caty borum chattoo

center for media & social impact school of communication american university

may 2017

the laughter effect: the [serious] role of comedy in social change about the The Laughter Effect: The [Serious] Role of Comedy in Social Change is the second in a three-part inves- project tigation about comedy and social influence. All were directed and written by Caty Borum Chattoo, produced under the auspices of the Center for Media & Social Impact at American University’s School of Communication. All three projects were funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. The first project, Entertainment, Storytelling & Social Change in Global Poverty, an experimental design study that examined the persuasive impact of the comedic documentary , Stand Up Planet, was published in February 2015; it was funded under the auspices of Learning for Action, LLC. Borum Chattoo was also the executive producer and producer of the documentary, which premiered in 2014 in the and India.

Lauren Feldman, PhD, Associate Professor in the School of Communication and Information at Rut- gers University, served as peer reviewer for The Laughter Effect. For the Center for Media & Social Impact, graduate student fellows Jessica Henry Mariona, Diya Basu and Hannah Sedgwick provided research support; all were students at the American University School of Communication graduate Strategic Communication program. The reports are available at www.cmsimpact.org. about the Caty Borum Chattoo is Director of the Center for Media & Social Impact and Executive in Residence project at the American University School of Communication in Washington, D.C. She works at the intersec- director tion of social-change communication/media, media effects research, and documentary production. Borum Chattoo has produced two theatrical documentary feature (Wal-Mart: The High Cost of Low Price and The After Party), a TV documentary and transmedia series (Stand Up Planet), several half-hour documentary TV specials (ViewChange), a seven-part documentary TV series (Sierra Club Chronicles), and PSA campaigns designed for social change on issues ranging from global poverty to to HIV. In global development storytelling, she was a lead strategist and producer for the Gates-Foundation-funded ViewChange transmedia project and TV series. Previously, she was Senior Vice President in behavior-change and social impact communication at FleishmanHillard Inter- national Communications in Washington, D.C. In , she was a collaborator with legendary TV producer Norman Lear as a producer, researcher, writer, and founding director of Declare Your- self, a national youth civic engagement campaign; and Special Projects Director & Senior Producer at the USC Norman Lear Center, a research and public policy center that examines the social impact of entertainment. She also served as Program Officer in the Kaiser Family Foundation’s Entertainment Media & Public Health program, Project Director at the Center for Media Education, and a Fellow in civic journalism at The Philadelphia Inquirer. Borum Chattoo holds a master’s degree from the Univer- sity of ’s Annenberg School for Communication. about the The Center for Media & Social Impact (CMSI) at American University’s School of Communication, center based in Washington, D.C., is an innovation incubator and research center that creates, studies, and for media showcases media for social impact. Focusing on independent, documentary, entertainment, and pub- & social lic media, CMSI bridges boundaries between scholars, producers, and communication practitioners impact who work across media production, media impact, public policy, and audience engagement. The Center produces resources for the field and research; convenes conferences and events; and works collaboratively to understand and design media that matter. www.cmsimpact.org

the laughter effect: the [serious] role of comedy in social change overview: can comedy change the world?

Comedy is a powerful contemporary source of influence and information. In the still-evolving digital era, the opportunity to consume and share comedy has never been as available—both in the United States and around the world. And yet, despite its vast cultural imprint, comedy is a little-understood vehicle for serious public engagement in global poverty and other urgent social issues— even though humor offers frames of hope and optimism that encourage participation in social problems.

overview 1 For several decades, comedy has been anecdotally credited with shifting social norms on social and civic issues through campaigns, charity efforts, and TV portrayals, ranging from All In the Family to The Jeffersons in the 1970s and ‘80s to Modern Family and Last Week Tonight with today. Beyond anecdotal reflections, precisely how and why might comedy be a unique force for change in pressing social justice challenges, including global poverty? How do comedy appeals and portrayals work to inform, persuade, and motivate audiences? How have distinct forms of comedy been leveraged to engage audiences in civic and social issues?

The Laughter Effect synthesizes and translates highlights from published scholarly and market research across disciplines, including media and communication studies, sociology, psychology, political sci- ence, neuroscience, global development, advertising and marketing. The report creates a contem- porary typology of comedy formats within the context of social change: , scripted entertain- when humor works, ment storytelling, marketing and advertising, and stand-up and sketch. Although the comedy formats it works because work in distinct ways within the context of social it’s clarifying what change—that is, shaping knowledge, attitudes and intended behaviors—they exert five common forms people already feel. of influence: (1) Attracting attention, (2) persuading it has to come from through emotion, (3) offering a way into complex social issues, (4) breaking down social barriers, and someplace real. (5) encouraging sharing (multiplier effect). Perhaps most useful for social change efforts, contemporary , comedy producer, comedy is uniquely able to set media agendas by director & writer creating shared cultural watercooler moments in an increasingly cluttered information age. Comedy doesn’t only preach to the choir—audiences actively seek out comedy as a vital form of entertainment and even as a source of information to understand the world. Comedy’s ability to reach unexpected audiences is crucial.

Through a synthesis of relevant research, as well as portraits from contemporary case studies, this report aims to illuminate how and why comedy builds awareness, encourages peer sharing and can shift attitudes with regard to social challenges. It also reveals comedy’s limitations in social change. Ultimately, The Laughter Effect: The [Serious] Role of Comedy in Social Change offers strategic recommen- dations about leveraging comedy or comedy appeals in pursuit of social justice—for change-makers (NGOs, foundations, government agencies, communicators), professional storytellers (media execu- tives, producers, writers) and researchers.

2 the laughter effect: the [serious] role of comedy in social change table of contents

Introduction 4 The Promise & Paradox of Comedy 4 Why Comedy—and Why Now? 6 Comedy’s [Potentially Powerful] Role in Social Change 8

How Comedy Works As Change Agent 11 Five Forms of Influence 11 How Influence Begins: Actively Seeking Comedy 12 Attracting Attention & Facilitating Memory 13 Feeling: Humor’s Route to Persuasion 13 Entering Complex Social Issues 13 Breaking Down Social Barriers 14 Sharing With Others 14

A Typology of Comedy Formats for Social Change 15 Satirical 16 Scripted Entertainment Storytelling 19 Marketing & Advertising 23 Stand-Up & Sketch Comedy 27

Comedy in [Social] Action 32 Functions of Comedy in Global Poverty 33 Global Spotlight: Comedy & Social Issues in India 39 Global Spotlight: Comedy & Social Issues in South Africa 41

Leveraging Comedy for Social Change 44 Highlights & Strategic Recommendations 45

Conclusion & Future 47

References 48 Endnotes 52

table of contents 3 Last Week Tonight with John Oliver © HBO

introduction the promise & paradox of comedy

In July 2015, one month after a scathing, viral exposé of City’s bail bond system and its outsized impact on poor, low-level offenders, Mayor Bill de Blasio took action. In a swift move, he took steps to correct an institutional process that Human Rights Watch and other social justice advocates had long maligned.1 In a statement echoing the muckraking indictment, Mayor de Blasio said: “Money bail is a problem because, as the system currently operates in New York, some people are being detained based on the size of their bank account, not the risk they pose.”2

The source of the media fury that assuredly contributed to the mayor’s action? A comedian’s 17-minute video on a satirical faux news TV program.

4 the laughter effect: the [serious] role of comedy in social change Just one month before the mayor’s history-making announcement, on the June 8th, 2015, episode of HBO’s comedy satire news show, Last Week Tonight with John Oliver, comedian and host John Oliver took on the bail issue with his trademark eye-popping fervor as an outraged, bemused social justice advocate. Between rapid-fire humorous clips in a video montage, Oliver got serious: “Increasingly, bail has become a way to lock up the poor, regardless of guilt.”3 Millions of YouTube views and social media shares later, amplified by attention from media outlets including Salon,4 The Washington Post,5 and more, New York City officials changed the city’s bail protocol, immediately impacting 3,000 poor and low-level offenders in the short-term, and thousands more in the long run.6 7

Was this a home run for comedy? Is comedy a promising way to meaningfully engage audiences and leaders on pressing social justice issues? Perhaps. But perhaps it’s not so simple.

Consider another story: In 2011, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention decided to try a new approach to a public health marketing campaign. Rather than imploring the American public to follow somber instructions to prepare for a looming natural or human-caused disaster, the agency’s strategists launched a humorous campaign, “The Zombie Apocalypse.” The effort focused heavily on social media engagement with funny messages, the more an audience relying on the metaphorical connection between a real-life disaster and an apocalyptic zombie attack.8 cares, the harder

The campaign was considered an attention-grab- it laughs. bing, social-media-sharing success for a public health effort. In a study that examined the campaign’s effec- norman lear, comedy producer, tiveness, researchers Fraustino and Ma concluded director & writer that the major campaign objectives—to build buzz and encourage message-sharing—were achieved. Thanks to the social media strategy, more than 5 million people engaged directly with the campaign.9 However, the same research revealed a distinct juxtaposition. In a deeper analysis, looking beyond the metrics of reach, the research team concluded that people exposed to the comedic zombie risk messages, relative to more serious risk messages, were significantly less likely to take protective actions in the face of an impending disaster.10 The reasons are speculative, but the case highlights an important mandate in contemporary digital-era communication designed for social impact: the need to delve more deeply than exposure metrics to understand why—or why not—an approach may engage an audience in pursuit of some kind of civic, political, or social activity.

The two stories illustrate the promise and paradox of comedy in service of serious social challenges. On the one hand, it’s not revelatory to claim, based on compelling anecdotes alone, that comedy can cut through the clutter of today’s unrelenting supply of digital news and information. Comedy may even be able to help set the media agenda in a way that impacts policy, as illustrated in the bail story. On the other hand, to ascribe monolithic, one-size-fits-all characteristics onto comedy risks possible backfiring. Comedy comes in many forms, it is often culturally specific, and its appeal for communicating serious issues depends on many factors, including the role of the audience and the issue itself.

introduction 5 why comedy — and why now? A Contemporary Panorama of Influence A decade and a half into the Information Age, characterized by a rapidly shifting media landscape, we are reimagining the cultural, political, and civic panorama of influence. Sources of information and news are varied, delivering increasingly customized material via curated news feeds11 and individual search behaviors. Information is sliced, shared, parodied, and re-created. Admired truth-tellers are found beyond elected officials and legacy news leaders.12

When the new century began, half of American adults were users. Today, about 9 in 10 American adults report using the Internet.13 As of 2015, about 7 in 10 Americans own a laptop (73%), and about the same proportion possesses a smartphone with video capabilities (68%).14 Around the world, Internet access to information continues to increase. An estimated 3 billion people around the world are regular Internet users, and global mobile Internet penetration is expected to reach 71 percent by 2019.15

Contemporary media consumers are shaping new forms of news and information through their media habits, and traditional legacy media brands compete with digital natives. According to the Pew Research Center, YouTube—not a journalism institution—has become a major source of news for users in both the U.S. and around the world, rivaling legacy news brands.16 New sources of news and information targeted at Internet-savvy consumers include digital natives like Vice Media, credited with engaging about 130 million users per month, particularly young people, in serious investigative news stories,17 and , which left traditional television a decade ago only to climb to more than one billion views over a decade being exclusively online.18 Competing with a legacy media ecology of established brands and sources of information—, The Wall Street Journal, and broadcast behemoths like CNN—are the young upstarts whose very DNA is based on a blurring of entertainment and information, given business models partially fueled by Web traffic and viral sharing.

But the explosion of information owes as much to the voracious appetite and behavior of the audience as it does to technology advances. In the Information Age—where views, peer-to-peer shares, follows and likes can set the legacy media agenda—news and entertainment continue to blur. The political and civic environment is a merger of entertainment and news in the contemporary era; where one begins and ends is hard to distinguish.19 In an effort to tap into audience desires—now easily apparent to editors and producers through simple Web metrics—audiences are given more of what they want. And what they want often is fast, short, funny, and shareable.

Against this backdrop, the evolution of contemporary comedy as a recognized source of political and civic information is well documented by research.20 In 2007, when Americans were asked to name their “most admired journalists,” —not a journalist but then-host of ’s satirical comedy program, —rose to the top, along with reporters from traditional news outlets.21 At its height, use of The Daily Show as a source of news and information—not just entertainment— rivaled that of traditional news programs, and its coverage was found to ideologically balance topics and perform a de facto watchdog function, particularly for civic issues, politicians, and the media.22 Researchers at the Pew Project for Excellence in Journalism observed:

At times, The Daily Show aims at more than comedy. In its choice of topics, its use of news foot- age to deconstruct the manipulations by public figures and its tendency toward pointed satire over playing just for laughs, The Daily Show performs a function that is close to journalistic in

6 the laughter effect: the [serious] role of comedy in social change nature—getting people to think critically about the public square. In that sense, it is a variation of the tradition of Russell Baker, Art Hoppe, Art Buchwald, H.L. Mencken and other satirists who once graced the pages of American newspapers.23

Perhaps due to the popularity of the comedic civic engagement on The Daily Show from the late 1990s to the present day, the media landscape has witnessed a surge of comedy programs—both on TV and online—and the cultural influence of comedy is profound. While other former powerhouse media outlets like MTV continue to search for elusive young, TV-cord-cutting audiences,24 cable juggernaut Comedy Central continues to increase its influence, along with HBO and Showtime, both of which now feature major comedy programs.

The present-day U.S. comedy ecology includes a heavy dose of social-issue consciousness, including TV comedy sketch programs that skewer race, gender politics, gun control, and social class, such as the Peabody-Award-winning Inside . Network TV shows like Modern Family and Black-ish take on gay rights, race relations, and gender equality. Influential digital-native media outlets like and Studios are bringing bold new comedy voices and social-issue perspectives through pro- Perhaps due to gramming like Transparent and . Satirical news programs like The Daily Show and HBO’s the popularity Last Week Tonight with host John Oliver continue their dominance as media agenda-setters and sources of the comedic of viral commentary on social issues in the news. As The Atlantic put it: civic engagement The stuff of late-night LOLs used to be quippy monologues, vapid celebrity interviews, Stupid on The Daily Human Tricks both official, and less so. It still is, to some extent. More often, though, TV com- edy that self-consciously defines itself as “comedy”—the stuff that originally airs on Comedy Show from the Central and FXX and HBO, the stuff that is firmly rooted in traditions of sketch and standup—is late 1990s to the taking on subjects like racism and sexism and inequality and issues including police brutality present day, the and trigger warnings and intersectional feminism and helicopter parenting and the end of media landscape men. Its jokes double as arguments.25 has witnessed a It is the Internet, however, that helps explain comedy’s present reach and influence. Along with their surge of comedy full appointment-viewing episodes, TV comedy programs produce short-form video clips designed for easy online sharing. Online comedy sites churn out humorous short-form sketches, faux public service programs— announcements, and other humorous treatments of the news and issues of the day. The major influ- both on TV and ential powerhouses garner billions of audience views between them: , Between Two Ferns, online—and the , and CollegeHumor, along with BuzzFeed and Upworthy. cultural influence In the online realm in particular, contemporary comedy’s influence lurks well beyond the traditional of comedy is boundaries of entertainment: When First Lady wanted to promote higher education profound. to young people in the United States, she skipped the serious appeal and appeared in a comedic rap music video along with comedian Jay Pharoah, espousing the merits of getting a college degree—for CollegeHumor.26 In a formal nod to comedy’s reach and potential influence on U.S. policy, a senior staffer with the White House Office of Public Engagement now directs the Washington, D.C., office ofFunny or Die. The comedy office’s capitol city mandate is to attract policy leaders and the public to engage in social and civic issues in accessible, funny ways.27

Coinciding with a moment in which fewer than two in 10 Americans say they trust government, about 30 percent describe elected officials as “honest,” and not even half (45%) describe business leaders that way,28 are comedians, indeed, the new public intellectuals, as suggested by The Atlantic?29

introduction 7 Comedians are acting not just as joke-tellers, but as truth-tellers—as guides through our cultural debates… comedians are doing their work not just in sweaty clubs or network variety shows or cable , but also on the Internet. Wherever the jokes start—Comedy Cen- tral, The Tonight Show, ’s garage—they will end up, eventually and probably immediately, living online. They will, at their best, go “really, insanely viral.” The frenzy to post a John Oliver rant after it airs on HBO has become a cliché at this point; its effect, though, is to create a kind of tentacular influence for an otherwise niche comedy show…. Comedy, like so much else in the culture, now exists largely of, by, and for the Internet.Which is to say that there are two broad things happening right now—comedy with moral messaging, and comedy with mass attention—and their combined effect is this: Comedians have taken on the role of public intellectuals.30

Within this contemporary environment, does comedy cut through the zeitgeist? In the absence of shared watercooler moments of the analog era’s gatekeeper-controlled media systems, might com- edy act as a connector? In the midst of a merger of entertainment, politics, and news in the con- temporary information ecology, and a decline in perceptions of authenticity about elected officials Within this and leaders, are comics—the observers and savants of the cultural landscape—seen as the true contemporary authentic truth-tellers? environment, If any element of this is true, the process by which comedy is understood and shared within the con- does comedy text of social issues—and the impact on audiences—is worth understanding more precisely. cut through the zeitgeist? comedy’s [potentially powerful] In the absence of shared role in social change watercooler As a phrase, “social change,” in the context of clarifying comedy’s possible role, is deliberatively broad and inclusive. Social change has roots in sociology, psychology, political science, public health, inter- moments of the national relations and other disciplines, but the intersection of entertainment, communication, story- analog era’s telling, and media is the meaningful foundation in the context of comedy. Therefore, the appropriate gatekeeper- workable definition of “social change” comes from seminal entertainment-education scholars Singhal and Rogers: “The process in which an alteration occurs in the structure and function of a social system. controlled media Social change can happen at the level of the individual, community, and organization or a society.”31 systems, might This approach allows an expansive investigation of comedy and social change, regardless of disci- comedy act as a plinary boundaries. It also allows an inclusive look into a full array of case studies, from individual connector? behavior change efforts to mass media stunts to formal entertainment, and across a range of social- change contributors: personal attitudes and persuasion, media habits, choices and motivations for consuming entertainment, and media agenda-setting.

Comedy has been defined for thousands of years, and studying comedy is not new. However, conclu- sively attempting to understand its connection to potential social change is relatively nascent.

A notable early definition of comedy comes from Aristotle’s work espousing the dual cathartic forces of tragedy and comedy; Aristotle’s conception of wit is “a means between buffoonery and boorish- ness,” and a sense of imitating people who are morally inferior in some way, poking fun at what is so disgraceful it becomes laughable.32 In 1925, in his book, Jokes and Their Relation to the Unconscious, the psychologist Sigmund Freud focused on the role comedy can play in society: “Freud identifies three primary social functions of jokes: first, they provide a nonthreatening way to raise culturally taboo subjects; second, they serve as an adaptive strategy to adverse conditions; and third, they provide a benign outlet for repressed aggression and hostility.”33

8 the laughter effect: the [serious] role of comedy in social change More broadly and recently, humor has been defined as “everything that is actually or potentially funny, and the process by which this ‘funniness’ occurs.”34 In present-day terms, comedy has been defined by its major characteristics and the role of the audience, including situational awareness and understanding of context35 (i.e., understanding the “real” scenario in order to find its distortion—com- edy—amusing) and emotional response, like joy and hope.36 It has also been recognized as uniquely positioned as a tool of the oppressed, by providing an opportunity to mock dominant ideologies and provide the powerless with a form of communication and catharsis.37 These qualities—attracting attention to raise tough topics, situational awareness requiring a kind of shared cultural literacy on behalf of the audience, providing a voice for the powerless, catharsis—serve as a helpful guide for a contemporary understanding of entertainment comedy in service of serious social issues.

In the U.S. and around the world in recent decades, comedy has been a force anecdotally attributed to shifts in social norms and attention for pressing societal concerns. In 1970s America, amidst the tumul- tuous terrain of the Vietnam War, women’s equality movement and civil rights, stand-up comics and other comedy provided sarcastic, perhaps cathartic, social commentary on the juxtaposed absurdness of reality and the ideal.38 In the same time frame—well into the 1980s—Emmy-winning TV producer Norman Lear’s brand of socially-relevant scripted TV comedy dominated Americans’ living rooms with sharp satire and comedy about issues that reflected the fraught time in the country. Programs like All in the Family, The Jeffersons, Maude and others delved into topics as deeply sensitive as race relations and bigotry, gay rights and identity, gender relations and equality, war, , and menopause.39 And almost 40 years ahead of the Emmy-Award-winning Amazon Studios TV show, Transparent, which chronicles the life of a 70-year-old professor and his gender transition, Lear’s show, All That Glitters, focused on a transgender character.40 More recently, the TV comedy sit-com Modern Family, along with a steady increase of TV shows with favorable portrayals of gay and lesbian characters from the 1990s Bassem Youssef, through the 2000s—including Will & Grace, Ellen and Glee—has been credited with helping to positively a surgeon-turned- shape public opinion about gay and lesbian individuals and couples in the United States.41 satirical critic, launched As another comedic form and approach to social issues, satire is well-documented in published a YouTube and TV research, and examples abound in the contemporary entertainment marketplace. Globally, Bassem program in Egypt in Youssef, a surgeon-turned-satirical-critic, launched a YouTube and TV program in Egypt in 2011, com- 2011. He was named ically skewering then-President Mohammed Morsi on the heels of the country’s populist revolution. one of Time magazine’s Quickly labeled “Egypt’s Jon Stewart,” Youssef faced arrest and intimidation, leaving the country amid 100 Most Influential safety concerns.42 In South Africa, International-Emmy-nominated satirical news program, Late Nite People in 2013.

