Table of Contents

1 Introduction ...... 10

1.1 The author ...... 10

1.2 Acknowledgements ...... 10

1.3 Purpose and background of report ...... 10

1.4 Limitations of source data ...... 11

1.5 Overview of Māori in the inquiry district ...... 13

1.6 Structure of report ...... 14

2 Methodology ...... 17

2.1 Statistical data collection and categorisation employed for this report 17

2.2 Population groups and ethnicity data used in this report ...... 24

2.3 Choice of socio-demographic variables for this report ...... 30

3 The Māori Population of the East Coast Census Area ...... 32

3.1 East Coast census area populations, 1991-2006 ...... 32

3.2 Ethnic composition ...... 38

3.3 Age structure ...... 41

3.4 Iwi affiliation ...... 46

3.5 Deprivation ...... 49

3.6 Summary ...... 54

4 Educational Participation and Achievement ...... 56

4.1 Early childhood education ...... 56

4.2 Schooling ...... 61

4.3 Decile ratings ...... 63 2

4.4 Tertiary study ...... 66

4.5 Te reo Māori ...... 71

4.6 Summary ...... 76

5 Employment Status, Occupation, and Industry ...... 80

5.1 Employment status ...... 80

5.2 Occupation ...... 89

5.3 Industry ...... 94

5.4 Summary ...... 98

6 Personal and Household Income ...... 100

6.1 Personal income ...... 100

6.2 Household income ...... 105

6.3 Sources of income ...... 108

6.4 Summary ...... 111

7 Housing and Household Access to Telecommunications ...... 113

7.1 Household ownership ...... 113

7.2 Household crowding ...... 121

7.3 Access to telecommunications ...... 128

7.4 Motor vehicle access ...... 133

7.5 Summary ...... 135

8 Conclusion ...... 137

Appendix One: Additional Tables, Graphs, and Maps ...... 142

Appendix Two: Direction Commissioning Research ...... 154

Bibliography ...... 156 3

List of Tables

Table 1: Pākehā, Māori, and total populations in the East Coast, 1991-2006 ...... 35

Table 2: Projected populations for the East Coast, 2006-2031 ...... 38

Table 3: Māori population age structure in the rural, urban, and total East Coast, the Gisborne district, and New Zealand, and the total population in New Zealand, 1991, 1996, 2001 and 2006 ...... 44

Table 4: Iwi affiliation in the East Coast, 2006 ...... 48

Table 5: New Zealand Deprivation Index scores for the East Coast, 2001-2006 52

Table 6: Prior participation of Year 1 students in early childhood education in the rural East Coast, 2008 ...... 59

Table 7: Prior participation of Year 1 students in early childhood education in the urban East Coast, 2008 ...... 60

Table 8: Highest attainment of school leavers by ethnic group, 2006-2007 ...... 61

Table 9: Highest qualification for Pākehā and Māori aged over 15 years in the East Coast, 2006 ...... 70

Table 10: Percentage of population who are speakers of te reo Māori in the East Coast, the Gisborne district, and New Zealand, 2006 ...... 73

Table 11: Percentage of population by age group who are speakers of te reo Māori in the East Coast, the Gisborne district, and New Zealand, 2006 ..... 74

Table 12: Language spoken by Māori in the East Coast, the Gisborne district, and New Zealand, 2001 ...... 75

Table 13: Unemployment rates for Pākehā and Māori in the East Coast, 2006 ... 84

Table 14: Work and labour force status of Pākehā and Māori in the East Coast, 2006 ...... 86

Table 15: Employment status of Pākehā and Māori in the East Coast, the Gisborne district, and New Zealand, 2006 ...... 87

Table 16: Percentage without qualifications and unemployment rates for Pākehā and Māori in the East Coast, the Gisborne district, and New Zealand, 2006 ...... 88 4

Table 17: Percentage distribution of employed population aged 15-64 years for New Zealand, by occupation and ethnicity, 1986 and 2001 ...... 89

Table 18: Unemployment rates, occupations, and median incomes of residents in the East Coast, the Gisborne district, and New Zealand, 2006 ...... 102

Table 19: Personal incomes of Pākehā and Māori in the rural and urban East Coast, the Gisborne district, and New Zealand, 2006 ...... 103

Table 20: Age standardised percentages of households owned, by ethnicity and region, 1986 and 2001 ...... 115

Table 21: Percentage of Pākehā and Māori in the East Coast who own or partly own dwelling by usual residents, 2001 ...... 118

Table 22: Equivalised Crowding Index scores for the Gisborne district and New Zealand, 2001 ...... 126

Table 23: Percentage of New Zealand population with telephone and internet access in the home, 2001 and 2006 ...... 129

Table 24: Household access to telecommunication systems in the East Coast, the Gisborne district, and New Zealand, 2006 ...... 131

Table 25: Māori household access to telecommunication systems in the East Coast, the Gisborne district, and New Zealand, 2001 ...... 133

Table 26: Summary of selected socio-demographic variables for the East Coast, the Gisborne district, and New Zealand, 2006 ...... 137

Table 27: Population number and percentage by ethnicity for the Gisborne district and New Zealand, 1991-2006 ...... 142

Table 28: Māori population age structure – number and percentages, in the rural East Coast, 1991, 1996, 2001 and 2006 ...... 144

Table 29: Māori population age structure – number and percentages, in the urban East Coast, 1991, 1996, 2001 and 2006 ...... 145

Table 30: Number of Pākehā and Māori children aged 0-4 years in the East Coast, and the Gisborne District, 2006 ...... 146

Table 31: Highest qualification for Pākehā and Māori in the East Coast, 2006. 147

5

Table 32: Percentage of Pākehā and Māori employed full- and part-time in the East Coast, 2006 ...... 148

Table 33: Number of Pākehā and Māori employed full- and part-time in the East Coast, 2006 ...... 148

Table 34: Industry of Pākehā and Māori in the Gisborne district, the total Gisborne district, and total NZ population, 2006 ...... 149

Table 35: Industry of Māori in the rural and urban East Coast, 2001 ...... 149

Table 36: Personal incomes of Pākehā and Māori in the East Coast, the Gisborne district, and New Zealand, 2006 ...... 150

Table 37: Sources of personal income for Māori in the East Coast, 2006 ...... 151

Table 38: Household incomes for Pākehā and Māori in the East Coast, 2001... 151

Table 39: Number of Pākehā and Māori in the East Coast, the Gisborne district, and New Zealand, who own or partly own their dwelling, 2001 ...... 152

List of graphs

Graph 1: Population percentage by ethnicity for New Zealand, 1991-2006 ...... 33

Graph 2: Population percentage by ethnicity for the Gisborne district, 1991-2006 ...... 33

Graph 3: Pākehā, Māori, and total populations in the East Coast, 1991-2006 ..... 36

Graph 4: Pākehā, Māori, and total populations in the rural East Coast, 1991-2006 ...... 37

Graph 5: Pākehā, Māori, and total populations in the urban East Coast, 1991- 2006 ...... 37

Graph 6: Ethnic group population percentages, for the East Coast, the Gisborne district, and New Zealand, 2001 ...... 40

6

Graph 7: Ethnic group population percentages, for the East Coast, the Gisborne district, and New Zealand, 2006 ...... 41

Graph 8: Māori population age structure in the rural, urban, and total East Coast, the Gisborne district, and New Zealand, and the total population in New Zealand, 1991, 1996, 2001, and 2006 ...... 46

Graph 9: New Zealand Deprivation Index profile of Pākehā, 2006 ...... 50

Graph 10: New Zealand Deprivation Index profile of Māori, 2006 ...... 51

Graph 11: Highest attainment of school leavers by decile of school, 2007 ...... 65

Graph 12: Percentage of population over 20 years with university qualifications by ethnicity and region, 1986-2001 ...... 67

Graph 13: Percentage of residents in the East Coast, the Gisborne District, and New Zealand with post-school qualifications and nil qualifications, 2006 . 69

Graph 14: Unemployment rates for Pākehā and Māori in the East Coast, 2006 .. 85

Graph 15: Occupations of rural East Coast Pākehā, 2006 ...... 90

Graph 16: Occupations of rural East Coast Māori, 2006 ...... 90

Graph 17: Occupations of urban East Coast Pākehā, 2006 ...... 91

Graph 18: Occupations of urban East Coast Māori, 2006 ...... 91

Graph 19: Occupations of total New Zealand population, 2006 ...... 91

Graph 20: Occupations of total New Zealand Māori population, 2006 ...... 91

Graph 21: Median annual personal income for employed people in New Zealand aged over 15 years, by occupation, 2006 ...... 93

Graph 22: Industry of total populations in New Zealand and the Gisborne district, 2006 ...... 95

Graph 23: Industry of Pākehā and Māori populations in the Gisborne district, 2006 ...... 96

Graph 24: Industry of Māori in the rural and urban East Coast, 2001 ...... 97

7

Graph 25: Personal incomes of Pākehā and Māori in the rural and urban East Coast, 2006 ...... 104

Graph 26: Household incomes of Pākehā and Māori in the rural and urban East Coast, 2001 ...... 106

Graph 27: Sources of personal income for rural East Coast Māori, 2006 ...... 110

Graph 28: Sources of personal income for urban East Coast Māori, 2006 ...... 110

Graph 29: Sources of personal income for total New Zealand population, 2006 ...... 110

Graph 30: Percentage of households with at least one person of Māori ethnicity that do not own dwelling, by region, 1991 and 2001 ...... 116

Graph 31: Ownership of home by ethnic group in New Zealand, 2006 ...... 117

Graph 32: Percentage of Pākehā and Māori who own or partly own their dwelling, in the rural and urban East Coast, the Gisborne district, and New Zealand, 2001 ...... 119

Graph 33: Percentage of crowded households within ethnic groups in New Zealand, 1986-2001 ...... 122

Graph 34: Percentage of crowded households in each region, 2001 ...... 123

Graph 35: Proportion of population living in households requiring at least one additional bedroom, by ethnic group, in New Zealand, 1986-2006 ...... 124

Graph 36: Number of bedrooms per household in the Gisborne district and New Zealand by major ethnic groups, 2001 ...... 127

Graph 37: Number of people per bedroom in the Gisborne district and New Zealand by major ethnic groups, 2001 ...... 128

Graph 38: Pākehā and Māori population percentages for all census area units within the Gisborne district, 2006 ...... 143

Graph 39: Percentage of Pākehā and Māori in the East Coast, the Gisborne district, and New Zealand, who own or partly own their dwelling, 2001 .. 152

8

List of Maps

Map 1: The East Coast inquiry district, the Gisborne District census boundary, and the relevant census area units within the East Coast inquiry district, 2006 ...... 19

Map 2: Tairāwhiti District Health Board – NZDep 2006 scores ...... 53

Map 3: Quintile crowding measures in the East Cape region, 2001 ...... 125

Map 4: Crowding quintiles by territorial authority, 2001 ...... 153

9

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 The author The author holds a PhD in Māori Studies from the University of Auckland, and has been employed at the Waitangi Tribunal since April 2009 as a Research Analyst/Inquiry Facilitator. Kim is Pākehā and grew up in Hicks Bay, East Coast.

1.2 Acknowledgements I thank my colleagues at the Waitangi Tribunal, especially Leanne Boulton, Research Analyst/Inquiry Facilitator, and Jaime Meikle, Senior Research Analyst/Inquiry Facilitator and Inquiry Supervisor of the East Coast district inquiry, for providing advice and guidance in the preparation of this report.

