Arid Lands Newsletter No. 10 (April 1979)
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Authors University of Arizona. Office of Arid Lands Studies.
Publisher Office of Arid Lands Studies, College of Agriculture, University of Arizona (Tucson, AZ)
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Aoril 1979 \o 10 ARID LANDS NEWSLETTER
Office of AricOncs Studies niversity of Arizono,Tucson COVER Water harvesting device, southeastern Tunisia near Libyan border, used for sheep watering. Left foreground, part of the "funnel" used to direct water into a concrete - and -rock cistern for storage. Photo, J.D. Johnson. ARID LANDS NEWSLETTER No. 10 April 1979
Randall Baker 1 Arid Zone Research and Development in the Third World: Structure and Orientation
8 Settling the Desert: First Ben - Gurion Memorial Symposium, Institute for Desert Research, Sede Boker, December 4 -8, 1978
Gary Paul Nabhan 11 Tepary Beans: The Effects of Domestication on Adaptations to Arid Environments
Patricia Paylore and J. Richard Greenwell 17 Fools Rush In: Pinpointing the Arid Zones
Michel Baumer and 19 Edmond Bernus A selective Bibliography on Nomadism in the Sahelo- Saharian and Sahelo -Sudanian Zones
27 International Geographical Union, Inter - Congress Meeting, Tucson, January 1979
Features: 28 ? ? ? Did You Know ? ? ?
29 ? ? ? Have You Seen ? ? ?
30 Remote Sensing Techniques and Applications in Arid Lands / Dry Lands: Man and Plants
Cover Design, Mary Ann O'Donnell.
Published by the University of Arizona, Office of Arid Lands Studies (OALS), 845 North Park Avenue, Tucson, Arizona 85719 USA
Editor: Patricia Paylore, Assistant Director (International), OALS
Distributed worldwide without charge. Address correspondence relating to contents, or requests for future mailing, to the editor ARID ZONE RESEARCH AND.DEVELOPIVIENT IN THE THIRD WORLD: Structure and Orientation
by Randall Baker*
In a paper published several how the fundamental "problem' years ago (Baker, 1976), I i.e. what is the problem?. presented the hypothesis that the sorts of "solutions" that are produced land -use planning was as how or whether "solutions are implemented and much at the mercy of the the likely success rate structure of the decision- It was just this framework within which research making process for its success operates,` specifically in the context of the arid zones, that as it was dependent on the is a focus of a study to be published shortly by Unesco in intellectualand technical its: "Man and the Biosphere" program (Unesco,1979). capacitiesof individual Here is presented a summary of some of the basic ideas sciences. This hypothesis .I without the supporting detail and evidence which will be called "The Administrative found in the Unesco report. Trap, " and the main satis- Cynics sometimes say that the only consequence of each faction derived from that of the major UN- sponsored conferences on global matters exercise was a result of the number of researchers and (or "crises," as all global affairs are now designated) is consultants who approached ¡ne, and with an air of the spawning of a new institution providing more jobs for conspiratorial secrecy confided that although I had not more skilled people needed in the field. Whether or not identified the specific case study I had :: used, they true, such conferences do provide opportunities for recognized it immediately. To date, it has been fifteen governments and NGOs to reveal to the world what they different countries. perceive their problems to be as well as ways of tackling Precisely because of the pervasive nature of this them. This in itself is an area of much- needed and :much- problem, I feel it needs much more explicit attention and neglectedresearch.AttheConference on the direct action than in my experience it normally receives.. Environment, atStockholm,for instance some Third The fragmentation of decision- making along artificial World representatives shocked delegates from the sectoral lines in so many countries, particularly in developed world .when they stated that : pollution, :' developing countries where the loss:. ,of productive land conservation, etc., were problems for rich countries: The resources confronts an overwhelmingly peasant agricultural poor had to focus on production and productivity. At the population; confounds the need for integrated planning to UN Conference on Desertification in Nairobi there were tackle a series of urgent ecological problems. several remarks which I felt highlighted the need for In many ways it is equally constructive to look at the studies on research at a much broader level of perspective intellectual and P olitical /administrativesuperstructures than is normal. The two :remarks in particular: which are within which research operates and relates to action. recalled were: "We do not need any more research, the These structural paradigms will influence directly the time has come for action ", and "We have all the answers nature and ultimate value of the research in three main for controlling desertification, we just need to know how., ways: to implement them." The "answers" meant in the latter.
*The author is a senior lecturer at the University of East Anglia, School of D evelopment Studies, Norwich, currentlyon sabbatical in Paris where he has been working on a forthcoming Unesco MAB study of Research in the Arid Zones: statement are technological answers, mostly devised in and more particularly semiarid, areas. The UN Conference on for the developed countries, and the "action" referred to is Desertification at Nairobi was informed that a preliminary utilizinginthe poor aridzonesthe technology estimate on the annual rate of land degredation isas instrumental in transforming the commercial productive follows (United Nations Conference on Desertification, output of the arid zones in Australia, the USA, etc. 1977, Table 2, p. 9): If anything at all is clear from the last generation of "development" in the arid zones of the LDCs it is that the ...irrigated land, 125,000 ha failure rate of irrigation and grazing schemes has been ...rangeland, 3,600,000 ha extraordinarily high. This, I feel, is precisely because we ...rainfed cropland, 1,700,000 ha do not have all the answers: Technology, "appropriate" or ...TOTAL: 5,425,000 ha otherwise, is not enough. Indeed, the introduction of new A host of worrying detail was offered on desert advance: 5 technology has often accentuated the destruction of kms. per annum in the Sudan (Kovda, 1977, p. 12) and productive resources: tubewells in the Punjab, discs in localized land loss: 100,000 ha per annum in the Sahel Tunisia, etc. It has been said often enough that all (Ibid.). In addition and most alarmingly, between 100,000 technologies relate to a specific social context which and 250,000 people were estimated to have died in the includes education, technical competence, credit, Sahelian region alone between 1968 and 1974 (United communication, access to resources, etc. "Action" without Nations Conference on Desertification, 1977, p. 5). attention to these cooperant areas has a very poor chance Although this is fewer than the estimated losses for the of success. So in many cases we have not had all the great drought of 1913, undoubtedly the total would have answers to merit the action. Often they have been "other been very much greater were it not for over $200,000,000 peoples' answers" or answers to only partially -perceived worth of international emergency relief provided during problems. But the trends in research, at least, are 1968 -1974. encouraging. How can we be confronted with such an extraordinary Almost twenty years ago Professor Gilbert White of the paradox of deterioration in the face of a greatly expanded University of Chicago carried out a study for Unesco research effort? The easy solution is that of global or local entitled "Science and the Future of Arid Lands" (White, climatic change, but the Conference has this to say, via its 1960) which, as is so often the case, did not come to my consultant expert on climate, Professor F.K. Hare: attention until after the MAB paper was underway. The "...AreAre these changes due to a harshening of world depressing, and initially rather embarrassing, thing for me climate? ...to the ... question we can return a confident was that I had repeated so many of the points he had 'no'. There is no evidence of a lasting deterioration of stated so eloquently and forcefully in 1960.That fact climate" (Hare, 1977, p. 7). So, we have to look for the alone, however, highlights the paradoxical reality of what weaknesses in our scientific and technical work and its is happening in much of the arid zone where research application, misapplication, or lack of application in the effort and destruction have sometimes grown together. For field. I see no reason, twenty years on, to modify White's the intervening twenty years can hardly be described as a warning of 1960: "...We can be certain that fluctuations period of scientific and technological inactivity. Indeed, as will continue (i.e. droughts) and that man has multiplied early as 1950 Unesco established an Arid Zone Research his capacity to accelerate or retard the process of Council which led on to the Arid Zone Research desiccation. While aridity. .. is not spreading on a broad programme resulting in over thirty volumes *, numerous front, human abuse of arid lands isstill going largely symposia, fellowships, and exchanges. In addition, about unchecked. The need to halt this deterioration and at the 200 desert research stations were established in more than same time make better use of the remaining resources as a 40 countries (Kassas, 1977, p. 189). Writing at the outset means of improving the life of its burgeoning population of this effort, White said, "Most fortunately, man's need presents the central problem in the development of the to exploit the arid and semiarid areas occurs at a time arid lands" (White, 1960, p. 25). Itis to this level of when the great advance of scientific research gives him ecologically sound, socially acceptable, and economically grounds for hoping that he will be able to solve the attractive land use by the people who have to live in the problems arising there" (White, 1960, p. 5). arid zones that the research must address itself, not, as Yet in 1977 it was considered necessary despite all these was the case during part of the 1960s, along the blind "advances" to hold a world -scale conference to tackle the alley of population control. There must be some clear drastically deteriorating productivity of thearid,and direction linking research to a policy for human and
*I find it easier to measure arid zone publications in meters of shelf space. Their growth rate, to me is far more alarming, in view of the continuing destruction of the arid zones, than that of world population.
2 hsical ;resource`'development.:.. As:. Professor: A.H. :' Buntin t. ere: tends: to:.b:'e:" an i:nex;o:ra:b.le`: advance: :`:::'of :'`e'as'ant
;' st `ated:'in::an:::`:ad'dress:': o: tl 'e:::.Roal::SSociety:y y -of:. cultivation, .further- and further into :areaswhere London "A population .,policy, -still less a family limitation cultivation is dangerously .uncertain, so that when drought' ;.policy, cannot serve as a cheap substitute fora viable comes, as inevïtabiy it. mùst in these" regions, ït strikes ;very (agricultural and rural) development poi icy. ' hard. Indeed, ' many of those fleeing the i Sahel. -for the It seems clear that the problem of deterioration of the cities during the làst drought were; -not. families: lie n and lands is a result of mismanagement which advances displaced from an ancient heritage ba natural..calamity' in science and technology, remarkable though they have but colonists driven back from :areas where they should been during the period under review, have failed to not have been under not iìlal circumstances. If they ;retreat .: check. In the following, I 'should like to review briefly the to the less desertified fringes of the. savanna, however, the possible causes of the deterioration and then, in a prospect islittle better, for there :the pressure on. land, concluding section suggest some of the ways in which the already has resulted in 'declining 'recuperative fallow.? organization and orientation of ' research must adjust if periods, the enclosure of dry = season grazing land h,as ; real progress is to be made- at the level of the peasant or compromised the former cultivator= pastoralist syníbiosis, herder While the major focus throughout is on the and the expansion of cot ton cultivation: onto.: rriargirial' developing world, that is not to suggest that misuse of the lands has generated horrific effects on t+psoil erosion,. to dry 'zones is the .'exclusive right of poorer countries: The mention only the most obvious. dust bowl,:.' the. virgin land scheme, and California's" groundwater problem illustrate that that is not so Integration This brings us obliquely to one of the ;first structural . problems, that of integration. Clearly if more people and Development Problems in the Arid Zones more animals_ areto survive through the application`.of medical,veterinary,or groundwater technölogy,. then It is certainly true, despite the scarcity and questionable some account of this has to be taken in the planning accuracy of much of the data, that population 'growth process to absorb this growth. It is clear that the capacity fuels the problem of arid zone deterioration at an of the arid zones' to do so has in many cases ;been accelerating rate. Human numbers grow as a result of exceeded.` Thus the arid lands need to is brought. more medical services and famine relief, for instance, in directly into a national planning effort instead of being countries which all too often have little prospect of marginalized as they are in most cases even now. If. absorbing surplus labor off the land. Minerals in locations animal populations ' are to continue to gròw, then some such as Niger or Mauritania may provide wealth but it is means has to be found of taking off numbers in excess of no easy task to convert that wealth into incomes or productive employment that will outlive the flow of carrying capacity. Additionally, since livestock often: form:; the subsistence base of the population (social factors,. revenue from uranium or copper or phosphate. Instead, apart), more people is bound is mean more animals, so` opportunities have to be found for the excess :population` either by raising livestock in a different way (for sale immatures) or doing something else elsewhere. All -this' requires a much higher level o£ integration, of the ,arid. zones into the national scene ,than is ,practiced,-.at the moment. What is happening :now.. is that indiscriminate,..
