇtinas of Foča, Srpsko- divided this territory – similarly to Macedonia – Goražde, Višegrad, Rudo, Čajniče which were the between themselves as well, Great Power interests most concerned by the ethnic cleansing hindered it. Of course one obstacle was the 12 There are different data concerning the number of Albanian people, which was neither Slavic nor Wahhabis here; however, this number is Greek, nor was its stage of development of presumably under 200 – 300, and there are only empowerment and national consciousness as three or four local imams who wanted to achieve advanced as the Macedonians'.The fact that – due to more power through them. The news concerning their peripheral and high mountain character – the them culminated in April 2007, when a group Albanian territories were much more ethnically clashed with Serbian police, their leader lost his homogeneous than the other mentioned areas, life, and the police confiscated several guns and contributed to the formation of the independent explosives. In 2009, twelve Wahhabis from Novi Albania; however, about half of the Albanian ethnic Pazar were sentenced to a total of 60 years areas remained outside the new borders. imprisonment by the judges on charges of 3 Ethnically, the most significant border changes organising terrorist acts. were in Dalmatia and Istria, primarily affecting the