News (LNN), hosted by comics Kagiso Lediga and Loyiso Gola, enjoyed huge popularity throughout its © Time Magazine five-year run and frequently satirized apartheid and its legacy.43 44

When it comes to attracting audiences to think about daunting social issues like global poverty, com- edy has been leveraged in recent years primarily in the form of benefit concerts or overt campaigns. In these instances, comedy has been used to attract attention via a classic public relations approach, but not to persuade or lampoon global poverty as a set of social issues. Comic Relief is one notable example. Based in the UK, Comic Relief launched in 1985 on the BBC as a televised comedy relief program—modeled after the impact of Live Aid months before—designed “to use comedy to raise money and change lives in Africa and the UK.”45 However, comedy has not been used widely as an audience engagement force for global poverty and development issues.46 Perhaps, understandably, it’s too difficult to imagine anything funny or absurd about hungry or sick people. On the other hand, perhaps storytellers and change-makers don’t know enough about how to harness the power of comedy—or when to avoid it.

introduction 9 Comedy evokes hope and joy, emotions not typically imagined in more somber storytelling about complex social issues. But is emotional response enough to propel attitude change, beyond sharing Comedy evokes and setting a media agenda? Will change-makers and storytellers be willing to take the risk, and if hope and joy, so, what should they know in order to make the attempt? And, importantly, what kind of “change”— emotions not along a spectrum of learning, feeling, sharing, and acting—is a feasible objective in terms of come- dy’s role? These questions lie at the heart of the remaining chapters. typically imagined in more somber Although the available research is scarce when it comes to mediated comedy’s overt, evidence-based impact on social issues, this project extrapolates from and highlights research from arenas with rel- storytelling evant insights: Satire and civic engagement, entertainment comedy portrayals, overt marketing and about complex advertising of social issues via comedy, and the influence and reach of contemporary stand-up and social issues. sketch comedy. Importantly, this report does not attempt a comprehensive full history or landscape But is emotional of all entertainment comedy—this would be an entirely different project. Instead, given the focus on social change, the investigation maintains a precise lens and spotlight on the intersection of comedy response enough and social, political, and civic issues. to propel attitude The following chapters first synthesize and translate existing research that explains how comedy’s change, beyond influence works in the context of social and civic issues. The next section delves deeply into an sharing and explanation and case studies of distinct forms of comedy: satirical news, scripted entertainment, setting a media advertising and marketing, and stand-up and sketch. Next, the role of comedy in the context of agenda? global poverty is unpacked—along with socially-conscious comedy profiles of two countries, India and South Africa. The work culminates in a set of strategic recommendations for change-makers, strategists, storytellers and humanitarian organizations that would benefit from comedy in their efforts to improve the world.

10 the laughter effect: the [serious] role of comedy in social change CDC Zombie Preparedness Campaign © U.S. Centers for Disease Control & Prevention

how comedy works as change agent

five forms of influence

Despite comedy’s culturally amorphous nature and its various formats, existing research helps to paint a picture of how comedy impacts audiences— crucial to understanding humor’s potentially influential role in social issues. Comedy has been shown to attract attention, spark conversation, encourage sharing and reduce stress.47 But how is comedy sought and understood by audiences? And how do individuals come to experience contemporary mediated comedy in the first place? Do welearn through comedy, or is comedy a realm for emotions and attitudes—or both?

how comedy works as a change agent 11 how influence begins: actively seeking comedy Underscoring comedy’s influence is the simple—yet powerful—foundational idea that people actively seek out comedy. Even if other forms of storytelling work to persuade audiences on social issues, they often have limited value if audiences won’t intentionally watch them in the first place.

Audiences in the Internet Era are not sedentary blocs, passively awaiting information. In a niche-chan- nel media environment, audiences intentionally seek genres of media, including comedy. They have choices, and they make them. According to the uses and gratifications framework for understanding media audiences, individuals actively choose particular sources of information and entertainment to serve individual psychological needs, like learning or regulating moods.48 The same elements are true for comedy. Audiences who seek out smart, civical- ly-focused comedy and entertainment may do so there is a thin for more than one reason—to be entertained and to line that separates make sense of serious information.49 For example, audiences who regularly seek out laughter and pain, programs like The Daily Show and the former Colbert comedy and tragedy, Report have reported specific reasons for actively choosing to watch, dominated by the desire to be humor and hurt. entertained and in a good mood; but those who actively seek out this kind of comedic entertainment erma bombeck, humorist & also use it as a way to acquire information and to help bestselling author make sense of serious news.50 Notably, even indi- viduals who watch comedy news to be entertained “also cite it as a source of information—suggesting that viewers perceive this genre as satisfying mul- tiple needs or gratifications simultaneously.”51 When given a choice of media genre to experience, audiences do not necessarily always seek out entertainment—including comedy—for purely escapist reasons. And when audiences seek and use entertainment with active “truth-seeking motivations,” they process the civic information in such a way that sparks “reflective thoughts…issue interest, and information seeking.”52 In seeking out comedy and entertainment, and then finding social issues there, audiences may stumble across new information to which they would not otherwise be exposed.

Synthesized, there are five ways comedy is able to work as an influencer in the context of social change:

1. attracting attention & facilitating memory 2. feeling: comedy’s route to persuasion 3. entering complex social issues 4. break ing down social barriers 5. sharing with others

12 the laughter effect: the [serious] role of comedy in social change attracting attention and news—and are able to process the information and are & facilitating memory highly motivated to do so—they use a central cognitive route of processing by focusing on the merits of the message itself. Comedy can expose audiences to new messages— But in a humor context, attitude shifts may occur in response and can help them remember the information. to peripheral or heuristic cues—such as emotional reactions, Comedy attracts audience attention. In advertising about liking the message source and believing the source is credible commercial products, humor is a well-established tactic given and believable.63 Persuasion then moves through a different its ability to cut through message clutter, capture audience route than the one employed when encountering a strong attention, and improve the audience’s ability to remember message delivered in a serious way. As individuals enjoy the the messages.53 Beyond extensive evidence of the effects of comedy message and the messenger, they are less likely to humor in commercial advertising,54 this level of impact has scrutinize and counter-argue against the information, which been demonstrated in the context of political and civic com- improves the conditions for persuasion.64 munication,55 and in response to humorous public health And in fact, by letting the audience in on the idea that the com- messages.56 Given possible desensitization and predictably edy message is designed to be “a message”—overt persua- somber media treatments of serious social issues—including sion—the comedy becomes (perhaps ironically) less effective, global poverty57—messages that cut through the clutter and triggering the cognitive route to persuasion, including scru- capture attention can be valuable. Notably, in the context of tinizing the information or counter-arguing against the mes- political issues, humor has been found to fuel a priming effect: sages. For comedy to be a successful vehicle for persuasion in Individuals experienced media messages about political issues service of a serious social issue, it can’t be seen as trying too and candidates in a comedy context, which then influenced hard to explicitly persuade even if it comparts serious infor- their future judgements based on the characteristics that had mation.65 In terms of long-term persuasion, at least one study been primed, or made salient, from comedy.58 points to a possible sleeper effect of comedy—remembering and being influenced by the content of a funny message lon- feeling: humor’s route ger than a serious one, although more research is needed in to persuasion this area of long-term effects.66 Audiences can be persuaded through comedy—but comedy’s route to persuasion is more about feeling entering complex and caring than learning. social issues

Comedy’s ability to persuade is a central element that con- Comedic treatment of serious issues helps make nects with social change. Learning more is not necessarily a complex civic topics accessible—and amplifies precursor to developing a favorable attitude or taking action.59 serious information. In the context of developing attitudes and perspectives about At the individual level, comedy offers a way for audiences to civic and social issues through comedy, learning may be an engage in social and civic issues by simplifying them—and incomplete and unsatisfying goal, even if a certain level of making complex issues accessible. By using comedy and there- cognitive ability is needed to understand why something is fore lowering individuals’ barriers to entry into complex polit- funny.60 While comedy and entertainment are not the domi- ical and social topics, the mental constraints to making sense nant media genres for audiences to learn purely factual infor- of them may be decreased. The cost-benefit analysis involved mation, they are important vehicles to fuel audiences’ attitudes in actively seeking new information67 about complicated social and perceptions.61 In this context, persuasion is key—through and civic issues is thus mitigated by entertainment. In the area a peripheral route that emphasizes emotion and liking the of civic issues, researchers have demonstrated a “gateway” source of the message, rather than a central cognitive route. effect, in which entertaining or comedic portrayals of serious According to the elaboration likelihood model (ELM) of per- issues open the door for audiences to pay increased atten- suasion,62 when individuals experience serious information tion to subsequent serious treatment of issues in traditional

how comedy works as a change agent 13 news media.68 This concept has borne out in several studies acceptance. Suggested by existing research, this impact may about comedy portrayals of serious civic and social issues; be greatest for social issues and people with whom the audi- as individuals experience comedy media treatments of seri- ence has the least amount of real-world contact.74 ous issues, they then pay more attention to traditional news In a similar fashion, in a study that examined students’ per- sources on the same issues.69 Piggybacking complex issues spectives about individuals with physical disabilities after onto entertainment media treatments—including comedy— exposing them to either a funny film or a serious film about can have two major effects, according to this thinking: provid- disabilities, researchers concluded that humor can have a nor- ing minimal (new) exposure to complex issues, and providing malizing effect. People who were exposed to the funny film an available knowledge framework that can help audiences reported more positive attitudes toward people with disabil- make sense of serious information about the same issues in ities than people who were exposed to the serious one. As is the future.70 In this way, comedy can complement—rather the case in other complex social issues, particular portrayals than compete with—traditional sources of news, increasing of individuals with challenges may serve to dramatize and the potential for audience engagement.71 widen the gap between them and the audience, inadvertently evoking pity rather than encouraging connections.75 breaking down social barriers sharing with others Comedy can introduce people, social issues and new People share comedy to create shared cultural norms in non-threatening, “non-othering” ways that moments and display personal identity, amplifying encourage identification and connection, rather serious messages. than alienation. Along with seeking comedy, sharing it also points to humor’s Comedy can influence individuals’ real-world perspectives influence. The contemporary era is dominated by media that about unfamiliar people and often divisive social issues is shareable, and by media moments that illustrate individual or cultural norms by allowing them into personal worlds in and cultural identities. Sharing a funny media product is a non-threatening ways. Although this impact primarily occurs way to express both individual values and identities, and to in the domain of entertainment portrayals, in general, it is commemorate shared cultural moments. In the process, shar- also seen in response to comedy specifically. According to the ing with peers anchors and amplifies the original messages. parasocial contact hypothesis, based on the powerful “para- In this context, humor in the digital era has been shown to social,” or pseudo, relationships we experience with mediated drive individuals to share funny messages with peers, inviting characters, exposure to positive entertainment portrayals of and sparking conversations.76 In the context of serious social minority groups can decrease individuals’ levels of prejudice issues, one study focused on a campaign about unintended toward those groups.72 For example, one study showed that pregnancy concluded that funny messages were more likely seeing positive portrayals of gay men on the comedy TV pro- to be shared and amplified than non-humorous ones. The gram, Will & Grace, was related to decreased prejudice toward humorous messages then produced a multiplier effect, as peo- gay men; in fact, the level of prejudice toward gay man was ple were more likely to share the campaign information with lowest, as a consequence of viewing Will & Grace, for individuals others—leading to additive conversation-based effects and who had the fewest numbers of gay or other real-life not just message-based effects.77 Similarly, a CDC campaign encounters with gay and lesbian people, leading researchers focused on funny appeals to disaster preparedness found to conclude, “such data strongly suggest that parasocial con- similar sharing impacts, multiplying a viral message; even tact may function in an analogous manner to interpersonal though the campaign did not spur direct behavior change, contact.”73 In other words, encountering social issues and raising awareness and amplifying the message through shar- norms through light-hearted entertainment and comedy ing were the effort’s main goals.78 portrayals can be a pathway to breaking down barriers to

14 the laughter effect: the [serious] role of comedy in social change Modern Family © ABC

a typology of comedy formats for social change From satirical faux news programs to comedic public service announcements, media comedy that deals with complex social and civic issues is produced, distributed and experienced in distinctive ways. Across available research about mediated comedy’s intersection with social issues—on the route to social change— four primary comedy formats are vital. These four formats also underlie most examples of comedy’s treatment of social issues in the contemporary marketplace.

n Satirical News n Scripted Entertainment Storytelling n Marketing & Advertising n Stand-Up & Sketch Comedy

To understand—and perhaps even apply—each format in service of social issues, it’s crucial to ask and attempt to answer: What are the primary elements of each type of comedy? What are the known audience effects? What are the cautionary notes to consider? What are the notable examples of each format?

a typology of comedy formats for social change 15 satirical news How It Works: Pointing Out—and Re-Framing—Life’s Absurdities Satire is a particular comedy format that uses humor to point out the absurdness or inherent power dynamics of a situation. On the audience’s part, satire requires some basic recognition and understand- ing of the original scenario at the heart of the joke, and is, therefore, culturally specific and relatively sophisticated. As a longtime tradition in popular culture, satire entertains through humor while also offering a mechanism for political or social commentary on a state of affairs.79 “Satire uses humor as a weapon, attacking ideas, behaviors, institutions, or individuals by encouraging us to laugh at them. It may be gentle or hostile, clear-cut or ambiguous, aimed at “us” or “them”—or it may oscillate between different approaches, remaining flexible and surprising.”80 To understand satirical jokes and to find them funny, individuals engage in active, involved processing known as “frame-shifting”—making the connection with the original information that is the target of the joke.81 With this kind of humor, the audience’s focus on “getting the joke” may reduce careful scrutiny of the message.82

Satire’s Impact part of the magic of Satire has been defined as two distinct forms: comedy is that you juvenalian, a more hostile, “other-directed” form of humor that relies on aggression and can force people who judgement, and horatian, which relies on and disagree with you—or emphasizes elements of laughter, play and self-directed, self-deprecating humor; one is even hate you—you can inherently negative, and the other involves more force them to listen. positive attributes.83 Consider a TV program like Parks & Recreation, horatian-satire-style lighter , stand-up comic content that exposes foolishness, relative to an acidic juvenalian tone that exposes evil through scorn and ridicule (like a satirical , for example). But, “In today’s political media environment, horatian satire is dominant relative to juvenalian satire. The vast majority of satirical works offered on programs like The Daily Show, The Colbert Report, Saturday Night Live, and the monologues crafted for various late-night hosts (e.g., , David Letterman, O’Brien) fall more in line with the horatian style.”84

Does the kind of satire matter in terms of influencing audiences’ attitudes toward a social issue? In one study involving the use of self-deprecating humor vs. “other-directed” humor in TV satire about a social issue (blindness), viewers responded more positively to the positive—horatian—humor and developed more positive attitudes about the social issue than when the issue was depicted with the more aggressive, judgmental juvenalian humor.85 However, in a separate study also involving political TV satire, viewers perceived the horatian satire as a lower-strength message than a traditional news op-ed, but found no differences with the harsher, juvenialian humor compared to an op-ed.86 This examination may help to explain the impact of John Oliver’s satirical rants on Last Week Tonight with John Oliver, however. Audiences may be thoughtfully considering his messages and arguments in a similar fashion to scrutinizing a more traditional news opinion piece.

16 the laughter effect: the [serious] role of comedy in social change Ultimately, how much people actively learn from satire—at least in the context of satirical faux news programs—depends in part on how people perceive the format in the first place. Do they see it as news or entertainment, or a mix of both? Research has demonstrated that people who think of The Daily Show as both entertainment and real information are able to learn more than people who per- ceive it as only entertainment.87

But persuasion and learning may not be the only ways to think about the influence of satirical comedy. Importantly, satire comedy content can serve an agenda-setting function. By focusing on particular civic or social issues through satire, audiences have been shown to recognize social and civic issues, rather than to fully “recall” them, or gain specific knowledge (learning).88 One of the most important audience impacts of satire is a “gateway” effect, allowing audiences to gain entry into complex social issues and then pay greater attention to more serious news about them over time; in fact, this impact has been shown as particularly great for those with less formal education and less understanding of or exposure to the issue in the first place.89 Satirical news shows have also been actively sought and used by audiences hoping to make sense of the world and public affairs, and also because they see it as unbiased, “truthful and real.”90 And finally, the role of the messenger is key. For satire to work, the audience has to believe the source has some credibility in the issue he/she is discussing, and that he or she is authentic.91

Cautionary Notes About Satire With the premiere of her TBS show, Full Researchers have cautioned that the bar for potential audience impact might be too high for satire Frontal with Samantha in social issues. Rather than learning and persuasion, the important effects of cultural connection, Bee, comic Samantha raising awareness and adding an element of play into serious social issues might be the more real- Bee made history as istic objectives.92 the sole woman host Additionally, when dealing with issues that have well-established ideological or partisan perspectives, in the U.S. late-night- satire may not be effective. When information delivered via satire is ambiguous—often the very satire genre. characteristic that makes satire amusing—individuals respond in ways that correspond with their © Turner Broadcasting 93 original attitudes about the issue. This was demonstrated in the case of Stephen Colbert’s ironic and System deadpan style of satire on The Colbert Report: “Because satire is often ambiguous, biased information processing models provide an excellent framework for understanding how audiences see what they want to see in Colbert’s political satire.”94 In the face of ambiguous messages (i.e., political satire), individuals process or understand the information through a motivation for “political affiliation or self-enhancement.”95 In other words, people see what they want to see, and believe what they already believe, when they are confused (or, more precisely, when there are no external cues available to help them to interpret a message). Hoping satire can change someone’s mind about a hot-button civic, political or social issue—rather than hoping to engage the individual or place a new issue on a mental agenda—is likely futile.

Satire can backfire for other reasons, as well. For example, satire—as well as other forms of com- edy—can risk inadvertently trivializing the severity of a complex issue.96 And not all issues or people may be seen by the audience as fair game for satire: “To be effective, there needs to be an agreement between the satirist and satire that the satirized is worthy of and appropriate for attack...the audience has the ultimate agency in determining what can and cannot be treated in a humorous or satirical manner.” 97 And what is ripe for satire is usually—at least as illustrated in case studies—the individu- als and institutions with power.

a typology of comedy formats for social change 17 satirical news case studies the daily show on the show, Democratic electoral candidates cultivated The Daily Show, the Comedy Central faux comedy news about 44 percent more in campaign donations than candi- show, created a format with far-reaching implications for dates who did not appear on the show.105 young news consumers from the late 1990s to the current day. Beyond its direct impact, the show’s popularity and format sparked a prominent group of similar satirical last week tonight political news shows both in the United States (The Colbert When John Oliver, former correspondent for The Daily Report, Late Show, Last Week Tonight with John Oliver, Nightly Show, takes on a social issue on his HBO comedy news Show with )99 and around the world (Bassem satire show, Last Week Tonight with John Oliver, it usually Youssef’s Al-Bernameg in Egypt, Late Nite News in South goes viral in the form of short-form video packages. News Africa). At the show’s height, many young people said they outlets pick up on his material and cover it in new—and understood the news of the day through watching The serious—ways, amplifying the tremendous media-agen- Daily Show, and while young people aged 18 to 29 made up da-setting effect of the original material. Attention given only 23 percent of the public in 2012, they comprised 39 to social issues on Oliver’s comedy show have been known percent of the program’s regular audience.100 The show’s to “crash websites, boost donations and inspire legislation” consistent coverage and humor directed at criticizing the on issues ranging from bail bonds to net neutrality to Iraq War and then-President Bush have been credited with corruption inside FIFA, the global soccer organization.106 creating a favorable public opinion climate that “provided Among other notable moments, Oliver’s comedic rant and the conditions for the rise of anti-war candidate Barack video explainer about net neutrality resulted in a crashed Obama in 2008.”101 Additionally, scholars have supported FCC website due to a flood of almost 80,000 public com- the idea that The Daily Show acts as alternative form of ments a week after the program aired.107 In fact, according journalism that effectively interrogates power.102 The to research by the Pew Research Center, Oliver drove the secret to the show’s influence was its leader, Jon Stewart, spike almost single-handedly.108 The video, which has been widely regarded as an authentic, likeable, trustworthy viewed more than 8 million times on YouTube, was timed source of information; according to a Time magazine poll in in a strategic way that made sense in the ongoing policy 2009, Stewart was the top choice as “most trusted news- advocacy around the issue—and the timing was crucial in caster” after Walter Cronkite’s death, a feat considering amplifying messages from existing advocacy groups: “’Oli- Stewart is not a journalist and has not claimed to be one.103 ver gave us a great moment to rally around, and a hilarious The impact of The Daily Show is seen now in its imitators as video to share,’ Tim Karr, senior director of strategy for much as its continued scrutiny of the absurdity of media, Free Press, an advocacy group that has been fighting for politicians, and the culture. net neutrality for more than a decade.”109 the colbert report full frontal with Comic Stephen Colbert’s show, The Colbert Report, samantha bee used a very particular kind of satire—a droll faux news With the February 2016 premiere of the late-night TBS faux host always in character, never letting guests in on the news satire show, Full Frontal with Samantha Bee, the comic joke. The show ran for nine years on Comedy Central and former correspondent for The Daily Show made history (2005-2014), featuring Colbert as a faux conservative as the sole woman host in the late-night-satire genre.110 Like media pundit in pursuit of “truthiness” in social, political the other hits of the genre, Bee’s show takes on social issues and civic issues. In terms of the program’s impact, Colbert of the day with a now-familiar editorial tone characterized coined a term himself—“the Colbert bump”—to describe by biting wit, deadpan satirical commentary, interviews and the very real phenomena of increased media coverage and video montages that have quickly racked up hundreds of public attention paid to issues and guests who appeared thousands of views. But in a departure from her fellow faux- on his show.104 In one 2008 study, a very real impact of the news brethren, Bee’s satire is also distinctly feminist, with “Colbert bump” was revealed: 30 days after they appeared frequent treatment related to gender politics.111