1.3 Purpose and background of report This report presents a contemporary socio-demographic profile of Māori in the Waitangi Tribunal‟s East Coast inquiry district.1 In 2004, Waitangi Tribunal Chief Historian, Dr Grant Phillipson, reviewed all completed and draft East Coast district inquiry research. In his final (September 2004) recommendations, Dr Phillipson identified the need for a scoping report on socio-economic issues. The resulting research project brief was Project 16, „Socio-economic impacts‟. This project brief identified five broad themes under the socio-economic research banner, suggesting the need to scope and commission five reports. These themes were:

16 a Socio-demographic status report;

1 Macrons are used for Māori words where appropriate; however, the original style of Māori words is retained in quoted material. Note that macrons are not used in graphs as it creates formatting problems with Microsoft Excel. 10

b Cumulative socio-economic consequences of Crown policies, acts and omissions; c Economic development capacities of, and constraints on, East Coast Māori; d Quantitative analysis of Māori land use and alienation; and e Specific aspects of Crown social and economic policy.

At its meeting of 27 May 2006, the East Coast Research Coordinating Committee endorsed this recommendation as Research Project 16 of the casebook research programme.2 The then presiding officer, Judge Milroy, approved the final casebook research programme by Direction dated 1 June 2006.3 This socio- demographic status report is the product of project 16a.

1.4 Limitations of source data This report is limited to a contemporary socio-demographic profile of the Māori population in the East Coast inquiry district. It does not examine factors that may have contributed to the present socio-demographic status of East Coast Māori. This report has also had to be limited by the nature of factual source statistics available.

The East Coast Māori ethnic group population is profiled for this report, rather than iwi groupings. This is because the majority of census data used in this report is arranged according to ethnicity (such as, the Māori ethnic group). A more limited data set of census material is available at the Māori descent and iwi affiliation level. The commission asked for comparisons to be made with Pākehā in the district and with the national Māori and non-Māori populations, across the following categories: population, employment, income, educational achievement, health, housing, and fluency in te reo Māori. All of the above variables are examined in this report except for health.

2 East Coast Casebook Research Programme: Agreed at RCC Hui, 27 May 2006, Wai 900, #A5 3 Judge S. T. Milroy, Memorandum-Directions, 1 June 2006, Wai 900, #2.5.18 11

The primary reason a profile of the contemporary health status of Māori has not been included in this report is the dearth of health statistics relevant to the East Coast inquiry district. Raeburn Lange, the author of Project 13 of the East Coast inquiry casebook „The Provision of Health Services to East Coast Māori‟, is a historian with considerable experience and is widely published in analysing and presenting data on Māori health history. Lange notes the difficulties of accessing contemporary health sources and data.4 According to Lange, while health data on Māori in the Tairāwhiti region (which mirrors the Gisborne District Council‟s boundaries) is available, it is very difficult to access current data on Māori in the East Coast inquiry district. Readily available sub-national data on Māori health is sparse. This predicament, Lange argues, subsequently „limits the capacity to identify any disparities existing today between the health of East Coast Maori (specifically) and that of other Maori and of non-Maori‟.5 The Ministry of Social Development‟s Social Report 2008 used six indicators to assess the state of the nation‟s health. However, aside from life expectancy rates, this report does not present this data at a territorial authority or census area unit level by ethnicity.6 The only health data gathered in the five-yearly Census is cigarette smoking status and disability status. These restrictions make it difficult to present any useful and relevant account of the health status of Māori in the East Coast inquiry district, and therefore the health variable is not included in this report.

It must be made explicit at the outset that this report does not attempt to explore or make any causal connections between Crown policies and the socio- demographic status of Māori in the East Coast inquiry district. Ascertaining any link between social disadvantage (or advantage) and outcomes, and Crown policies, is beyond the scope of the limited research brief of this study. The Waitangi Tribunal‟s status update report for their research projects in the East Coast inquiry casebook confirmed that questions concerning historical demography will be considered in component 16b (the report on the cumulative socio-economic impacts on East Coast Māori) rather than this project 16a on socio-demographic status.7

4 Document A25, p17 5 Ibid. 6 Ministry of Social Development, The Social Report 2008 (Wellington: Ministry of Social Development, 2008), p21 7 Richard Moorsom, Waitangi Tribunal Research Projects for the East Coast Casebook: Status Update, 29 April 2009, Wai 900, #6.2.8 12

1.5 Overview of Māori in the inquiry district The East Coast inquiry district is largely rural, with the urban centre of Gisborne on its southern fringe. The inquiry district encompasses a few northern suburbs of the Gisborne township, but not the town centre. A number of small, rural communities and townships populate the East Coast inquiry district, most of which are located on state highway 35, which runs from Gisborne north-east to Hicks Bay (and then, moving outside of the inquiry, around to Opotiki in the west). Many of the communities in the East Coast inquiry district are situated where the state highway meets the sea, including Tolaga Bay, Tokomaru Bay, Te Araroa, and Hicks Bay. Others are located on or near the Waiapu River, such as Ruatoria and Tikitiki.

The boundaries of the East Coast inquiry district in the north and the east are defined by the Pacific Ocean.8 The western boundary commences just north of Potikirua (near Potaka) and travels close to the ridgeline of the central Raukumara range southwards to the source of the Mangatutara River.9 The southern boundary of the East Coast inquiry district is the same as the northern boundary of the Gisborne inquiry district, which runs „from Mangatu, down the Waipaoa River to the Ngakoroa block. From the eastern boundary of the Ngakoroa block down the Waimata River to its outlet at the coast, at the mouth of the Turanganui River‟.10 Tribunal inquiry boundaries are not iwi or tribal boundaries. Rather, the inquiry boundaries are for Tribunal administrative purposes.

This report will present a snapshot of the contemporary socio-demographic status of the Māori population in the East Coast census area (which is a close, but far from a completely accurate, match with the East Coast inquiry district). The proportion of the East Coast population who are Māori is very high, when compared with the rest of New Zealand. At the 2006 Census, approximately 15 per cent of the national population reported that they identified with the Māori ethnic group. In the wider Gisborne district (which includes the Gisborne township and the East Coast), nearly half of the population belonged to the Māori

8 East Coast Inquiry Boundary: Staff Discussion Paper, 20 April 2004, Wai 900, #A2. See also Judge S. T. Milroy, Memorandum-Directions of Presiding Officer, 9 August 2004, Wai 900, #2.5.7. 9 Ibid. 10 Ibid. 13

ethnic group.11 It will be shown that in some parts of the East Coast inquiry district though, particularly those in the north and east along the coast, over three- quarters of the population self-identify as Māori. The overall economic position of East Coast residents is illuminated by the 2006 New Zealand Deprivation Index scores for the area. According to this index, the East Coast census area is one of the most socio-economically deprived in the country. This report will offer a detailed analysis of a number of socio-demographic factors for Māori in this area.

1.6 Structure of report This report is organised into eight chapters. The methodology chapter follows this introductory chapter. Chapter two outlines the different boundaries of the Tribunal‟s East Coast inquiry district and those used for census data aggregation, and their implications for statistical data gathering for this report. Methodological issues concerning the choice, availability, and accumulation of the relevant statistical data are discussed. Some concerns about the collection of statistics concerning the Māori population are outlined. This is followed by a discussion on the variables chosen to examine the socio-demographic status of Māori.

In turn, each socio-demographic variable is examined in chapters three to seven. Each of these chapters follows the same format. Each begins with a brief introduction about the variable, outlines the primary data sets used, and notes any limitations of the data. Then, the chapters present the relevant socio-demographic data, which is then illuminated by accompanying tables and graphs. The findings are discussed and analysed. Each chapter is closed with a summary of the central findings and issues.

Chapter three presents a contemporary demographic profile of East Coast Māori using Census data from 1996 to 2006. This includes an overview of recent population changes, the age structure, the ethnic make up, and population projections for the area. This helps to illuminate the socio-demographic

11 Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Gisborne District: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009) 14

continuities and changes for East Coast Māori. The chapter also gives an outline of New Zealand Deprivation Index 2006 scores (based on Census data) for the East Coast, which broadly measure deprivation in geographically defined areas.

Chapter four focuses on East Coast Māori educational participation and attainment, from early childhood education to the tertiary level. Ministry of Education statistics are largely employed here, which are supplemented with census data. Not all indicators are available for the East Coast by ethnicity though, and while some are available the numbers are so small that they do not give reliable measures of educational participation and achievement (that is, they are likely to be statistically insignificant). Nevertheless, a broad picture of East Coast Māori and education is provided. East Coast schools‟ decile ratings are included, again emphasising the inter-related nature of socio-demographic variables and outcomes. Statistics noting the proportion of East Coast Māori able to understand and speak te reo Māori, in comparison with other Māori and non- Māori nationally, completes this chapter.

East Coast Māori employment statistics are discussed in chapter five. Statistical data is drawn from the two most recent censuses (2001 and 2006) and Ministry of Social Development publications. Employment indicators used include the unemployment rates in different parts of the East Coast, the main occupation categories, and the key industries in which East Coast Māori work. This chapter is set against the backdrop of the effects of the mid-1980s economic policy changes that disproportionately affected Māori.

Income is the focus of chapter six. Income is a direct measure of economic well- being, according to Mervyl McPherson and Michael Belgrave from the School of Social and Cultural Studies at Massey University, Albany.12 Both personal and household income measures are used. Personal incomes of East Coast Māori are first looked at in conjunction with employment status and type of occupation. Next, household income, which is arguably a better measure of wealth, is reported on. Finally, the sources of income of East Coast Māori compared to

12 Mervyl McPherson and Michael Belgrave „A Socio-demographic Profile of the People of Marutuahu and Pare Hauraki‟, report commissioned by the Crown Forestry Rental Trust, 2002, Wai 686 #V5, p15 15

those of Pākehā in the district and to the total New Zealand population are discussed.

Chapter seven looks at East Coast Māori housing patterns and household access to telecommunications and transport. This includes the proportion of Māori households that own or partly own their own home. Survey data from secondary sources is included to provide additional information on the quality of East Coast housing. The extent of household crowding amongst East Coast Māori is reviewed using a number of different indexes and measures. Household access to telecommunications is also looked at, because access to a telephone and access to the internet are indicators of social connectedness. Access to a motor vehicle, a further measure of well-being, is discussed last.

Chapter eight presents a concluding analysis of the variables discussed in chapters three to seven, and highlights the insights they offer into the socio- demographics of East Coast Māori. It concludes that the East Coast Māori population is socio-demographically distinct from East Coast Pākehā, the total national population, and the Māori population nationwide. The appendix contains tables, graphs and maps of additional statistical data to support the analysis presented in the main body of the report.

16

2 METHODOLOGY The methodology employed to present this contemporary socio-demographic profile of Māori in the East Coast inquiry district is broadly threefold, and outlined here. The first priority was to determine the most efficient and effective way of gathering socio-demographic statistics relevant to East Coast Māori. The 2006 Census was identified as the most useful dataset, but earlier censuses and other statistics published in secondary sources were also considered relevant to this study. Issues relating to balancing census data aggregation boundaries with Tribunal boundaries are discussed in depth. Secondly, the principal population groups used in this report were determined. This included considering how ethnicity is, and has been, used in censuses, and their implications for this report. Finally, the variables employed to profile the socio-demographic status of East Coast Māori were considered and decided on. Once these variables were determined, comparative analysis could begin to take place.

2.1 Statistical data collection and categorisation employed for this report A large amount of the socio-demographic statistics used in this report is drawn from the Official Census of Population and Dwellings. A Census is an official count of how many people and dwellings there are in New Zealand, and is held every five years.13 Statistics New Zealand is a government agency that produces official statistics, and is guided by the Statistics Act 1975.14 Statistics New Zealand conducted the most recent census, the 2006 Census of Population and Dwellings, on 7 March 2006.15 The primary source of data used in this report is the 2006 Census. Some earlier data from the 1991, 1996, and 2001 Censuses have been used also, in order to make some comparisons over a short period of time.