piecemeal tinkering with.bits of..the production system is placing an inordinate strain, on :the physical resource base:; Nature is imposing its own .checks ;.by :imposing, droughts on an environment the resilience..of which is..continously being undermined,. Otir response .is ,to -keep as many people alive as possible .by frantically rushing in famine relief either from abroad or from ,°`green revolution surpluses produced elsewhere in the. countries concerned.` Neither of these provides any sort of solution to the problem._ Once the drought is over:., everyone breathes a' sigh of relief, the "problem anishes,.. and we return to the status quo ante.
. . . ::,: , : : : : .:;: NNorthern Aaea of Niger -photo by J'D ,johnsorx' Fragmentation
The pervasive problem of fragmentation (the opposite of integration) operates at several levels.First, we have found that research effortistoo often minutely subdivided, into crop or animal genetics, for instance, or disease control, or pasture species,a very natural educational process necessary to train specialists. Otherwise itis doubtful that scientific or technical progress would be made. Our point is, rather, that all this work must relate to some overall plan or program. Early in the period under review, a great deal of "purely" scientific /technical work was carried outatadvanced research stations, with results somehow diffused among the producing populace by field officers and extension workers. This "top down" approach (Paylore, 1977) often had a very low take -up rate (e.g. clover mixtures in areas of communal grazing in Uganda) or totally unexpected Mechanized sugar cane press near Iquitos, Peru socialconsequences(dispossessionfollowingthe "green - photo by Helen Kassander revolution" in parts of Latin America). Solutions of a rather narrow type were being produced in the hope that problems could be found which fitted them. One consequence of this was that extension workers would then cast themselves in the role of bringers of the good news techniques of risk aversion, social values, marketing, rather than effecting a liaison role to identify the availability of capital and purchasable food, etc. These problems of the producers. too have to be researched and integrated into any answer. When we recall that most r &d is conducted in advanced countries, we have to add that extra dimension of This brings us to a second aspect of fragmentation, the technology transfer which is not easily handled by a fact that the level of investigation of social, cultural, and system of short -term visits by foreign experts or economic ingredients or production at the lowest level inadequate local testing and evaluation facilities. Foreign were inadequately incorporated into the r &d effort. At groups may well be able to cope with the physical and this point, there will be some lifted eyebrows among technical aspects but often overlook or assume the social involved technicians who are Arid Lands Newsletter's aspects (worse still they carry with them a token sociologist readers, so skip a few paragraphs now, or turn to some of for a few weeks). There is no substitute for solid and thisissue'sother features.Seriously,however, I comprehensive field research in this area and ittakes sympathize, because all too often they have been served time.I think itis fair to say that the great faith in up some social components of solutions that are totally technology to transform the developing world as part and useless, or because socio- cultural factors simply represent parcel of the "Marshall Plan" approach which produced irrational barriers to the adoption of obvious technical such spectacular results in the post World War II- ravaged advances. It is true that much anthropological research economies of Europe and Japan. But that was a program has been obsessed with ritual and webs of kinship while of reconstruction which is a very different thing. At ignoring the dynamics of production, risk aversion, capital independence, many Third World governments had a accumulation, resource allocation and use,etc.It has similar view which may be seen most highly developed been this failure to incorporate the right sort of socio- today in oil -rich countries. economic analysis that has caused so much technology to Having mentioned the fragmentation of disciplines in backfire and accentuate the problem of resource research and the isolation of socio- economic research of depletion. the right sort from the r &d effort, I must now mention a third form of fragmentation: that of decision making. When one considers the body of knowledge and Even if some integrated solution is found to the problem techniques accumulated over the last twenty years and of a production system in the arid zones, it still has to be observe its application in the developed world or at squeezed through a mincing machine of government research stations in the developing world,itis easy to action. Here decisions are most notoriously fragmented sympathize with those who say "we have all the answers" along sectoral ministerial lines so that "problems" exist (even though this is not, and never is, true). But those are only if they can be defined within the mandate of an answers to rather narrowly- conceived questions usually of individual ministry, its staff, terms of reference, or a physical nature. These have to be accommodated in a budget. Integrated solutions /problems are therefore the network of other factors such as management skills, prerogative of dictators or enlightened, innovative
4 a i'ninistrative;:`structures: :ince; theroblem of ` deserti i=` came- the ::realization than it: was `:`signpy1: `'riot 'enoù$...... :...... -.. cation. xs a classic case :of ecológioal. .reakdown resulting develop and. supplythe. new technology.as though. it; frotn the.inteplayófsocial, cizltural,: physical and other were sortie universal;: panacea,,, It ,was necessary to staït f n únàblè to with a comprehers ve analysis. of .what constituted .the tackle ; it .at. tlíe coiripreheíisive Ìévél it xeqüires' with `òur "problem" of land use det.eriora.tionnd subsequent.; facilities organizedd the way they are *- improvement in each social" and; physical context:: It; was Thè : forégoing has been absurdly 'compressed, but I not enough to say, for sample, . "Táá =many .cattle,," .one believe : it highlights some : fundamental , flaws. Next, ' we had to ask "Why ?" and tackle that. Thus :tlìe focus :tended.: may examine the wày resea'ch has readjusted to cope with to shift to the production system and: the . approach: t hè weaknesses outlined., became much more one of systems: analysis. The newer institutes, particularly those belonging to the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research .,(ICARDA,. Trends `in .Research.: ILCA, IRRI, etc.) have an organization structure which is supposed, in theory at least,to effect, a form of During the period 1950 -1975, some very substantial integration by focussing on the ' systeiris approach, starting changes have occurred in the content, organization, and with an integrated analysis of the production system iii the orientation`: of research in the arid zones. Here is it field. In this way the "problem" may be' recognized .in a possible only briefly to suggest what these were and why much more comprehensive way,* and locally appropriate they came about. solutions may be provided. There is more hope- now that.- The period just after WWII saw a movement away research will be able to perceive problems at an ecological? from (or more correctly,_ in addition to) the focus on level rather than perceive and then treat merely some survey and collection of basic data and the improvement technical symptoms of ecological breakdown :In "this way' of cash crops, to the beginnings of 'a new concentration on the root cause of pressure may be tackled rather :than : increasing the productivity of basic subsistence_ crops and simply shifting the pressure, which is largely? what has' herds. The impetus for this came from the heightened been done up to now. concern with the so- called "population problem." Itis perhaps, difficult to recall now the great fear of "famine in the 1980s" which,`featured strongly in the predictive writings of' FAO, for example, in the 1950s and 1960s. India provided a sort of world case study at that time as the realized benefits of its early five-year plans were negated by ever -increasing rates of population >growth. A rnbination of disastrous droughts inIndiaand East Africa, the growing dependence on imported basic foods by the developing world, and the terrifying prospect of populations rates of 2.5% helped refocus research onto crops such as millet, sorghum, and maize. A second change in, research followed on from the above.,; Several major `advances" were made as a-: result of new efforts in researching basic: subsistence , resources: hybrid varieties,:: inexpensive tubewell sets, anvirus anim,- vaccines, . to :.name but a few. The results' of . `the global: application of these scientific and technological Arclimedeas.:.screw .:(tambour), used to lift water .fior irrigation. Near Giza, advances: sometimes proved ecologically :disastrous or Egypt itie,tia}ìál lCirssaridar;- ,T socially dislocative. It is true that thousands of new hectares were irrigated, thousands more animals survived, and new varieties of crops doubled ,yields in some areas. While the changes in orientation and focus mentioned But also,, thousands of acres of irrigated land were soon above have a relation: to events in the arid zones, it is hopelessly, encrusted with saline deposits, .ft iousands of worth remembering' that this .. period saw.. similar peasants' were M de.:landless by newly -rich Green recognitions emerge elsewhereInterdisciplinary institutes Revolution 'latffundista. :landlords..From these experiences are now common in more advanced ;countrie s.where
*The situation ,has:-:lee:n ,compared to NA TC facing a Monolithic oppositionwith a rrtultatutle of incompatible weaponry anspèákizcg a brbél of 'langtaáges,. everything *Consider for example the Man and the,Biosphere.; bÿ itself ad+ég and - highly refined, but tògether rushing Programme of Unesco. a=round in confusion until Armageddon drops from a clear **See detailed recommendations óf the forthcoming blue sky -and doom creeps across the land. MAB Technical Notes 10 authorities have had to cope with other equally serious done at the University of Edinburgh. This may help close ecological problems such as resource conservation, the still very large gap between those on the technical and pollution control, etc. The process is just the same: The those on the socio- cultural side of the same problem. At unregulated introduction of technological marvels, the the same time, those working on the social aspects need to benefits of which had been conceived within an absurdly be more directly concerned with production than has been narrow frame of reference dominated by "old- fashioned" the case in the past. economics.