18 the laughter effect: the [serious] role of comedy in social change satirical news case studies In a recent symposium designed to illuminate potentially effective uses of satirical comedy, research- ers offered these five pieces of advice for strategists:

1. Reconceptualize meaningful outcome measures: Possible impacts of satire for social issues should include the positive impact of sharing, play, laughter, creating shared popular culture experiences—instead of overt knowledge gain or behavior change. 2. Be Transparent & Authentic: For the audience, believing the messenger is crucial for satire to work. 3. Let the Comedians Be Comedians: Creating something only mildly amusing defeats humor’s potential for impact; attempting humor means truly allowing the comedians to be funny about social issues. 4. Identify a Call To Action When You Have the Credibility to Do So: With credibility and authenticity from the source, satire should include a call to action for the audience. 5. Recognize the Boundaries of Political Satire and Parody: Some topics aren’t seen as fair game for satire, recognized when the person or issue doesn’t seem worthy of satire or is unfairly targeted. Be careful about the tone of the satire—who and what does it poke fun at? 98 scripted entertainment storytelling How It Works: Transporting Audiences, Creating Relationships with Characters, Normalizing the Unfamiliar Comedy in entertainment storytelling has been a staple of the popular culture diet since the dawn of TV in the mid-20th century, and earlier in other forms of popular entertainment. Entertainment story- telling, with its unique ability to transport audiences deeply into other worlds, works in specifc ways when it comes to audience impact and persuasion. As a component of entertainment storytelling, humor may play a particularly distinct role by attracting attention, encouraging entry into tough topics, normalizing people and issues and shifting social attitudes and norms. ABC’s hit , Black-ish, about The nature of episodic TV storytelling and the consistent, long-term introduction and portrayal of par- a two-generation ticular characters and social issues is a meaningful characteristic that distinguishes this form of comedy African-American and from others. In the 1970s and 80s, the communication scholar George Gerbner and his colleagues at the bi-racial family, has University of Pennsylvania developed and researched a theoretical approach—cultivation—that helps comically spotlighted to explain the long-term impact of media portrayals on individuals’ real-world attitudes about people issues including gun and social issues. According to Gerber’s groundbreaking work in cultivation studies, our attitudes and control, the environ- beliefs about individuals and social issues are heavily influenced—“cultivated”—by consistent, long- ment and race relations term media portrayals in both entertainment and news.112 What is seen as normal in ongoing mediated in the United States. portrayals is seen as the norm in the real world. © ABC The more precise ability for entertainment storytelling to fuel social change, in the context of public health and social issue norms, is well-documented in the realm of Entertainment-Education (EE), or the use of entertainment to inspire social change.113 Entertainment storytelling’s pathway to positive atti- tudes and behavior change is based on an evidence-based media effects and production model, the Sabido model, which emphasizes underlying principles to explain entertainment’s unique social effects: parasocial relationships (the deep relationships audiences experience with media characters), emotional appeals and connections, social modeling, and, when used overtly for social change, a call to action for the audience.114 Over more than four decades since this model was formalized, researchers have created and tested important new developments. Perhaps the most important evolution in this area is

a typology of comedy formats for social change 19 the evidence-based concept of narrative transportation, which explains the route by which audiences become immersed in entertainment stories—both scripted and non-scripted.115 Narrative transportation works by “transporting” audiences deeply into the entertainment story, sparking empathy, a connection with characters, connections to their own lives and an emotional response; the more deeply audiences are transported into a story, the less likely they are to push back against messages through counter-ar- gument.116 Built upon a deep understanding of the elaboration likelihood model (ELM) of persuasion117— and the possibility of persuasion through a peripheral route that emphasizes emotion, empathy and connection with characters, rather than cognitive processing of the message—the role of entertainment storytelling in fostering attitude and even behavior change is well documented.118

Humorous Entertainment Storytelling’s Impact As a persuasive force—influencing attitudes and perspectives about social issues—humor in enter- tainment storytelling is generally processed through a peripheral route, rather than a cognitive route in which individuals process arguments more deliberately based on the strength and merits of the message. In other words, for comedy in entertainment portrayals, persuasion is based on audiences lik- ing the characters, feeling connected to them, and experiencing emotions (joy, laughter, amusement). Humor has been found to reduce individuals’ counter-arguing against messages experienced through an entertaining, funny format.119

It’s not yet known—with confidence—precisely how comedy treatments of social issues in one-time episodes of entertainment storytelling may impact audiences. The research in this area is almost Humorous, nonexistent. In the only apparent study that examines the effects of one episode of comedic enter- lighthearted tainment-education on perceptions of social issues, researchers found that humor about unintended portrayals of pregnancy in an episode of the TV sit-com Scrubs did reduce counter-arguing, or arguing against the 120 characters in message, consistent with entertainment’s transportation and persuasion principles. However, when the comedy was directly focused on the pregnancy storyline, the audience was less likely to take it entertainment seriously than in an alternative version of the episode that incorporated comedy but did not include any storytelling issue-related humor.121 In other words, simply having comedy in the proximity of the issue—that is, in can emphasize the episode, but not focused on the social issue itself—might be effective, but making fun of the precise and provide issue may lead viewers to not take it as seriously. connections, To understand the potential power of comedy entertainment’s impact over time, it’s important to con- rather than sider consistent entertainment portrayals (including comedy) of potentially divisive or unfamiliar char- acters and social issues and norms. By normalizing controversial social issues and marginalized social division and groups, the underlying power of entertainment storytelling kicks in as audiences develop parasocial “othering.” relationships with characters, finding human connections and decreasing feelings of prejudice.122 That is, humorous, lighthearted portrayals of characters in entertainment storytelling can emphasize and pro- vide connections, rather than division and “othering.”

Cautionary Notes about Humorous Entertainment Storytelling Humorous treatment of social issues in entertainment portrayals is memorable. Humor in this context also attracts attention, evokes emotions and works to suppress message counter-arguing. But to engage comedy in this way without trivializing the seriousness of a social issue is a difficult balance. There’s some evidence, as in the Scrubs study discussed earlier, that humor about a social issue in this context—as a one-time reference vs. a recurring portrayal—may inadvertently make the issue itself appear to be one that doesn’t need to be taken seriously.123 The value of comedy in entertainment storytelling is its ongoing nor- malization of taboo issues and ability to generate new—and consistent—attention to social issues. Overt, explicit behavior change on the part of the audience after watching one episode of a program, as suggested by research, might not be the most appropriate way to measure the impact of entertainment storytelling.

20 the laughter effect: the [serious] role of comedy in social change entertainment storytelling case studies all in the family large number of viewers.127 Focused on the colorful lives TV writer and producer Norman Lear’s groundbreaking of a patriarch and his trophy second wife, the extended work in the 1970s and ‘80s resides in a notable historical family includes a gay couple and their adopted Vietnam- place in the consideration of contemporary comedy ese daughter. The program made TV history when the and its potential to fuel social change. Not only did his gay partners got married in the emotional 2014 season half-hour sitcom shows—including All in the Family and finale.128 With ongoing storylines featuring the minutiae the spin-off The Jeffersons, along with Maude and several of daily life for a family anchored by gay parents, the others—focus squarely on taboo social issues of the day, program has been credited with shifting public opinion along with little-seen individuals (African-American, toward gay individuals over its six seasons, in part by gay, transgender), but they have been credited with normalizing their experiences to audiences who might inspiring a generation of contemporary comedy writers not otherwise be exposed, albeit in a funny, non-threat- and producers who have infused social issues into their ening way.129 Indeed, even more specifically, the show award-winning comedy programming, including Amy may have contributed to favorable public opinion about Poehler (Parks & Recreation), Seth McFarlane (Family Guy, gay marriage, which preceded the U.S. Supreme Court’s Bordertown), Ryan Murphy (Glee), and Trey Parker and June 2015 landmark decision that opened the legal path Matt Stone (). Reaching more than 120 million to gay marriage in America.130 An analysis of Gallup’s viewers a week, unattainable in today’s niche-targeted data trend line reflecting the change in Americans’ feel- media environment, Lear’s work has been credited with ings about gay marriage over the last two decades shows shifting social norms, particularly around race and gen- a steady increase in support beginning with Modern der; President Clinton stated, while bestowing upon Lear Family’s 2009 debut, following a decline for years prior to the National Medal of Arts, “Norman Lear has held up a the program’s launch.131 mirror to American society and changed the way we look at it.”124 And yet, in a seminal study of All in the Family viewers in 1974, researchers found that viewers under- black-ish stood the role of satirical bigot Archie Bunker differently ABC’s hit sitcom, Black-ish, about a two-generation depending on their existing levels of racism; for the more African-American and bi-racial family, premiered in 2014 bigoted viewers, Archie reinforced their views, but for to critical acclaim and high viewership. The show has the less bigoted, his views were understood as satire and comically spotlighted issues including gun control, the the depicted racist scenarios appeared ridiculous.125 As water crisis in , sustainability, and of course, another paradox of comedy, this historical study is worth race relations and racial history in America. In Septem- recalling, and Lear himself has addressed this issue, ber 2015, the program broke cultural taboos by devoting saying of the audience, “I don’t know that you change its season premiere episode to a scenario in which the minds, but you get them talking, and in the course of a younger son character uses the “N-word” in a school longer conversation, longer than a 26-minute television talent show by quoting from a Kanye West song, “Goldig- show, somebody may change somebody else’s mind. But ger.” The family discusses the history and contemporary the talking, the airing of it, is all to the good.”126 use of the word in a broader discussion about race relations and racism in the United States.132 The episode was covered by several media outlets, and one review modern family summed it up: “It’s rare that an episode of television can The sitcom Modern Family premiered on ABC in 2009 to tackle an important topic and find a way to demonize no high ratings and fawning TV critics, becoming a rare pro- one, while staying funny. ‘THE Word’ [Black-ish episode gram that was immediately both critically-acclaimed— title] works because it’s not an episode with answers; it’s with six Emmys in its first two years—and watched by a one with questions.”133

a typology of comedy formats for social change 21 entertainment storytelling case studies

transparent experience in the U.S., scarcely touched by As issues facing GLBT individuals in the United other entertainment programming.139 140 In States have garnered continued attention, particular, an early episode that spotlighted thanks to ongoing media portrayals (Glee the immigrant journey to the U.S. and the and Modern Family, among others) and media process of assimilation for first-generation coverage of gay marriage, the daily lives and immigrants, has been called “bold and thought- challenges facing transgender people have ful,” and an episode devoted to Indian stereo- only recently entered a pop culture spotlight in types on TV and racial imbalance in American the realm of comedy. Transparent, the Amazon entertainment was judged by critics as both Studios comedy-drama that premiered in 2014, thought-provoking and funny: “Ultimately, has been referenced as “one of the banner art- the joy of Master of None is not as a sitcom works about the recent ‘transgender moment’ or a slice of minority representation, but as in popular culture.”134 The show stars Jeffrey a thought-provoking piece of art that makes Tambor in the role of an adult man transition- pretty much everything else on TV this year ing into a woman, a part for which he won seem hopelessly out of date.”141 Amazon Studios’ the Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor show, Transparent, in a Comedy Series. The show’s Emmy-award- about an adult in winning creator, Jill Soloway, has leveraged the halal in the family transition, has been program for social change overtly and called In a foray into longer-form comedy pro- publicly credited as for the passage of the transgender Equality gramming, Funny or Die’s Web TV comedy both entertainment Act during her Emmy acceptance speech in series, Halal in the Family, picks up on the and a vehicle for 2015.135 Tambor has also recognized the show’s sitcom format with the its portrayal of a positive social intertwined mission as both entertainment Muslim-American family living in the United influence on the topic and a vehicle to enable social change: “I always States—a first for American entertainment.142 of gender identity. thought there was teaching in the laugh and Created by Aasif Madvi, the show has already

© Amazon Studios the humor; with the laughter and with the featured comedic storylines skewering Sharia humor you can kill prejudice.”136 Soloway has law, Muslim stereotypes, and the ongoing hired transgender people to work on the show challenges of cultural assimilation in post-9/11 to help inform the issues, and she has called America. Madvi has said he took the idea to the program part of a new civil rights move- an Internet-only outlet because he wasn’t ment.137 Members of the trans community have sure he would find a receptive audience on praised the show, saying that more represen- a traditional TV network. According to one tation of trans characters will have a positive critic, the show works precisely because it is impact on public attitudes—and hopefully help not politically correct and it never “turns its decrease violence directed at trans people.138 episodes into PSAs,” but instead: “Through humour, the show gives its viewers a sharp and witty picture of what it means for today’s master of none generation to understand ‘Muslim’ and ‘Ameri- , the acclaimed Indian-American can’ as two parts of the same identity.”143 Of its stand-up comic and writer, is the star of ability—and desire—to reduce discrimination Master of None, the scripted half-hour Netflix facing Muslim-Americans through the program, comedy that premiered in 2015, co-created co-creator Miles Kahn said in an interview by Ansari and fellow comic writer . that “the idea first came from a comment that Critics have called the show “groundbreaking” journalist Katie Couric made, that maybe what for its thoughtful, hilarious treatment of race American Muslims needed to combat stereo- and race relations, including the immigrant types was their own Cosby Show.”144

22 the laughter effect: the [serious] role of comedy in social change entertainment storytelling case studies marketing & advertising How It Works: Capturing Attention & Memory Humor is a well-established, effective tactic of the commercial advertising world. Generally speaking, humor is used in commercial advertising for specific reasons: “to attract individuals’ attention; to pro- mote a positive attitude toward the ad and toward the brand; to enhance purchase intention; and last but not least, to improve the memory for the content of the ad (i.e., arguments, slogan).”145 This consistent positive impact of humor is well-established by many studies in the commercial advertis- ing realm.146 As summarized in a meta-analysis, humor in advertising significantly increases positive attitudes toward the ad, attention, and positive affect or emotion147—and humor in advertising is also memorable.

The same principles of persuasion via humor in other formats apply to short-form video-based adver- tising and marketing appeals—that is, the peripheral route to persuasion is activated, emphasizing the impact of emotional appeals and source liking over a serious cognitive contemplation of the mes- Comedy sage.148 Because it operates through this peripheral route, humor in advertising decreases audiences’ can act as a 149 counter-arguing against messages. Corresponding with a consistent evidence-based line of thought cross-cultural about comedy and persuasion, humor in advertising is persuasive because of its “affective” ability to spark emotions, not because individuals are processing information cognitively.150 communicator and provide Impact of Funny Marketing & Advertising Appeals a comfortable Within the context of marketing and advertising appeals around social issues, comedy can act as a way into cross-cultural communicator and provide a comfortable way into sensitive topics, and may create con- sensitive topics, ditions for longer-lasting message/memory recall. and may create In short-term persuasive messages—as in commercials and PSAs—the success or failure of humor conditions for in advertising has a great deal to do with the active role of the audience. Are audience members longer-lasting highly “involved” in the message—meaning, do they know something about the topic to begin with or is it a message that presents a strong serious argument? Or is the audience involved at a lower message/ level? In advertising research about humor appeals, this concept is key; the more deeply audiences memory recall. are engaged in processing the cognitive messages in an ad-based use of humor, the less persuasive the ad is.151 At lower levels of involvement, the peripheral route of persuasion is activated, and funnier messages are more effective.

When it comes to thinking about how short-form advertising-type comedy appeals may apply to seri- ous social or civic issues, this concept of audience involvement and the nature of the comedy is crucial. When an issue (or product) isn’t funny to begin with, “ad humor is more effective in influencing the audience’s attitudes toward both the ad and brand.”152 But for this process to work, the audience’s level of “involvement”—or close attention paid to the arguments of the ad—needs to be relatively low, not high.153 The presence of a serious message can overpower the comedy in the journey to persuasion. To extrapolate in the context of social and civic issues—inherently not funny—for an uninitiated audience or one that is not “the choir” or already paying attention deeply to complex issues, humor may be the most powerful tool of all. Stronger serious messages may actually “overpower the humor and encour- age unwanted counter-arguments,”154 so letting the humor be maximally funny is the key to unlocking its persuasive impact in this format.

How might this impact hold up in the case of ad messages about a social issue or health-related topic? In an experiment examining audiences’ responses to both humorous and serious ads about three health topics—obesity, alcohol and tobacco—researchers found that the funny ads were more

a typology of comedy formats for social change 23 impactful than the non-funny messages for all three topics. They concluded that the messages were also more persuasive since audiences also spent more time with them: “compared to nonhumorous health ads, those using humor received prolonged attention, were judged more convincing, and their messages were better recognized.”155 The role of positive emotions also contributed: “In other words, in the presence of humor, individuals may adopt a positive attitude towards the health ads, instead of engaging in a critical disagreement of the message arguments.” 156

In addition to memory and recall, some research has also found that audiences were more willing to take an action as serious as organ donation in response to a funny short-form commercial-type message compared to a serious one—a higher-level of impact than attitude and message recall. In an experiment, individuals were exposed to either a funny message or a sad message, with different levels of focus on the “narrative” components vs. use of statistics. Researchers found that the funny messages were the most effective in encouraging people to sign an organ donation card, and that the narratively-focused messages were more effective than statistical ones.157 The study authors spec- The tone ulated, based on past research, that “people have a tendency to ignore messages that cause them and content distress,” thereby contributing to the relative effectiveness of the funny messages.158 approach of Cautionary Notes About Funny Marketing Appeals the humor in this format, as As with other comedy formats, cautionary notes exist. Message appeals in a short-form ad-like con- text are not monolithic—encouraging overt behavior change or some kind of action on behalf of the with others, audience is a different task, for example, than encouraging a positive level of awareness and attitude. is not a one- Evidence for the importance of this distinction was found in an evaluation of the CDC “Zombie Apoca- size-fits-all lypse” humorous digital PSA campaign about disaster preparedness. Even though the campaign was approach. successful in terms of reach and buzz, an experiment revealed that people were less likely to take protective action after experiencing the funny message.159 Overt behavior change might be too high a What works on bar for this comedy format in service of serious social and civic issues, although much more research some issues should be completed to make the case.

may not work Additionally, the tone and content approach of the humor in this format, as with others, is not a one- for others. size-fits-all approach. What works on some issues may not work for others. In a study examining funny appeals designed to reduce unintended pregnancy, researchers found through formative research that “unfriendly humor” belonging to ironic or satirical messages, in this short-form message context, would not have worked relative to more “innocent humor” that did not preach a health message or “victimize women” but instead used elements of clownish behavior and absurdity.160

24 the laughter effect: the [serious] role of comedy in social change marketing & advertising case studies wateraid: if men had periods as an invited “first class of 20 non-profits to participate in its Next Cause program, Launched in 2015 as an awareness and a day-long summit in San Francisco that advocacy campaign to highlight the chal- will teach non-profits best practices on the lenges facing more than 1 billion women social video platform.” 166 around the world who lack access to toilets during their periods,161 WaterAid’s If Men Had Periods campaign uses a humorous video pathfinder inter- and messages to re-frame the issue. One of national: no joke. its three centerpiece funny short videos, “If choice matters. Men Had Periods—Manpons,” was viewed To illustrate the reproductive health approximately 1.5 million times on You- challenges and constraints faced by women Tube.162 According to the campaign’s archi- in vulnerable parts of the world, the inter- tects: “Our Make it Happen petition called national humanitarian group Pathfinder on world leaders to make sure that the [UN International produced a short comedy You- Sustainable Development Goals] included a Tube video PSA depicting Western women target on safe water and sanitation, so that facing issues like spousal consent for birth every woman and girl has access to water, control and traveling long distances for sanitation and hygiene by 2030. We wanted health care.167 The 2012 video, a centerpiece to raise awareness about the importance of of the group’s public awareness campaign menstrual hygiene and increase the number about reproductive health challenges facing of signatories to the petition, which was women around the world, received 55,000 to be delivered to the British government views and not much media coverage until ahead of the UN summit.”163 The campaign 2014, when Upworthy picked it up and garnered global media coverage, including amplified its reach.168 from Time magazine and Buzzfeed, and gen- erated more than 115,000 petition signatures in the year leading up to the UN Sustainable the affordable care 164 act: luck health plan Development Goals. with the onion labs malaria no more: To encourage young people to sign up for seriously, serious psa the , the state of Illinois turned to Onion Labs, the advertising arm of To bring attention to the continuing plight the comedy media company, The Onion. The of malaria in vulnerable parts of the world, comedy team created a digital humor cam- comedic Ed Helms, Aziz Ansari, and paign focused on the faux Luck Health Plan, others voiced a PSA on behalf of the non- with the slogan, “You’ll be okay. Probably.”169 profit organization Malaria No More. The According to an Onion Labs’ spokesperson, short video takes on a mildly funny tone to the match between a Millennial audience poke fun at the charity PSA trope, although and comedy was key: “They wanted to sell it doesn’t attempt comedy about the issue this fairly serious topic in a way that would itself. The video garnered only about 44,000 cut through to , which is an audi- YouTube views.165 Although the PSA failed to ence that actively rejects advertising. Speak- generate media coverage or dramatic view ing down to them or doing dull work is the numbers, YouTube credited the effort in its fastest way to get ignored.”170 The approach decision to choose Malaria No More in 2012 worked. Sign-ups for the Affordable Care Act

a typology of comedy formats for social change 25 marketing & advertising case studies

health insurance in Illinois beat federal esti- as a country of freezing people in need of mates by more than 50 percent, and almost radiators from Africans,176 received positive 30 percent of the 8 million who signed up in media coverage from The Guardian and NPR Illinois were young people between the ages and garnered more than 3 million views. of 18 to 34.171 Bolstered by the viral spread and positive response to the video, in 2013, the group created the Rusty Radiator Awards, which als ice bucket comically honors the global development challenge relief videos that employ the worst stereo- In the summer of 2014, millions of people types as, according to the group, “This kind clicked on funny videos—posted and shared of portrayal is not only unfair to the persons on social media platforms—to raise awareness portrayed in the campaign, but also hinders and money for ALS, or Lou Gehrig’s disease, long-term development and the fight to benefit the ALS Association. The effort against poverty.”177 expanded to celebrities and non-celebrities alike, eventually culminating in $200 million raised for ALS research and services to indi- u.s. department ’ viduals living with the disease172—an increase of defense: don t of more than 7,000 percent from the associ- be that guy ation’s $2.8 million raised during the same To address a high rate of binge drinking time frame during the year before.173 Although among young enlisted men serving in the the videos were amusing, the reasons for U.S. armed forces, the U.S. Department of the campaign’s donation success have been Defense and its health insurance program, attributed less to the humorous approach and Tricare, endeavored to create an effective more to people’s need for self-identification approach to encourage this specific target with a worthy cause; the precise, goal-setting audience to change its behavior. Using a 24-hour “call to action” for the challenge; research-based social marketing approach, and a mildly painful approach that allowed the effort launched as a humor-based behav- To address binge participants to feel like martyrs—and share ior-change campaign, Don’t Be That Guy. The drinking among selfies and videos of themselves.174 multiyear campaign, which launched in 2007, young enlisted men focused heavily on a comedic peer-disap- serving in the U.S. proval message and featured funny sketches, armed forces, the radi-aid: africa digital videos and social media messages.178 U.S. Department of for norway By conducting research in military installa- Defense launched a Based on the premise that portraying Africa tions that implemented the campaign and humorous campaign and Africans living in poverty as the stereo- comparing information with those that did to change behavior, typically passive “exotic other” encourages not, the campaign concluded that its efforts Don’t Be That Guy. harmful public apathy and disengagement,175 reduced binge drinking among the target © U.S. Department a Norwegian organization, The Students’ and population exposed to the messages. The of Defense Academics’ International Assistance Fund campaign was adopted in 23 countries and (SAIH), used parody in a scathing short video 800 military institutions.179 The campaign’s that spoofed traditional calls for aid and success has been attributed to the humor— action. The 2012 YouTube video, Africa for appropriate for the target audience—and its Norway, which parodied patronizing stereo- peer-to-peer nature, rather than a chain-of- types of Africans by portraying Norwegians command, top-down approach.