Census data is categorised at a number of levels. From the national level, it moves to the regional and district levels (which mirror New Zealand‟s territorial

13 Statistics New Zealand, About Census: What is a Census?, undated (downloaded 10 November 2009) 14 Statistics New Zealand, Policies, Protocols and Guidelines, undated (downloaded 10 November 2009) 15 Statistics New Zealand, About Census: What is a Census? 17

authorities‟ boundaries), then to the census area unit, and finally to the meshblock. The meshblock is the smallest geographic unit for which statistical data is collected.16 The boundaries of census data aggregations are different from the East Coast inquiry district boundaries. They do not neatly and precisely overlap, as the following map shows. This section therefore outlines the basis for deciding which level of census data aggregation fits best with the East Coast inquiry district. In addition, it explains the terms used to define these distinct data sets.

There is a substantial amount of socio-demographic and socio-economic statistical data aggregated to the regional or district level that is published through government and tertiary institution reports. Often, the Gisborne district appears in these reports.17 There is a census area called „Gisborne district‟ which happens to have the same boundaries as the Gisborne District Council boundary. The Gisborne district area is inclusive of the Gisborne township and wider East Coast geographical area, as Map 1 shows below. But data aggregated to the Gisborne district level, on its own, is not entirely relevant to this report on the socio-demographic status of Māori in the East Coast inquiry district. This is because the geographic boundaries of the East Coast inquiry district are distinct from those of the Gisborne district. Further, that the Gisborne district includes the major urban area of the Gisborne township and its suburbs means it is likely to be demographically distinct from the East Coast inquiry district which largely excludes the Gisborne township. To solely rely on Gisborne district statistics therefore would not present an accurate reflection of the socio-demographic profile of Māori in the East Coast inquiry district, as is required for this report.

16 Statistics New Zealand, Definitions and Questionnaires: 2006 Census of Population and Dwellings (Wellington: Statistics New Zealand, 2006), pp18-19 17 For example, see the discussion papers produced by the University of Waikato‟s Population Studies Centre (see http://www.waikato.ac.nz/wfass/populationstudiescentre/discussion-papers.shtml), and the Ministry of Social Development‟s regional indicators reports, which are based on territorial and regional authority data. Numerous tables displaying socio-demographic information are available on the Gisborne district (see http://www.socialreport.msd.govt.nz/regional/t-authorities/location/gisborne.html). 18

Map 1: The East Coast inquiry district, the Gisborne District census boundary, and the relevant census area units within the East Coast inquiry district, 2006

Source: Statistics New Zealand18

18 Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Gisborne District: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009)‟ Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About East Cape: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Ruatoria: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Tokomaru Bay: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Tolaga Bay: 2006 Census, undated, (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Tarndale-Rakauroa: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Wharekaka: 2006 Census, undated 19

Despite these limitations, Gisborne district statistics are useful in cases where smaller census data aggregations are unavailable. Further, in attempting to balance the tension between data relevance (to the East Coast exclusively) and data availability (which often includes the Gisborne district), some statistics aggregated to the Gisborne district level will be used to show how the region differs from New Zealand as a whole. In this report, the terms „Gisborne district Māori‟ and „Gisborne district Pākehā‟ refer to all Māori and all Pākehā residents respectively in the Gisborne district.

Census data aggregated to the district level is therefore, on its own, too broad to profile the socio-demographics of Māori in the East Coast inquiry district. The next level down from the district level in statistics aggregation is the census area unit. Census area units are a single geographic entity, and normally contain a population of 3000 to 5000.19 At the 2006 Census, 12 census area units fell either partly or wholly within the East Coast inquiry district (see Map 1). These government-defined areas do not mirror the Waitangi Tribunal‟s East Coast inquiry district. Compromises need to be made between the geographic spread encompassed within the census area units, and the usefulness and relevance of the data. The issue of census area units not neatly fitting within the Tribunal‟s inquiry boundaries could be overcome by focussing the statistical analysis at the smaller meshblock level. However, the limited timeframe of the research commission would make meshblock level analysis impractical. Furthermore, population numbers are small at this level, and unlikely to produce reliable percentages with which to make comparisons between Māori and Pākehā. It is therefore at the census area unit level that most of the analysis undertaken in this report takes place. Analysis at the census area unit level is also appropriate due to the usefulness of Statistics New Zealand‟s Table Builder application, which can sort and manipulate data down to this level, and then be easily downloaded to Microsoft Excel spreadsheets. The Table Builder function allows comparative analysis of a selection of census data from 1991 to 2006.

There are 12 census area units that fall within the East Coast inquiry district, but only 11 are the focus of this study. The census area unit that falls within the inquiry district but not used in this report is that of Cape Runaway. A section of

(downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Kaiti North: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Kaiti South: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Outer Kaiti: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Tamarau: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Wainui: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009) 19 Statistics New Zealand, Definitions and Questionnaires: 2006 Census of Population and Dwellings, pp18- 19 20

the Cape Runaway census area unit is slightly within the north-west end of the East Coast inquiry district. Because this section of the census area unit is largely within the Raukumara Ranges, rather than near the coastal edge where there is a more sizeable population, it will not be included in this research report.

The remaining 11 census area units relevant to this report on East Coast Māori are split into two data sets – rural and urban. The methodological decision to separate the East Coast inquiry district into rural and urban census areas was made because their geographic differences (as outlined below) are likely to offer different opportunities to access services such as health and education, to gain employment, to negotiate pay rates, and affect other socio-demographic variables.

In this report, the „rural East Coast census area‟ collectively refers to the data within the following six census area units:

East Cape

Ruatoria

Tokomaru Bay

Tolaga Bay

Tarndale-Rakauroa

Wharekaka

For reasons of brevity and clarity in tables, graphs, and maps, this label is shortened to „rural East Coast‟. It follows that Māori and Pākehā within the rural East Coast census area are referred to as „rural East Coast census area Māori‟ (shortened to „rural East Coast Māori‟), and „rural East Coast census area Pākehā‟ (shortened to „rural East Coast Pākehā‟).

The census area units of Ruatoria, Tokomaru Bay, and Tolaga Bay fall completely within the East Coast inquiry district. These are rural communities of the same name, and include their rural fringes. The other three rural East Coast census area units that fall partly within the inquiry district are East Cape, Tarndale-Rakauroa, and Wharekaka. The East Cape census area unit has the largest geographical 21

spread across the inquiry district. It also lies partly outside of the inquiry district, near Cape Runaway in the west. However, the East Cape census area unit is necessarily included due to its strong geographic relevance to the East Coast inquiry district. Tarndale-Rakauroa and Wharekaka fall partly in the East Coast inquiry district and partly in the Waitangi Tribunal‟s Gisborne inquiry district. Both stretch from the bottom third of the East Coast inquiry district south towards the Gisborne township. These units are also included in the analysis of the East Coast Māori population due to their geographic relevance, even though they include populations outside of the East Coast inquiry district.

Within the rural East Coast census area data set, readers should be aware of the differences between the Tarndale-Rakauroa and Wharekaka census area units, and the East Cape, Ruatoria, Tokomaru Bay, and Tolaga Bay census area units. The former two census area units incorporate areas close to the Gisborne township. They might therefore have a somewhat different socio-demographic make up to the other rural census area units. One indication that these two census area units are different in socio-demographic terms is their 2006 New Zealand Deprivation Index scores (which are discussed in more depth in chapter 3.5). Tarndale-Rakauroa and Wharekaka have scores of 8 and 6 respectively (mid to high deprivation scores), while East Cape, Ruatoria, Tokomaru Bay, and Tolaga Bay have scores of 10 (the highest score of deprivation for an area).20 The distinct ethnic composition of these census area units deems it necessary to present the East Coast socio-demographic data of these area units both individually as well as collectively.

In this report, the „urban East Coast census area‟ collectively refers to the data within the following five census area units:

Kaiti North

Kaiti South

Outer Kaiti

Tamarau

20 P. White, J. Gunston, C. Salmond, J. Atkinson, and P. Crampton, Atlas of Socioeconomic Deprivation in New Zealand NZDep2006 (Wellington: Ministry of Health, 2008), p191. A score of 1 indicates a least deprived area, and a score of 10 indicates a most deprived area. 22

Wainui

Again, for purposes of brevity and clarity in tables, graphs, and maps, this label is shortened to „urban East Coast‟. It follows that Māori and Pākehā within the urban East Coast census area are referred to as „urban East Coast census area Māori‟ (shortened to „urban East Coast Māori‟), and „urban East Coast census area Pākehā‟ (shortened to „urban East Coast Pākehā‟).

These five urban census area units all fall completely within the East Coast inquiry district. They make up the northern edge of the Gisborne township, situated on the southern tip of the inquiry district. Collectively, they comprise approximately 22 square kilometres.21 Readers should also be aware of the difference amongst these urban census area units. While Kaiti South, Outer Kaiti, and Tamarau all have the highest New Zealand Deprivation score available (10), Kaiti North has a score of 5 and Wainui has a score of 2. There is variance within the East Coast census area as a whole. Therefore while the socio-demographics of the East Coast are analysed collectively, they are also examined in terms of the rural and urban parts of the district, and the individual census area units as well.

In summary, 11 census area units within the East Coast inquiry boundary are relevant to this study. This data set is collectively referred to as the „East Coast census area‟. The East Coast census area comprises both the rural East Coast census area and the urban East Coast census area. Like other labels used in this report, the East Coast census area is shortened to the „East Coast‟ in tables, graphs, and maps. It follows that Māori and Pākehā within the East Coast census area are referred to as „East Coast census area Māori‟ (shortened to „East Coast Māori‟), and „East Coast census area Pākehā‟ (shortened to „East Coast Pākehā‟). As already noted, the East Coast census area is distinct from the East Coast inquiry district because their boundaries do not completely overlap, and thus the terms are not interchangeable. Some secondary sources that are referred to and quoted in this report also refer to the general area of the East Coast. In these instances, the term „East Coast region‟ is used denoting the less clearly defined boundaries of the general rural area north of the Gisborne township.

21 Gisborne District Council, Gisborne Regional Community Profile: Land Area, 2009 (downloaded 15 June 2009) 23

Of the 11 East Coast census area units relevant to this study, only one has undergone recent boundary changes. Kaiti North was split into two census area units for the 2001 Census, becoming Kaiti North and Outer Kaiti.22 No changes occurred between 2001 and 2006 though. Data from the 2001 and 2006 Censuses is principally used in this report.

Data from the 2006 Census was not the only source of statistics used to profile the contemporary socio-demographic status of East Coast Māori. Government publications, including the Ministry of Social Development‟s most recent Social Report 2008 also provided useful statistics, as did the Ministry of Education‟s online resource space EducationCounts.govt.nz. The 2006 New Zealand Deprivation Index was also used to show the overall socio-economic profile of the East Coast. The statistics used in these publications are divided into the same units as those used for census data (that is, territorial authorities, census area units, then meshblocks); therefore the previous discussion justifying which level of analysis to use remains relevant.

This is largely a contemporary socio-demographic study that focuses on the most recent Census data available. Some secondary sources pertaining to the socio- demographics of Māori in the East Coast inquiry district from the 1980s onwards are used to provide a context for the contemporary data, when available and required. Secondary literature has the potential to draw connections between the socio-demographic variables from census data, such as education, employment, income and housing, and government policy.

2.2 Population groups and ethnicity data used in this report The second key methodological step involved in this project was determining which population groups to use. In addition, how ethnicity is, and has been, used in censuses were discussed. The primary population group used in this study is the Māori ethnic group. Census data that is based on the Māori ethnic group involves those people who stated on their census form that they self-identify as

22 Statistics New Zealand, Area Unit Changes to the Gisborne District, 2009. Information provided by Geographic Statistician from Statistics New Zealand following personal request (by email), 7 July 2009 24

Māori. The census data, and therefore this report, relies on ethnic definitions that are „self-perceived‟, and an individual can hold multi-ethnic identities.23 While certain factors influence a person‟s ethnicity, such as a proper name, culture, where a person lives, race, nationality, country of birth, ancestry, citizenship, religion, and language, „they do not necessarily determine his or her ethnicity‟.24 The concept of ethnicity is determined by individual self-identification.