There is need then for flexibility and openness of mind Recommended Changes for the Future at several levels:
I think very few people would agree with some of the conference delegates mentioned earlier who cried "No more research." There is much yet to be done in such Training _future research workers basic areas as the dynamics of climatology, the qualities of arid zone soils, geothermal water and energy, etc. ..In addition to the training of future research Nevertheless, it is easy to understand the frustrations of workers, much is to be gained in this context from those in government with the results of applied technology strengthening the capacity of individual arid zone over much of the drier regions. The general mythology is countries or regions (groups of countries) to train that the arid zones of the developed countries have been their own staff. These would provide continuity, the laboratory within which new scientific and technical offset the heavy dependence on imported ideas and advances have been evolved. Given sufficient capital to competence, and, with luck, help test and devise purchasethistechnology,ashort -cutrouteto local solutions for local problems. "modernization"isavailable for the poorer countries. We have seen that this ignores the lack of management skills, existing production systems, prevailing concepts of Research organization through "value ", technical backup as well as physical differences problem- oriented team structures within the arid zone. Certainly the explosion of technical outpourings has far exceeded the capacity of many ...One of the most depressing sights in arid zone developing countries to make long -term ecologically sound research is to visit some new institutes committed to use of its components. What is needed is to foster the new integrated or systems research on paper but which approach to research organization and orientation and a have lapsed into orthodox, watertight boxes. This is bold determination to see these reforms carried forward to almost always a reflection of the direction, or in this the decision -making and funding level of implementation. case lack of direction and commitment, from the top. It is clear that the way forward lies with the age -old plea for integration, by no means an easy process as we Relating the technical and social dimensions continue to be taught within the necessary disciplinary structure mentioned earlier. My feeling is that each .As Professor Bunting has observed: specialist should be taught to have an awareness of how `... Socio- economic factors have all too often his specialty relates to the overall system of production, at providedafeatherbedforafalling least to the point where all workers recognize the need to agronomist. When his prized new variety, or research the system and what constitutes a system of his `package of improved practices' -- the agricultural production. This will help offset the danger products of devoted,even impeccable, of carrying across insupportable implicit management and investigation -- fail to win instant acceptance, other cultural assumptions with a technological innovation his first response is to blame the extension which has "worked elsewhere." This awareness needs to service, and when that,in turn, has to be be built into teaching of future research workers, but with exonerated, he turns to socio- economic factors greatcare. Many so- calledinterdisciplinary programs which he may conceive as having to do with teach on the cafeteria principle of picking up interesting marriage customs, fertility rites,totems, morsels as you proceed down the line, the net result often taboos, and such apparently non -agricultural * being indigestion at too early a level, including the under- matters. In this way he dexterously puts the graduate level. It is quite feasible to provide, for instance, problem not only off his personal plate but veterinarians specializing in tropical veterinary medicine with an introduction to livestock subsistence systems, as is *emphaszs mine
6 often also beyond the reach of objective study So in conclusion there is a great deal to be achieved for lack of suitably equipped investigators. from a practical approach to integration. Governments Fortunately, during the last 35 years, such would help a great deal if they would formulate resource - have learnt that many of the socio- economic use policies in conjunction with researchers, to add some relations of traditional agriculture are impor- overall direction to the effort.Scientific researchers at tant for us because they affect decisions about research stations can no longer abstract themselves from the volume and distribution of scarce resources what goes on in the field since it is there that they should of land, labour, time, and capital between start. I am convinced that the adage "the whole is greater different and competing sectors of the life than the sume of its parts" is true, and to this end the systems of rural societies." challenge to educators to foster a more exploratory (Bunting, 1977, p. 612). outlook among scientists when perceiving problems isa ringing one. The need is to strengthen the capacity of these areas to train and then employ specialists in these areas. I feel it matters a great deal where and under what circumstances specialists are trained and the more of this training provided in situ the better.
Relationship between research producers and those charged with implementation of research results ...The relationship between those producing research results within the new framework and those ultimately charged with the implementation of these results, and, in some cases, approving and financing the research institute program is vital. Here flexibility is much more difficult to achieve because it touches on political power, but there are workable innovations as various integrated regional organizations have shown. This area offers one of the greatest obstacles to progress, with those in government always under pressure to show physical results in the short REFERENCES term. For them terms such as "integrated research" or "social research" may have no weight beside "technical Baker, P.R. (1976) The administrative trap. Ecologist 6 (7) :247 -251. revolution" or "technical breakthrough" which one can Bunting, A.H. (1977) Review and prospect: Where do we go from here? buy and see now, whatever the consequences. Royal Society, London, Philosophical Transactions 278 -B (437): 611 -614. The area of evaluation Hare ,F.K. (1977) The climate as accomplice. Unesco Courier, July 1977, p. 7 -10. ...One of the main reasons why the same depressing Kassas, M. (1977) Arid and semi -arid lands: Problems and prospects. Agro- Ecosystems 3(3) :184 -204. mistakes go on being made time and again in, for Kovda, V. (1977) A precarious balance upset. Unesco Courier, July instance, irrigation,is that there is no systematic 1977, p. 11 -14. evaluation and audit even of large -scale projects.Itis Paylore, P. (1977) Experience transfer: Arizona to the Sahel, or Passing embarrassing for those who planned, those who paid, and on the desert stairway. UN Conference on Alternative Strategies for Desert Development and Management, Sacramento, Proceedings those who publicized the venture to their people, when published for UNITAR by Pergamon Press. things go wrong. So a mythology of politeness results and Unesco (1979) Trends in research and the application of science and the same inadequate basis is used for planning the next technology for arid zone development. MAB Technical Notes 10. scheme. We must be prepared to be much more open and (in press) realistic about these things. Such evaluations should be United Nations Conference on Desertification,Nairobi,Secretariat widely and unashamedly published, especially "failures ". (1977) Desertification:its causes and consequences. Pergamon Press, Oxford. 448 p. White, G.F. (1960) Science and the future of the arid lands. Unesco, Paris. 96 p.
7 your roving reporter...
SETTLING THE DESERT First Ben- Gurion Memorial Symposium Institute for Desert Research December 4 -8, 1978
We had left Sde Boker in the winter chill of an early We were climbing now toward the Makhtesh Ramon, I Negev Desert morning and driven over 150 kilometers remembering the near shock that morning when south through the Wilderness of Zin to Yotvata, where my soutbound we came to the edge above and started our friend's nephew was doing field work for his doctorate, dropoff with a sense of breathtaking heart -stopping and now it was night and we were on our way back splendor before us. These thoughts were present in my through the long cold lonely and silent desert, to our right mind next day when we met at Sde Boker for the last Orion rising over Jordan. We came to a fork in the road meeting of the week -long dedication ceremonies for the and kept left, I aware that a mere 50 kilometers or so to Ben Gurion University of the Negev's Institute for Desert the East, as the falcon flies, was Petra which I would Research. As a reporter for Arid Lands Newsletter, I had never see. come to listen to a group of international arid lands experts discuss the settling of deserts,a topic of such overriding importance to the desert world that the event created a stimulating persistent ambience impossible to shake.
There we talked about farming the desert, reminded of the ancient desert systems of agriculture that enabled those early inhabitants to achieve an equilibrium with the scarce resources of their environment, then were briefed on modern man's response to the same environment through the re- introduction of water harvesting devices and closed system agriculture.
Suddenly, as the session on "The Desert as Human Habitat" got under way, I realized that several elements had coalesced in my mind: the film rushes I had viewed in Looking north across the Nahal Zin toward Sde Boker. London on my way East a week earlier when I had gone -photo byBarry Tickes over with Stephen Rose, producer of the BBC's Everyman series, the first segment of a three -part television documentary on Desert Peoples, co- produced by the British Broadcasting Corporation and the University of Why not? I asked myself without speaking, knowing the Arizona. This first, shot in the Sinai -Negev in the early answer even as I resented it. But forbidden or not, I had summer of 1978 by Rose and his film crew, depicted the been in Jordan that very day, having left my friends in a modern life of the area's bedouins in a framework of melon field, climbed a dune, dropped down out of sight cultural history. Besides that, I knew awaiting me at home on the far side, wondered if I were being "glassed ", was the Baumer - Bernus bibliography on nomads which I communed with a sand verbena as we acknowledged intended publishing in the next issue of Arid Lands mutually that we were two unlikely survivors, and finally Newsletter. So here I was suddenly, set down in the midst raced back down the dune with the sand streaming of serious sociological studies of nomad settlement,in behind me and the midday December sun hot on my face. nomad -land itself, worrying as were my hosts about how
8 to understand and appreciate :their philosophy in the Later, as we came down' from the canyon into the` open context of environmental deterioration whileassisting wadi and neared the gate.-beyond which vehicles are them to adapt ` to the necessary restraints on their forbidden, we encountered two..; motorbike riders in full . traditional migratory ways. paraphernalia: helmets, goggles, boots, laying back in a The next day I persuaded a friend to forego lunch to posture of defiance as they gunned into the narrow. allow me to go back to Eyn Avdat, the great waterfall far passageway from which we' had just emerged. I .tried tò up in the adjacent wadi. We had parked our car, walked confront them on that narrow trail;. first pleading,. then along the winding narrow trail which leads along the edge shouting after them as they disappeared in a cloud.of dust of the small runoff stream before it disappears, and found that I hoped they fell into the pool and drowned to my astonishment a rather large group of bedouin no, not here, too,I cried bitterly, thinking of the Mojave children gathered at the waterfall, being lectured by their and Baja California,feeling helpless,frustrated, teacher on the ecology of the area. aggravated - feeling most of all helpless. My cynical, "What is he saying?" I asked my Arabic - speaking companion put his arm around me gently and so we .went companion. on to our car wordlessly as the ugly sound of those` bikes "He is saying that they are privileged to live in such an faded away. unusual environment, and that they must learn to cherish Back at the Symposium, we heard , an afternoon:, of it and not abuse it." discussion on the natural resources ' of the desert, There was a pause, while we listened to a question, and particularly the challenge of natural energy :.conversion,, the following answer. "He told that young man," my harnessing solar energy by means of shallow solar ponds, friend went on, "that it will be up to him in the years to and methods of using solar energy for small =scale come to find an accommodation between traditional distillation of brackish water, particularly for fresh water.:; grazing and the exploitation of the desert beyond its in isolated localities. The Sde Boker Institute's-, "think., ability to sustain him and his animals." tank" on applied solar energy demonstrates dramatically: That young man bent down and dabbled his hand in their research into problems of space heating and.cooling, '' the icy waters of the pool below the waterfall - industrial process heat, and electric power generation, thoughtful, uncertain, wondering. research that must be accelerated worldwide, perhaps And we listened to the silence, and thought our own using this as a model, if . we are to bring a solar -based thoughts, too. economy out of its infancy.