26 the laughter effect: the [serious] role of comedy in social change marketing & advertising case studies stand-up & sketch comedy How It Works: Critical Social Commentary, Breaking Down Taboos Comedian George Carlin summarized stand-up comedy succinctly: “Stand-up comedy is a vulgar art. It can be vulgar in the usual way we use that word. But vulgar really means ‘of the people.’ It’s the people’s art.”180 Stand-up comedy is an American form of entertainment that has expanded around the world in recent decades. The format is relatively simple: A comic stands on stage and entertains a live audience with jokes and social commentary, with minimal or no props. The roots of stand-up comedy are found in American vaudeville of the early 1900s, when a comic named Frank Fay first took to the vaudeville stage without props or a costume and told jokes, influencing other comics who would follow from stand-up into radio and TV, including Milton Berle and George Burns.181 Additionally, stand-up comedy’s roots in the U.S. grew out of the traditions and humor of minority groups—Jewish-Americans Digital-era and African-Americans182—providing a foundation focused on critiquing power dynamics. Picking up in stand-up the United States as a contemporary live art form in the 1970s, stand-up comedy’s influential breakout comedy household names were social commentators, including George Carlin and , known for tak- ing on taboo topics directly and challenging the status quo perspective on social issues.183 According to audiences one scholar, stand-up comedy serves similar purposes in various cultures: are no longer

Stand-up comedy is arguably the oldest, most universal, basic, and deeply significant form limited to live of humorous expression (excluding perhaps truly spontaneous, informal social joking and experiences teasing). It is the purest public comic communication, performing essentially the same social alone, 184 and cultural roles in practically every known society, past and present. expanding Although stand-up comedy is its own distinct form of entertainment, it underlies much of the com- stand-up’s edy marketplace, and a vast majority of current U.S. comedy TV performers (scripted comedy, sketch reach and comedy, satire) began by honing their trade on the stand-up comedy circuit, including Amy Schumer, Trevor Noah, Aziz Ansari, Hasan Minhaj and others. In terms of sheer reach and availability, stand-up potential social comedy’s influence may be even more profound today than in earlier decades given the evolution of influence. the digital era, with stand-up comedy and comics available in various formats on YouTube, and streaming online. Comedy is a dominant genre on both iTunes and Soundcloud, and the most popular humor podcasts are dominated by stand-up comedy, comics interviewing funny guests, and sketch comedy that evolved from stand-up, including Improv4Humans (with comic Matt Besser), Put Your Hands Together (with comic Carmen Esposito), Comedy Bang! Bang! (sketch comedy), How Did This Get Made?, and WTF with Marc Maron.185 Powerhouse streaming network Netflix brings stand-up com- edy specials to broader audiences through its Netflix original stand-up comedy specials, featuring stand-up comedy from talents ranging from Aziz Ansari to Marc Maron to Chelsea Handler.186 Between Netflix, YouTube, iTunes and SoundCloud, digital-era stand-up comedy audiences are no longer lim- ited to live experiences alone, expanding stand-up’s reach and potential social influence. Additionally, stand-up comedy tours and festivals are big entertainment in the U.S. and internationally, with events like the Aspen Laff Festival in the U.S.,187 the Just for Laughs Festival in Canada,188 and the Edinburgh Fringe Festival in Scotland189 held over several days, with millions of people in attendance.

Stand-up comedy’s popularity in the entertainment marketplace is undisputed, but the audience appeal is explained by science. Neuroscience provides a rationale to help explain why stand-up com- edy may be so valued and enjoyed by various cultures. According to one notable study, regardless of the precise comedy style and attributes (including gender) of stand-up comics, audience members who regard the comedy as very funny actually activate “reward processing” in the brain—that is, audiences experience a feeling of pleasure, a kind of mental reward, the more amusing they find the stand-up comedy to be.190 The researchers concluded that “dynamic social displays of humor do engage reward responses” when it comes to watching and experiencing stand-up comedy.191

a typology of comedy formats for social change 27 Impact of Stand-Up & Sketch Comedy From to the present day, stand-up comedy finds its humor in observational commentary and social critique. Indeed, stand-up comedy is able to occupy a “marginal safe place” in which nor- mally “subversive ideas” are granted license to be openly heard and discussed.192 Consequently, stand-up comedy and its evolution into other comedy forms (scripted, sketch) is naturally positioned, in other words, to spotlight pressing social issues and offer audiences a way to commiserate, laugh and re-frame. In the intersection between this comedy genre and social change, stand-up comedy’s impact can be found in its particular characteristics: (1) social commentary on social issues and power dynamics, (2) breaking down cultural barriers, (3) reducing stigma for marginalized people and ideas, and (4) its use by racial minority groups to normalize and express their experiences.

Directly addressing and poking fun at power positions and inequity—inherent in many deeply entrenched social challenges—are the mainstays of stand-up comedy. Around the world, stand-up comics are illustrating this function directly—and in areas where power dynamics and social chal- lenges are acute. In Nigeria, stand-up comedy is now the country’s third-biggest form of entertainment, following only music and movies, and the comedy is dominated by commentary on power dynamics in the country.193The biggest comics—Basketmouth and Ali Baba—are taking on political corruption Stand-up and Nigeria’s prevailing social inequality and poverty directly in sold-out shows across the country.194 comedy and its In Saudi Arabia, the past few years have ushered in a “tsunami” of new stand-up comedy channels evolution into on YouTube, with the top ones featuring more than 9 million views per episode in a country in which young people are “chronically bored” and the online comedy content remains free of government other comedy censors.195 In fact, the new YouTube stand-up comedy in Saudi Arabia is characterized as a different forms (scripted, genre than TV comedy, given the digital format’s ability to tackle taboo topics, including political power, sketch) is free of censorship.196 In Gaza, where violence dominates daily life, a new sketch comedy TV show, Com- naturally elogia, began from a successful comedy YouTube channel hosted by five young male Gazan comics; the YouTube channel has garnered more than 8 million views to date, as well as approximately 100,000 positioned fans.197 The comics’ material focuses on their commentary about the economic and social to spotlight challenges facing Palestinian young people, including violence and high youth unemployment, in an pressing social ongoing critique of the area’s leaders.198 To the contrary, in the early days of stand-up comedy in China, issues and comedians are looking for safe material free of power critique, and those who have not abided have been disciplined by government officials.199 offer audiences a way to For marginalized or minority groups, breaking down the cultural barriers of stereotype and difference is a valuable element of social impact on the road to understanding. Following the 9/11 events in commiserate, the United States, with heightened incidents of misunderstanding and condemnation of Muslims and laugh and Muslim-Americans, Muslim comics in the U.S. took on the issues directly. According to several studies, re-frame. Muslim stand-up comedy skewered stereotypes, attempting to influence perceptions about Muslims and Muslim-Americans.200 201 According to one researcher, Muslim stand-up comedians helped to break down “cultural barriers, promoting inter-religious and inter-cultural dialogue, as well as tackling the misperceptions about Muslim and Arab Americans in the United States,” taking on a role of public intellectual to correct misinformation.202

Reducing stigma around sensitive topics is yet another potential impact of stand-up comedy in social change. In a study that examined audience members’ feelings of stigma around mental health topics (attitudes about seeking help for mental health and accurately understanding mental health topics), study participants were exposed to two different stand-up comedy shows: One included mental health information within the comedy, and the other show did not include the health information.

28 the laughter effect: the [serious] role of comedy in social change Participants who experienced stand-up comedy with mental health information reported less stigma than the other group after the show, although the long-term effects are not determined.203 The exist- ing peer-reviewed research on this stigma-reduction impact is scarce, but stand-up comedy’s unique characteristics point to this kind of effect, which should be examined further.

Beyond its appeal to audiences, stand-up comedy’s social change potential is illustrated also in a differ- ent way—by the impact on the comedians’ representative groups. Members of underrepresented or marginalized societal groups—particularly vulnerable racial groups—use stand-up to help to normalize and express their experiences to audiences outside their racial groups—a process leading to tolerance and acceptance. When Dave Chappell, an African-American comic, played a blind white supremacist in a sketch comedy routine, he was able to comically unleash the worst, most sensitive stereotypes of African Americans in a way that re-framed the issue for audiences:

Beneath the humor lies a rich layer of social commentary about race relations in the United States. While comedians will make everyone uncomfortable at some point, good comics are playing an important function in society by holding up a mirror and forcing us to confront realities that we would often prefer to ignore. For minority groups, humor also serves as a tool to neutralize the power of stereotypes that obstruct their path to equal participation in society. Stand-up comedy can give social critique and instigate transformation in a way that leaves many audience members wanting more.204

Cautionary Notes About Stand-Up & Sketch Comedy As with other comedy formats, there are inherent limitations to leveraging stand-up and sketch com- edy for overt social change efforts around pressing social issues. The nature of much stand-up and sketch comedy is its ability to push the boundaries of decency and taste, and what’s funny to one may be offensive to another. By pointing out power dynamics inherent in social issues such as poverty and inequality, stand-up comedy may inadvertently reinforce power dynamics instead of effectively skewering them—including perpetuating racial stereotypes.205

But to be overly sensitive and safe is to muzzle the power of stand-up comedy in the first place—its role is to be funny first, so attempts to water down jokes or material in order to deliver perspectives that are safe to a broad audience will likely not be effective. Finally, this kind of comedy is culturally specific. The stand-up comedy that can be understood and appreciated as funny in one country or culture may not translate at all to another—and given that so much stand-up comedy focuses on commentary about complex local political and social issues, this consideration may be more true of stand-up than other forms of comedy. Indeed, “Comedic tastes differ by region, and most jokes don’t translate well. (A Japanese interpreter once translated a joke that Jimmy Carter delivered during a lecture as: “President Carter told a funny story. Everyone must laugh.”).”206 And yet, stand-up and sketch comedy in the contemporary era is more widely available through digital platforms, sought by audiences, and attention-getting—an important potential vehicle for messages.

a typology of comedy formats for social change 29 stand-up & sketch case studies

inside amy schumer “Luther,” President Obama’s “anger trans- Amy Schumer’s contemporary cultural lator.”210 At the 2015 annual White House influence spans across film, sketch TV, and Correspondents Dinner, President Obama stand-up comedy, and critical acclaim orig- asked Keegan-Michael Key to portray inates from both traditional news sources Luther as he gave his tongue-in-cheek and pop culture alike, culminating in both a address to the Washington VIP and media journalistic Peabody Award and entertain- representatives in attendance. 211 One ment Emmy Award within the span of a few critic pointed to the importance of Key & years. In 2014, the Peabody Awards commit- Peele’s run at a crucial moment in time, tee said of Schumer and her Comedy Central in which two self-identified bi-racial men sketch comedy TV show, Inside Amy Schumer: were able to point out some of the tricky “Inside Amy Schumer is a sketch show with all issues for a country re-defining itself in a sorts of purpose. The fleet-footed Schumer so-called post-racial America.212 will satirically embody vacuous white priv- ilege in one sketch before pivoting to com- ically interrogate rape culture, body image between two ferns norms or sanctimonious savior narratives Epitomizing the booming era of short-form in the next.”207 After premiering in 2013 to videos, the Emmy-winning comedy website little notice, the show is increasingly taking Funny or Die was created in 2007 by a group on greater risks with social issues—including of comedians and producers, including Will rape, gender relations, and more—as public Ferrell, Adam McKay and .213 Comedy Central’s attention has increased, and yet the comedy Supporting both user-generated content sketch and stand-up remains intact: “Comedy with a message can and brief videos, the site is known for its TV show, Inside Amy also easily turn didactic—or, worse, smug. sketch comedy content, often featuring Schumer, has been Luckily, Schumer’s show feels built to with- celebrities. As a recurring Web series, the recognized by both stand this pressure, even as it expands its Emmy-nominated Between Two Ferns faux Peabody and Emmy reach, touching on subjects like reproductive talk show—sketch comedy style—pokes Awards. rights and equal pay.”208 fun at the format of the talk show genre © Comedy Central but frequently takes on serious social issues in a humorous way. In March 2014, key & peele when President Obama needed help engag- Comedy Central’s sketch comedy show, ing young people to sign up for healthcare Key & Peele, which ran for five seasons coverage as part of the Affordable Care from 2012 to 2015, has been heralded as: Act two weeks before an important public “one of the best comedies on television to deadline, he appeared on an episode of deal with race, it also excelled at finding Between Two Ferns, with comic actor Zach laughter in otherwise seemingly humorless Galifianakis. His appearance resulted in a topics—slavery, suicide, terrorist attacks.”209 traffic increase of 40 percent to healthcare. Starring creators and comics Jordan Peele gov.214 The episode was nominated for an and Keegan-Michael Key, the show’s stark, Emmy Award, and executive producer Mike yet comedic, skits focused predominantly Farah attributed the success to the com- on racism and race relations in the United edy’s ability to engage: “I think one of the States. There is, perhaps, no better indica- smartest things about it is that the Afford- tion of the show’s cultural imprint than its able Care Act stuff doesn’t even come recurring sketch about a character named into it until at least 60 percent through

30 the laughter effect: the [serious] role of comedy in social change stand-up & sketch case studies

the video. So I think it was smart to let the racism and news of the day, UCB scored comedy lead it and then get into the state- its highest views ever with its sketch short ment he [Obama] wanted to make about the video poking fun at BP’s response to the Gulf Affordable Care Act. It was so funny leading Coast oil spill in 2010. Titled “BP Spills Cof- up to that part that it just made its impact fee,” the video has been viewed more than that much better because the audience was 13 million times,218 crashing UCB’s website in already engaged.”215 the first few days after its premiere.219 In the midst of BP’s ongoing response and media coverage about the spill and its aftermath, funny or die BP’s managing director was asked to respond Beyond its faux talk show, Funny or Die’s to the comedy video during a news interview short-form comedy videos have directly with PBS Newshour, to which he responded engaged in serious social issues, leading to that BP employees had watched the video media coverage and renewed public scru- and were deeply impacted by it.220 tiny. After allegedly dumping many tons of toxic waste into Ecuador’s water system, failing to take responsibility and instead pro- #goodmuslim ducing and distributing a new image-focused badmuslim advertising campaign called “We Agree” a Launched in January 2015, the comedy pod- few months after the BP oil spill in the Gulf, cast #GoodMuslimBadMuslim, hosted by Ira- the oil company Chevron was in the hot nian-American comedian Zahra Noorbakhsh seat in 2010 when Funny or Die parodied the and Bengali-American activist Tanzila “Taz” campaign with a comedy video and website Ahmed, takes on Muslim stereotypes and life of its own, “Chevron Thinks We’re Stupid.”216 both within a culture and from the outside The sketch comedy campaign received media looking in, as both Americans and Mus- coverage from outlets including The Huffing- lim-Americans.221 The monthly shows range ton Post and the , and the from comedy chats about current events “counter-campaign” supporters created their to a recurring “Ask-a-Muslim” segment in own comedy ad spoofs to share with Funny which the two comically detail moments of or Die. Amazon Watch and the Rainforest cultural misunderstanding. The hosts have Action Network distributed a joint press pointed to their influence, including emails release to media about the sketch comedy from young Muslim-Americans sharing their video, calling it “the latest chapter in a own experiences and asking for advice.222 The national grassroots media campaign that , which has received positive media has overshadowed oil giant Chevron’s new coverage, including from NPR, Public Radio multi-million dollar PR effort.”217 International (PRI), BuzzFeed and NBC News, started as an ironic hashtag that took off when, according to Ahmed, “we realized upright citizens that people wanted to hear more.”223 Through ( ) brigade ucb comedy their funny takes on Islamophobia, feminism, The long-time comedy troupe, Upright and race, the two hope to provide a Citizens Brigade, hosts a YouTube channel “window” into their lives—and primarily to featuring short-form sketch comedy videos. make people laugh. 224 With more than 90,000 regular subscribers and millions of views on videos taking on

a typology of comedy formats for social change 31 No Joke. Choice Matters. © Pathfinders International

comedy in [social] a c t i o n

From chronic malnutrition to devastating illness, few social problems are as difficult to communicate as global poverty. And yet, public engagement is a required element in sustained social change. One researcher describes public engagement in the context of global poverty in terms of “width, depth, and height,” a spectrum that distinguishes between capturing widespread attention (width), encouraging targeted groups to think differently (depth), and efforts to amplify initiatives that are already at work (height).225

32 the laughter effect: the [serious] role of comedy in social change Comedy, despite its vast cultural influence, is a little-understood vehicle for serious public engagement for global poverty. And yet, the timing may be urgent, given the potential desensitization and numbing of a global audience:

…efforts in the global North to generate public engagement in global justice have rarely used humour. Perhaps as a result, stories about international development are often relegated to what one news editor called the ‘worthy but dull category’…Analysis of the reasons behind the relative lack of engagement of Northern publics in issues of global justice is widespread. Some analysts have highlighted the lack of serious efforts bydevelopment organ- isations to invest in public engagement if ever this comedy work. Drawing on research in the field of psychology, other scholars have high- thing doesn’t work out, lighted the phenomena of ‘compassion i’ve always got poverty fatigue’ and ‘psychological numbing’ that stem from the predominantly negative, to fall back on. crisis-oriented representations of the trevor noah, south african global South in the news media in the stand-up comic, host of global North. A growing body of research the daily show on the ‘public faces of development’ also examines the ways in which the media and NGO marketing campaigns represent development issues in ways that may sell newspa- pers and generate donations but which also encourage paternalistic, charitable responses to global injustice at best and indifference and disengagement at worst.226

Considering the possibilities from the few rare examples of humorous appeals used to engage audi- ences on global poverty, can comedy be imagined and taken seriously as a public engagement strategy?

This section includes highlights about particular issues that fall under the global development umbrella—such as HIV/AIDs, sanitation, sexual health and the like—to ask: How might comedy work specifically in the context of global poverty engagement? What can we learn from notable examples? And, seen through an even more targeted lens, two case study countries share both burgeoning media and comedy scenes, and yet deeply entrenched global development challenges: India and South Africa. functions of comedy in global poverty Deep, systemic poverty continues to pose a daunting challenge to an increasingly interconnected world. As of 2015, about 700 million people live in extreme poverty—an income level of about $1.90 per day.227 Collectively, preventable illnesses like malaria and HIV/AIDS, along with malnutrition, a lack of access to clean water, and poor sanitation contribute to the deaths of thousands of children every day. This dismal status quo poses challenges for the resources, peace, and security of all nations, not only those impacted directly by disproportionate levels of illness, malnutrition and lack of oppor- tunity.228 And yet, progress continues, due in large measure to the global commitment to extreme poverty alleviation through the United Nations’ Millennium Development Goals of 2000 and now the Sustainable Development Goals of 2015.229

Against this backdrop, storytelling about global poverty—within the context of building awareness and inspiring social change—is a particular quandary. Not only are stories about hunger, disease and illness often difficult to watch, but the solutions can be hard to translate for lay audiences.

comedy in [social] action 33 From a communication and storytelling perspective, the sheer magnitude of such a challenge can be overwhelming, prompting “psychic numbing,” in which individuals can’t fully comprehend the vast numbers of people living in such devastation, thus making active engagement difficult to attain.230 Media stories related to global poverty often have followed a familiar theme: Depicting passive, voice- less victims of poverty, or overwhelming facts and statistics offered with often Western voiceover pleas for help, such a storytelling frame “evokes the idea that the poor are helpless and incapable of helping themselves, thereby cultivating a culture of paternalism.”231 Two consequences may result, both of which are anathema to engaging people with a hopeful perspective. First, a kind of chronic stress may settle in on the part of an audience continually faced with stories about seemingly insurmount- able challenges, leading to disengagement.232 Further, these visual frames may inadvertently paint a portrait of those living in poverty in faraway places as “the other”—people so different that we cannot Media stories identify with them—or as challenges too huge for individuals to tackle, justifying a kind of disengage- related to global ment from the topic.233 poverty often Although humorous appeals have been used to attract attention to global poverty topics as marketing have followed a tactics, as in Comic Relief, a deeper use of humor to engage audiences in global justice is rare.234 And familiar theme: yet, given the known influence of comedy—to capture attention, to break taboos, to offer an entry into challenging topics, to alleviate chronic stress, to promote hope and to break down social barriers—it Depicting passive, may be well worth the attempt. As one scholar posited: voiceless victims …humour can be both an ethical and an effective way of attracting and sustaining public engage- of poverty, or ment in struggles for global social justice, particularly for challenging prevailing charity-based over-whelming frames for understanding poverty and development. There are both practical and ethical risks facts and and limits to the use of humour to represent issues of poverty and injustice but, given the low 235 statistics offered levels of public engagement in these issues, I argue that humour is a risk worth taking. with often The particular pairing of global poverty characteristics from an audience point of view—fear, over- Western voiceover whelming topics—with the influence of comedy may combine to create an especially vital synergy. Comedy’s positive emotional impact plays a part: “Evidence also suggests that humour could play pleas for help. important roles in helping to sustain engagement in global justice struggles through the reduction of stress and the promotion of hope.”236 In other words, humor can be used to create and solidify collec- tive identities, to foster hope, and to reduce stress in the face of insurmountable odds.