While the Māori ethnic group is the principal data set employed here, there are some occurrences when data based on Māori descent (as opposed to the Māori ethnic group) is used. When Māori descent data is used it is explicitly indicated as such, for example in chapter 3.4 on iwi affiliation. Distinguishing the Māori ethnic group and the Māori descent populations is important because, according to John Gould, a former professor of economic history, different socio-economic patterns characterise these population groups.25 Gould notes in his journal article Socio-economic Gaps Between Māori and Māori: Outcomes of Sixteen Iwi 1991- 2001, that the Māori descent population includes, while the Māori ethnic group population excludes, people who acknowledge having Māori descent but deny being of Māori ethnicity.26

In this report, the Māori ethnic group is principally compared with the European ethnic group, rather than the total population. This course has been chosen because Māori make up a high proportion of the East Coast census area (relative to the percentage of Māori in New Zealand), and therefore comprise a significant part of the total population data set. Comparative analysis with the European ethnic group provides a better contrast with Māori ethnic group census data. The term European ethnic group, European, and Pākehā, are all used interchangeably in this report; however, the term Pākehā is used most often. All terms refer to those people who stated in the relevant census that they self-identify with the ethnic group commonly known as New Zealand European/ Pākehā.

23 Statistics New Zealand, Report of the Review of the Measurement of Ethnicity (Wellington: Statistics New Zealand, 2004), p7 24 Ibid. 25 John Gould, „Socio-economic Gaps Between Māori and Māori: Outcomes of Sixteen Iwi 1991-2001‟, Journal of the Polynesian Society, vol 114, no 1 (2005), p35 26 Ibid. 25

As census data is extensively used in this socio-demographic study, commentary on how ethnicity and iwi data is defined and categorised in this data set is required. According to Statistics New Zealand, statistical data on „race‟ began to be collected in censuses from 1916, where people were asked to define their fractions of racial origins.27 People of both Māori and European descent were counted according to the group to which they were nearest in blood measurement. „Half-castes‟ were classified according to a person‟s „mode of living‟, that is, whether the person lived in a European or Māori fashion.28 Ian Pool, a professor of demography, and Nicholas Pole, have written that from 1926 until 1981, the standard census definition of Māori was „persons of half or more Maori blood‟.29 In other words, a blood quantum measurement was employed.

Self-identification became the statutory procedure for classifying ethnicity for statistical purposes in the 1986 Census. But Bridget Robson, senior research fellow at the School of Medicine and Health Sciences at the University of Otago and director of Te Rōpū Rangahau Hauora a Eru Pōmare, and Papaarangi Reid, Tumuaki in the Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences at the University of Auckland, report that tension remained between needing to determine the Māori population based on descent (for determining, for example, electorate boundaries) and the Māori population according to ethnicity (for purposes such as policy making).30 The 1986 Census asked individuals to state their ethnic origin. The 1991, 1996, and 2001 Censuses went further by including questions about ethnic group, Māori descent and iwi affiliation.31 The Māori population is thus now counted in censuses in two ways – by ethnicity and by descent. Māori ethnicity refers to cultural affiliation, whereas Māori descent relates to ancestry.

The 1986 Census ethnicity question asked respondents about their ethnic origin, but did not advise whether respondents‟ answers should be based on ancestry or cultural affiliation. The 1991 Census asked to which ethnic group respondents

27 Statistics New Zealand, Report of the Review of the Measurement of Ethnicity, p21 28 Ibid. 29 Ian Pool and Nicholas Pole, The Maori Population to 2011: Demographic Change and Its Implications (Wellington: New Zealand Demographic Society (Inc), 1987), p6 30 Bridget Robson and Papaarangi Reid, Ethnicity Matters: Review of the Measurement of Ethnicity in Official Statistics – Māori Perspectives Paper for Consultation (Wellington: Statistics New Zealand, 2001), pp11-12 31 Janet Sceats, Tahu Kukutai, and Ian Pool, „The Socio-Demographic and Economic Characteristics of Maori in the Wairarapa ki Tararua Region, c.1981-2001‟, report commissioned by the Crown Forestry Rental Trust, November 2002, Wai 863 #A28, p17 26

belong, and whether they have Māori ancestry. In 1996, the ethnicity question differed in important ways. The „NZ Māori‟ ethnic group was listed first in the list of categories, and explicit wording was used stating that respondents could tick more than one ethnic group box. These 1996 Census changes resulted in large increases in multiple responses to the ethnicity question, most notably a „greater-than-expected‟ increase in the Māori ethnic group population.32 The 2001 Census reverted to the 1991 Census question, asking to which group (singular) the respondent belonged. These wording changes had a clear impact on multi- ethnic responses, which decreased from 15.5 per cent in 1996 to 9 per cent in 2001.33 In 2001, the Census contained a question on ethnicity and Māori descent. Statistics New Zealand found, after research and evaluation, that this question format „provided a better measure of ethnicity based on the current statistical standard‟ than the questions used in previous years.34

Major fluctuations in the number of persons reporting Māori as their ethnic group for the 1996 Census demonstrates the influence of that question‟s wording. Demographer Janet Sceats (with expertise in health and social policy and population issues), social scientist Tahu Kukutai (a senior associate of the Institute of Public Policy at the University of Victoria), and Ian Pool contrast the reasonably consistent growth in the number of Māori people between 1951 and 1981 while a consistent question was asked (except in 1976), with the fluctuating number of people who reported being Māori between 1986 and 2001, which did not use the same ethnicity question consecutively.35 Due to the changes in the ethnicity question‟s wording between 1996 and 2001, Kate Lang (from the Social Sciences Division of Statistics New Zealand) argues „it is not possible to know how much of the change [over these years] is due to question change and how much to real changes in the way people describe their ethnicity‟.36 The 2006 Census used the same wording for the ethnicity question that was used in 1991 and 2001.37

32 Statistics New Zealand, Report of the Review of the Measurement of Ethnicity, p22 33 Paul Callister, „Ethnicity Measures, Intermarriage and Social Policy‟, Social Policy Journal of New Zealand, issue 23 (2004), p120 34 Statistics New Zealand, Report of the Review of the Measurement of Ethnicity, p22 35 Janet Sceats, Tahu Kukutai, and Ian Pool, p18 36 Kate Lang, Measuring Ethnicity in the New Zealand Population Census, 2002 (downloaded 17 August 2009) 37 Statistics New Zealand, Introduction to the Census: 2006 Census of Population and Dwellings (Wellington: Statistics New Zealand, 2006), p26 27

Changes to the statistical definition of Māori and changes to the wording of the census question on ethnicity pose dilemmas for analysis of iwi affiliation census data. According to Sceats et al., iwi affiliation data is subject to error, and they identify six key issues.38 Firstly, there is a sizeable proportion of Māori who report Māori ancestry but do not identify as Māori ethnically. In 2006, 14.6 per cent of people usually resident in New Zealand belonged to the Māori ethnic group, while 17.7 per cent of people reported being of Māori descent.39 Secondly, significant proportions of Māori do not know the name of their iwi. In 2006, 102,366 out of 643,977 or 15.9 per cent of people of Māori descent did not know the name of their iwi – a decrease of 9.1 per cent since 1996.40 Thirdly, a minority of those who do report an iwi refer to a geographical area of ancestral origin rather than an iwi. Fourthly, in some instances, the given hapū name can be allocated to more than one iwi. Fifthly, problems have arisen with „ill-defined categories‟.41 Finally, rather than just one iwi, several iwi can be named by a single respondent, and these iwi can be sub-iwi of one iwi.42 Gould notes that „in 2001 some 24 per cent of those Māori Descent respondents who knew their iwi affiliation named two iwi, and some 12 per cent three or more‟.43 Almost 50 per cent more „iwi “populations”‟ were reported in the 2001 Census than the actual number of people of Māori descent.44 As noted earlier, most of the socio- demographic data used in this report concerns the Māori ethnic group rather than the Māori descent population. However, a brief examination of Māori descent and iwi data is undertaken to determine an approximate proportion of Māori living in the East Coast census area who are tangata whenua of the area.

Ethnicity data can be grouped and presented in a number of ways. In their 2005 report Understanding and Working with Ethnicity Data: A Technical Paper, Robert Didham (a geographer, historian, and demographer with the Institute of Policy Studies at the University of Victoria), with assistance from Deb Potter and Jo-anne Allan, maintain there are two principal recommended approaches to statistical ethnicity data output and analysis – total response and single/combination.45 For total responses, the output shows detailed categories of

38 Janet Sceats, Tahu Kukutai, and Ian Pool, p20 39 Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Māori: 2006 Census, 2007 (downloaded 14 August 2009) 40 Ibid. 41 Unfortunately, the authors do not give further explanation about what these „ill-defined categories‟ are in reference to. 42 Janet Sceats, Tahu Kukutai, and Ian Pool, pp20-21 43 John Gould, p30 44 Ibid. 45 Robert Didham, Deb Potter, and Jo-anne Allan, Understanding and Working with Ethnicity Data: A Technical Paper, 2005 (downloaded 17 August 2009), p8 28

one or all of a person‟s ethnicities. Didham, Potter and Allan advocate the total response technique because it „is consistent with how people report their identity in so far as people of two or more different ethnicities consider themselves to be members of each of the identified ethnicities.‟46 An advantage of using total responses is that „the relative size of the groups within the population is fairly represented‟.47 The other grouping system is single/combination ethnicity data, which provides more detailed information of single categories for people reporting one ethnicity and combination categories for those reporting several ethnicities. It has the added benefit that the sum of the categories is the same as the number of people who specified an ethnicity.48 In this report, when statistical data on ethnicity has been arranged in two ways, by grouped total response and by single and combination categories, the grouped total response data is used in all cases.

The proportion of the New Zealand population that recorded their ethnicity as „New Zealander‟ in the 2001 and 2006 censuses increased from 2.4 per cent to 11.2 percent.49 This was, in part, due to the public debate leading up to the 2006 Census about the role ethnicity plays in public policy. Overwhelmingly, people who reported their ethnicity as „New Zealander‟ (or a similar term, such as „Kiwi‟) in the 2006 Census were those who had reported a „New Zealand European‟ response in the previous census.50 The unprecedented increase in the number of „New Zealander‟ responses recorded in the 2006 Census has led to the „Other Ethnicity‟ category becoming inconsistent with previous censuses and with other sources of ethnic statistics.51 Statistics New Zealand sought, in 2009, submissions on how best to develop the ethnicity measure for the 2011 Census and for ethnicity statistics across the Official Statistics System.52 Readers should be mindful of the inflation in the „Other ethnicity‟ category caused by people recording a „New Zealander‟ type response in 2006.

46 Ibid. 47 Ibid, p9 48 Ibid. 49 Statistics New Zealand, Draft Report of a Review of the Official Ethnicity Statistical Standard: Proposals to Address the ‘New Zealander’ Response Issue (Wellington: Statistics New Zealand, 2009), p4 50 Ibid, p7 51 Ibid, p5 52 Statistics New Zealand, Review of the Official Ethnicity Statistical Standard, 2009 (downloaded 17 August 2009) 29

The Statistics Act 1975 requires published statistical information to be arranged to prevent any person being identified in the data. Accordingly, Statistics New Zealand adopts certain techniques to ensure that no person can be identified from the published data.53 One of the confidentiality rules Statistics New Zealand abides by is random rounding, where all counts and totals must be randomly rounded to „base 3‟, which means all numbers must be divisible by three.54 The implications of this practice for the current report is that in a few cases, due to these adopted confidentiality procedures, some values are too small and therefore not available for some Māori populations or socio-economic variables.

In this report, census figures are, unless otherwise stated, based on the usually resident total population. Data based on individuals is employed for analysis, rather than data for households, except where made explicit (such as in chapter 6.2 on household income, and chapter 7 on housing and household access to telecommunications).