. ,: .. . Testing .a coilector, :custoin4esigned by the Applied Solar Calculations Unit, and :Px+adtued. by Reinforced lam.. Left to right: Drs. Pinshow, Govaer, Gordan, and Professor Faiman, head of the ASCU. We talked with spirit about trapping and collecting Mid way through the Symposium," "tlíe ent re Govern oodwaters," locating and exploiting deep - buried aquifers, ment was brought down from Jeròs lein by helicopter tò testing these water resources with the aid of isotope tracers attend the memorial services commemorating..the .fifth and . scanning and geochemical equipment. They were anniversary:: ó£ the" death of Ben : Gurion, buried there on -amused- when I described my personal method of testing the edge `of the great Nahaï. "ZitsI made my way througl runoff waters by falling into the stream below Eyn Avdat tight security to the site and there heard' the President of when " I tried to photograph an ibex on a narrow ledge the State speak of Ben Gurion's vision for developing the above me, but they insisted that their way was better, ` and Negev, heard Ben Gurion's recorded voice booming out, with only a roll of spoiled film to prove my point,I saw the diplomatic corps lay a wreath, was shaken by the agreed. ". sound of taps, bittersweet echoes of Pearl Harbor here on on the very eve of the 37th anniversary of 'that wondering if I would live to seeitotherwise, gloomily: convinced that even I might live to see us blow it: "for good. But one cannot experience the Negev and'- not be a; believer. Here now at Sde Boker we see the contemporary" effort to bring together what we know of deserts;" how" they" form, how they are transformed, how - life adapts and : survives therein, how common are our prablem'. - I`say ".it` again, how common are our (rrobl ms. 'As" "òrie wlho "has seen arid lands/ desert research: stations rise anrd Patrieicx "Pììylò:e The following sessions on desert architecture and building" climatology. illustrated the emphasis the Institute places: on. the development of suitable habitats that reconcile .modern energy - efficient systems with those techniques and designs.'--evolving over centuries of functional.",desert life. Such factors as building design, ,site selection.; orientation, 'shading, and mat erials were discussed; ás " components of desert housing, and a final wrap -up' argu cut about underground housing and the Negev. m particular as an ideal laboratory for such trials left us: all with a feeling of excitement and anticipation. ." cc asward;toward oYtia -p b Ba: !'Tickes TEPARY BEANS The Effects of Domestication on Adaptations to And Environments Gary Paul Na For greater water and energy Teparies were domesticated' more than ` 5000 years ago in use efficiency, desert agri- arid subtropical Mexico. ` The oldest archaeologicalrecord culturalists-.are considering the of culturally selected teparies is' the Tehuacan production of plants which are Valley, Puebla (Kaplan, 1965). By late prehistoric times, already adapted to and condi- tepary cultivation was well established. ' as far ` north as tions.The introduction of Durango, Colorado, in the U.S. Southwest.Historically, desert plants into field cultiva- teparies have been a principal crop of several Sonoran tion will likely be accompanied Desert tribes (Castetter and Bell, 1942, 1951). They are by genetic selection for agro- also grown today as far south as tropical Nicaragua, nomically suitable traits.I where greater susceptibility to bacterial blight limits the should like to discuss the cultivation- of common beans (T.61 Waives, personal tradeoffs which occur when . corn nunication). desert plants begin.. to- evolve Table 1 Gary Paul Nabhan undercultivatedconditions. Bean Protein Yields per Plant. Highest .individual Plants Do we necessarily lose some of their adaptations to arid }* ghest (g) Protein Growing:. environments when we domesticate them? % Protein Seed` Yield Yield (g) Conditions As an historic model, I will use the tepary bean, for 1 Plant per Plant.: Phaseolus acntifolius variety latifolius.' Both ' wild and Floodwater domesticated' teparies have been significant legume foods inundation for native `'Americans historically' (Nabhan and Felger,., 1978) .According to the U.S. National Research Council P.acutifolius..: Conventional irrigation ( 1979), "Teparies seem eminently suited for dryland farming in semi-arid lands throughout the tropics and P. vulga Conventional subtropics ....withstanding heat and dry atmospheres ;: they irrigation can produce large quantities of edible drybeans in climates too arid for other beans.in addition, teparies P. rul¢a 31.77 Conventional contain as riiuch or more protein than most edible legume irrigation crops." "Under floodwater inundation, they have produced Results are from selected domesticated varieties and may not represent moreseed protein per plant than the highest reported overall yield trends for the two species. Data on P.r ulgaris reported in common bean (P. vulgaris) protein yields (Table` 1). Leleji et al (1972). Data on P. acutifolius reported in .. Nabhan (1978). *Plant Sciences, University of Arizona. Prepared for the Intercieneia Symposium, "PlantResources an the Development _ó Arid Lands," La Paz; Baja California Sur, Mexico, November 6 -10, 1978. Yields in native floodwater -fed fields within the Sonoran Desert seldom surpass 250 kg /ha (Nabhan et al.,in prep). Planting higher densities, under irrigation, a record tepary yield of 4633 kg /ha has been achieved on a California experimental farm (Hendry, 1918) - -- nearly 20 times the yield from a typical desert floodwater field. Despite the higher yields under irrigation,the age of mechanized irrigation in American deserts ushered in the demise of tepary cultivation,since higher cash -value, water -consumptive crops could then be grown in its stead (Nabhan and Felger, 1978). After a fifty year hiatus in agronomic research regarding teparies, groundwater depletion and the energy crisis rekindled interest in drought -hardy crops. Teparies are now a considerable part of bean research at LIANE in Torreon, Coahuila, at MITA in Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, at Texas Tech University in Lubbock, at the University of Arizona in Tucson, and the University of California at Riverside (Waines, 1978).Ihave made wild and domesticated tepary seed collections which are now available through the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Teparies are still grown using traditional floodwater agricultural methods in native American communities of the Papago and Hopi (Figs.1 & 2). A few non -Indians grow them for distribution in trading posts and border - town markets in Arizona. One commercial grower in Coolidge, Arizona averages over 1000 kg /ha of cleaned seed from his16 ha irrigatedfield.Even under conventional furrow irrigation in Arizona, teparies need only one half to three fourths of the water required by Figure 1. A tepary bean plot in sand dunes near the Hopi Indian village other crops (W.D. Hood, personal communication). of Hotevilla, Arizona (G. Nabhan, photo). To understand the genetic base and origin of this crop, it is necessary to shift focus to wild teparies. Taxonomists formally recognize three varieties of wild teparies, but it is the one with the broadest leaflets (variety latifolius) from In terms of reproductive strategy, wild teparies behave which the domesticates evolved. When domesticated var. much the same as other warm season desert ephemerals latifoliusandthesewildtepariesare artificially (Solbrig et al, 1977). They are relatively mesophytic, cross -pollinated, they produce perfectly fertile progeny, growing opportunistically during the late summer indicating a close evolutionary relationship (Joseph monsoon period when conditions are least desert -like, so Smartt, personal communication). that they "escape" most droughts. Their seeds begin to germinate when the abrasive action of the first floodwaters Although we cannot be sure that the direct progenitor of the season scarifies the hard testae. of domesticated teparies behaved as var.latifolius does today, the ecological niche of the contemporary variety Teparies are predominantly self -pollinating, and have suggests that it was readily available to humans. Broad - not expended energy on flowering structures attractive to leafed wild teparies are commonly found climbing into the pollinators. Instead, much of their energy is funnelled into riparian forest canopy on floodplains, but also colonize seed production. A wild tepary population of 250 plants trailsides, abandoned fields and fencerows (Fig. 3). in 100 m2 yielded over 5000 propagules by late Recently, I observed wild var. latifolius twining around September. The plants virtually"kill themselves" maize in a Warihio Indian field in the arid subtropical producing seed, with the vines withering as nutrients are Short -Tree Forest. Assuming that these wild teparies have translocated to the pods. The length of their active period not shifted their niche much since prehistoric times, it is is limited more by water stress than by frost. A new crop likely that they were easily recruited by early cultivators of wild teparies lies "dormant" as seeds in the soil within who could find them sprawling in or near their floodplain 100 days of the old generation's emergence, by late gardens (Fig. 4). October. 12 Figure 3. Wild teparies twining around barbwire and adjacent hedge bordering a garden in eastern Sonora, Mexico (T. Sheridan, photo). Figure 2. A Papago Indian farmer plowing a floodwater- fed tepary field. near Gu Oidag, Arizona (G Nabhan, photo). To -detail what arid adaptations teparies have lost seeds per pod. In selecting for larger seeds, bean during evolution-under cultivations, .I grew wild and domesticators reduced both the mean number and range domesticated var. littifolius in the same irrigated field in of variation of seeds per pod, while increasing the total late summer, Several striking differences were evident. seed weight per plant (Nabhan, 1978). Even when the wild"seeds were scarified, their germination and emergence were much more staggered than those of Domesticated tepary pods remain .intactuntil' the domesticates (Fig.5). A higher percentage of the threshing. Wild tepary pods explosively dehisce, domesticates emerged more immediately. In chancy arid ejaculating the seeds (Fig. 6). Since the majority of seeds environments, wild ` teparies have evolved a - strategy of are not dispersed beyond the mother plant (Fig. 7), pod -"`_cautious opportunism" (Noy -Meir, 1973), never putting dehiscence functions less as a dispersal mechanism to "all their eggs in one basket." The - domesticates have reduce competition, and more as a way to avoid birds that largely lost their hard- seededness, and cannot maintain a could prey on the intact pods. " After they are scattered seed reservoir in the soil for long. across the ground, wild teparies are difficult to recognize as seeds. ' They have a gravel -like appearance, with seedcoat coloration and mottling of each wild population The smaller seeds of the wild teparies produced thinner stems and more vulnerable primary leaves. But as the seedlings grew, it became clear that many domesticated . tepary races have slightly narrower leaflets than those of L.--J. wild var. latifolius. It is likely that as teparies were taken 1CM out of the partially shaded riparian forest canopy, and placed in a more open environment, a more xeric adapted leaflet was selected for. In addition, many.. VAR:LAi /FO.L1[/S VAR,TENU /FOL /US. MEW, SHADE ADAPTED XERIC, SUN-ADAPTED domesticated tepary stocks are susceptible to a seed -borne FLOODPLAIN COLONIZER SLOPE COLONIZER virus that makes the leaflets narrower (Í:G. Waines, personal communication). ..:...... 