Entry into Difficult Topics For groups dealing with sensitive topics such as HIV/AIDS, stigma and inability to communicate with peers pose major barriers to change. With sexual topics in particular, humor offers an entry way for discussion about sensitive, intimate issues. In one notable study, using comedy in school to tackle sexual education was effective in engaging young people to talk more openly, but the humor also reinforced more “serious” material they had already learned.237 In South Africa, where one in 10 people is infected with HIV/AIDS, the topic is even more sensitive, and yet here, too, using humor to discuss sexual health, and HIV in particular, with peers was found to be effective. In a separate study, a comedy approach to discussing sex and HIV allowed young South Africans to talk more openly with their peers and captured their attention; however, the study authors caution that this approach alone might not be enough to allow individuals to delve more deeply into the subject matter.238 The role of peer conver- sations and campaign approaches in sexual health topics is vital and powerful, considering the stigma and taboo that often exists. To capture attention, allow shared laughter and honest conversation, pairing comedy with more serious additional information points to an effective route.

34 the laughter effect: the [serious] role of comedy in social change A Coping Mechanism for the Powerless For individuals living in poverty, comedy serves a cultural connection function. It allows them to commu- nicate, to commiserate, and to find optimism and hope. Given the importance of culturally-appropriate messages to reach those most impacted by global poverty, this offers a useful re-framing of comedy as a tool. One study that examined the lives of poor, marginalized women in Costa Rica—with little oppor- tunity beyond sex work—found that using humor messages and forms of communication empowered them in their daily experiences with sexual violence and reproductive health challenges. Pointing out the inherent inequities in their situations allowed them to use the subversive power of comedy to sur- vive and rise above their found situations—a form of engagement to improve their conditions.239

Offering Frames of Hope & Optimism When it comes to engaging audiences over the long term, research in global poverty and other areas supports the idea that dire hopelessness as a communication frame isn’t ultimately effective—opti- mism and believing that “positive change is possible” is key.240 A mixed diet including positive media and communication frames that offer optimistic perspectives and emotions, rather than exclusively (or near exclusively) negative and dire scenarios that can lead to chronic exhaustion and disen- gagement on the part of the audience, may be a path to new engagement; indeed, “a large body of research indicates that humour is an important mechanism for coping with stress and reducing its negative impacts.”241 One notable study expands on this idea, examining the contribution and role of a comedy documentary film and book, “No Impact Man,” which follows the journey of a man hilariously attempting to live for a year without making an impact on the climate. For climate change in particular, which has been dominated by chronic doomsday messaging that may inadvertently lead to disengagement, the study concludes that “comedy is a useful rhetorical tool for addressing global warming, as it enables us to see ourselves not as helpless victims in a tragic doomsday scenario, but as imperfect actors who are both guilty contributors to the problem and agents responsible for its amelioration.”242 In other words, comic frames may be employed to offer more hope and active human agency in deep social problems, relative to dramatic frames that may imply there is little hope of change with such high stakes.

Creating Memorable Messages About Taboo Topics Comedy serves as a safe, memorable way to open the door to culturally taboo topics. Research from marketing and advertising documents the ability of humorous messages to cut through message clut- ter, attract attention and be more memorable than non-funny messages. The same principle has been upheld beyond commercial advertising, in ads that deal with public health issues—obesity, smoking, alcohol; one study found that humorous messages were persuasive precisely because they were funny, as the comedy reduced counterarguing, and the ads were more memorable over time.243 In a study related to a comedy campaign focused on STD prevention targeted at gay and bisexual men—“Stop the Sores”—researchers found that the campaign was successful in encouraging men to get tested, and it was particularly successful among men who were HIV positive.244 Importantly, the campaign’s success credits the memorable humorous messaging.

Amplifying Awareness Through Sharing As illustrated by the majority of evidence-based studies involving comedy—across all formats—com- edy’s ability to attract attention is paired with its ability to encourage sharing. In the cultural zeitgeist, amidst the clutter of information, sharing information or videos with peers serves an important function

comedy in [social] action 35 beyond a marketing one. In fact, in the digital era, “humor has been found to be an important deter- minant in sharing.”245 Sharing clearly expands a message beyond its original recipients, but beyond the sheer reach, sharing amplifies a message by creating multiplicative “conversation-based effects,” not simple exposure. A campaign focused on teen pregnancy found this level of impact—both interper- sonal sharing and communication. In this way, the ability of humor to promote sharing is profound, as “sharing can potentially multiply the effect of the campaign on the exposed as well as increase the reach to the unexposed.”246

Reinforcing Existing Calls to Action Humorous appeals and serious information and calls for support and engagement in global poverty can serve reinforcing roles, not competitive ones. It’s safe to assume that solutions to global poverty will always include some kind of charity in the form of calls for individuals, governments and orga- nizations to support people in times of acute or ongoing crisis. Employing comedy to quickly attract attention and bring audiences into a cause—to donate or take some other kind of action—works in service of a serious goal. As one researcher notes, “it is clear that humour can also be used simply to reinforce charitable responses to global poverty, as in the case of Comic Relief. Humour is simply a means that can be put to many different ends.”247 To use this tactic effectively, however, research supports a distinct call to action while leaving the comedy intact as comedy.248

36 the laughter effect: the [serious] role of comedy in social change global poverty case studies comedy gives back created a restaurant and resort group called Since 2012, social enterprise company Condoms and Cabbages, and he launched his Comedy Gives Back has connected charities country’s campaign that aimed to achieve directly to comics and entertainment indus- 100 percent condom use beginning in 1991, try professionals to produce live-streamed using humor to take the stigma out of HIV online comedy shows and telethons that and sex.252 Thailand is known as one of only raise money and awareness for daunting a few countries that was able to stem the social issues.249 Relying on comedy to capture increase in new HIV infections, and Vira- attention, the project has partnered with vaidya’s efforts—using humor and comedy groups tackling racial justice, hunger, and appeals to break down stigma—are credited malaria, including a notable 2013 digital with helping to bring the rate of infection event with livestreamed comedy shows from down to only 19,000 just 13 years after his New York, Los Angeles, London, and Austra- campaign launched.253 lia, to benefit global development organiza- 250 tion Malaria No More. world toilet organization: comic relief mr. toil et Comic Relief is the original—and likely best- Singapore entrepreneur and former known—charitable effort that links comedy, contractor Jack Sim founded the World global poverty and media to bring atten- Toilet Organization to help solve the deadly tion to some of the world’s most pressing sanitation-related illnesses that confront issues, using a large-scale media campaign more than 2.5 billion people in poor parts of and comedy to attract attention. Through the world without access to toilets. In order sketch comedy bits combined with intersti- to raise money to bring toilets to vulnerable tial serious videos and information about corners of the world, and also to tackle the extreme poverty, malaria, pneumonia and necessary behavior change to encourage starvation, the organization’s Red Nose Day people to use them when they are available, TV special, broadcast on the BBC, has raised Sim, nicknamed “Mr. Toilet,” uses “potty upwards of $100 million to benefit global humor” to break taboos and inspire people development charities in past years.251 The to listen.254 approach is a classic call to charity through comedy as attention-getter, although it does not directly use humor to discuss the central telfaz11: no woman, social issues. no drive When a group of Saudi comics known as Telfaz11—Hisham Fageeh, Fahad Albutairi, condoms and and Alaa Wardi—posted a short video on cabbages: mr. condom YouTube that comically parodied Saudi In the small nation of Thailand, where HIV Arabia’s ban on women drivers, not only did infections reached 143,000 in 1991, a Thai it go viral with more than 3.5 million views senator and business owner decided to in two days, it inspired Saudi women to get the stigma out into the open by using protest the ban by driving and posting Web humor. Nicknamed “Mr. Condom” in his videos of themselves. Sparked by the funny home country, Sen. Mechai Viravaidya video, No Woman, No Drive, the 2013 online

comedy in [social] action 37 global poverty case studies

protest was reportedly the largest of its effectiveness and good governance, bal- kind in the region.255 One reason for its viral ancing out the negative portrayal.259 The nature—beyond the humor—may be the program received international media growing comedy scene and large population attention, including from BuzzFeed, CNN of young people in Saudi Arabia (60 percent and . are 30 and under), who were responsive to the funny message and its underlying critique of the discriminatory government stand up planet policy. To date, the video has received more Stand Up Planet was a 2014 documentary than 13 million views.256 TV show, transmedia series and digital campaign that showcased life in some of the toughest places on Earth—in parts of the samaritans India and South Africa—through the lens In The Samaritans, a mockumentary TV pro- and experiences of stand-up comics.260 The gram—filmed in the style of the U.S. hit, The two-part documentary TV series premiered Office—a Kenyan filmmaking team parodied on three networks in May 2014: independent stereotypes of large global development satellite network KCETLink, cable network organizations through the portrayal of a Pivot, and a top broadcast network in India, faux, ineffective, bureaucratic NGO called NDTV. Stand Up Planet leveraged a comedy Aid for Aid. The TV show made comedy out format and travelogue documentary style of Western-directed NGOs operating in designed to reach a younger audience and Africa, but also highlighted effective local those who might not have already been development work through the charac- paying attention to global development ters.257 Hilariously highlighting scenes based issues. In addition to the broad journey to on real stories from the global development meet and experience people living in poor industry, which thrives in Nairobi, the pro- corners of the world, the program focused gram inspired NGO employees to spotlight on two particular global development topics and share their own stories of well-meaning in specific places: Sanitation-related illness ineptitude. According to the show’s creator, and behavior in India, and HIV infection, Hussein Kurji, the show was partially funded prevention and awareness in South Africa. by an NGO, who “thought comedy would According to the project’s mission, the topics be a great way to highlight those issues of were both strategic and intentional for the credibility and accountability” in the NGO global development storytelling and the world.258 Kurji also noted that the program entertainment angles.261 highlights a rival NGO that illustrates

38 the laughter effect: the [serious] role of comedy in social change global poverty case studies global spotlight comedy & social issues in india In India, the contemporary comedy scene works outside the edges of the light, escapist fare found in films and television. In contrast, India’s stand-up comics, satirists and Internet comedy celebrities are taking on the dark truths of India’s current political and social issues. India’s comic talents are brash and uncensored outside traditional TV, and judging by the millions of YouTube views and viral social media activity around its hottest upstarts, audiences are loving the sharp-tongued jokes. The stand-up comedy scene in India, while still new, is, according to a top female comic, Radhika Vas, “…poppin’! It is growing at the speed of light.”262 Amidst a contem- laughter is one of the porary backdrop of political corruption, gen- pillars of a democracy – der-based violence directed at women and girls, and extreme poverty in many parts of when dissent is the country, the new digital-era comics are allowed and it ’s taking on the issues directly—and recognizing their role as social influencers. even celebrated. and

In September 2015, in a partnership event nothing cuts straight between Asia Society and the U.S. Consulate to the crux of a matter , executives from the U.S. comedy powerhouse Funny or Die, along with Indian like an eloquent jibe. comedy influencers—comedian Radhika Vaz aditi mittal, indian comedian and producer Ajay Nair—discussed the poten- tial influence of comedy on India’s social issues, along with the limitations. Comedy can be a powerful vehicle for social change and influence in India, asserted the Funny or Die executives, using the example of President Obama’s successful appearance on the Internet comedy program, Between Two Ferns, to raise awareness of his new healthcare program to a young, bipartisan U.S. audience. At the same time, according to Nair, the context in India is distinct, given that comedians in the country are “being dissuaded from taking a stance on socially relevant issues in India.”263 Recognizing the dis- tinction between the U.S. and India in the context of comedy and social influence, along with the role of censorship, is key, and yet the young comedy scene’s reliance on the Internet points to the future; a spokesperson for Funny or Die concluded that, “you’re not going to solve every problem in India with comedy videos, but it’s baby steps.”264

Indian audiences have watched the faux news satire program, The Week That Wasn’t (hosted by comic Cyrus Broacha) since 2006; mirrored after The Daily Show, the hit program is established and well-rec- ognized.265 But the contemporary edgy sketch and stand-up comedy scene in India is new—only a little more than a decade old, owing its roots to a TV program that premiered in 2005, The Great Indian Laughter Challenge, which made breakout stars out of its participants.266 When Mumbai opened its first comedy club in 2009, other cities followed suit, leading to a thriving comedy scene with clubs in many Indian cities and still more opening. But India’s comic talents are taking on political and social issues, despite threats of death lobbed at comics who comment on topics typically considered taboo to Indians, including gender, sex and political topics.267

comedy in [social] action 39 While comedy in India ranges from slapstick to insult humor, comedians’ reflections on social chal- lenges are found largely in the still-evolving stand-up comedy club scene and Indian comics’ digi- tal-channel expansions. The irreverent, bold (or, as translated from Hindi, “senseless fucker”), launched by four stand-up comics in 2012, has been credited with starting and epitomizing the trend. Created as a comedy podcast that immediately spotlighted salient Indian political and social issues—poverty, political corruption, terrorism—AIB’s founders quickly moved to host the program on iTunes, where its fan base exploded into the millions, allowing expansion into a YouTube channel in 2013, social media platforms, and the 2015 launch of a TV program broadcast in both English and Hindi, On Air with All India Bakchod, that mirrors the U.S. show, Last Week Tonight with John Oliver.268

Over the past several years, co-founder and his colleagues have taken on sensitive social challenges, including ongoing dissent between India and Pakistan, the dowry system, political corruption and , net neutrality, and sexual violence and attitudes toward women. But AIB achieved global notoriety in 2013 with its scathing indictment of India’s rape culture and sexual violence portrayed in the short faux PSA-style YouTube video, Rape—It’s Your Fault. The video, which has garnered more than 5.5 million views on YouTube269 to date and received global media coverage, depicts Indian women in various forms of clothing, from regular school clothes to a fully covered astronaut suit, in a successful effort to re-frame victim blame. Responding to media coverage about the video in The Guardian, one public commenter mused about the potential impact: Female comedians like Aditi Mittal have taken The satirical video about rape in India ‘It’s your fault’ probably caused more people to rethink on the stand-up scene their values and this situation than any amount of campaigning would do. It has been viewed in India—and incorpo- more than 2 million times on YouTube—do you think any organisational campaign video rated social issues in could achieve that much? Comedy like this makes us face our fears, we break through taboos, the comedy—over the we say and hear things that people try to hide. Using humour gives people back control, it past several years. gives them a place to speak about issues and talk about problems in a way that feels comfort- able. And as such, comedy is not only an appropriate tool to use in development, it is a vital © Daniel Marracino, Stand Up Planet one—one that can help break down those barriers we dare not talk about. One that gives a voice back to those who can’t talk. One that helps us deal with situations too hard to believe.270

A local editorial pointed out the program’s value precisely given its agenda-setting power and inter- section between taboo social issues and comedy: “As they use humor and satire to reach their target audiences, spreading awareness of the social atrocities rotting our India….Let us not discuss HIV/AIDS because even after so much awareness, that topic is a stigma among the masses. This is why their show should be renewed, as On Air with AIB might succeed where words fail. Their show might be successful in shaming and ridiculing people to a point where people decide to change and talk real. Regardless of the method, that is what is important: a better India.”271 Indeed, the intersection of com- edy and social change has been recognized in India as a kind of genre in the online digital-video arena specifically, sparked byAll India Bakchod and a few immediate successors, busily creating funny videos that deliberately challenge social issues, including net neutrality and gender violence.272

In a Bollywood culture still dominated by men, the socially-conscious comedy environment in India is also heavily male-centered. But notable female comics like Radhika Vaz and Aditi Mittal have cut through the clutter over the last few years in the stand-up scene—and both take on social issues. Vaz, who has sold out stand-up shows in her native India, along with Los Angeles and New York, takes on gender politics and identity and social conformity in a conservative culture through her Web series, Shugs and Fats, and book, Unladylike. On spotlighting sensitive social issues, Vaz points to the need to provide an entry into challenging topics: “Gender issues need to be addressed, don’t you think? We women stay silent on so much—at least with comedy I can talk about all those things and we can laugh

40 the laughter effect: the [serious] role of comedy in social change at them. Once you laugh at something its stops being so important and then less painful….We will know things have changed when politicians stop saying ‘boys will be boys’ when a woman is raped. We will know it has stopped when people stop insisting girls get married and have children as a lifestyle choice.”273 Shugs and Fats, the Internet series produced with another comic, Nadia Manzoor, won the Breakthrough Series Short Form Award in the 2015 Gotham Independent Film Awards in New York, cementing the material’s cross-cultural resonance.274 Similarly, Aditi Mittal, one of India’s only female comics, has addressed issues of gender equality and violence over the past several years since the debut of her 2013 solo show, aptly titled Things They Wouldn’t Let Me Say.275 Deliberately taking on tra- ditionally taboo topics, Mittal has said of the importance of newly socially-conscious comedy in India:

And as much as we’re learning to take a joke, we’re also great at taking offence. My question is: How can one take offence at a joke about poverty, when one should be offended at poverty? How can one be offended at a joke about discrimination when one should be offended at discrimination? But that’s the best part of dissent—we are free to laugh and agree, or remain silent and disagree and we are free to be the ones to get up on stage and be the ones to make a joke. All three at the same time.276

Perhaps in recognition of the potentially powerful role of India’s new socially-conscious, bound- ary-pushing comedy scene as a tool for tolerance, the U.S. State Department sponsored a seven-city Indian stand-up comedy tour, Make Chai, not War, in 2012. As part of a “regular global cultural exchange India’s young, program,” according to the State Department, the trip was “intended to stem religious prejudice and urban audience 277 encourage tolerance.” And as India’s comics find new digital outlets and venues, India-native comedy is registering tours and festivals are playing to millions, beginning with the launch of India’s largest comedy festival, the Weirdass Pajama Festival. Launched in 2014 by comic notable Vir Das, India’s first comedy-only its enthusiasm entertainment festival has exploded into a three-city tour (Mumbai, Pune, Delhi) that includes 100 with views and comics from India and around the world.278 tickets, likely With a growing presence that spans from a more conservative TV marketplace to a boundary-pushing fueling the digital and live comedy scene, India’s young, urban audience is registering its enthusiasm with views growth of an and tickets, likely fueling the growth of an increasingly sophisticated—and socially-conscious at its increasingly roots—art form influenced by U.S. comedy forms but native to India. sophisticated— global spotlight and socially- conscious at its comedy & social issues roots—art form in south africa influenced by Comedy in South Africa is booming. Over the two decades since the demise of apartheid, a ground- U.S. comedy swell of comics and comedy shows has steadily erupted. From 1997 to the present day, the number of forms but native established comedians has more than tripled, and comic talents are now in demand for entertainment to India. ranging from commercials to faux satire news programming.279 The trend has been attributed to the increased openness of the country and a gradually decreased level of censorship, resulting in a scene characterized by both a talent pool and audience of young, diverse urbanites.280

The comedy boom in South Africa is a break from the past, both in terms of the safe content allowed in a censored apartheid environment, as well as who is allowed to tell the jokes. Over the past 20 years, the entertainment marketplace for South African comedy has moved from a predominantly white comedy scene to a post-apartheid environment with many prominent black comics—with material that takes on sensitive topics head-on.281 South Africa’s comedy reflects the backdrop of its history and

comedy in [social] action 41 current moment, with a strong undercurrent of race. Racial disparity is also the backdrop of South Afri- ca’s dominant public health challenge: HIV. About 19 percent of South Africans aged 18-49 is infected with HIV,282 although the trend is improving. However, HIV rates for black South Africans are dramati- cally higher than whites or other racial groups, revealing a persistent challenge amidst the intersection of race and poverty.283

In this newly open entertainment marketplace, ripe for humor and satire skewering South Africa’s social challenges, how does one of the globe’s hottest comedy scenes incorporate social and civic issues? Broadly speaking, South African comedy spans from political satire to more innocuous forms of comedy, examining serious issues such as poverty, high crime rates, the country’s vast socio-eco- nomic divide, and HIV; in fact, among South African comics, “there is a strong sense that the social, political and economic conditions in South Africa hand them real material because they were and still are a matter of life and death.”284 Functionally, a special breed of comedy in South Africa relies on comparisons of its profound social issues with other countries, but the comedy genre known as “South Africa is hard-core” serves a purpose: “Given the enormous and numerous social problems facing South Africa, perhaps this form of gallows humor is carving out a place of momentary and much needed reprieve, a moment of much needed sheer enjoyment.”285