2.3 Choice of socio-demographic variables for this report Once the statistical data sets were determined and population groups identified, variables employed to examine the socio-demographic status of Māori in the East Coast inquiry district were considered and chosen. The commission for this project helped to determine these variables, which were ultimately selected as: population; educational participation and achievement (including te reo Māori fluency); employment status, occupation and industry; personal and household income; and Māori housing and access to telecommunications. These are standard variables commonly considered to be useful for socio-demographic and socio-economic studies. Each of these variables are discussed in turn in separate chapters in this report.

The choice of indicators used to measure these variables was influenced, to some extent, by those used in the Ministry of Social Development‟s Social Report 2008. The Ministry describes social indicators as „signposts that help measure

53 Statistics New Zealand, Introduction to the Census: 2006 Census of Population and Dwellings, p6 54 Ibid, p55 30

progress towards a desired outcome‟.55 Indicators can either measure the outcome of interest directly (for example, the unemployment rate in the work domain) or they are good predictors of the outcome (such as cigarette smoking in the health domain).56 The indicators can also accommodate a plural value set, by compressing a sizeable body of statistical data to produce a few „high-level measures‟.57 To illustrate, the Ministry uses four indicators to show the outcomes in the „Knowledge and Skills‟ domain.58 Deciding which indicators to use for this report was primarily determined by the type of data readily available from the Statistics New Zealand website and classified by ethnic group at the census area unit level.

Many of the chosen variables and their effects on, and implications for, Māori (and other) populations are largely inter-dependent. Educational participation and achievement impact on employment opportunities, labour force status impacts on earning potential, income impacts on household ownership, household crowding impacts on personal and family health. Te Puni Kōkiri (the Ministry of Māori Development), in their Progress Towards Closing the Social and Economic Gaps Between Māori and Non-Māori report in 2000, maintained that disparity indicators cannot be treated separately, and „must be viewed in the context of the entire life experience of Māori‟.59 Therefore the variables and data examined in this report should be viewed holistically, rather than in isolation.

While the focus of this report is East Coast Māori, a comparative analysis helps to situate the socio-demographic profile of this group within the broader context of the Gisborne district and of New Zealand. Comparisons are therefore made between the socio-demographic status of Māori and Pākehā in the East Coast census area. East Coast census area Māori are also compared with Māori and Pākehā in the Gisborne district, and with the total national population and the national Māori population. The report begins by profiling the Māori population of the East Coast census area in terms of numbers, age structure, ethnic composition, and iwi affiliation, at chapter three.

55 Ministry of Social Development, The Social Report 2008 (Wellington: Ministry of Social Development, 2008), p5. A list of the indicators used in the Social Report appears on pages 8 and 9. 56 Ibid, p5 57 Ibid. 58 Ibid. 59 Te Puni Kōkiri, Progress Towards Closing Social and Economic Gaps Between Māori and Non-Māori: A Report to the Minister of Māori Affairs (Wellington: Te Puni Kōkiri, 2000), p7 31

3 THE MĀORI POPULATION OF THE EAST COAST CENSUS AREA This chapter presents a contemporary population profile of Māori in the East Coast census area. The 2006 population size, age structure, projected population, and deprivation index scores of East Coast census area Māori, are reported and discussed here. Data is largely drawn from the 2006 Census, as well as the 2006 New Zealand Deprivation Index (NZDep), and secondary literature. Census data from 1991, 1996, and 2001 is also used to make some commentary on the short- term trends over a 15-year period. The East Coast census area‟s Māori population data and population trends are considered within the broader context of national Māori population data, which promotes a comparative understanding of the socio-demographic statistics. Some comparisons are also made with Pākehā in the East Coast census area and the total New Zealand population.

3.1 East Coast census area populations, 1991-2006 This chapter begins with a general overview of the recent population changes in the East Coast census area and the Gisborne district. The following two graphs show the percentage of the national and the Gisborne district populations by ethnicity, from 1991 to 2006. The appendix contains a table detailing the population numbers and percentages of ethnic groups in New Zealand and in the Gisborne district. The first graph shows that New Zealand is becoming increasingly ethnically diverse. The proportion of Pākehā in New Zealand is slowly decreasing, while there have been increases in the number of Asian and Pacific peoples. The sharp jump in the number of people categorised as „Other Ethnicity‟, and the dramatic loss in the number of Pākehā between the 2001 and 2006 Censuses, are in response to public debate about the collection of ethnicity statistics in 2006 (as discussed in chapter two). At the 2006 Census a substantial number of people recorded their ethnicity as „New Zealand‟ and were subsequently recorded in the „Other Ethnicity‟ category. Most of these respondents had recorded their ethnicity as European or Pākehā in previous censuses, as shown in Graph 1. In the Gisborne district, the ratio of Māori to Pākehā is steadily narrowing. The proportions of Māori and Pākehā in the district are significantly closer than those for the country as a whole. Far fewer proportions of Asian and Pacific peoples live in the Gisborne district, compared to New Zealand. These trends are shown in Graph 2.

32

Graph 1: Population percentage by ethnicity for New Zealand, 1991-2006

90.0% 80.0% European

70.0% Maori 60.0% Pacific Peoples 50.0% 40.0% Asian

30.0% Middle Eastern/Latin 20.0% American/African Other Ethnicity 10.0% 0.0% 1991 1996 2001 2006

Source: Statistics New Zealand60

Graph 2: Population percentage by ethnicity for the Gisborne district, 1991- 2006

70.0% European 60.0% Maori 50.0%

Pacific Peoples 40.0%

30.0% Asian

20.0% Middle Eastern/Latin American/African 10.0% Other Ethnicity

0.0% 1991 1996 2001 2006

Source: Statistics New Zealand61

60 Statistics New Zealand, Ethnic Group (Grouped Total Responses) and Māori Descent by Sex, for the Census Usually Resident Population Count, 1991, 1996, 2001 and 2006, undated (downloaded 17 August 2009) 61 Ibid. 33

According to the 2006 Census, 14.6 per cent of people usually resident in New Zealand belong to the Māori ethnic group.62 Areas in New Zealand with the highest proportion of Māori residents in 2006 were the Chatham Islands (64.4 per cent), Kawerau (61.1 per cent), Wairoa (60.7 per cent), and Opotiki (59.3 per cent). In the Gisborne district, 47.3 per cent of people belonged to the Māori ethnic group.63 The percentage of Māori in the Gisborne district is over three times that of the national average. The percentage of Māori in the East Coast census area, however, is even greater.

Census data from 1991, 1996, 2001, and 2006 in both the rural and urban East Coast census areas is used to track the population changes of the Māori, Pākehā, and total populations. In 1991, nearly 9,000 people lived in the rural East Coast census area. A further 11,000 lived in the urban East Coast census area. In 2006, the rural East Coast census area population had dropped to approximately 8,300, while the urban East Coast census area population remained largely static. Table 1 reports the Māori, Pākehā, and total populations in the East Coast census area. The proportion of Pākehā and Māori as a percentage of the total populations are recorded within the table also. Note that these percentages do not add up to 100 because people can choose to identify with a number of ethnic groups.

62 Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Māori: 2006 Census, 2007 (downloaded 14 August 2009) 63 Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Gisborne District: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009) 34

Table 1: Pākehā, Māori, and total populations in the East Coast, 1991-2006

1991 1996 2001 2006 Pākehā Māori Total Pākehā Māori Total Pākehā Māori Total Pākehā Māori Total East Cape 711 2475 2985 942 2541 3099 717 2199 2748 552 2094 2703 (24%) (83%) (30%) (82%) (26%) (80%) (20%) (77%) Ruatoria 150 762 849 204 771 858 150 738 837 117 654 756 (18%) (90%) (24%) (90%) (18%) (88%) (15%) (87%) Tokomaru Bay 186 402 516 165 393 477 174 354 462 123 309 444 (36%) (78%) (42%) (83%) (38%) (77%) (28%) (70%) Tolaga Bay 258 543 774 297 591 897 261 657 870 222 588 831 (33%) (70%) (33%) (66%) (30%) (76%) (27%) (71%) Tarndale-Rakauroa 1290 726 1953 1251 738 1890 1140 648 1695 912 639 1650 (66%) (37%) (66%) (39%) (67%) (38%) (55%) (39%) Wharekaka 1389 564 1908 1512 606 2028 1404 666 1950 1164 594 1914 (73%) (30%) (75%) (30%) (72%) (34%) (61%) (31%) Rural East Coast 3984 5472 8985 4371 5640 9249 3846 5262 8562 3090 4878 8298 (44%) (61%) (47%) (61%) (%) (%) (37%) (59%) Kaiti North 1755 252 1986 1752 414 2103 1701 441 2061 1344 543 2043 (88%) (13%) (83%) (20%) (83%) (21%) (66%) (27%) Kaiti South 1386 1716 3087 1416 1638 3000 1173 1599 2736 1035 1689 2838 (45%) (56%) (47%) (55%) (43%) (58%) (36%) (60%) Outer Kaiti 849 1815 2610 987 1818 2688 807 1731 2427 705 1929 2610 (33%) (70%) (37%) (68%) (33%) (71%) (27%) (74%) Tamarau 1050 1431 2397 1023 1527 2427 807 1701 2340 726 1632 2301 (44%) (44%) (42%) (63%) (34%) (73%) (32%) (71%) Wainui 1119 114 1224 1212 219 1377 1227 189 1410 1155 270 1515 (92%) (9%) (88%) (16%) (87%) (13%) (76%) (18%) Urban East Coast 6159 5328 11,304 6390 5616 11,595 5715 5661 10,974 4965 6063 11,307 (54%) (47%) (55%) (48%) (52%) (52%) (44%) (54%) Total East Coast 10,143 10,800 20,289 10,761 11,256 20,844 9561 10,923 19,536 8055 10,941 19,605 (50%) (53%) (52%) (54%) (49%) (56%) (41%) (56%) Source: Statistics New Zealand64

The Māori, Pākehā, and total populations of the rural East Coast census area, the urban East Coast census area, and the total East Coast census area are graphed below. They illustrate the ethnic population trends of each area over the 15 year period, from 1991 to 2006. Graph 3 shows that the overall East Coast census area population remained fairly steady between 1991 and 2006. While there were approximately even populations of Māori and Pākehā in 1991, there are now more Māori than Pākehā residents in the East Coast census area.

64 Statistics New Zealand, Ethnic Group (Grouped Total Responses) and Māori Descent by Sex, for the Census Usually Resident Population Count, 1991, 1996, 2001 and 2006 35

Graph 3: Pākehā, Māori, and total populations in the East Coast, 1991-2006

Source: Statistics New Zealand65

Rather different trends appear when the rural and urban East Coast census area populations are divided and analysed separately. In the rural East Coast census area, there has been a noticeable decline in the total population (see graph 4). There are fewer Māori and Pākehā living in the rural East Coast in 2006, compared to 1991. Overall, the number of Māori residents in rural East Coast census area between 1991 and 2006 has consistently been higher than the number of Pākehā residents. In the urban East Coast census area, the total population count has changed very little (see graph 5). One difference, however, is that while in 1991 more Pākehā resided in the urban East Coast census area, by 2006 the number of Māori surpassed that of Pākehā.

65 Ibid. 36

Graph 4: Pākehā, Māori, and total populations in the rural East Coast, 1991-2006

Source: Statistics New Zealand66

Graph 5: Pākehā, Māori, and total populations in the urban East Coast, 1991-2006

Source: Statistics New Zealand67

66 Ibid. 37

It is more difficult to predict projected ethnic populations than it is to predict total populations, because ethnic identity can change over time (that is, inter-ethnic mobility). The measurement of ethnicity has changed over time, as discussed in chapter 2.4, and people can and do identify with more than one iwi and ethnic group. While acknowledging these and other relevant limitations, Statistics New Zealand has made predictions about projected ethnic populations in New Zealand. The Māori population is predicted to increase from 620,000 to 820,000 between 2006 and 2026. Over this period, the Māori share of the New Zealand population will increase from 15 to 17 per cent.68 In the rural East Coast census area, populations are expected to decline between 2006 and 2031. In the urban East Coast census area, Statistics New Zealand predicts populations will either remain the same or increase slightly, as Table 2 shows below. Ethnic population projections were not available at the census area unit level.