1.í`,XERfC CANYON SLOPE . TWINING ON GRASSES, nce` / -QQN the HERBS AND°SHRUBS-', Harvested : eighty days after planting, wild and ""prefere_ , ,I/ domesticated teparies produced about the same number of 1'61 ilk i propagules (200) per plant. In terms of the production FIELD HEDGE' STREAM MESIC FLOODPLAIN CLIMBING INTO RIPARIAN efficiency of reproductive tissue over above -ground TREE:: CANOPY vegetative tissue, some ` tepary domesticates achieved the same two -to- one -ratio that wild teparies accomplish. Figure 4. Niche preference of two wild tepary varieties. Variety latifoliw However; the wild teparies averaged more than 5.5 seeds is morereadilyavailable on floodplains, inor near field per pod,__ while the domesticates averaged less than 4.5 (K Hale; diming) ; 70 ---= DOMESTICATED 65 '! NICKED DOMESTICATED p60 ii --- -=WILD NICKED á55 i } I i =WILD UNNICKED ó 50 I w ' LL45 / cc ' Intact pod prior to Explosive spiraltorsion End positionI -3 seeds w 40 dehiscence effecting seeds 51111 stuck in twisted pod iaa 35 i cc Figure 6. Mechanics of pod dehiscence and seed ejaculation for wild iLA teparies (j. Spencer,drawing). Li 30 ;0 Lill(r) 25 / In general, the adaptations which teparies have lost 020 /At\ during domestication are those which tend to optimize I /N. '.\ long -term survival of populations in an arid environment CO 15 ' % 7 NN D i/ 1 ' \ of discontinuous inputs (Noy -Meir, 1973). Man has Z I0 / > intervened, insuring the survival of seeds by storage ' / ! js / I `. t. between seasons. Humans have also sown teparies in more ,./_-- : protected environments, often supplementing them with -- .-.- -. water to minimize the hard times. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 NUMBER OF DAYS AFTER PLANTING This inability to survive in the wild is a characteristic consequence of domestication (Harlan,1975). On the Figure 5. Field emergence timing of nicked (scarified) and unnicked other hand, several survival mechanisms persist to a teparies in Tucson, Arizona experimental plots. greater extent in cultivated teparies than in other domesticated beans. They have kept their physiological tending to match the soil and little substrate of the drought tolerance. Under a high water deficit,tepary locality in which it has evolved (Fig.8).In contrast, domesticates maintain a steadier respiration rate than humans have selected and propagated mutants with drought -susceptible P. vulgaris; they likely maintain brighter and less mottled seedcoats, in pods that dehisce photosynthesis longer through periods of stress (Coyne and less readily, to improve harvestability (Nabhan, 1978). Serrano P., 1963). They continue to set flowers and pods Figure 7. Distances which wild tepary seeds were thrown, via pod explosions, away from a point source 2 m above the ground. This laboratory simu- lation indicates that most seeds are not scattered enough to eliminate competition between them. 20406080100120140 160180 200 220 240 260 280 300 CENTIMETERS DISPERSED FROM BASELINE 14 under temperatures ,high enough. .to 'cause abortion in ee+d, and ,po tendt x..: int rease, : and con ;: sizes : pinto: bean flowers.. - Teparies undergo a heat hardening commitantiy; the total number, of seeds; produ ec .process whereby they can develop increased thermal per .plant riay fall,. stability of proteins and enzymes, enabling them to ?6. hods ,tend to become` less readily. dehisce ìt. tolerate greater stress(Sullivan and Kinbacher,1967; 7 . Seed . dormar cy tends. to be lost Kinbacher et al,1967)Under water "stress, when ?S. Photoperiodic sensitivity may be lost.. . compared with kidney beans, Sonoran Desert - adapted For the characters' iíì. which .teparies have: not, : followed tepary cultivars were recently found to have lower` through on the; typical evolutionary trends, .I :hesitate: to transpiration rates,less leaf senescence, and lower leaf say , that it is . because they are less "advanced.'.' : Rather,: temperatures (Parsons and Davis, 1978). they have ` retained.wild type strategies because of .their For several definitive characters, domesticated teparies continuing value in' responding facultatively to an arid, have retained more wild -type ,genes than have other erratic climate... domesticate "Phaseolus (bean) species (Evans, 1976). Most To exemplify, the three other domesticated:. Phr seolus domesticated legumes have undergone the following have all been selected for compact. growth .habitsvh±ere evolutionary trends, outlined by Smartt (197$). I have put less than 1Q -12 ïnternodes .are `produced before growth;:is questions marks iris front of the trends which are not so terminated .by lowers (Smartt, 1976). Teparies have, ìot:; applicable to teparies: been :selected. f+r this oligonodal form. Instead, both wild ?1 Growth habit tendsto change fromdiffuse to and domesticated teparies: coat nue tò' produce internodes: compact. until water -stressed. These polynodal forms ca.n .have ?2. Growth habit also tends to become erect. either short or long internodes, depending on he' timing: ?3. Gigantism of vegetative parts occurs. of stress. Indeterminate teparies can, facultatively respond ?4. Life form tends to change from perennial to each capricious storm event with a new flush of flowers` annual. (Claire Thomas, personal communication). ...... : ::...... ,.. F`xgtre:<8.::Wilda:rtd.:damesticat+e+:taíy::seeds::cn... :;lititer:: and ;;`8 gravel sulìstìtes;Chäïìacteristic::tìf:-.tes+rt::::i tion, shape- and testine, the wild teparies are better caxtmoflaged (W. Sherbrooke, ,photo). Similarly, vegetative gigantism has been minimal, life In conclusion, teparies are an example of a plant native span is essentially the same (short) length, and total seeds to our deserts which has undergone domestication without per plant have not necessarily fallen with domestication. losing much of its fitness to arid environments. Hendry Perennial forms or differences in photoperiodic sensitivity (1918) went so far as to say that teparies have a are not known in wild or domesticated teparies. Models "singularly perfect adaptation to arid lands" compared to for evolutionary change with domestication have largely other field crops. Hendry (1919) also showed that some been built upon case studies of species adapted to humid teparies behave aberrantly when removed to cooler, more environments. Data from arid- adapted species do not humid, coastal California climates. Recently, Smartt entirely support such models. I suggest that domesticated (1978) was pessimistic about the future development of teparies have conserved more wild type traits because teparies because he considered their ecological range to be "natural" selection in the arid cultivated fields has been narrow. With nearly two- thirds of the world's land surface just as rigorous as cultural or artificial selection, and it falling within arid and semi -arid climates, I hardly see a has acted to maintain adaptations to these arid reason to term the ecological niche of teparies "narrow ". environments. In tropical or temperate environments where climatic stresses may have been less extreme, direct Rather, my optimism in teparies stems from the view that artificial selection by man has had a freer hand in the growing populations in deserts will need to revive many domestication of other beans, and more wild -type indigenous food resources if we are to survive in the characters have been lost. future. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author thanks the following individuals for information or helpful criticism of earlier drafts of this manuscript: W.P. Bemis, W.D. Hood, O.T. Solbrig, J. Smartt, C. Thomas, and J.G. Waines. Interpretations in the present article are the responsibility of the author only. Much of this work was funded by the USDA Western Region Project on Bean Improvement. REFERENCES Castetter, E.F. /Bell, W.H. (1942) Pima and Papago agriculture. Univer- Nabhan, G.P. (1978) Tepary bean domestication: Ecological and nutri- sity of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque. 244 p. tional changes during Phaseolus acutifolius evolution. University of Ari- / ------(1952) Yuman Indian agriculture. University of New Mex- zona, Tucson (M.S. thesis). 141 p. ico Press, Albuquerque. 272 p. Nabhan, G.P. /Felger,R.S.(1978) Teparies insouthwestern North Coyne, D.P. /Serrano P., J.L. (1963) Diurnal variations of soluble solids, America. Economic Botony 32 (1):2 -19. carbohydrates and respiration rates of drought tolerant and susceptible Noy -Meir,I. (1973) Desert Ecosystems. Environments and producers. bean species and varieties. American Society of Horticultural Science, Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 4:25 -52. Proceedings 83 :453 -460. Parsons, L.R. /Davîs, D.W. (1978) Investigations on drought resistance Evans, A.M. (1976) Beans: ( Phaseolus spp.) In N.W. Simmonds, ed., mechanisms of tepary and kidney beans. Agronomy Abstracts, p. 83. Evolution of Crop Plants, p. 168 -172. Longmans, New York. 339 p. Solbrig, O.T. et al (1977) The strategies and community patterns of Harlan, (1975) Crops and man. American Society of Agronomy /Crop desert plants. In G.H. Orians and O.T. Solbrig, eds., Convergent Evo- Science Society of America, Madison, Wisconsin. 295 p. lution in Warm Deserts, p. 67 -106. Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, Hendry, G.W. (1918) Bean culture in California. University of Cali- Stroudsberg, Pennsylvania. 333 p. (US /IBP Synthesis Series, 3) fornia, Berkley, Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 294. 347 p. Smartt, J. (1976) Tropical pulses. Longmans, New York. 348 p. - -- (1919 Climatic adaptation of the white tepary bean. American Sullivan, C.Y. /Kinbacher, E.J. (1967) Thermal stability of fraction 1 Society of Agronomy, Journal , Journal 11 :247 -252. protein from heat hardened Phaseolus acutifolius Gray 'tepary buff. Kaplan, L. (1965) Archaeology and domestication in American Crop Science 7:241 -244. Phaseolus (beans). Economic Botony 19 (4) :358 -368. U.S. National Research Council (1979) Tropical legumes, a neglected re- Kinbacher, E.J. /Sullivan, C.Y. /Knull, H.R. (1967) Thermal stability of source. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. malic dehydrogenase from heat hardened Phaseolus acutifolius `tepary Waines, J.G. (1978) Protein contents, grain weights, and breeding buff. Crop Science 7 :148 -151. potential of wild and domesticated tepary beans. Crop Science Leleji3O.I. et al (1972) Inheritance of crude protein percentage and its 18 :587 -589. correlation with seed yield in beans, Phaseolus vulgaris L. Crop Science 12:168 -171. 