South Africa’s comedy scene is dominated and shaped by talents who began as stand-up comedy and pain: it ’s comics. A godfather of South Africa’s par- ticular brand of civically-engaged comedy is a thin line between the the entertainer and activist Pieter-Dirk Uys, two. and south africans considered a legendary satirist known for his work speaking out against apartheid in darkly are excellent at producing amusing fashion, managing to avoid the heavy comedy because, well, censorship of the era. When asked how his comedy managed to cut though the censors we know the other side and have an impact, Uys said, “You can find very, very well. a way of dressing it [comedy] up and making it look like entertainment, and get people to kurt schoonraad, laugh at the thing that they don’t want to think south african comedian about. I learned during the apartheid years, that the truth is funnier. Humour is a great weapon of mass distraction.”286

Similarly, one of the first women comics in South Africa, Mel Jones, has stated that comedy in South Africa, which tends to be unapologetically direct when it comes to discussing race and apartheid-re- lated issues, serves a purpose in a rapidly-progressing civic culture beyond just entertainment: “It’s about changing the perception, the mindset. We plant a seed. We can’t force people to embrace the change, some of us are walkers, some of us are runners, but I think we are in a better place for comedy now. We are even talking about gay or transgender topics, it’s part of who we are, as South Africans.”287 But Jones and other comics caution that their comedy is quite culturally specific and known to offend audiences from other countries—including the United States and Britain—given their lack of lived experiences in other countries.288 Despite the fact that local jokes may be confusing to outsiders, the use of race as a kind of surrogate for social inequality may act as a global connector; “race is often shorthand for social differences, whether in South Africa, the United States or many other places.”289

42 the laughter effect: the [serious] role of comedy in social change Trevor Noah, now well-known in the United States and around the world since taking over The Daily Show hosting job vacated by Jon Stewart, rose through South Africa’s stand-up comedy ranks largely due to his provocative humor focused on race, albeit from the perspective of a mixed-race man (as he characterizes it, “born a crime”290). In an interview, he was precise about the differences between the U.S. and South African brand of stand-up comedy and its role in civic issues:

I think there’s a beautiful thing in that we haven’t seen the mass commercialization of com- edy in South Africa, so we still operate from a place of passion. Obviously, that’s changing every day. In America, there have been a few comedy bubbles. They burst. But you know where you could not watch a sitcom without seeing a stand-up comedian being the face of that, and so on? Stand-up comedy was always seen [in the U.S.] as a platform to get you to another level of stardom. Whereas I come from a world where stand-up comedy is the platform to a place of truth.291

In South Africa, despite the vast entertainment value of comedy, it may be seen more overtly as a cul- tural “pain reliever” than in the U.S. According to the perspective of comedy promotor Takunda Bimha, in South Africa, “Comedy comes from pain and because of that people need an outlet.”292

Bridging stand-up comedy and satire, Late Nite News, a wildly successful half-hour TV faux political news program that premiered in 2010, mirrors the formula of the U.S. program The Daily Show and has made stars of its creators. Considered “pioneers of in South Africa,” Kagiso Lediga and Loyiso Gola created the show and have since leveraged it as a funny mouthpiece to take on the country’s politics and social progress.293 The program features commentary and sketches by Legida and Gola, along with other young black stand-up comics and a mixed-race puppet political analyst character named Chester Missing, played by an award-winning comedy ventriloquist.294 At its height, The 2015 Comedy the program attracted more than a million viewers per episode, and in 2015, it was nominated for its Central International second International Emmy Award. But according to one of its creators, Late Night News is notable for Comedy Festival in another reason: “Until this show, no consistent black voice had been on a television channel poking South Africa, hosted fun at the government,” said Lediga.295 According to its creators, the comedy on the show turned the by Comedy Central, power dynamics of the country upside down, allowing people of color to comment on politics and civic featured more than 60 issues in ways that had been previously closed to them.296 comedians and a range Similarly, in 2012, comedy duo Nik Rabinowitz and Tats Nkonzo—one white, one black—created a of sketch, satire and hit South African stand-up show that played to sold-out theaters. The comedy was characteristically stand-up comedy acts. direct, taking on topics including religion, race and polygamy, “to help South Africans accept uncom- © Comedy Central fortable truths.”297 As Rabinowitz puts it, the comedy serves an overtly purposeful role in the context of pressing for continued social change in the backdrop of South Africa’s racist roots: “We do need to poke our fingers in certain places and say, ‘well, this is still going on,’ and I think particularly around Africa we need to do that—and we do.”298

South Africa’s stand-up comedy scene shows no signs of slowing down. In December 2015, Comedy Central Africa hosted the continent’s largest-ever international comedy show in South Africa, with plans to continue annually. The Comedy Central International Comedy Festival, hosted by Trevor Noah, was held over six days, featuring more than 60 comedians and a range of sketch, satire and stand-up comedy acts broadcast by Comedy Central Africa.299 The goal of the festival is far-reaching for Viacom International Media Networks (VIMN), with stated plans to produce local comedy that can resonate in international markets.300 With a new international spotlight due to the global crossover appeal of Trevor Noah, South Africa’s comedy influence may be well-equipped to push beyond country lines into international discussions about race, poverty, and inequality.

comedy in [social] action 43 leveraging comedy for social change questions to consider: what? What are you hoping to accomplish by leveraging comedy? What are the objectives? o Raise awareness? o Re-frame a known issue? o Encourage critical thinking? o Change minds or behavior? o Encourage sharing? why? Why is now the right time? o Is the timing strategic in the issue? o Can a timely call to action be used? who? Who are the audiences you hope to influence? o Do they know something about the issue already? o Do they have strong opinions about it? o Are they new to the issue?

Who is the messenger? o A trusted and liked source? o A new face? where? Where is this effort taking place? o Is the effort global? o Or local?

44 the laughter effect: the [serious] role of comedy in social change highlights & strategic recommendations

Let the comedy be The precise way in which comedy works as persuasion means its power is diluted if audiences are comedy. Don’t make aware they are being “messaged to” or persuaded. But comedy’s ability to amplify a message is it do a heavier lift. well-documented across comedy formats and research. Leave the comedy alone, and let it be opti- mally hilarious, without diluting it with overly massaged, safe constraints. This is hard to achieve in practice, but comedy may be useless otherwise. Send users and audience members to a website for more information, direct them to a separate serious place, and consider pairing the comedy appeals with other more serious information. At almost all costs, the serious information should be separate from the comedy. In other words, pair the comedy with the serious information and even a call to action, but don’t embed the serious information within the comedy itself.

Behavior change Leverage comedy to capture attention, cut through the clutter, provide access to new information, might not be the offer a way into complicated social issues, encourage sharing, and make memorable messages right objective for stick. As illustrated in research about both satire and comedy appeals in marketing around social comedy in the issues, raising awareness and attracting attention to a social issue through comedy is a worthwhile context of social pursuit. In this way, comedy can serve a reinforcing, amplifying role alongside serious news and change. information about social issues. And attention leads to sharing, fueling a multiplier effect of the original message. But behavior change may not be the most realistic objective for comedy when it comes to social issues.

Comedy alone is Comedy’s attention-getting power is most effective when paired with key advocacy moments or not a magic formula. milestones—a call to action that makes sense and is optimally timed. Examples include President Leverage comedy’s Obama’s discussion about the Affordable Care Act on Between Two Ferns before a crucial sign-up attention-getting deadline, and the If Men Had Periods video campaign to encourage awareness and signatures power with strategic around the Sustainable Development Goals. Simply producing and distributing a comedy piece— timing. without the infrastructure for change (specific call to action) or the appropriate urgent moment— likely won’t lead to influence that can make a difference.

Comedy is a power- In the context of social change, we seek to engage an activated, motivated audience—a group we ful media tool. want to learn, feel or do something—but the role of media outlets as amplifiers is crucial. Comedy’s The audience is ability to actually set a media agenda—making something into news or keeping an issue in the not just the public, media agenda in a prominent way—is well-documented by research and in practice. If comedy but media. content leads to news and media outlets picking up the message and engaging in additional report- ing, the effect of one comedy piece is magnified infinitely, increasing its ability to reach both target audiences and decision-makers who are able to directly impact the issue.

leveraging comedy for social change 45 Use satire to mobilize Using satirical comedy for social issues with well-established ideological or partisan perspectives will do a base of supporters, little to re-frame the issue for people who don’t already agree. In other words, satire about a well-estab- but don’t count on lished social issue with sides—gun control, climate change—may serve to validate a perspective, but it it to change minds won’t work to turn naysayers into the choir. Research supports the idea that people with deeply-held around deeply polar- partisan or ideological beliefs will retain them in the face of satire. Satire’s role is to serve as a gateway izing issues. to more complicated information. Explain it, satirize it, invite people to laugh at the situation, but don’t expect them to change their minds about issues with deeply-held ideological perspectives. For issues that are new or nascent—or for which ideological or partisan camps have not already divided the cul- ture—satire can be a good tool. Mobilizing a base of supporters is also a valuable way to use satire, particularly when the timing is strategic to coincide with a meaningful call to action.

Want to build empa- Don’t count on one episode to do it all in the long term. In entertainment programming, the power thy and connection is in the connection audiences develop with characters over time. Seeing unfamiliar characters or to people? Consistent divisive issues portrayed regularly builds a level of identification, even in a comedy format. Normal- entertainment por- izing the existence of people and ideas happens best through consistent portrayals, not necessarily trayals of characters one episode of a fuller series. can normalize people and ideas over time.

A consistent trusted A close parasocial relationship with the consistent messenger or host may explain the overt messenger may be social-action impact of examples like John Oliver’s bringing down the FCC site, or the viral impact the most powerful of the bail bond videos. He is trustworthy and liked. Research documents the importance of the mouthpiece. trusted messenger for the comedy to be persuasive.

Comedy is culturally Humor is culturally dependent on the ability of the audience to understand and identify. When using specific. Issues of rep- comedy or humor for public engagement around locally-specific issues, it won’t work to create the resentation matter humor without local voices and perspectives. Be very sure about your audience—local, national, in comedy’s effective- international? It matters in the talent who creates the comedy and the messages it promotes. ness for social issues.

Self-deprecating If the goal is to attract attention and help raise awareness about a new issue, self-deprecating humor is more humor is more powerful than mean-spirited or sharp-tongued humor. Be careful about the target powerful than mean- of the humor—it should never be the oppressed or powerless, even in pursuit of the laugh. Doing spirited humor in so risks backfiring. the context of social issues.

Comedy and news As research documents, comedy does not have to compete with news—instead, it complements sources can be pow- news coverage about social issues. In fact, comedy can open the cognitive doors for people to make erful allies, working sense of complex social issues, thus helping them to understand more serious news and infor- together to fuel mation about them in the future. With careful partnerships between comedy game-changers and social change. sources of serious news and information, this powerful connector role can be optimally synergistic in pursuit of social change.

46 the laughter effect: the [serious] role of comedy in social change conclusion & future Thanks to a confluence of factors—including the transforming digital media era and its influence on audience behavior, and converged forms of entertainment and information—comedy may be in the midst of a golden era of influence, both in the U.S. and around the world. Comics are seen as truth-tellers and public influencers. We get news from comedy sources, comedy attracts attention and encourages sharing, comedy amplifies the insights we gather from more serious forms of news and information. Comedy can both set a media agenda and intellectually open doors to complex topics, helping us to pay attention to more serious information over time. We learn and are entertained through comedy, but comedy’s influence is less about learning and more about caring and feeling. It can help us to think about other people and somber issues in ways that inspire hope and optimism. When it comes to social and civic issues in particular, comedy’s superpower may be its simplest—that is, its ability to attract audiences to topics to which they might not otherwise choose to expose themselves—or about which they have disengaged. This is not merely a simple marketing function, but a potentially powerful impact to seriously consider as we contemplate ways to engage audiences on daunting challenges.

But comedy is specific in its persuasive impact. Its influential muscle comes from its ability to entertain and absorb us into the humor itself—it won’t work for audiences who know they are being “messaged to” through only mildly funny material. Comedy must, in other words, be permitted to go all the way. It may be too much to hope that com- you hear people say, edy can change minds—at least right away, in the short term. Most importantly, comedy ‘there’s so much suffer- shouldn’t be imagined as a simple tactical ing in the world, jokes tool, as that thinking reduces it—falsely—to a ’ lab-created mechanism able to create predict- are inappropriate. able effects. Comedy is culturally specific and i say hunger is often misunderstood when it is ambiguous, as in some forms of satire. That said, we can and inappropriate. poverty should expand our purposeful study of com- is inappropriate. lies edy and its intersection with social change on and hypocrisy from the pressing social issues of our time. governments, that’s Despite what we now know, there is a tremen- dous amount we don’t know, which points to inappropriate. future innovation and inquiry. Within the con- hasan minhaj, stand up planet text of comedy’s intersection with social change, three particular gaps are worth examining: First, research about the long-term impact of comic portrayals of people and issues in entertainment program- ming is almost non-existent. Next, although research about the civic influence of political satire news pro- grams is well-established, there is almost none that examines the intersection of social issues such as global poverty and the role of comedy. And finally, despite many notable case studies of comedy appeals or stunts attempted in social change, most do not include evaluations of social impact beyond reach.

Moving forward, expanding these lines of work—and creating intentional conversations between researchers, social-change strategists and thinkers, and comic talents—would inform and shape our public engagement solutions to issues that matter the most. Considering the challenges we face as global citizens, it may be well worth the risk.

conclusion & future 47 Berger, S. (2015, September 21). ‘Transpar- Chotirmall, M. (2015, September 14). Comedy is references ent’ is more than a TV show, creator says: serious business. Retrieved from http://asiaso- It’s part of a ‘movement’. Washington Post. ciety.org/india/comedy-serious-business ABC. (2014, May 21). Modern Family: Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost. Season Finale: The Wedding, Part 2. Chutel, L. (2015, June 4). South African comedy com/lifestyle/style/transparent-is-more- ABC. Retrieved from http://abc.go.com/ scene that launched new “Daily Show” host than-a-tv-show-says-emmy-winning-cre- shows/modern-family/episode-guide/ Noah still laughs at race. The Star Tribune. ator-its-part-of-a-movement/2015/09/21/ season-5/24-season-finale-the-wedding-part-2 Retrieved from http://www.startribune.com/ f7d5efd2-5cb3-11e5-8e9e-dce8a2a2a679_ race-jokes-in-south-africa-an-oldie-but- Alfarra, J. (2015, June 5). Gaza’s stand-up show story.html goodie/306148431/ brings laughter to adversity. Middle East Eye. Bhat, S. & Griffin, P. (2013, February 4). Standup Retrieved from http://www.middleeasteye.net/ Cline, T.W. & Kellaris, J.J. (1999). The joint impact comedy is finding its feet in India. Forbes India. in-depth/features/gazas-stand-show-brings- of humor and argument strength in a print Retrieved from http://forbesindia.com/article/ laughter-adversity-357489642 advertising context: A case for weaker argu- special/standup-comedy-is-finding-its-feet-in- ments. Psychology and Marketing, 16, 69–86. Allen, L. (2014). Don’t forget, Thursday is india/34629/2 test[icle]! The use of humour in sexuality Cohen, R. & Richards, R. When the truth hurts, Bianco, R. (2015, August 2). King Lear changed education. Sex Education: Sexuality, Society and tell a joke: Why America needs its comedians. American television. USA Today. Retrieved Learning, 14(4), 387-399. doi:10.1080/14681811. Retrieved from http://www.humanityinaction. from http://www.usatoday.com/story/life/tv/ 2014.918539 org/knowledgebase/174-when-the-truth-hurts- columnist/2015/08/01/king-lear/31000883/ tell-a-joke-why-america-needs-its-comedians. All India Bakchod. (2013, September 19). Rape - Blake, A. (2015, March 12). ‘Between Two It’s Your Fault [Video file]. Retrieved from https:// Collison, S. (2015, February 11). How Jon Ferns’ video leads to 40 percent more visits to www..com/watch?v=8hC0Ng_ajpY Stewart changed politics. CNN. Retrieved from HealthCare.gov. The Washington Post. Retrieved http://www.cnn.com/2015/02/10/politics/ ALS Association. (2015, April 20). Impact of the from https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/ how-jon-stewart-changed-politics/ Ice Bucket Challenge. Retrieved from http:// post-politics/wp/2014/03/12/between-two- www.alsa.org/news/archive/impact-of-ice- ferns-video-leads-to-40-percent-more-visits-to- Comedy Gives Back. (2015). Retrieved from bucket-challenge.html healthcare-gov/ http://comedygivesback.com/ Amarasingam, A. (2010). Laughter the best med- Blanc, N., & Brigaud, E., (2014). Humor in print Cooper, S., & Dickinson, D. (2013) Just jokes! icine: Muslim comedians and social criticism in health advertisements: Enhanced attention, Icebreakers, innuendo, teasing and talking: post-9/11 America. Journal of Muslim Minority privileged recognition, and persuasiveness of The role of humour in HIV/AIDS peer education Affairs, 30(4), 463-477. preventive messages. Health Communication, 29, among university students, African Journal of 669-677. AIDS Research, 12(4), 229-238. Argetsinger, A. (2015, April 26). Watch more of Keegan-Michael Key as ‘Luther,’ Obama’s Bore, I.-L. K., & Reid, G., (2014). Laughing in the Comic Relief. (n.d.). About Us. Retrieved from ‘anger translator’. Washington Post. Retrieved face of climate change? Satire as a device for http://www.comicrelief.com/about-us from https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/ engaging audiences in public debate. Science DeLaure, M. (2011). Environmental Comedy: reliable-source/wp/2015/04/26/watch-more-of- Communication, 36(4), 454-478. No Impact Man and the Performance of Green keegan-michael-key-as-luther-obamas-anger- Brody, B. (2015, February 26). How John Oliver Identity. Environmental Communication, 5(4), translator/ transformed the net neutrality debate once and 447-466. Bartsch, A., & Schneider, F. M. (2014). Entertain- for all. Bloomberg. Retrieved from http://www. Delli Carpini, M. X., & Williams, B. A. (2001). Let ment and politics revisited: how non-escapist bloomberg.com/politics/articles/2015-02-26/ us infotain you: Politics in the new media age. forms of entertainment can stimulate political how-john-oliver-transformed-the-net-neutrali- In W. L. Bennett & R. M. Entman (Eds.), Mediated interest and information seeking. Journal of ty-debate-once-and-for-all politics: Communication in the future of democ- Communication, 64(3), 369-396. Brodie, I. (2014). A vulgar art: A new approach to racy (pp. 160-181). Cambridge, UK ; New York: Baum, M. (2003). Soft news goes to war: Public stand-up comedy. Jackson, MS: University Press Cambridge University Press. opinion and American foreign policy in the new of Mississippi. Desowitz, B. (2015, December 06). ‘Comedians’ media age. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Cameron, J. (2015). Can poverty be funny? The tells story behind the laughs. [Review of the Press. serious use of humour as a strategy of public book The Comedians: Drunks, Thieves, Scoundrels, Baym, G. (2006). The Daily Show: Discursive engagement for global justice. Third World and the History of American Comedy by Kliph Nes- integration and the reinvention of political jour- Quarterly, 36(2), 274-290. teroff].USA Today. Retrieved from http://www. nalism. Political Communication, 22(3), 259-276. usatoday.com/story/life/books/2015/12/06/ Campbell, R., Martin, C., Fabos, B. (2012). Media the-comedians-drunks-thieves-scoundrels-and- Beam, C. (2015, May 21). Can China Take a Joke? and culture: An introduction to mass communica- the-history-of-american-comedy/76333820/ The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www. tion. New York, NY: Bedford/St. Martin. nytimes.com/2015/05/24/magazine/can-china- Diamond, D. (2014, August 29). The ALS Ice Campo, S., Askelson, N. M., Spies, E., Boxer, C., take-a-joke.html?_r=1 Bucket Challenge has raised $100 million—and Scharp, K. M., Losch, M. E., (2013). “Wow, that counting. Forbes. Retrieved from http://www. Becker, A. B., & Haller, B. A. (2014). When was funny”: The value of exposure and humor forbes.com/sites/dandiamond/2014/08/29/ political comedy turns personal: Humor types, in fostering campaign message sharing. Social the-als-ice-bucket-challenge-has-raised-100m- audience evaluations, and attitudes. The Marketing Quarterly, 19(2), 84-96. but-its-finally-cooling-off/ Howard Journal of Communication, 25, 34-55. Carrington, D. (2014, March 3). Kenyan Dogra, N. (2012). Representations of global pov- Beer, J. (2015, June 25). Anatomy of A comedy finds laughs in charities ‘saving erty: Aid, development and international NGOs. Cannes Contender: How Funny Or Die Got Africa.’ CNN. Retrieved from: http:// New York, NY: Palgrave McMillan. President Obama “Between Two Ferns”. www..com/2014/03/03/world/africa/ Fast Company. Retrieved from http://www. kenyan-comedy-samaritans/ Donovan, T.W. (2010, October 28). Funny or Die: fastcocreate.com/3047529/behind-the-brand/ Chevron ‘We Agree’ ad spoofed for ‘Chevron Chaffee, S.E., & Roser, C. (1986). Involvement anatomy-of-a-cannes-contender-how-funny- Thinks We’re Stupid’ Campaign. Huffington Post. and the consistency of knowledge, attitudes or-die-got-president-obama-between- Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost. and behaviors. Communication Research, 13(3), com/2010/10/28/funny-or-die-spoofs- Berger, M. (2014, February 11). Want To Work At 373-399. chevr_n_774893.html An NGO? Check Out This Kenyan Mockumen- Chevron Toxico. (2010, November 17). Press tary First. Buzzfeed. Retrieved from http://www. Downe, P. J. (1999). Laughing when it hurts: Release: Comedy video rips Chevron’s new buzzfeed.com/miriamberger/want-to-work-at- Humor and violence in the lives of Costa Rican “greenwashing” PR campaign. Retrieved from: an-ngo-check-out-this-kenyan-mockumenta- prostitutes. Women’s Studies International http://chevrontoxico.com/news-and-multi- ry-fi#.mb4R8Mrobp Forum, 22(1), 63–78. media/2010/1117-comedy-video-rips-chev- rons-new-greenwashing-pr-campaign