Table 2: Projected populations for the East Coast, 2006-2031 2006 2011 2016 2021 2026 2031 East Cape 2800 2760 2710 2640 2570 2470 Ruatoria 790 750 760 770 770 760 Tokomaru Bay 460 450 430 420 410 400 Tolaga Bay 860 860 860 840 820 790 Tarndale-Rakauroa 1700 1700 1680 1660 1620 1560 Wharekaka 1970 1970 1960 1930 1900 1840 Kaiti North 2100 2110 2110 2090 2060 2000 Kaiti South 2950 2990 3020 3030 3020 2980 Outer Kaiti 2720 2780 2810 2820 2810 2770 Tamarau 2400 2440 2460 2440 2390 2330 Wainui 1550 1690 1770 1850 1930 1990 Gisborne District 45,900 46,400 46,700 46,700 46,500 45,900 Source: Statistics New Zealand69

3.2 Ethnic composition High percentages of Māori residents characterise the rural East Coast census area. According to the 2006 Census, in the East Cape census area unit 87.9 per cent of residents identify as Māori.70 In Ruatoria, 94.8 per cent identify as Māori.71 In

67 Ibid. 68 Statistics New Zealand, National Population Projections: Māori (National), undated (downloaded 17 August 2009) 69 Statistics New Zealand, Area Unit Population Projections by Territorial Authorities, Age and Sex, 2006 (base) – 2031, undated (downloaded 17 August 2009) 70 Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About East Cape: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009) 38

Tokomaru Bay and Tolaga Bay, 78.6 per cent and 78.4 per cent respectively identify as Māori.72 The proportion of the population who are Māori is lower in Tarndale-Rakauroa and Wharekaka. Of the Tarndale-Rakauroa population, 41.3 per cent are Māori,73 while in Wharekaka, 33.3 per cent are Māori.74

In some parts of the urban East Coast census area there are also high proportions of Māori residents, particularly in comparison to the national population and the Gisborne district population. In Kaiti North, 28.1 per cent identify as Māori.75 In Kaiti South, 64.1 per cent identify as Māori.76 In Outer Kaiti and Tamarau, 79.9 per cent and 75.6 per cent respectively identify as Māori.77 A smaller percentage of the Wainui population is Māori, at 18.4 per cent of this beachfront community.78

The East Coast census area population is dominated by Māori and Pākehā. The proportions of Asian peoples, Pacific Island peoples, and Middle Eastern, Latin American, and African (ME/LA/A) peoples, in the East Coast census area are lower than that for the national population. Graphs 6 and 7 below illustrate the ethnic composition of the relevant East Coast census area units, the Gisborne district, and New Zealand in 2001 and in 2006. The four northern-most area units in the rural East Coast census area – East Cape, Ruatoria, Tokomaru Bay, and Tolaga Bay – show large majorities of Māori. The ethnic populations of Tarndale- Rakauroa and Wharekaka, in contrast, show Pākehā majorities. In the urban East Coast census area, Kaiti South, Outer Kaiti, and Tamarau show high proportions of Māori, while Kaiti North and Wainui have almost opposite ethnic composition characteristics with Pākehā majorities. Of further note is the dramatic increase in the number of residents identifying as „Other Ethnicity‟ in 2006, for reasons

71 Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Ruatoria: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009) 72 Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Tokomaru Bay: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Tolaga Bay: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009) 73 Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Tarndale-Rakauroa: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009) 74 Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Wharekaka: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009) 75 Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Kaiti North: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009) 76 Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Kaiti South: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009) 77 Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Outer Kaiti: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Tamarau: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009) 78 Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Wainui: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009) 39

explained earlier. In almost every instance, increases in „Other Ethnicity‟ proportions are matched by a corresponding drop in the proportion of Pākehā.

Graph 6: Ethnic group population percentages, for the East Coast, the Gisborne district, and New Zealand, 2001

100 90 80 Pakeha 70 Maori 60 Pacific 50 Asian 40 ME/LA/A 30 Other 20 10 0

Wainui Ruatoria Tamarau East Cape Tolaga Bay WharekakaKaiti NorthKaiti SouthOuter Kaiti New Zealand Tokomaru Bay Gisborne District Tarndale-Rakauroa

Source: Statistics New Zealand79

79 Statistics New Zealand, Ethnic Group (Grouped Total Responses) and Māori Descent by Sex, for the Census Usually Resident Population Count, 1991, 1996, 2001 and 2006 40

Graph 7: Ethnic group population percentages, for the East Coast, the Gisborne district, and New Zealand, 2006

100 90 80 Pakeha 70 Maori 60 Pacific 50 Asian 40 ME/LA/A 30 Other 20 10 0

Wainui Ruatoria Tamarau East Cape Tolaga Bay WharekakaKaiti NorthKaiti SouthOuter Kaiti New Zealand Tokomaru Bay Gisborne District Tarndale-Rakauroa

Source: Statistics New Zealand80

3.3 Age structure Ian Pool, Sandra Baxendine, Bill Cochrane, and James Lindop, from the Populations Studies Centre at the University of Waikato, have stressed the importance of defining the age structure of communities. They explain that age structures (together with ethnic structures) „delineate the base for human capital formation, family and household formation, the inter-generational allocation of resources, many aspects of supply and demand of goods and services, and the cultural attributes of a region‟.81 Therefore, Pool et. al. argue, changes to a population‟s age structure affects a number of areas within the sphere of social and economic development, including employment, housing, welfare, health, and education due to different age groups having different needs in terms of market and social policy.82 Moreover, the age structures of local districts, and indeed

80 Ibid. 81 I. Pool, S. Baxendine, B. Cochrane, J. Lindop, New Zealand Regions, 1986-2001: Population Structures (Hamilton: Population Studies Centre, University of Waikato, 2005), p1 82 Ibid. 41

New Zealand as a whole, are fluid. Dramatic changes can occur over short periods of time. Pool et. al. offer the following example of New Zealand‟s aging population. In 1986, 42.3 per cent of the New Zealand population was aged 24 years and younger. By 2001, this percentage dropped to 36.2 per cent.83 However, when compared with other developed countries, New Zealand is relatively youthful, according to Sandra Baxendine (a former researcher at the University of Waikato‟s Population Studies Centre), Bill Cochrane (research fellow of the University of Waikato‟s Population Studies Centre), Arunachalam Dharmalinga (a demographer), Sarah Hillcoat-Nallétamby (senior lecturer in social policy), and Jacques Poot (professor of population economics).84

The national Māori population is young compared to the total New Zealand population. In 2006, the median age of Māori throughout the country was 22.7 years, and 35.4 per cent of Māori were aged under 15 years. For the total New Zealand population however, the median age was 35.9 years, and only 21.5 per cent of people were aged under 15 years.85 Brian Murton, a professor emeritus of geography at the University of Hawaii, argues that the youthful age structure of a population offers three insights into, and implications for, socio-economic matters.86 Large numbers of young people, he writes, place „severe dependency burdens on family heads‟.87 These numbers also have implications for the education system and future employment prospects. In addition, high numbers of young people commonly lead to producing large birth cohorts when the current youth cohort reaches, what he calls, the reproductive age groups.88

Tairāwhiti District Health (which services the entire Gisborne district, and thus relevant to the East Coast census area) notes that the Gisborne district has a young population, with a median age of 33.8 years – two years younger than the national average.89 Over 25 per cent of this district‟s residents are aged under 15

83 Ibid, pp2-3 84 Sandra Baxendine, Bill Cochrane, A. Dharmalinga, Sarah Hillcoat-Nallétamby, and Jacques Poot, The New Zealand Population: A Synopsis of Trends and Projections 1991-2016 (Hamilton: Population Studies Centre, University of Waikato, 2005), p6 85 Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About New Zealand: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 21 April 2009) 86 Brian Murton, „The Crown and the Peoples of Te Urewera: The Economic and Social Experience of Te Urewera Maori, 1860-2000‟, report commissioned by the Waitangi Tribunal, 2004, Wai 894 #H12, p17 87 Ibid. 88 Ibid. 89 Tairawhiti District Health, Statistics: Tairawhiti District Health, 2009 (downloaded 20 July 2009) 42

years old, compared to 21.5 per cent of New Zealand‟s residents. Only 61.8 per cent of the Gisborne district population is aged between 15 and 64 years, which is „the lowest proportion in New Zealand‟.90 The Gisborne district‟s Māori population, however, has a rather different age structure. This district actually has one of the oldest Māori populations in the country, with nearly 6 per cent aged 65 years and older, compared to 4.1 per cent of Māori nationally.91 The median age for Māori in the Gisborne district is 23 years and 9 months, which is the highest nationally for the Māori ethnic group.92

Table 3 shows the age structure of the Māori population in the rural East Coast census area, the urban East Coast census area, the total East Coast census area, the Gisborne district, and New Zealand, for the 1991, 1996, 2001, and 2006 Censuses. The age structure for the total population in New Zealand (Māori and non-Māori) is given for these periods as well.93 In the appendix, tables show the raw population numbers in each category. The most obvious pattern evident in Table 3 is that the proportions of Māori under the age of 15 in the East Coast census area, in the Gisborne district, and in New Zealand, are all higher than the proportion of the total New Zealand population aged under 15 years. A high proportion of residents aged under 15 denotes a high rate of dependency in families. In 2006, the percentage of Māori aged under 15 years in the East Coast census area and across New Zealand were both 35 per cent. This was the same percentage of Māori in the East Coast census area fifteen years earlier, in 1991. The proportion of Māori in the East Coast census area aged under 25 years has fallen over this period though. Māori aged under 25 years of age in the East Coast census area in 1991 comprised 54 per cent of the population. Fifteen years later in 2006, the proportion had dropped to 50 per cent.

90 Ibid. 91 Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About New Zealand: 2006 Census 92 Tairawhiti District Health 93 Ages are grouped in the following categories, representing six major points in life cycles. 0-14 years – children; 15-24 years – young adult; 25-44 years – young middle age; 45-64 years – middle age; 65-74 – retired; 75 and over – elderly. See: I Pool, S. Baxendine, B. Cochrane, J. Lindop, New Zealand Regions, 1986-2001: Population Structures, p2 43

Table 3: Māori population age structure in the rural, urban, and total East Coast, the Gisborne district, and New Zealand, and the total population in New Zealand, 1991, 1996, 2001 and 2006

1991 0-14 Years 15-24 Years 25-44 Years 45-64 Years 65-74 Years 75+ Years Rural East Coast 34% 17% 28% 15% 4% 2% Urban East Coast 37% 20% 27% 13% 2% 1% East Coast 35% 19% 27% 14% 3% 1% Gisborne District 35% 19% 28% 14% 3% 1% NZ Māori 37% 21% 28% 11% 2% 1% NZ total (Māori 23% 16% 30% 19% 7% 5% and non-Māori) 1996 0-14 Years 15-24 Years 25-44 Years 45-64 Years 65-74 Years 75+ Years Rural East Coast 36% 14% 28% 16% 4% 2% Urban East Coast 38% 18% 27% 13% 3% 1% East Coast 37% 16% 28% 14% 4% 2% Gisborne district 37% 17% 28% 14% 3% 1% NZ Māori 38% 19% 29% 12% 2% 1% NZ total (Māori 23% 15% 31% 20% 7% 5% and non-Māori) 2001 0-14 Years 15-24 Years 25-44 Years 45-64 Years 65-74 Years 75+ Years Rural East Coast 35% 12% 27% 19% 5% 2% Urban East Coast 38% 17% 26% 14% 3% 1% East Coast 36% 15% 27% 17% 4% 2% Gisborne district 36% 15% 28% 16% 4% 1% NZ Māori 37% 17% 29% 13% 2% 1% NZ total (Māori 23% 14% 30% 22% 7% 5% and non-Māori) 2006 0-14 Years 15-24 Years 25-44 Years 45-64 Years 65-74 Years 75+ Years Rural East Coast 32% 13% 25% 22% 5% 3% Urban East Coast 36% 18% 25% 16% 3% 1% East Coast 35% 15% 25% 18% 4% 2% Gisborne district 34% 16% 26% 18% 4% 2% NZ Māori 35% 18% 27% 15% 3% 1% NZ total (Māori 22% 14% 28% 24% 7% 6% and non-Māori) Source: Statistics New Zealand94

94 Statistics New Zealand, Ethnic Group (Grouped Total Responses) by Age Group, for the Census Usually Resident Population Count, 1991, 1996, 2001 and 2006, undated (downloaded 17 August 2009). All calculations are made from raw data. 44

The age structures of Māori populations in the East Coast census area and the Gisborne district are similar, and this pattern is maintained between 1991 and 2006. There are, however, key differences between Māori in the rural and urban East Coast census areas. The urban East Coast census area population is more youthful than the rural area. Over half (54 per cent) of urban East Coast census area Māori were aged 24 years and under in 2006 (down from 57 per cent in 1991). In contrast, 45 per cent of rural East Coast census area Māori were in this category in 2006 (a decrease from 51 per cent in 1991).