16 FOOLS RUSH IN : Pinpointing the Arid Zones In response to continuing inquiries from around the world for the kind of statistical data represented on the accompanying chart, we have plunged recklessly in "where angels [would] fear to tread" in an attempt to provide a breakdown in gross figures for those countries generally recognized as having arid and /semiarid areas within their political boundaries. Mindful of the commonly cited figure of35percent of Earth's land area as being arid /semiarid, we were somewhat astonished to find the total sum of our breakdown,33.17percent, corresponding approximately with thiswidely accepted figure. We should like to point out that, excluding that 9.6 percent of Earth's land area locked in Antarctica, we have based our world totals on a figure of52,006,000square miles. Without wishing to engage in a discussion here of what is "arid" and what is "semi- arid" - believing that far too much has already been written inconclusively about this topic, we have estimated the two separate percentages according to our best judgment, based on all available sources at our command. We offer this now, not as the last authoritative word, but only as a first serious attempt at identifying the arid /semiarid country-by- country picture as we see it from our vantage point. We urge Arid Lands Newsletter readers to correspond with either of us if they have figures more accurate than ours, and to assist us in all ways possible to revise, with more exactitude, the country -by- country picture we have presented. Since Arid Lands Newsletter is mailed out to persons an all countries listed, it is our hope that readers may call our request to the attention of country authorities if they themselves are not in a position to respond. Patricia Paylore /J. Richard Greenwell University of Arizona Tucson, Arizona85719,U.S.A. ARID AND SEMIARID COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD ( *): Estimates of Percentages and Area Extent ( * *) Country Total land % Area % Semi- Area semi - Area( * * *) Arid Arid arid arid THE A MERI CA S Argentina 1,072,158 30 321,647 30 321,647 Bolivia 424,163 15 63,624 10 42,416 Brazil 3,286,473 1 32,864 6 196,108 Canada 3,851,791 0 4 154,072 Chile 292,257 40 116,903 5 14,613 Ecuador 109,483 0 5 5,474 Mexico 761,601 25 190,400 15 114,240 Paraguay 157,047 0 5 7,852 Peru 496,222 20 99,244 0 United States 3, 615,122 15 542, 268 15 542, 268 Venezuela 352,143 0 5 17,607 Totals: 14,418,460 1,366,950 1,416,297 MIDDLE EAST Bahrain 231 100 231 0 Iran 636,293 65 413,590 25 159,073 Iraq 167,924 75 125,943 20 33,584 Israel 7,992 35 2,797 40 3,197 Jordan 37,737 70 26,415 25 9,434 Kuwait 6,880 100 6,880 0 Lebanon 4,015 0 10 401 Oman 85,000 100 85,000 0 Qatar 4,000 100 44,000 0 Saudi Arabia 830,000 95 788,500 5 41,500 Syria 71,516 70 50,061 20 14,303 Turkey 301,381 0 50 150,690 Con. Next Page excluding Antarctica all area extent figures in square miles National Geographic Atlas of the World, 4th ed. , ßj1975 17 Lountry Total land % Area % Semi- Area semi - Area ( * ** ) Arid Arid Arid arid Middle East Continued United Arab 100 0 Emirates 32,000 32,000 Yemen, North 75,290 50 37,645 45 33,880 Yemen, South 111,075 100 111,075 0 Totals: 3,330,406 1,684,137 446,062 AMA Afghanistan 250,000 40 100,000 40 100,000 China 3,705,390 12 444,647 15 555,808 India 1,266,596 30 379,978 i5 189,989 Mongolia 604,247 25 151,061 40 241,700 Pakistan 310,402 70 217,281 i5 46,560 Soviet Union 8,650,000 8 692,000 4 346,000 Sri Lanka 25,332 0 20 5,066 Totals: 14,811,967 1,984,967 1,485,123 AUSTRALIA 2,967,909 50 1,483,954 25 741,977 AFRICA Algeria 919,591 85 781,652 10 91,959 Angola 438,351 10 43,835 15 65,752 Botswana 231,804 25 57,951 60 139,082 Cameroon 183,568 0 10 18,357 Cape Verde 1,557 30 467 50 778 Central African 240,534 0 5 12,027 Republic Chad 495,753 50 247,876 35 173,514 Dahomey 43,483 0 20 8,697 Egypt 386,660 100 386,660 Ethiopia 471,776 20 94,355 50 235,888 Djibouti 8,494 100 8,494 Ghana 92,099 0 10 9,210 Kenya 224,960 20 44,992 55 123,728 Lesotho 11,720 0 5 586 Libya 679,359 60 407,615 30 203,808 Malagasy 226,657 8 18,132 12 27,200 Mali 478,764 60 287,258 350 167,567 Mauritania 397,954 100 397,954 Morocco 172,413 35 60,344 45 77,586 Mozambique 302,328 0 15 45,349 Namibia 318,261 50 159,130 40 127,304 Niger 489,189 70 342,432 30 146,757 Nigeria 356,667 0 20 71,333 Rhodesia 150,803 0 5 7,540 Senegal 75,750 25 18,937 70 53,025 Somalia 246,200 60 147,720 40 98,480 South Africa 471,443 35 165,005 25 117,860 Sudan 967,495 50 483,747 40 386,998 Tanzania 364,898 0 25 91,224 Togo 21,622 0 25 405 Tunisia 63,170 75 47,377 15 9,475 Upper Volta 105,869 0 90 95,282 Zambia 290,585 0 5 14,529 Totals: 11,287,729 4,019,933 2,626,300 WORLD TOTALS: arid areas: 10,539,941 sq mi % of world land area arid: 20.26 semiarid areas: 6,715,759 sq mi % semiarid: 12.91 combined: 17, 255, 700 sq mi % combined: 33.17 18 A'- SELECTIVE BIBLIOGRAPHY ON NOMADISM IN THE SAHELO-SAHARIAN and. SAHELO-SUDANIAN .Z.ONES Michel Baumer* and Edmond Bernus ** With nomads threatened on stated by Lebret * **"...De- allsides by drought and velopment for a population sedentaries, and with so- called and for the sub -populations development which too often which comprises it is the ,series is inappropriate and some of passage atthefastest times actually dishonest, we possible speed and the lowest have thought it useful to com- possible cost, from a; less pile a list of publications re- human to a more human lating to `'pastoralism and condition of life." nomadism in the Sahelo -Sa "Nomads" is also used here harian and - Sahelo- Sudanian. in the sense given by :Oxby, zones ` but excluding the (Ibid. ): ..people for whom technical aspects of range constant mobility is an integral management, in the hope that jfichet `Bausner part of making a livelihood .F.ibitòia such a compilation will be useful to an increasing number areas where there are not enough resources - to;stay in one of research workers now taking an interest in the past, place." Our understanding of the term, and the way in present, and future of these poorest among the poor. It which we have interpreted it in this compilation, includes will be ` useful, however, only if it draws attention to the the true nomads, semi -nomads, transhumants, and fact that while much is known about nomads, littleis semi -transhumants. done for them. Our conviction, deriving from personal The nearly 350 citations which follow have ;' been is experience in the " areas encompassed by this " - listing, arranged, after a general section, on a regional basis: based on the need4:for concerned governments to help . nomads preserve their ° cultural and historic identification A. Nomadism in the Sahelo- Saharian and`Sahelo. while becoming equal partners in development with the Sudanian zones sedataries. Surely this would serve the establishmnet of the B. Mauritania and Senegal much talked of New International Economic Order. C. Mali and Upper Volta In this complex situation relating to the problems of D. Niger, Nigeria,` and the southern Algerian Sahara';. pastoralism` and nomadism in the area defined in our E. Chad and the Sudan compilation; we follow Oxby (1975) for a definition of the term "pastoral ": "...people whose main livelihood is This classification is not intended to be absolute. When the same title, for instance, refers to several countries, it is herding, _ or at least was until development projects affected them." In this definition, "development" is used usually found in the section of the countries most in its Common sense meaning and not in the context as concerned and is not repeated in other sections. *446 Combe caude, 34100 Montpellier, France **Mâitre de Recherches Principal, Office de la Recherche Scientifique et Technique Outre-Mer (ORSTOM) ,' 24 ru Bayard, 75008, Paris ***Lebrèt, U. et al (1961] Dynamique concrete du développement. EditionsOuvriéres, Collection Economie et Humanism Dévelóppement et Civilisation, Paris. 550 p. 19 SECTION A Works Relating to Nomadism in General or in the whole of The Sahelo- Saharafan and Sahelo -Sudanian Zones Allan, W. (1964) The African husbandman. Oliver and Boyd, Boudet, G. /Gillet, H. (1974) Les recherches á poursuivre et á entre- Edinburgh. 505 p. prendre en vue de l'amélioration de l'économie pastorale du Sahel. Amin, S., ed. (1974) Modern migrations in western Africa. Interna- Unesco, Paris, Notes Techniques du MAB 1:35 -40. tional African Seminar,11th, Dakar,1972. International African Boughey, A.S. (1960) Man and the African environment. Rhodesia Institute, London. 426 p. Scientific Association, Proceedings and Transactions 48:8 -12. Anonymous (1975a) Sahel. 2: The battle for survival of the Tuareg and Box, T.W. (1971) Nomadism and land use in Somalia. Economic their herds. Unesco Courier, April 1975, p. 14 -19. Development and Cultural Change 19(2):222 -228. (1975b) Sahel. 3: The `outsiders' on the trail to progress. Unesco Bremaud, O. /Pagot, J.(1962) Grazing lands, nomadism and Courier, April 1975, p. 20 -25. transhumance in the Sahel. In Problems of the Arid Zone, Proceedings of the Paris Symposium, 1960. Unesco, Paris, Arid Zone Research 18:311 -324. Baier, S. /King, D.J. (1974) Drought and the development of Sahelian Briggs, L.C. (1960) Tribes of the Sahara. Havard University Press, economics: A case study of Hausa -Tuareg interdependence. LTC Cambridge, Massachusetts. 295 p. (Land Tenure Center) Newsletter 45:11 -21. Brown, L.H. (1971) The biology of pastoral man as a factor of conserva- Baker, R. (1973) Innovation, technology transfer and nomadic pasture. tion. Biological Conservation 3(2):93 -100. Journal of Appropriate Technology 1(1). Brun, T. /Kovess, V. (1974) Situation alimentaire des populations Barbour, K.M. /Prothero, R.M., eds. (1961) Essays on African popula- nomades du Sahel durant la sécheresse. Etude de cas et réflexions. tion. Routledge and Kegan Paul, London. 336 p. Cahiers de Nutrition et de Diététique 9(2):119 -127. Bataillon, C., ed. (1963) Nomades et nomadisme au Sahara. Unesco, Bugnicourt, J.(1974) Un peuple privé de son environnement. Paris, Arid Zone Research 19. 195 p. IDEP /UNEP /SIDA, Dakar. 231 p. (1963a) Modernisation dunomadisme pastoral.In Bataillon Butzer, K.W. (1964) The Sahara and eastern Africa during the late (1963), p. 165 -177, q.v. Pleistocene. In Butzer's Environment and archaeology, an introduction (1963b) Relations extérieures des nomades. In Bataillon (1963), p. to Pleistocene geography, p. 301 -316. Aldine, Chicago. 43.49, q.v. - -- (1966) Climatic changes in the arid zonesof Africa during early (1963c) Résistance oudécadence du nomadisme. In Bataillon mid -Holocene times. In International Symposium on World Climate (1963), p. 143 -151, q.v. (1966), p. 72 -83, q.v. Bataillon, C. /Verlaque, C. (1963) Nomadisme et économie moderne. In Bataillon (1963), p. 153 -164, q.v. Caldwell, J.C. (1975) The Sahelian drought and its demographic impli- Baumer, M. (1973) Pour une stratégie de développements dans les zones cations. American Council on Education, Washington, D.C., Overseas sahélienne et sahélo- soudanienne. United Nations, New York, Liaison Committee, Paper 8. 88 p. ST /SSO /I/ Rev. 1. 18 p. Capot -Rey, R. (1953) Le Sahara. francais.Presses Universitaires de Bernus, E. (1967) Problémes d'enquétes en milieu nomade. ORSTOM, France, Paris. 565 p. Paris, Bulletin Liaison Sciences Humaines 9:29 -35. --- (1961) Note sur la sédentarisation desnomades au Sahara. (1974) Géographie humaine de la zone sahélienne. Unesco, Paris, Annales de Géographie 70:82 -86. Notes Techniques du MAB1:67 -73. - -- (1962) Etat actuel du nomadisme auSahara, In Problems of the Bernus, E. /Boutrais, J. /Pélissier, P. (1974) Evolution et formes arid zone, Proceedings of the Paris Symposium, 1960. Unesco, Paris, modernes de l'élevage dans les zones arides et tropicales. Cahiers Arid Zone Research 18:301 -310. ORSTOM, Paris, 11(2):115 -118. - --(1963) Le nomadisme des Toubbous. In Bataillon (1963),p. Bernus, E. /Savonnet, G. (1963) Les problémes de la sécheresse dans 81 -92, q.v. l'Afrique de l'ouest. Présence Africaine 88(4):113 -138. - -- (1964) Problèmes du nomadisme au Sahara.Revue Internationale Bernus, E. et al (1974) Les recherches sur le nomadisme pastoral en zone du Travail 90:422 -481. sahélienne: Présentation bibliographique. Unesco, Paris, Notes Chabert, A. (1966) Les nomades sahariens et le développement Techniques du MAB1:61 -66. économique. Revue Economique de Madagascar 1:61 -80. (1974a) Etude du milieu rural et de la dynamique du développe- Chevalier, A. (1932) Les places dépourvues de végétation dans le Sahara ment. Mise au point sur la sécheresse et les problémes humains en et leur cause sous le rapport de l'écologie végétale. Académie des Afrique sahélienne. 