48 the laughter effect: the [serious] role of comedy in social change Dreisinger, B. (2015, March 6). Black comedians Framke, C. (2016, March 1). Why Full Frontal Harris, D. (2013, March 16). Comic Relief in South Africa put power in the punch lines. With Samantha Bee could be the defining raises £75m with fun and stunts. The The New York Times. Retrieved from http:// late-night show of 2016. Vox. Retried from Guardian. Retrieved from http://www. www.nytimes.com/2015/03/08/arts/television/ http://www.vox.com/2016/3/8/11176780/ theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2013/mar/17/ black-comedians-in-south-africa-put-power-in- full-frontal-samantha-bee-late-night-host comic-relief-raises-75m the-punch-lines.html?_r=0 Fraustino, J. D., & Ma, L. (2015). CDC’s Here & Now. (2015, May 12). “Halal In The Edingurgh Festival Fringe. (n.d.). About the Use of Social Media and Humor in a Risk Family” Uses Sitcom Humor To Skewer Muslim Edinburgh Festival Fringe. Retrieved from Campaign—“Preparedness 101: Zombie Stereotypes. WBUR. Retrieved from http:// https://www.edfringe.com/about-us Apocalypse.” Journal of Applied Communication, hereandnow.wbur.org/2015/05/12/halal-in-the- 222-241. family Eisend, M. (2009). A meta-analysis of humor in advertising. Journal of Academy of Marketing Friedlander, W. (2015, September 20). ‘Trans- Heath, M. (1989). Aristotelian Comedy. Classical Science, 37, 191–203. parent,’ Amazon break new ground with Emmy Quarterly, 39(2), 344-354. wins. Variety. Retrieved from http://variety. Eisend, M. (2011). How humor in advertising Holbert, R. L., Hmielowski, J., Jain, P., Lather, J., & com/2015/tv/news/transparent-amazon-break- works: A meta-analytic test of alternative Morey, A. (2011). Adding nuance to the study of new-ground-with-emmy-wins-1201598229/ models. Marketing Letters, 22, 115–132. political humor effects: Experimental research Funny Or Die. (n.d.). About Funny Or Die. on Juvenalian satire versus Horatian satire. Elan, P. (2015, December 12). Best TV of Retrieved from https://www.funnyordie.com/ American Behavioral Scientist, 55, 187–211. 2015: No 6—Master of None. The Guardian. about Retrieved from http://www.theguardian.com/ Holbert, R. L., Tchernev, J. M., Walther, W. O., tv-and-radio/tvandradioblog/2015/dec/12/ Gadino, D. (2013, October 10). Comedy Gives Esralew, S. E., Benski, K., (2013). Young voter best-of-tv-2015-no-6-master-of-none Back and Dailymotion will launch worldwide perceptions of political satire as persuasion: A benefit for Malaria No More. Laughspin. focus on perceived influence, persuasive intent, Ellis, J. (2012, February 7). Race, polygamy com. Retrieved from http://www.laughspin. and message strength. Journal of Broadcasting and politics: South African comic duo stir com/2013/10/10/comedy-gives-back-and-dai- and Electronic Media, 57(2), 170-186. up stereotypes. CNN. Retrieved from http:// lymotion-will-launch-worldwide-benefit-for- edition.cnn.com/2012/02/07/showbiz/ Hollander, B. A., (2005). Late-night learning: malaria-no-more/ rabinowitz-nkonzo-africa-comedy/ Do entertainment programs increase political Galanes, P. (2015, June 26). Norman Lear and campaign knowledge for young viewers? Journal Esposito, J. (2015, December 23). 10 great Seth McFarlane and their TV families. The New of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 49(4), pp. Netflix original stand-up comedy specials. York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes. 405-415. IGN. Retrieved from http://www.ign.com/ com/2015/06/28/style/norman-lear-and-seth- articles/2015/12/23/10-great-netflix-origi- Internet Society. (n.d.). Global Internet Report macfarlane-and-their-tv-families.html?_r=0 nal-stand-up-comedy-specials 2015. Retrieved from http://www.internetsoci- Garber, M. (2015, May 28). How comedians ety.org/globalinternetreport/assets/download/ Feldman, L. (2013a). Cloudy with a chance of became public intellectuals. The Atlantic. IS_web.pdf heat balls: The portrayal of global warming on Retrieved from http://www.theatlantic.com/ The Daily Show and The Colbert Report. Interna- Jones, N., Twardzicki, M., Ryan, J., Jackson, T., entertainment/archive/2015/05/how-comedi- tional Journal of Communication, 7, 430 - 451. Fertout, M., Henderson, C., & Greenberg, N. ans-became-public-intellectuals/394277/ (2014). Modifying attitudes to mental health Feldman, L. (2013). Learning about politics from Goldman, N. (2013). Comedy and democracy: using comedy as a delivery medium. Social The Daily Show: The role of viewer orientation The role of comedy in social justice. Retrieved Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 49(10), and processing motivations. Mass Communica- from http://animatingdemocracy.org/sites/ 1667-76. tion and Society, 16(4), 586 - 607. default/files/Humor%20Trend%20Paper.pdf Just For Laughs Comedy Festival Website. (n.d.). Feldman, L., Leiserowitz, A., & Maibach, E., Good Magazine. (2013, June 8). Poverty porn Retrieved from http://www.hahaha.com/en (2011). The Science of satire: The Daily Show and a new way to regard social impact. Good. and The Colbert Report as sources of public Katz, E., Blumler, J., & Gurevitch, M. (1974). Retrieved from http://magazine.good.is/arti- attention to science and the environment. Utilization of mass communication by the cles/poverty-porn-and-a-new-way-to-regard- In A. Amarasingam (Ed.), The Stewart/Colbert individual. In J. Blumler & E. Katz (Eds.), The uses social-impact effect: Essays on the real impact of fake news, (pp. of mass communication: Current perspectives on 25-46). Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company. Gorenstein, C. (2015, June 8). John Oliver blasts gratifications research (pp. 19–34). Beverly Hills, the U.S. bail system for locking up poor people CA: Sage. Feiler, B. (2011, January 21). What ‘Modern regardless of guilt. Salon. Retrieved from Family’ says about modern families. The New Kaufman, S. E. (2015, July 8). John Oliver gets http://www.salon.com/2015/06/08/john_oli- York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes. results! New York City to change bail require- ver_blasts_the_u_s_bail_system_for_lock- com/2011/01/23/fashion/23THISLIFE.html ments for low-level offenders. Salon. Retrieved ing_up_poor_people_regardless_of_guilt/ from http://www.salon.com/2015/07/08/john_ Fleishman Hillard. (n.d.). That Guy. Retrieved Green, M. C., & Brock, T. C. (2000). The role of oliver_gets_results_new_york_city_to_change_ from http://fleishmanhillard.com/work/ transportation in the persuasiveness of public bail_requirements_for_low_level_offenders/ department-of-defensetricare-management-ac- narratives. Journal of Personality and Social tivity-that-guy/ Kim, Y. M., & Vishak, J., (2008). Just laugh! Psychology, 79, 701-721. You don’t need to remember: The effects of Fowler, J. (2008). The Colbert Bump in campaign Greenpeace (2007, December 10). Mister entertainment media on political information donations: More truthful than truthy. PS: Splashy Pants the whale—you named him, now acquisition and information processing in Political Science & Politics, 03, 533-539. save him. Retrieved from http://www.green- political judgment. Journal of Communication, 58, Fox, Z. (2012, March 8). YouTube reveals peace.org/international/en/campaigns/oceans/ 338-360. its pick of the non-profits for next cause fit-for-the-future/whaling/mister-splashy-pants/ Kokra, S. (2014, August 19). India’s sassiest summit. . Retrieved from http:// Greenpeace. (n.d.). Who’s Mister Splashy comedian: Aditi Mittal. Ozy. Retrieved mashable.com/2012/03/08/youtube-non-prof- Pants? Retrieved from http://www.greenpeace. from http://www.ozy.com/performance/ its-next-cause/#QqJTwyrgPgq4 org/international/en/campaigns/oceans/ indias-sassiest-comedian-aditi-mittal/33168 Franklin, Robert G., Jr, & Adams, Reginald B., Jr. fit-for-the-future/whaling/mister-splashy-pants/ Kornhaber, S. (2015, June 26). The Modern (2011). The reward of a good joke: Neural cor- Halterman, J. (2015, December 11). The road Family effect: pop culture’s role in the gay-mar- relates of viewing dynamic displays of stand-up to ‘Transparent’: A history of transgender riage revolution. The Atlantic. Retrieved from comedy. Cognitive, Affective and Behavioral characters on TV. Mashable. Retrieved http://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/ Neuroscience, 11(4), 508-515. from http://mashable.com/2015/12/11/ archive/2015/06/gay-marriage-legalized-mod- road-to-transparent/#Y4PMs9Fe4kqR ern-family-pop-culture/397013/

references 49 Michael, J. (2013). American Muslims stand up Oliver, M.B. (September 2003). African American references and speak out: Trajectories of humor in Muslim men as “criminal and dangerous”: implications [continued] American stand-up comedy. Contemporary of media portrayals of crime on the “criminaliza- Kornhaber, S. (2015, December 14). The Islam, 7(2), 129-153. tion” of African American men. Journal of African American Studies, 7(2), 3-18. Brilliant Challenge of Transparent. The Mintz, L. (1985). Standup comedy as social and Atlantic. Retrieved from http://www.theat- cultural mediation. American Quarterly, 37(1), Onishi, N., and Itzkoff, D. (2015, April 2). Trevor lantic.com/entertainment/archive/2015/12/ 71-80. Noah sees childhood under apartheid as license transparent-season-two-review/419943/ to speak his mind. The New York Times. Retrieved Mittal, A. (2015, January 22). Freedom to laugh. from http://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/03/ Kramer, J. (2015, December 10). The 10 best DNA India. Retrieved from http://www.dnaindia. arts/television/for-trevor-noah-a-comic-sensi- comedy podcasts and comedy podcast epi- com/lifestyle/column-freedom-to-laugh-writes- bility-shaped-by-the-scars-of-apartheid.html sodes of 2015. Vulture. Retrieved from http:// aditi-mittal-2054571 www.vulture.com/2015/12/best-comedy-pod- Onishi, N. (2015, December 5). Nigeria’s comics Montagne, R. (2015, December 21). ‘The Come- casts-and-episodes-of-2015.html# pull punch lines from deeper social ills. The dians’ stand-up history and some laughs [Radio New York Times. Retrieved from http://www. LaMarre, H. L., Landreville, K. D., & Beam, M. Interview]. Retrieved from http://www.npr. nytimes.com/2015/12/06/world/africa/nigerias- A., (2009). The irony of satire: Political ideology org/2015/12/21/460536760/the-comedians- comics-pull-punch-lines-from-deeper-social-ills. and the motivation to see what you want to see stand-up-history-and-some-laughs. in The Colbert Report. International Journal of html?_r=1 Montopoli, B. (2013, February 8). Is the Press/Politics, 14(2), 212-231. Palmer, J. (1994). Taking humour seriously. U.S. bail system unfair? CBS. Retrieved London, UK: Routledge. Lennon, S. (2012, November 28). Africa from http://www.cbsnews.com/news/ For Norway: Viral video pokes fun at is-the-us-bail-system-unfair/ Paskin, W. (2016, February 9). Full Frontal stereotypes in aid efforts. NPR. Retrieved with Samantha Bee. Slate. Retrieved from Morris, A. (2015, April 24). Did State Department from http://www.npr.org/sections/ http://www.slate.com/articles/arts/televi- really send three comedians to India on ‘Make thetwo-way/2012/11/28/166095383/africa- sion/2016/02/full_frontal_with_samantha_bee_ Chai, Not War’ tour? Politifact.com. Retrieved for-norway-viral-video-pokes-fun-at-stereo- reviewed.html types-in-aid-efforts from http://www.politifact.com/new-hampshire/ statements/2015/apr/24/rand-paul/did-state-de- Pathfinder International (2012). No Joke. Choice Levine, R. (2015, July 17). How MTV is trying to partment-really-send-three-comedians-i/ Matters. Everywhere. Retrieved from http:// reinvent itself to combat sinking ratings and www.pathfinder.org/notfunny.html disinterested teens. Billboard.com. Retrieved Moyer-Guse, E., Mahood, C., & Brookes, S., from http://www.billboard.com/articles/busi- (2011). Entertainment education in the context Peabody Awards. (2014). Award profile: ness/6634425/-reinvention-sinking-ratings- of humor: Effects on safer sex intentions and Inside Amy Schumer. Retrieved from http:// staff-changes-new-shows risk perceptions. Health Communication, 26, www.peabodyawards.com/award-profile/ 765-744. inside-amy-schumer Love, M. (2014, May 8). Listen Up: The 20 best comedy podcasts right now. . Moy, P., Xenos, M. A., & Hess, V. K., (2005). Prim- Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). The elab- Retrieved from http://www.rollingstone.com/ ing effects of late-night comedy. International oration likelihood model of persuasion. In L. culture/pictures/listen-up-the-20-best-comedy- Journal of Public Opinion Research, 18(2), 199-210. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology Vol. 19, (pp. 123-205). New York, NY: podcasts-right-now-20140508 Murphy, S.T., Frank, L.B., Moran, M.B. & Pat- Academic Press. Luckerson, V. (2015, July 10). How the ‘John noe-Woodley, P. (2011). Involved, transported, Oliver Effect’ is having a real-life impact. Time. or emotional? Exploring the determinants of Pew Research Center. (2008, May 08). Journal- Retrieved from http://time.com/3674807/ change in knowledge, attitudes, and behavior in ism, Satire or Just Laughs? “The Daily Show with john-oliver-net-neutrality-civil-forfei- entertainment-education. Journal of Communi- Jon Stewart,” Examined. Retrieved from http:// ture-miss-america/ cation, 61, 407–431. www.journalism.org/2008/05/08/journalism- satire-or-just-laughs-the-daily-show-with-jon- Nabi, R., Moyer-Guse, E.´ & Byrne, S. (2007). All Madhwani, M. (2015, December 28). Why On stewart-examined/#fn1 Air with AIB should be renewed for season two. Joking Aside: A Serious Investigation into the India.com. Retrieved from http://www.india. Persuasive Effect of Funny Social Issue Mes- Pew Research Center. (2014). Internet Use com/showbiz/why-on-air-with-aib-should-be- sages. Communication Monographs. 74(1), 29-54. Over Time. Retrieved from http://www. pewinternet.org/data-trend/internet-use/ renewed-for-season-two-817932/ Nanin, J.E., Bimbi, D.S., Grov, C., & Parsons, internet-use-over-time/ Maheshwari, L. (2014, September 19). India’s J.T. (2009). Community reactions to a syphilis new wave of comedians laugh in the face of prevention campaign for gay and bisexual men Pew Research Center. (n.d.). Three technology taboos. The Guardian. Retrieved from http:// in Los Angeles County. Journal of Sex Research. revolutions. Retrieved from http://www.pewin- www.theguardian.com/stage/2014/sep/19/ 46(6): 525–534. ternet.org/three-technology-revolutions/ india-comedians-standups-varun-grover-adi- Nesteroff, K. (2015). The comedians: Drunks, Pew Research Center. (2012, July 16). YouTube & ti-mittal thieves, scoundrels and the history of American news. Retrieved from http://www.journalism. Malan, M. (2014, April 1). SA has highest comedy. New York, NY: Grove Press. org/2012/07/16/youtube-news/ number of new HIV infections worldwide. Mail Njanji, S. (2015, December 27). South Africa Pew Research Center. (2015, November 23). & Guardian. Retrieved from http://mg.co.za/ laughs at race as comedy provides pain relief. Beyond distrust: how Americans view their article/2014-04-01-sa-holds-highest-number- Rape - It’s Your Fault. Times Live. Retrieved government. Retrieved from http://www. of-new-hiv-infections-worldwide-survey from http://www.timeslive.co.za/entertain- people-press.org/2015/11/23/beyond-distrust- Malaria No More. (2010, October 14). Seriously, ment/2015/12/27/South-Africa-laughs-at-race- how-americans-view-their-government/ as-comedy-provides-pain-relief Serious PSA [Video File]. Retrieved from https:// Poniewozik, J. (2015, February 10). Jon Stewart, www.youtube.com/watch?v=1J_pSEXVH0c NPR. (2015, May 9). What is a ‘Good Muslim’ the fake newsman who made a real difference. McGugan, I. (2014, November 14). The ice- anyway? A podcast disrupts the narra- Time. Retrieved from http://time.com/3704321/ bucket racket. The New York Times. Retrieved tive. NPR: All Things Considered. Podcast jon-stewart-daily-show-fake-news/ retrieved from http://www.npr.org/sections/ from http://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/16/ Poniewozik, J. (2015, November 2). Review: codeswitch/2015/05/09/405316098/what-is-a- magazine/the-ice-bucket-racket.html?_r=0 Aziz Ansari, in ‘Master of None,’ negotiates good-muslim-anyway-a-podcast-disrupts-the- technology and social mores. The New York McNamara, M. (2015, September 9). Here’s why narrative the outrageously important ‘Key & Peele’ is Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes. comedy’s jam. The Los Angeles Times. Retrieved Nussbaum, E. (2015, May 11). The little tramp. com/2015/11/06/arts/television/review-aziz-an- from http://www.latimes.com/entertainment/tv/ The New Yorker. Retrieved from http://www. sari-in-master-of-none-negotiates-technolo- la-et-st-key-peele-impact-20150909-column.html newyorker.com/magazine/2015/05/11/ gy-and-social-mores.html?_r=0 the-little-tramp