The total New Zealand population is older than the Māori population. In 2006, 13 per cent of all New Zealanders were aged over 65 years. Only 4 per cent of the national Māori population were in this age bracket. Overall, Māori in the East Coast census area and in the Gisborne district had greater proportions of over 65 years olds (6 per cent) than did the total Māori population. The total East Coast census area Māori population has in fact aged over the past 15 years, increasing from 4 per cent aged over 65 in 1991, to 6 per cent in 2006. Of further interest is the difference between rural and urban East Coast census area populations of Māori aged over 65 years. The percentage of elderly rural East Coast census area Māori (8 per cent) was twice that of urban East Coast census area Māori (4 per cent) in 2006.

45

Graph 8: Māori population age structure in the rural, urban, and total East Coast, the Gisborne district, and New Zealand, and the total population in New Zealand, 1991, 1996, 2001, and 2006

100%

90%

80% 75+ Years 70% 65-74 Years 60% 45-64 Years 50% 25-44 Years 15-24 Years 40% 0-14 Years 30%

20%

10%

0% Rural East Urban East East Coast Gisborne NZ Maori NZ (Maori Coast Coast (total) district and non- Maori)

Source: Statistics New Zealand95

The age structure data is pictorially illustrated above in Graph 8, showing the similarities between the Māori populations in the total East Coast census area and the Gisborne district. It also highlights the younger profile of Māori throughout New Zealand, and the higher proportion of older people in the total national population. The Māori population of the rural East Coast census area is older than the Māori population of the urban East Coast census area, the Gisborne district, and New Zealand.

3.4 Iwi affiliation A number of problems with using iwi affiliation statistical data have been outlined in chapter two. Readers should be reminded that iwi data is based on people who report being of Māori descent. This is different to the majority of Māori statistical data used in this report which is based on people self-identifying

95 Ibid. 46

with the Māori ethnic group. Some broad characteristics of iwi relevant to the East Coast census area, as collected by Statistics New Zealand in the 2006 Census, require a brief mention here.96 Māori in the East Coast census area who reported being of Māori descent at the 2006 Census can be categorised according to their iwi, using Statistics New Zealand‟s table builder function. Iwi categories used by Statistics New Zealand and relevant to the East Coast inquiry district include: Ngāti Porou, Te Aitanga-a-Mahaki, Rongowhakaata, and the grouped iwi name of Turanganui-a-Kiwa (which includes Te Aitanga-a-Mahaki, Rongowhakaata, Ngai Tamanuhiri and Turanganui-a-Kiwa). Another relevant category is that called „Te Tai Rāwhiti (East Coast) Region, not further defined‟.

The 2006 Census data indicates that many Māori residents in the East Coast census area affiliate with an East Coast iwi. According to 2006 Census data, in the rural East Coast census area 4647 people stated they were of Māori descent. Over three-quarters of these people named Ngāti Porou as one, or one of several, of their iwi (3639 of 4647 people – 78.3 per cent). A further 438 people reported affiliations with Te Aitanga-a-Mahaki (9.4 per cent), and 147 people named Rongowhakaata (3.2 per cent) as one, or one of several, of their iwi. A total of 561 people recorded their iwi, or one of their iwi, as being within the Turanganui- a-Kiwa grouping (12.1 per cent). Additionally, 51 people reported their iwi, or one of their iwi, as the Te Tai Rāwhiti (East Coast) Region, but without defining this further.97 Nationally, of the 643,977 people who stated they were of Māori descent at the 2006 Census, 102,366 did not know their iwi (15.9 per cent).98 A significantly smaller proportion of Māori in the rural East Coast census area do not know their iwi. Only 4.0 per cent of East Coast people who reported being of Māori descent in 2006 stated that they did not know their iwi (186 of 4647 people).99

96 Statistics New Zealand has compiled iwi profiles with select data from the 2006 Census for a number of iwi who consented and who have populations of 1000 or more. These iwi profiles are available upon request from Statistics New Zealand. Included are profiles on Ngāti Porou, Te Aitanga-a-Māhaki, Rongowhakaata, and the grouped iwi name of Turanganui a Kiwa. See: Statistics New Zealand, 2006 Census Iwi Profiles, undated (downloaded 15 October 2009). 97 Statistics New Zealand, Iwi (Total Responses) for the Māori Descent Census Usually Resident Population Count, 2001 and 2006, undated (downloaded 17 August 2009) 98 Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Māori: 2006 Census 99 Statistics New Zealand, Iwi (Total Responses) for the Māori Descent Census Usually Resident Population Count, 2001 and 2006 47

Some different patterns of iwi affiliation are found in the urban East Coast census area. In the urban East Coast census area, 5535 people stated they were of Māori descent. Of these, 3828 identified Ngāti Porou as an iwi with which they affiliate. At 69 per cent, this is lower than the proportion of rural census area unit respondents who are Ngāti Porou. A total of 690 people recorded an iwi they affiliate with as Te Aitangi-a-Mahaki (12.5 per cent), and 582 stated Rongowhakaata as one of their, or their only, iwi (10.5 per cent). A further 1224 said their iwi was within the Turanganui a Kiwa grouping (22.1 per cent), and 69 people reported that their iwi, or one of their iwi, is Te Tai Rāwhiti (East Coast) Region (1.2 per cent). A greater percentage of Māori resident in the urban East Coast census area than in the rural East Coast census area did not know their iwi (6.6 per cent, or 366 of the 5535 respondents).100 The data suggests that a sizeable proportion of Māori in the East Coast census area are tangata whenua of the area. The statistics discussed in this section are presented in Table 4 below. Note that there are many other iwi groups that people who reported being of Māori descent affiliate with (other than the five listed); but, only the most common iwi relevant to the East Coast are listed below.

Table 4: Iwi affiliation in the East Coast, 2006 Ngāti Porou Te Aitanga- Rongo- Turanganui a Te Tai Total a-Mahaki whakaata Kiwa Rāwhiti People Grouping (not further Stated defined) East Cape 1713 87.3% 33 1.7% 51 2.6% 81 4.1% 27 1.4% 1962 Ruatoria 570 92.7% 12 2.0% 6 1.0% 21 3.4% 6 1.0% 615 Tokomaru Bay 249 82.2% 15 5.0% 9 3.0% 24 7.9% 3 1.0% 303 Tolaga Bay 447 80.5% 45 8.1% 15 2.7% 60 10.8% 6 1.1% 555 Tarndale-Rakauroa 264 42.7% 261 42.2% 36 5.8% 276 44.7% 6 1.0% 618 Wharekaka 396 66.7% 72 12.1% 30 5.1% 99 16.7% 3 0.5% 594 Rural East Coast 3639 78.3% 438 9.4% 147 3.2% 561 12.1% 51 1.1% 4647 Kaiti North 360 65.6% 60 10.9% 60 10.9% 111 20.2% 9 1.6% 549 Kaiti South 1056 69.8% 180 11.9% 150 9.9% 300 19.8% 18 1.2% 1512 Outer Kaiti 1197 70.0% 228 13.3% 180 10.5% 399 23.3% 24 1.4% 1710 Tamarau 1050 70.3% 207 13.9% 162 10.8% 363 24.3% 18 1.2% 1494 Wainui 165 61.1% 15 5.6% 30 11.1% 51 18.9% 0 0.0% 270 Urban East Coast 3828 69.2% 690 12.5% 582 10.5% 1224 22.1% 69 1.2% 5535 Source: Statistics New Zealand101

100 Ibid. 101 Ibid. 48

3.5 Deprivation The New Zealand Deprivation Index (NZDep) is a tool designed to describe the relative deprivation experienced by groups of people in small geographic areas in New Zealand. The index, entitled Atlas of Socio-economic Deprivation in New Zealand NZDep2006, was published in 2008 and compiled by authors Peter White (a Principal Technical Specialist in spatial epidemiology), Jinny Gunston (a Geographical Information System (GIS) specialist), Clare Salmond (a retired senior lecturer in biostatistics), June Atkinson (an SAS (statistics analysis) expert), and Peter Crampton (Dean and Head of campus at the University of Otago, Wellington).102 White et. al. explain that the socio-economic deprivation scale „provides one approach to conceptualising and measuring the broader construct of socioeconomic position‟.103 The NZDep describes the general state of socio-economic deprivation in a geographic area. It does not describe the deprivation status of an individual or of a household.104

The 2006 Deprivation Index is based on data from the 2006 Census, and it is constructed using nine domains and their associated variables. A list of the deprivation domains follows, along with their census-based variables in parenthesis. In decreasing order of importance the domains are: income (aged 18- 54 years receiving a means-tested benefit); income (living in households with equivalised income below an income threshold); owned home (not living in own home); support (aged under 65 years living in a single parent family); employment (aged 18-64 years and unemployed); qualifications (aged 18-64 years and without any qualifications); living space (living in households below an equivalised bedroom occupancy threshold); communication (with no access to a telephone); and transport (with no access to a car). White et al. explain how areas are allocated a NZDep score. „The NZDep2006 scale of deprivation from 1 to 10 divides New Zealand into tenths of the distribution of the first principal component scores. For example, a value of 10 indicates that the small area is in the most deprived 10 percent of small areas in New Zealand as measured by the index‟.105

102 P. White, J. Gunston, C. Salmond, J. Atkinson, and P. Crampton, Atlas of Socioeconomic Deprivation in New Zealand NZDep2006 (Wellington: Ministry of Health, 2008), p vii 103 Ibid, p5 104 Ibid, p12 105 Ibid, pp9-10 49

Māori are disproportionately represented in the areas with the highest deprivation index scores throughout New Zealand. This is particularly when compared with the Pākehā ethnic group, and demonstrated in the following graphs. Graphs 9 and 10 illustrate the opposite patterns of deprivation experience by Pākehā and Māori. Māori are disproportionately concentrated in areas with higher deprivation index scores. In contrast, Pākehā are more evenly spread through the deprivation index score areas, but angled towards the lower NZDep scores. Nearly 25 per cent of Māori live in areas with a NZDep score of 10, compared with 4.5 per cent of Pākehā.