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(1962) La Confédération des nomades Kel Ahaggar (Sahara Economische en Sociale Geografie. central). Annales de Géographie 71(388):604 -619. Davies, R. (1957) The camel's back: Service in the rural Sudan. J. - -- (1963) Problèmes des Touaregs du Hoggar. Unesco, Paris, Arid Murray, London, 209 p. Zone Research 19:59 -66. Dixey, F. /Aubert, G. (1962) Report on arid zone research in the Sudan. Rouillé d'Orfeuil, H. (1971) Une tente targui dans le Hoggar. Options Unesco, Paris, NS /AZ 657. 61 p. Méditerranéennes 7. Frantz, C. (1977) Shifts in power from nomads to sedentaries in the Saint- Croix, F.W. de (1945) The Fulani of northern Nigeria. Govern- central Sudanic zone. In University of Khartoum, 3d International ment Printer, Lagos. Conference. The Central Bilad -as- Sudan: Tradition and adaptation Sidikou, A. -H. (1974) Sédentarité et mobilité entre Niger et Zgaret. Etude Nigériennes 34. 250 p. Gilg, J.P. (1963) Mobilité pastorale au Tchad occidental et central. Stenning, D.J. (1957) Transhumance, migratory drift and migration: Cahiers d'Etudes Africaines 3(12):491 -510. Patterns of pastoral Fulani nomads. Royal Anthropological Institute, Journal 87:57 -73. Halwagy, R. (1962a) The impact of man on semi - desert vegetation in - -- (1959) Savanna nomads, a study of the Wodaabe of western Bornu the Sudan. Journal of Ecology 50:263.273. Province, northern Nigeria. Oxford University Press, London. 266 p. (1962b) The incidence of the biotic factor in northern Sudan. Swift, J. (1972) Pastoral nomadism as a form of land use. The Tuareg of Oikos 13(1):97 -117. the Adrar N'Iforas. Semaine Internationale Africaniste sur les Sociétés Hassan, I.H. (1962) The environments of the nomads. In Philosophical Pastorales en Afrique Tropicale, Niamey, 13th. 6 p. Society of the Sudan, Annual Conference, 10th, Khartoum, 1962, - -- (1973) Disaster and a Sahelian nomad economy. In Dalby and Proceedings, p. 22 -28. 25 Hayes, O.C. (1960) "Dar" rights among the nomads: An arbitral award. Randell, J.R. (1962) The potential development of lands devoted to Sudan Law Journal and Reports. nomadic pastoralism. In Philosophical Society of the Sudan, Annual Herzog, R. (1973) Unveröffentlichte Beobachtungen uber die Bischarin. Conference, 10th, Khartoum, 1962, Proceedings, p. 1 -6. In Tauchmann, K., ed., Festschrift zum 65. Beburtstag von Helmut Robinson, A.E. (1935) Desiccation or destruction. Notes on the increase Petri, p. 167 -184. Böhlau Verlag, Köln. 568 p. (Kölner Ethnolgische of desert areas in the Nile Valley. Sudan Notes and Records Mitteilungen, 5) 18: 119 -130. Jackson, J.K. (1957) Changes in the climate and vegetation of the Sudan. Sudan Notes and Records 38:47 -65. Jackson, J.K. /Shawki, M.K. (1950) Shifting cultivation in the Sudan. el- Sammani, M.O. (1973) Planning of health facilities for nomadic Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry Division, Memoir 2. 12 p. Also in population. Seminar on Health Problems of Nomads, Shiraz /Isfahan, 22 -29 April 1973. Sudan Notes and Records 31:210 -222. Josse, R. (1971) Problèmes de mise en valeur du Hoggar et de croissance Seligman, C.G. /Seligman, B.Z. (1918) The Kababish, a Sudan Arab urbaine á Tamanrasset. Cahiers d'Outre -Mer 24(95):245 -293. tribe. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Peabody Museum, Harvard African Studies 2:105 -185. Kronenberg, A. (1958) Die Teda von Tibesti. Ferdinand Berger, Vienna. Shaw, D.J., ed. (1966) See Philosophical Society of the Sudan (1966) 160 p. (Wiener Beitrage zur Kulturgeschichte u. Linguistik, 12) Le Coeur, C. (1948) Les nomades Teda et l'exploitation des palmeraies cueillette chez les Bulletin Tubiana, M.J. (1969) La pratique actuelle de la du Sahara central. Association des Géographes Francais, Zaghawa du Tchad. Journal d'Agriculture Tropicale et de Botanique 194 -195: 74 -79. Appliqueé 16(2 -5):55 -83. Le Rouvreur,A.(1962)SahéliensetSahariens du Tchad. (1971) Système pastoral et obligation de transhumer chez les Berger -Levrault, Paris. 467 p. (Collection l'Homme dOutre -Mer) Zaghawa (Soudan- Tchad). Etudes Rurales 42:120 -171. MacMichael, H.A. (1912) The tribes of northern and central Kordofan. Tubiana, M.J. /Tubiana, J. (1975) Grace â des techniques très simples, University Press, Cambridge, 259 p. les éleveurs du Sahel peuvent resister à la sécheresse. L'exemple de la Mahgoub, S.M. (1967) Land policy and settlement in the Sudan. In tribu Zaghawa au Soudan oriental. Croissance des Jeunes Nations el- Ghonemy, ed. (1967), p. 175 -188, q.v. Sec. A. 154 -155:27 -30, 35 -38. et les migrations / (1975) Tradition et développement au Soudan oriental: Mazoudier (1945) Le rythme de vie indigène l'exemple Zaghawa. In Monod, ed. (1975), p. 468 -486, q.v. Sec. A. saisonnières dans !la colonie du Tchad. Annales de Géographie 53 -54 (296):296 -299. Philosophical Society of the Sudan (1962) The effect of nomadism on the Wixon, C. (1959) Range management in the Sudan. USOM /Ministry of economic and social development of the people of the Sudan. Annual Animal Resources, Khartoum. 21 p. Conference, 10th, Khartoum, 1962, Proceedings. 124 p. (1966) Agricultural development in the Sudan. Annual Con- Yacoub, el -S. A., ed. (1974) see Philosophical Society of the Sudan (1974) ference, 13th, Khartoum, 1966, Proceedings, 2 vols. (1974) Manpower planning and development. Annual Conference, 18th, Khartoum, 1974, Proceedings. 156 p.105 p. in Arabic. Zehner, J. -C. (1976) Les caravanes de Kawar. Tchad et Culture 90:8 -13. 26 . "...... International... G : agraphic a.: : Union " WORKING GROUP ON DESERTIFICATION Intercongress Meeting, Tucson, January 3-8, 1979 The fourth* Intercongress meeting : of the International Hunger, Human and social development, and the. Use an Geographical Union's Working Group on Desertification management of natural resources. Professor Iwao. Kobori was held in Tucson, Arizona, January 3 -8, 1979, in Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, University conjunction with the Arid Lands Sub- Programme of the of Tokyo, is coordinating the. meeting,,which, addition United Nations University and the U.S Committee on the to local excursions, will include sessions on strategies to. UNESCO /MAB Programme. Organized by Vice- Chair - combat desertification, sand. dune stabilization, monitor- man Andrew W. Wilson, Professor in.the University of ing desertification, and other programs to be developed. Arizona's Department of Geo- graphy, Regional Develop - Bibliography on Desertification '` ment and Urban Planning, Following a challenge to the Working Group to indicate the sessions heard regional the value of bibliography, Member Patricia "Paylore y,, reports on the Sahel southern Africa,the MiddleEast, characterized the collection of information as `°an :excerise,: intellectually satisfying to the bibliographer but never,used: India,NorthandSouth America, and Australia from except as addenda to research papers because editors.. participants who came from expect it. [Say it isn't so!] Many .bibliogr:aphies .so the Sudan, Australia, South sanctified by publication include. citations so incomplete: as. " to be useless in the framework of the highest and best use Africa, Mexico, Great Britain, of a bibliography, namely to retrieve the document. to be Andrew :W :Wilson:..` Israel, France, Japan, Ger- read in its entirety." many, and Kenya. Reports on The Group answered this challenge by confirming" that thematic studies coveredtopics on pastoralism desertifi- the collection of bibliographic materials ":on desertification cation in extreme arid environments, climate, wind action, and perception of desertification. Open discussions should be published as a supplement to the 197.6. bibliography issued by the Group.** followed contributed papers on the physical /social /region This assignment ' goes forward, therefore, a responsibility shared by regional al aspects of desertification, as well as monitoring. Excursions to the Papago Indian Reservation, Kitt Peak, contributors throughout the arid world, and it is expected that the final compilation will be issued for distribution .at and the University .of Arizona's Environmental Research Laboratory, were capped by a 3 -day trip to examine the : 'Tokyo meeting. problems of irrigation in central Arizona's Salt River area, interimnterim computerized .. printouts of an then west along. theGila River to the lower Colorado additional 200 citations to this original " publication were River above thi`- border with Mexico where salt problems prepared by Paylore for members present at the Tucson are historic and "contempory. * * * Tokyo; Meeting`198 In Retrospect B"écarrse "tlìé nextätd final meetrng of the V'Vorking In retrospect it is a matter for ambivalence to hear :the: +roup". will" be a pr-U" "Congress. rneeting .to ",be. held in experts define the common problem s, describe the .".. - . ,. Tokyn .in " the, laté: suminer of localized effects, chart the future :.solutions and yet,"" and vet. ..be confronted da y with the evidence' that: " f 980:,paticipa.nts:., in the Tucson"meeting heard. from problems are notccepted `as common, that localized . ` 11Ir... ee 1VI,a.cl3onald- re re effects have the impact ` ;of an abstraction, `that "future" senting the United 'Ntions solutions are indeed in: the future. And meanwhile?. University (based in Tokyo), Nevertheless, " as a privileged :.member 'of .the,; Working ` ,: and t.hë "W"orking Group's Group, Arìd" Lands.. Ner letter's Editor believes .that ".only, ; Cïairarí; "Proféssor"".: J:A through ` "such än all an +of friends- a id" ,enemies, of the . lbbutt; on thehree. iYiain practical .and; "the th"eoretic"al; ,can, our, widesprea, "d subet .a,reas under research representation. of" the entire, arid world" work."towar+d that o'Kobor tigàtions, by." UN:" Vorld future, with its promise of solutions -=--. tomorrow's reality. *Others: Alice,., : n s 1974 x àmb-id e" .197 ".;. and ;4shkhrbad.C 19 g:t g Ç .. , * * Desertificataon, ;.. ort; Babiiògraiy., Prepared for the 23rd Congress,.; ,NlPscozc;,; ,1976," Pre-Conference Meeting of " the Working Group" o"ax -Desirtification, Desert Resear+ch Institute; Ashkhabad, `'Turkmen 'SSR,'`llñiversit'y of Arizona Offi ce Of Arid Lands ,Studies. 1976. 644p. [1756 citations] ***A fezir,còpües remain for the asking by Arid Lands Newsletter readers. 27 ? ?? DID YOU KNOW ? ?? that the "absolute increase" in population in less that Volunteers in Asia, together with VITA, have developed countries 1970 -1975 was 309,821,000 (12.267o), published a manual on the construction, assembly, and and that projected increase for 1975 -1980 is 356,928,000 operation of a windmill for pumping water. The machine (12.58)? In testimony before the House Select Committee is light -weight and highly responsive to change in wind on Population, February 9, 1978, Dr. Kingsley Davis direction, made of commonly available metal and pipe summed up his remarks by stating that such figures "do material, and does not require any sophisticated metal not indicate that the effort to limit population growth has working skills or equipment. With costs approximately 1/6 been successful or will be successful. On the contrary,it to 1 /10 the price of an imported windmill with equivalent looks to be probably the most tragic failure in the entire capacity, it is being tested in Arusha, Tanzania. Contact: history of the human species." Appropriate Technology Project, Volunteers in Asia, Box The Other Side, No. 14, July 1978. 