50 the laughter effect: the [serious] role of comedy in social change Popkin, S.L. (1994). The reasoning voter: Samiezade’-Yazd, S. (2015, April 21). Halal in Sood, A. (2015, January 3). Rewriting the Communication and persuasion in presidential the Family: America’s newest sitcom family comic history of India with Vir Das. The campaigns, 1st Edition. Chicago, IL: University of happens to be Muslim. The Guardian. Retrieved Sunday Guardian. Retrieved from http:// Chicago Press. from http://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-ra- www.sunday-guardian.com/artbeat/ dio/2015/apr/21/halal-in-the-family-mus- rewriting-the-comic-history-of-india-with-vir-das Popkin, P. (2015, July 15). BP staff “deeply lim-american-aasif-mandvi affected” by coffee spill parody video. Con- Snyder, S.J. (2010, June 10). BP spoof: ‘Don’t sumerist. Retrieved from http://consumerist. Schiappa, E., Gregg, P., & Hewes, D. (2005). The Worry: It’s a Small Spill on a Very Large Table.’ com/2010/07/15/bp-staff-deeply-affected-by- para social contact hypothesis. Communication Time. Retrieved from http://newsfeed.time. coffee-spill-parody-video/ Monographs, 72(1), 92–115. com/2010/06/10/bp-spoof-don%E2%80%99t- worry-it%E2%80%99s-a-small-spill-on-a-very- Quirk, S. (2015). Why stand-up matters: How Schonfeld, Z. (2015, September 16). large-table/. comedians manipulate and influence. United Q&A: Trevor Noah on The Daily Show, Kingdom: Bloomsbury Methuen. comedy diversity and why he’s not sorry Spinger, U. (2015). It’s only funny if it’s true: about those tweets. Newsweek. Retrieved The role of comedy in society. Cape Chame- Ramakrishnan, S. (2015, October 29). Make way from http://www.newsweek.com/ leon, Issue 24. Retrieved from: http://www. for India’s answer to John Oliver: ‘On Air with trevor-noah-daily-show-jon-stewart-372702 capechameleon.co.za/printed-issue/issue-24/ AIB’ packs a humourous punch. Retrieved from art-and-culture1/ http://www.firstpost.com/bollywood/make- Schwartz, H. (2015, June 8). John Oliver’s way-for-indias-answer-to-john-oliver-on-air- new target: The bail bond industry and Stand Up Planet. (n.d.). About KCETLink Media. with-aib-packs-a-humourous-punch-2487796. bounty hunters. The Washington Post. Retrieved from http://www.standupplanet.org/ html Retrieved from https://www.washington- mission-team/ post.com/news/the-fix/wp/2015/06/08/ Rawoot, I. (2013, October 20). Saudi comedy Stanley, T.L. (2015, January 13). The Onion john-oliver-on-bail-bonds-and-bounty-hunters/ shows on YouTube a big hit with youth. Al-Moni- tries to sell Millennials on Obamacare— tor. Retrieved from http://www.almonitor.com/ Scroll.in (2015, August 29). Online comedy seriously. Mashable. Retrieved from pulse/ja/contents/articles/culture/2013/10/ movement: How Indian comedy groups are http://mashable.com/2015/01/13/ saudi-stand-up-comedy-taboo.html# rewriting the internet for themselves and social the-onion-obamacare/#me9chu23Vuq7 change. Scroll.in. Retrieved from http://video. Red Bulletin Magazine. Kagiso Lediga: Sternberg, S. (2004, July 11). Condoms and scroll.in/307/how-indian-comedy-groups-are- youth made me fearless. The Red comedy to the rescue in Thailand. USA Today. rewriting-the-internet-for-themselves-and- Bulletin. Retrieved from https://www. Retrieved from http://usatoday30.usatoday. social-change redbulletin.com/za/en/bullevard/ com/life/people/2004-07-11-thailand-condom- kagiso-lediga-youth-made-me-fearless Seirlis, J. K. (2011). Laughing all the way to king_x.htm freedom? Contemporary stand-up comedy Reevell, J. (2015, May 1). Egypt satirist Bassem Suebsaeng, A. (2013, October 28). Saudi Comic’s and democracy in South Africa. Humor, 24(4), Youssef on revolutions, superheroes and spies. “No Woman, No Drive” video goes viral, but he’s 513–530. BBC World News. Retrieved from http://www. “not a social activist.” Mother Jones. Retrieved bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-32482914 Shanahan, M. and Morgan, M. (1999). Television from http://www.motherjones.com/mixed-me- and its viewers: cultivation theory and research. dia/2013/10/no-woman-no-drive-viral-video- Reuters. (2015, October 4). World Bank: Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. saudi-arabia-hisham-fageeh-interview ‘extreme poverty’ to fall below 10% of world population for first time. The Guardian. Silver, M. (2015, April 20). Mr. Toilet and Mr. Suebsaeng, A. (2015, September 20). How Funny Retrieved from http://www.theguardian.com/ Condom think jokes will save the world. NPR. or Die is changing politics. . society/2015/oct/05/world-bank-extreme-pov- Retrieved from http://www.npr.org/sections/ Retrieved from http://www.thedailybeast.com/ erty-to-fall-below-10-of-world-population-for- goatsandsoda/2015/04/20/400990919/ articles/2015/09/19/how-funny-or-die-is-chang- first-time mr-toilet-and-mr-condom-think-jokes-will-save- ing-politics.html the-world. Rice, S. E. (2010). The National Security Impli- Sweney, M. (2014, August 23). Vice News sparks cations of Global Poverty. In Rice, S.E., Graff, Sims, D. (2015, September 11). Goodbye debate on engaging younger viewers. The C., & Pascual, C. (Eds.), Confronting poverty: and thank you, Key & Peele. The Atlantic. Guardian. Retrieved from http://www.theguard- Weak states and U.S. national security (pp. 1-22). Retrieved from http://www.theatlantic. ian.com/media/2014/aug/23/vice-news-young- Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press. com/entertainment/archive/2015/09/ er-viewers-bbc-channel-4-youtube-social-media key-peele-comedy-central-finale/404959/ Robinson, T. (2005, April 27). Norman Lear. A.V. Szalai, G. (2015, November 25). Comedy Central Club. Retrieved from http://www.avclub.com/ Sims, D. (2016, March 10). The Carmichael Show stars gear up for festival in Johannesburg. article/norman-lear-13929 proves sitcoms can still be provocative. The The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved from Atlantic. Retrieved from http://www.theat- http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/ Rodrigues, J. (2015, December 12). Radhika lantic.com/entertainment/archive/2016/03/ comedy-central-stars-gear-up-843533 Vaz, Questioning society through comedy. The the-carmichael-show-is-back-to-push-hot-but- Navhind Times. Retrieved from http://www. The Economist. (2015, August 15). To laugh or tons/473037/ navhindtimes.in/radhika-vaz-questioning-soci- cry: The rise of rainbow-nation rib-tickling. ety-through-comedy/ Simson, S. P., Wilson, L. B., Ruben, K. A., Thomp- The Economist. Retrieved from http://www. son, L. M., (2008) Humor Your Way to Good economist.com/news/middle-east-and-af- Rojas, R. (2015, July 8). New York City introduces Health. Journal of Intergenerational Relationships, rica/21661013-rise-rainbow-nation-rib-tickling- bail reform plan for low-level offenders. The 6(1), 83-100. laugh-or-cry New York Times. Retrieved from http://www. nytimes.com/2015/07/09/nyregion/new-york- Singhal, A., and Rogers, E. (1999). Entertain- The Guardian. (2013, October 30). Letters to the city-introduces-bail-reform-plan-for-low-level- ment-education: a communication strategy for editor: Joke’s on us: Why comedy has a place in offenders.html?_r=0 social change. New York, NY: Routledge. global development. The Guardian. Retrieved from: http://www.theguardian.com/global-de- Rosenbaum, S. (2012, April 16). Content Slovic, P. (2007). “If I look at the mass, I will never velopment-professionals-network/2013/oct/30/ curators are the new superheroes of act”: Psychic numbing and genocide. Judgment letters-comedy-in-campaigning-global-devel- the Web. Fast Company. Retrieved from and Decision Making, 2(2), 79-95. opment http://www.fastcompany.com/1834177/ Smedema, S. M., Ebener, D., & Grist-Gordon, content-curators-are-new-superheros-web UCB Comedy. (2010, June 9). BP Spills Coffee V., (2012). The impact of humorous media on [Video file]. Retrieved from: https://www. Rusty Radiator Website. (n.d.). The Radiator attitudes toward persons with disabilities. youtube.com/watch?v=2AAa0gd7ClM Awards 2015. Retrieved from http://www. Disability & Rehabilitation, 34(17), 1431-1437. rustyradiator.com/ Ungar, S. (2000). Knowledge, ignorance, and the popular culture: Climate change versus the ozone hole. Public Understanding of Science, 9(3), 297-312.

references 51 Weber, K., Martin, M. M., Corrigan, M., & Mem- references bers of COMM 401 (2006). Creating persuasive endnotes [continued] message advocating organ donation. Communi- 1 Montopoli, 2013. UNAIDS. (n.d.). South Africa Fact Sheet, 2014. cation Quarterly, 54(1), 67–87. 2 Rojas, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.unaids.org/en/ Wheeler Opera House. (n.d.). The Aspen Laff 3 Kaufman, 2015. regionscountries/countries/southafrica Festival. Retrieved from http://www.wheelerop- 4 Gorenstein, 2015. United Nations. (n.d.). End Poverty Millennium erahouse.com/events/aspen-laff-festival 5 Schwartz, 2015. Development Goals and Beyond 2015: Poverty Williams, T., & Shelton, M. (2014, September 6 Rojas, 2015. Fact Sheet. Retrieved from http://www.un.org/ 5). What drove spike in public comments 7 Kaufman, 2015. millenniumgoals/poverty.shtml on net neutrality? Likely, a comedian. Pew 8 U.S. Centers for Disease Control & United Nations. (n.d.). End Poverty Millennium Research Center. Retrieved from http://www. Prevention, 2011. pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/09/05/what- Development Goals and Beyond 2015: Prevent- 9 Fraustino & Ma, 2015. drove-spike-in-public-comments-on-net-neu- able Diseases Fact Sheet. Retrieved from http:// 10 Fraustino & Ma, 2015. www.un.org/millenniumgoals/aids.shtml trality-likely-a-comedian/ 11 Rosenbaum, 2012. Wilkinson, H. (2016, January 25). The anatomy U.S. Centers for Disease Control & Pre- 12 Delli Carpini & Williams, 2001. vention. (2011, May 16). Public Health of a campaign: ‘If men had periods’ by WaterAid. The Guardian. Retrieved from http://www. 13 Pew Research Center. Matters Blog. Retrieved from http://blogs. Internet use over time. cdc.gov/publichealthmatters/2011/05/ theguardian.com/global-development-profes- 14 Pew Research Center. preparedness-101-zombie-apocalypse/ sionals-network/2016/jan/25/if-men-had-peri- ods-wateraid-menstruation-sanitation Three technology revolutions. VanDerWerff, T. (2015, September 27). The 15 Internet Society. Global Internet Black-ish season premiere was the best World Health Organization. (2014). Poverty and Report, p. 4. Health Fact Sheet. Retrieved from http://www. episode of TV this week. Vox. Retrieved from 16 Pew Research Center, 2012. who.int/hdp/poverty/en/ http://www.vox.com/2015/9/27/9403993/ 17 Sweney, 2014. blackish-season-2-premiere Xenos, M.A., & Becker, A.B. (2009). Moments of 18 Zax, 2014. zen: Effects of The Daily Show on information Venteicher, W. (2014, October 6). Illinois pre- 19 Delli Carpini & Williams, 2001. pares for 2nd round of Obamacare. Chicago seeking and political learning. Political Communi- cation, 26(3), 317-332. 20 See Feldman, 2013a; Feldman, Tribune. Retrieved from http://www.chicagotri- 2013b; Feldman, Leiserowitz & bune.com/lifestyles/health/ct-obamacare-sec- Young, D. G., (2008). The privileged role of Maibach, (2011; Young, 2008; ond-year-met-20141005-story.html the late-night joke: Exploring humor’s role in Young, 2013; Pew Research Vidmar, N. and Rokeach, M. (1974). Archie disrupting argument scrutiny. Media Psychology, Center, 2008. Bunker’s bigotry: A study in selective perception 11, 119-142. 21 Pew Research Center, 2008. and exposure. Journal of Communication, 24(1), Young, D. G. (2013). Laughter, learning, or 22 Pew Research Center, 2008. 36-47. enlightenment? Viewing and avoidance moti- 23 Pew Research Center, 2008. Wang, F. (2015, February 10). Are you a ‘Good’ vations behind The Daily Show and The Colbert 24 Levine, 2015. or ‘Bad’ Muslim? These two will help figure out. Report. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic 25 Garber, 2015. Media, 57(2), 153-169. NBC News. Retrieved from http://www.nbcnews. 26 Waxman, 2015. com/news/asian-america/are-you-good-or-bad- Young, D. G., Holbert, R. L., & Jamieson, K. H., 27 Suebsaeng, 2015. muslim-these-two-will-help-n302866 (2014). Successful practices for the strategic use 28 Pew Research Center, 2015. of political parody and satire: Lessons from the Wardi, A. (2013. October 26). No Woman, No 29 Garber, 2015. Drive [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www. P6 Symposium and the 2012 election campaign. 30 Garber, 2015. youtube.com/watch?v=aZMbTFNp4wI American Behavioral Scientist, 58(9), 1111-1130. 31 Singhal & Rogers, 1999, p. xii. Zax, D. (2014, May 6). The Young Turks and the Warren, R. (2014, January 9). Ladies, here’s a 32 Heath, 1989, p. 344. funny video depicting what our reproductive future of news online. Fast Company. Retrieved 33 Downe, 1999, p. 68. health care is really like. Upworthy. Retrieved from http://www.fastcompany.com/3030069/ from: http://www.upworthy.com/ladies-heres- most-creative-people/the-young-turks-and-the- 34 Palmer, 1994, p. 3. a-funny-video-depicting-what-our-reproduc- future-of-news-on-youtube 35 Allen, 2014. tive-health-care-is-really-like-2 Zhang, Y., (1996). Responses to humorous 36 DeLaure, 2011. WaterAid. (2015, May 26). If Men Had Periods – advertising: The moderating effect of need for 37 Downe, 1999. Manpons [Video file]. Retrieved from: https:// cognition. Journal of Advertising, 25(1), 15-32. 38 Goldman, 2013, p. 6, highlighting www.youtube.com/watch?v=zOMPS2zkE1M. Zhang, Y., & Zinkhan, G. M., (2006). Responses work from: Zoglin, 2008. 39 Bianco, 2015. WaterAid Australia. (2015, May 27). Imagine to humorous ads: Does audience involvement having your period without a toilet, water or matter? Journal of Advertising, 35(4), 113-127. 40 Halterman, 2015. sanitary products. Press Release. Retrieved Zoglin, R. (2008). Comedy at the edge: How 41 Kornhaber, 2015. from http://www.wateraid.org/au/news/news/ stand-up in the 1970s changed America. New 42 Reevell, 2015. imagine-having-your-period-without-a-toi- York, NY: Bloomsbury USA. 43 Onishi & Itzkoff, 2015. let-water-or-sanitary-products Zoglin, R. (2008, June 23). How George Carlin 44 Red Bulletin Magazine. Waxman, O. (2015, December 10). changed comedy. Time. Retrieved from 45 Comic Relief. About Us. Watch Michelle Obama rap in a new http://content.time.com/time/arts/arti- 46 Cameron, 2015, p. 275. video for college humor. Time. Retrieved cle/0,8599,1817192,00.html 47 Cameron, 2015, p. 286. from http://time.com/4144403/ 48 Katz et al., 1974). michelle-obama-college-humor-rap/ 49 Young, 2013. Weber, J., & Easton, K. (2011). South African 50 Young, 2013. Comedians - Laughing the past away. Cape 51 Young, 2013, p. 165. Chameleon Issue No 14. Retrieved from http:// www.capechameleon.co.za/printed-issue/ 52 Bartsch & Schneider, 2014, p. 369. issue-14/art-and-culture1/ 53 Blanc & Brigaud, 2014. 54 Eisend, 2009; Eisend, 2011. 55 Xenos & Becker, 2009.

52 the laughter effect: the [serious] role of comedy in social change 56 Blanc & Brigaud, 2014. 119 Moyer-Gusé et al., 2011; 181 Montagne, 2015; Desowitz, 2015. 242 DeLaure, 2011, p. 447. 57 Cameron, 2015, p. 276. Nabi et al., 2007. From Nesteroff, 2015. 243 Blanc & Brigaud, 2014. 58 Moy et al, 2005. 120 Moyer-Guse et al., 2011. 182 Nesteroff, 2015. 244 Nanin et al., 2009. 59 Chaffee & Roser, 1986. 121 Moyer-Guse et al., 2011. 183 Zoglin, 2008b. 245 Campo et al., 2013, p. 88. 60 Blanc & Brigaud, 2014, p. 670. 122 Schiappa et al., 2005; 184 Mintz, 1985, p. 71. 246 Campo et al., 2013, p. 93. Smedema et al., 2012. 61 Kim & Vishak, 2008, p. 357. 185 Kramer, 2015. Love, 2014. 247 Cameron, 2015, p. 286. 123 Moyer-Guse et al., 2011. 62 Petty & Cacioppo, 1986. 186 Esposito, 2015. 248 Young et al., 2014. 124 Galanes, 2015. 63 Zhang, 1996; Cameron, 2015; 187 Wheeler Opera House Website. 249 Comedy Gives Back, 2015. 125 Vidmar & Rokeach, 1974. Nabi et al., 2007. 188 Just for Laughs Comedy Festival 250 Gadino, 2013. 126 Robinson, 2005. Website. 64 Nabi et al., 2007. 251 Harris, 2013. 127 Feiler, 2011. 189 Edinburgh Film Festival Website. 65 Cline & Kellaris, 1999. 252 Sternberg, 2004. 128 ABC, 2014. 190 Franklin et al., 2011. 66 Nabi et al., 2007. 253 Sternberg, 2004. 129 Kornhaber, 2015. 191 Franklin et al., 2011. 67 Popkin, 1994. 254 Silver, 2015. 130 Kornhaber, 2015. 192 Quirk, 2015, p. 36. 68 Baum, 2003. 255 Suebsaeng, 2013. 131 Kornhaber, 2015. 193 Onishi, 2015. 69 Feldman et al., 2011. 256 Wardi, 2013. 132 VanDerWerff, 2015. 194 Onishi, 2015. 70 Feldman et al., 2011, p. 31. 257 Carrington, 2014. 133 VanDerWerff, 2015. 195 Rawoot, 2013. 71 Feldman et al., 2011, p. 30. 258 Carrington, 2014. 134 Kornhaber, 2015b. 196 Rawoot, 2013. 72 Schiappa et al., 2005. 259 Berger, 2014. 135 Friedlander, 2015. 197 Alfarra, 2015. 73 Schiappa et al., 2005, p. 98. 260 Stand Up Planet. KCETLink. 136 Friedlander, 2015. 198 Alfarra, 2015. 74 Schiappa et al., 2005, p. 98. 261 Stand Up Planet. KCETLink. 137 Berger, 2015. 199 Beam, 2015. 75 Smedema et al., 2012. 262 Rodrigues, 2015. 138 Halterman, 2015. 200 Amarasingam, 2010. 76 Campo et al., 2013. 263 Chotirmall, 2015. 139 Elan, 2015. 201 Michael, 2013. 77 Campo et al., 2013. 264 Chotirmall, 2015. 140 Poniewozik, 2015b. 202 Amarasingam, 2010, p. 463. 78 Fraustino & Ma, 2015. 265 Bhat & Griffin, 2013. 141 Elan, 2015. 203 Jones et al., 2013. 79 Bore & Reid, 2014, p. 455. 266 Maheshwari, 2014. 142 Samiezade’-Yazd, 2015. 204 Cohen & Richards. 80 Bore & Reid, 2014, p. 455. 267 Maheshwari, 2014. 143 Samiezade’-Yazd, 2015. 205 Cohen & Richards. 81 Young, 2008, p. 120. 268 Ramakrishnan, 2015. 144 Here & Now, 2015. 206 Beam, 2015. 82 Young, 2008. 269 All India Bakchod, 2013. 145 Blanc & Brigaud, 2014, p. 669. 207 Peabody Awards, 2014. 83 Holbert et al., 2011. 270 The Guardian: Letters to the 84 Holbert et al., 2013, p. 182. 146 Blanc & Brigaud, 2014. 208 Nussbaum, 2015. Editor, 2013. 85 Becker & Haller, 2014. 147 Eisend, 2009. 209 Sims, 2015. 271 Madhwani, 2015. 86 Holbert et al., 2013. 148 Eisend, 2009; Eisend, 2011. 210 Argetsinger, 2015. 272 Scroll.In, 2015. 87 Feldman, 2013b. 149 Blanc & Brigaud, 2014. 211 Argetsinger, 2015. 273 Rodrigues, 2015. 88 Hollander, 2005. 150 Eisend, 2009, p. 200. 212 McNamara, 2015. 274 Rodrigues, 2015. 89 Feldman et al., 2011. 151 Zhang & Zinkhan, 2006. 213 Funny or Die website. 275 Kokra, 2014. 90 Young, 2013, p. 162. 152 Zhang & Zinkhan, 2006, p. 113. 214 Blake, 2015. 276 Mittal, 2015. 91 Young et al., 2014. 153 Zhang & Zinkhan, 2006. 215 Beer, 2015. 277 Morris, 2015. 92 Young et al., 2014. 154 Cline & Kellaris, 1999, p. 72. 216 Donovan, 2010. 278 Sood, 2015. 93 LaMarre et al., 2009. 155 Blanc & Brigaud, 2014, p. 669. 217 Chevron Toxico, 2010. 279 Seirlis, 2011. 94 LaMarre et al., 2009, p. 213. 156 Blanc & Brigaud, 2014, p. 675. 218 UCB Comedy. YouTube. 280 Seirlis, 2011. 95 LaMarre et al., 2009, p. 215. 157 Weber et al., 2006. 219 Snyder, 2010. 281 Dreisinger, 2015. 96 Moyer-Guse et al., 2011. 158 Weber et al., 2006, p. 83. 220 Popkin, 2010. 282 UNAIDS, South Africa, 2014. 97 Young et al., 2014, p. 1123–1124. 159 Fraustino & Ma, 2015. 221 NPR, 2015. 283 Malan, 2014. 98 Young et al., 2014, p. 1112–1125. 160 Campo et al., 2013. 222 NPR, 2015. 284 Seirlis, 2011, p. 522. 99 Poniewozik, 2015. 161 WaterAid Australia, 2015. 223 Wang, 2015. 285 Seirlis, 2011, p. 523. 100 Collison, 2015. 162 WaterAid, YouTube, 2015. 224 Wang, 2015. 286 Spinger, 2015. 101 Collison, 2015. 163 Wilkinson, 2016. 225 Cameron, 2015, p. 277. 287 Spinger, 2015. 102 Baym, 2006. 164 Wilkinson, 2016. 226 Cameron, 2015, p. 276. 288 Spinger, 2015. 103 Poniewozik, 2015. 165 Malaria No More, YouTube, 2010. 227 Reuters, 2015. 289 Chutel, 2015. 104 Feldman et al., 2011. 166 Fox, 2012. 228 Rice, Graff & Pascual, 2010. 290 The Economist, 2015. 105 Fowler, 2008. 167 Pathfinder International, 2012. 229 United Nations. Millennium 291 Schonfeld, 2015. Development Goals Facts. 106 Luckerson, 2015. 168 Warren, 2014. 292 Njanji, 2015. 230 Slovic, 2007. 107 Williams & Shelton, 2014. 169 Stanley, 2015. 293 Spinger, 2015. 231 Good Magazine. 108 Williams & Shelton, 2014. 170 Stanley, 2015. 294 Spinger, 2015. 232 Cameron, 2015. 109 Brody, 2015. 171 Venteicher, 2014. 295 Dreisinger, 2015. 233 Dogra, 2012. 110 Framke, 2016. 172 ALS Association, 2015. 296 Dreisinger, 2015. 234 Cameron, 2015. 111 Paskin, 2016. 173 Diamond, 2014. 297 Ellis, 2012. 235 Cameron, 2015, p. 275. 112 Shanahan & Morgan, 1999. 174 McGugan, 2014. 298 Ellis, 2012. 236 Cameron, 2015, p. 279. 113 Singhal & Rogers, 1999. 175 RustyRadiator.com, 2015. 299 Szalai, 2015. 237 Allen, 2014. 114 Singhal & Rogers, 1999. 176 Lennon, 2012. 300 Szalai, 2015. 238 Cooper & Dickinson, 2013. 115 Green & Brock, 2000. 177 RustyRadiator.com, 2015. 239 Downe, 1999. 116 Green & Brock, 2000. 178 Campbell et al., 2012, p. 368. 240 Cameron, 2015, p. 279. 117 Petty & Cacioppo, 1986. 179 FleishmanHillard. 241 Cameron, 2015, p. 279. 118 Murphy et al., 2011. 180 Brodie, 2014, p. 3.

endnotes 53 you can tell a lot about people by the jokes they tell. hasan minhaj, stand-up comic, correspondent on the daily show

center for media & social impact school of communication american university washington, dc [email protected] www.cmsimpact.org