4543, Stanford, California 94305, and ask for "The Arusha Windmill, A Construction Manual" (1977), written by Dick Stanley and edited by Ken Darrow. -WHO International Reference Center for Community Water Supply, Newsletter that the Peoples Republic of China has completed No. 86. preliminary work on one of the most ambitious con- struction projects in history: an immense series of canals films for agriculture, health and rural uplift programs to divert the waters of the Yangtze into the drought - in developing countries are now available from National plagued plains of North China. Itis reported that the Education & Information Films, Ltd., Tulloch Rd., 700 -mile route of the proposed waterway is designed to Apollo Bunder, Bombay - 400 039, India. All films are solve water shortages that have baffled minds for centuries English language 16mm. Write for catalog on subjects like and left the country vulnerable to devastating famines. family planning, population education, veterinary science, -Linda Mathews first aid and safety, soil care and manures, and health - Los Angeles News Service nursing- epidemics. QUOTES "...A subsidiary but nevertheless salutary conclusion is that we should think more carefully about how far a world food or protein shortage, which would be expected to kill many babies and young children, is intellectually compatible with a world population 'explosion' which develops because more of these same babies and young children are surviving. There must be a limit to the extent to which we can have it both ways." -A.H. Bunting (1977) Review and Prospect: Where do we go from here? Royal Society, London, Philosophical Transactions 278B(437): 611 -614. 28 ? ?? HAVE YOU SEEN ? ?? United Nations Conference on Desertification, Secretariat International Livestock Centre for Africa (1978) ILCA (1977) Desertification: its causes and consequences. Bulletin, No. 1, September 1978 - P.O. Box 5689, Addis Pergamon Press, Oxford. 448 p. ISNB 0 08 022033 9. Ababa, Ethiopia. In his Preface to this gathering in edited book form of This new quarterly publication, of which we have seen the component reviews which comprised the organization 2 issues, covers economic trends in the African countries of the Nairobi conference, Dr. Mostafa Tolba, UNEP's where the ILCS conducts programs, namely Mali, Executive Director, says: "...The causes of desertification Nigeria, Ethiopia, Kenya, and Botswana. Regional are understood ... and techniques for arresting the process economies and commodities are examined with supporting are known. Yet this knowledge is fragmented among a statistical data. The March 1979 issue, no. 3, has a variety of other disciplines ... As an attempt was made to lengthy report on Mali, covering agriculture,livestock, organize the subject, it seemed to fall naturally under four and price indicators for a region where such information headings: climate, ecological change, technology, and its is difficult to come by. No price is given, so presumably it social and behavioural aspects." These reviews by experts is available without cost upon request. Kenneth Hare, Andrew Warren, R.W. Kates, and Manual Anaya Garduño, are prefaced here by the "Overview" offered as an elaboration of the causes and consequences as well as providing scientific justification U.S. Water Resources Scientific Information Center (1978) for its cure as embodied in the Plan of Action. This Irrigation efficiency, a bibliography. vol.3. U.S. compilation is in more convenient form for use than the Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C. 20240, separate documents issued earlier. References, some office of Water Research and Technology. 99 p. unpaged tables, and in the Technology section many photographs indexes. and drawings. Includes material from Selected Water Resources Abstracts (SWRA) specifically on irrigation efficiency, for the period October 1976 through June 1978. Access is Schmutz, E.M. (1978) Classified bibliography on native through permuted descriptor lists. Each entry has plants of Arizona. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, complete source information plus informative abstract. 160 p. Includes books, bibliographies, journalarticles,maps; dissertations containing information on the past and present composition, distribution, and ecology of vegeta- Thalen, D.C.P. (1979) Ecology and utilization of desert tion native to Arizona; individual species and major plant shrub in rangelands in Iraq. W. Junk, The Hague. 428 p. communities; reports on the effects of ecological factors This handsome book with its wealth of illustrations and treatments such as site, climate, grazing, shrub covers present conditions in the deserts of Iraqwith control, seeding, burning, etc., on vegetation composition, respect to the ecology, including environmental setting, ecology, and distribution;and publications on native rangecovertypes,andecologyofthreekey plants in special categories such as poisonous, pristine, species:Haloxylon salicornicum, Rhanterium epaposum, ethnobotanical, and paleobotanical. References have been and Artemisia herba -alba; the use and management of organized into 30 different categories, and are indexed Iraq's vegetation resources, including grazing, fuel, both by subject and author. cultivation, exclosures; and economic justification, evaluation, survey and measurement. The literature review is a comprehensive one, supported by a 350 -item bibliography. Field data were collected from the southern Katakure, M. (1977) Bedouin village, a study of a Saudi and western deserts and Lower Jezira, some 240,00 sq. K Arabian people in transition. Foreword by J.C. Hurewitz in an area where the mean annual rainfall is from 50 -350 University of Tokyo Press. 188 p. ISBN 0 86008 176 1. mm. Intensive vegetation and soil sampling is tabulated. Based on field work 1968 -1970 in Wadi Fatima, between Reccommendations for land management practices Jidda and Makka, with a population of nomads, include reconnaissance surveys of terrain, soil and semi -nomads, and settled tribesmen. The author vegetation for mapping and classification, and finally systematically examines marriage customs, religion, and implementation through strong governmental organiza- socioeconomic systems, and social functions. tion. ( -PP) 29 REMOTE SENSING TECHNIQUES AND APPLICATIONS IN ARID LANDS A non - credit short course is being offered by the University of Arizona May 14 -25, 1979,to provide a balanced review of the principles, techniques and applications of remote sensing suitable in particular for scientists andresource managers concerned with the arid environment. Topics to be covered in 15 three -hour lectures include: ...present and future space sensor systems ...mathematics for image processing ...applications in geology and geological engineering, in mapping soils and vegetation, in arid lands hydrology, in arid land use, in geography and cartography. ...physical principles underlying remote sensing measurements in the visable, infrared and microwave regions. Workshop sessions will be held on agriculture, land use and natural vegetation; hydrology and geological engineering; geography, cartography and computer mapping; and image processing and scene classification. During these sessions, time will be available for participants to observe experiments on various plotting, scanning, and mensuration equipment and on interactive, computer- driven, back - and -white and color digital image displays. Tuition fee for the 2 -week program is $650.00, with registration before April 27 required. Accommodations are not included in the above fee. Contact Committee on Remote Sensing, Bldg. #94. University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, attention: Philip N. Slater. Telephone: (602) 626 -4242. DRY LANDS: MAN AND PLANTS Robert and Marina Adams /Alan and Ann Willens The Architectural Press, Ltd., London. 152 p. 1978. £ 12.95 While it is fashionable these days to theorize about the use of indigenous plants for landscaping in deserts and arid lands, this team has put together a very practical book that reflects the pragmatism of its combined backgrounds: landscape architects, horticulturist, and agriculturist, each with extensive actual working experience in the Middle East. They show how threats to such fragile territories can be arrested, controlled, and reversed through careful management of dryland ecosystems. Topics discussed include desert vegetation, plant selection, man and dryland ecosystems, interpreting and forecasting man's effect on such environments in rural as well as urban areas, with techniques for development with plants in both the survey -and masterplanning stage and the detailed planning and implementation of these techniques. Valuable appendices include general vegetation groups arranged by areas: North African -Asian, South African, Australian, North and South American deserts; and plant selection based on phytogeographical regions,including special lists arranged according to salinity tolerance and relative tolerance of crop plants to salt, boron, and saline water. The plant uses appendix breaks down into indigenous plants used for human /animal nourishment, sand binding purposes, firewood, and medicinal, as well as plants known to be significant indicators of saline and phreatophytic conditions, and those indicating overgrazing disturbance. The usefulness of this book is enhanced by the generous use of photographs illustrative of the text rather than just pretty pictures; by maps, drawings, a glossary, and a hierarchical index. Its thesis, that it is possible to create a careful matching of land use to existing and long -term site recources, is one that should be more widely employed by those planners concerned with development projects that can be self -sustaining in the long run. ( -PP) 30 ARID LANDS NEWSLETTER NEEDS unwanted copies of No. 2 (July 1975) and No. 4 (October 1976). Anyone who no longer has need for his copy of either of these two issues will be doing Arid Lands Newsletter a great favor by returning them to the Editor. They are completely out -of -print, but requests continue to come in from those who wish to retain complete files. THANK YOU! ADDITIONAL PUBLICATIONS ON ARID LANDS Office of Arid Lands Studies Seventy -Five Years of Arid Lands Research at the University of Arizona. A Selective Bibliography, 1891 -1965 Arid Lands Abstracts, no. 3 (1972) no. 8 (1976) Jojoba and Its Uses, An International Conference, 1972 Arid Lands Resource Information Papers. no. 1 (1972) - no. 13 (1978) An International Conference on the Utilization of Guayule, 1975 Application of Technology in Developing Countries (1977) Desertification: A World Bibliography (1976) Desertification: Process, Problems, Perspectives (1976) Arid Lands Newsletter, no. 1, 1975 - to date Jojoba Happenings, no. 1, 1972 - to date (calendar year subscriptions $10) University of Arizona Press (* OALS authors): *Deserts of the World *Arid Lands in Perspective *Food , Fiber and the And Lands Coastal Deserts, Their Natural and Human Environments Polar Deserts and Modern Man *Arid Lands Research Institutions: A World Directory, Revised edition, 1977 32