Graph 9: New Zealand Deprivation Index profile of Pākehā, 2006

Source: Atlas of Socio-economic Deprivation106

106 Ibid, p23 50

Graph 10: New Zealand Deprivation Index profile of Māori, 2006

Source: Atlas of Socio-economic Deprivation107

The 2001 and 2006 NZDep scores for the census area units relevant to the East Coast inquiry district are shown in the table below. The East Coast census area has high NZDep scores, most notably in those areas in the north where there are concentrations of the Māori population. The East Coast census area units with low NZDep scores are those with low proportions of Māori within their areas. Census area units in the East Coast with over 60 per cent Māori all have the highest NZDep score that can be given, which is 10. In the Tarndale-Rakauroa census area unit, the NZDep score increased from 7 to 8 between 2001 and 2006, and the proportion of Māori residents increased over this period as well, from 39.6 per cent to 41.3 per cent. There appears to be a correlation between the percentage of Māori within census area units and deprivation scores in the urban East Coast census area as well. Kaiti South, Outer Kaiti and Tamarau all have NZDep scores of 10, and all of these census area units have Māori majorities. In Wainui, which has a comparatively low proportion of Māori residents, at 18.4 per cent, the NZDep score was 2 – depicting an area with a high socio-economic status.

107 Ibid, p23 51

Table 5: New Zealand Deprivation Index scores for the East Coast, 2001- 2006

NZDep % Māori NZ Dep % Māori score 2001 2001 score 2006 2006 East Cape 10 85.0 10 87.9 Ruatoria 10 92.8 10 94.8 Tokomaru Bay 10 78.7 10 78.6 Tolaga Bay 10 78.4 10 78.4 Tarndale-Rakauroa 7 39.6 8 41.3 Wharekaka 6 35.6 6 33.3 Kaiti North 5 22.2 5 28.1 Kaiti South 10 62.8 10 64.1 Outer Kaiti 10 77.6 10 79.9 Tamarau 10 76.9 10 75.6 Wainui 2 14.2 2 18.4 Source: NZDep 2001 and 2006; Statistics New Zealand 2001 and 2006108

The map on the following page shows a pictorial depiction of 2006 NZDep scores for census area units in the Gisborne district (which covers the same area as the Tairāwhiti District Health Board).

108 Peter Crampton, Clare Salmond, and Russell Kirkpatrick, Degrees of Deprivation in New Zealand: An Atlas of Socioeconomic Difference, 2nd ed. (Auckland: David Bateman Ltd, 2004), pp124-125; P. White, J. Gunston, C. Salmond, J. Atkinson, and P. Crampton, p191; Statistics New Zealand, East Cape Community Profile: 2001 Census, 2003 (downloaded 8 July 2009); Statistics New Zealand, Ruatoria Community Profile: 2001 Census, 2003 (downloaded 8 July 2009); Statistics New Zealand, Tokomaru Bay Community Profile: 2001 Census, 2003 (downloaded 8 July 2009); Statistics New Zealand, Tolaga Bay Community Profile: 2001 Census, 2003 (downloaded 8 July 2009); Statistics New Zealand, Tarndale-Rakauroa Community Profile: 2001 Census, 2003 (downloaded 8 July 2009); Statistics New Zealand, Wharekaka Community Profile: 2001 Census, 2003 (downloaded 8 July 2009); Statistics New Zealand, Kaiti North Community Profile: 2001 Census, 2003 downloaded 8 July 2009); Statistics New Zealand, Kaiti South Community Profile: 2001 Census, 2003 (downloaded 8 July 2009); Statistics New Zealand, Outer Kaiti Community Profile: 2001 Census, 2003 (downloaded 8 July 2009); Statistics New Zealand, Tamarau Community Profile: 2001 Census, 2003 (downloaded 8 July 2009); Statistics New Zealand, Wainui Community Profile: 2001 Census, 2003 (downloaded 8 July 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About East Cape: 2006 Census; Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Ruatoria: 2006 Census; Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Tokomaru Bay: 2006 Census; Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Tolaga Bay: 2006 Census; Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Tarndale-Rakauroa: 2006 Census; Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Wharekaka: 2006 Census; Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Kaiti North: 2006 Census; Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Kaiti South: 2006 Census; Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Outer Kaiti: 2006 Census; Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Tamarau: 2006 Census; Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Wainui: 2006 Census. 52

Map 2: Tairāwhiti District Health Board – NZDep 2006 scores

Source: Ministry of Health109

109 Ministry of Health, DHB Maps and Background Information from the Atlas of Socioeconomic Deprivation in New Zealand NZDep 2006, 2008 (downloaded 23 April 2009) 53

For the above map, the original NZDep2006 decile scores have been collapsed into quintiles. Deciles 1 and 2 are added together to form quintile 1, deciles 3 and 4 form quintile 2, and so on.110 Areas with dark red colouring have the highest NZDep scores available. Within the Gisborne district there is an over- representation of quintile 5, the most deprived category. Nearly half (46 per cent) of people in the Gisborne district live in areas that are described as being the most deprived (that is, decile 9 and 10, or quintile 5).111

3.6 Summary The East Coast census area has a very high proportion of Māori residents, when compared with the Gisborne district and with New Zealand. In the rural census areas of East Cape, Ruatoria, Tokomaru Bay, and Tolaga Bay, Māori comprise between approximately 78 and 95 per cent of the population, according to the 2006 Census. In three of the five urban census area units, the Māori proportion of the population is over 64 per cent. In contrast, Māori make up around 47 per cent of the Gisborne district population, and 15 per cent of the national population.

Two ethnic populations dominate the East Coast census area – Māori and Pākehā. Compared to the national population, few people from other ethnic groups, such as Asian peoples, Pacific Island peoples, or Middle Eastern/ Latin American/ African peoples, reside in the East Coast census area. A broad overview of iwi data collected for the 2006 Census shows that many East Coast census area Māori affiliate with iwi from the East Coast area. Over the past 15 years there have been more Māori than Pākehā residents in the rural East Coast census area, and this total population is declining. In the urban East Coast census area, there has been a recent change from a Pākehā to a Māori majority.

In comparison with the national population, Māori in the East Coast census area have a young age structure. This situation is similar to that of the total Māori population, which is younger than the national population. However, some age structure differences are evident between rural and urban East Coast census area

110 P. White, J. Gunston, C. Salmond, J. Atkinson, and P. Crampton, p16 111 Ibid, p102 54

Māori. The urban East Coast census area Māori population is more youthful than the rural East Coast census area Māori population. In fact, a fairly significant proportion of rural East Coast Māori are aged over 65 years – 8 per cent – which is greater than the proportion for urban East Coast Māori, Gisborne district Māori, and the national Māori population.

New Zealand Deprivation Index scores for the relevant census area units in the East Coast inquiry district have been reported on to offer a broad indication of the district‟s socio-economic profile. Seven of the 11 East Coast census area units have a deprivation score of 10, showing that they are within the 10 per cent of the most deprived areas in the country. East Coast census area units with higher percentages of Māori (particularly over 60 per cent) correspond with highest deprivation score available – 10. There appears to be a correlation between the proportion of Māori in the census area unit and the NZDep score. Ensuing chapters elaborate on the socio-demographic profile of Māori residents in the East Coast census area, and make comparisons with other populations and regions in New Zealand.

55

4 EDUCATIONAL PARTICIPATION AND ACHIEVEMENT Participation in all levels in education and the educational attainment rates amongst Māori in the East Coast census area are the focus of this chapter. For the purposes of compiling this profile, statistical data is drawn from the 2006 Census, the Ministry of Education, and the Ministry of Social Development. Data on Māori and Pākehā in the East Coast census area is compared with Māori and Pākehā in the Gisborne district, and with the national population. In some instances, specific data is not available, or data is available but the numbers involved are too small to make any reliable analysis of the results. In these cases, the East Coast census area data is supplemented with data for the Gisborne district to make more informed comment. The education indicators used in this report include early childhood education participation, school and tertiary achievement rates, decile ratings of schools in the East Coast census area, and te reo Māori abilities.

4.1 Early childhood education It is useful to know the proportion of Māori pre-schoolers in the East Coast census area who attend early childhood education, because attendance may produce significant benefits. The Ministry of Social Development maintains that early childhood education (ECE) is critically important to a child‟s development and subsequent educational and learning achievements.112 The Ministry of Education has cited a literature review carried out in 2008 that shows longer experiences in good-quality early childhood education has benefits for children‟s achievements in, and attitudes towards, schooling.113 Furthermore, according to the Ministry of Education „[t]hese gains may be greater for young children from low-income homes‟.114

112 Ministry of Social Development, The Social Report 2008 (Wellington: Ministry of Social Development, 2008), p36 113 Ministry of Education, Ngā Haeata Mātauranga: Annual Report on Māori Education 2007/08 (Wellington: Ministry of Education, 2009), p14 114 Ibid. 56

As chapter three pointed out, there is a high proportion of Māori tamariki and rangatahi in the East Coast census area. In the rural East Coast census area, 711 children were aged under five years old according to the 2006 Census. Of this number, 456 were Māori children, equating to approximately 64 per cent. In the census area units that fall entirely within the rural East Coast inquiry district however, namely Ruatoria, Tokomaru Bay, and Tolaga Bay, coupled with the East Cape, the proportion of under five year old children who are Māori is collectively much higher, at 80.4 per cent. The Wharekaka and Tarndale-Rakauroa census area units reduce the total number and proportion of Māori tamariki in the rural East Coast census area. In the urban East Coast census area, two-thirds of the population aged under five years old are Māori (696 out of 1044 children, or 66.7 per cent).115 A table outlining the number of Māori and Pākehā aged up to five years appears in the appendix.

A key concern with population data on early childhood education attendance is that the data can be over- or under-estimated because some children are enrolled in more than one educational institution. Other children may attend playgroups that are not included in official figures.116 Further, this type of data is not defined by ethnicity at the territorial authority level, making the data (on its own) of little relevance to this current research report on the East Coast census area.117 A different participation indicator measures the prior participation of Year 1 students (new entrants) in early childhood education. This data is broken down by both territorial authority and by ethnicity. This second measure is thus likely to be a more useful variable to use because it avoids the methodological concerns noted above.

Māori children, like Pākehā children, are attending early childhood education in increasing numbers, according to Baxendine, Cochrane, Dharmalingam, Hillcoat- Nallétamby, and Poot.118 Between 1992 and 2001, the number of New Zealand children enrolled in early childhood education nationwide increased by nearly 28

115 Statistics New Zealand, Ethnic Group (Grouped Total Responses) by Age Group, for the Census Usually Resident Population Count, 1991, 1996, 2001 and 2006, undated (downloaded 17 August 2009). 116 Janet Sceats, Tahu Kukutai, and Ian Pool, „The Socio-Demographic and Economic Characteristics of Maori in the Wairarapa ki Tararua Region, c.1981-2001‟, report commissioned by the Crown Forestry Rental Trust, November 2002, Wai 863 #A28, p46 117 Ministry of Education, Participation in Early Childhood Education, 2009 (downloaded 27 July 2009) 118 Sandra Baxendine, Bill Cochrane, A. Dharmalinga, Sarah Hillcoat-Nallétamby, and Jacques Poot, The New Zealand Population: A Synopsis of Trends and Projections 1991-2016 (Hamilton: Population Studies Centre, University of Waikato, 2005), p16 57

per cent.119 Using a different measure, the total number of Year 1 students who attended early childhood education services increased between 2000 and 2008 across all ethnic groups. The total participation rate grew from 91.0 per cent in 2000 to 94.7 per cent in 2008.120 This prior participation rate indicator is used for the remainder of this section of the report.

Within the Gisborne district, 90.0 per cent of Māori Year 1 students had attended early childhood education services in 2008, as did 95.5 per cent of Pākehā Year 1 students. In the same year, throughout New Zealand 90.4 of Māori Year 1 students had attended early childhood education, as had 98.3 of Pākehā students.121 The Māori participation rate in early childhood education for the Gisborne district is on par with New Zealand; however, the Pākehā participation rate in the Gisborne district is lower than the national average. Therefore the difference between the percentage of Māori children and Pākehā children attending early childhood education in the Gisborne district is narrower than that for the country as a whole.

Within the rural East Coast census area, Ministry of Education data reveals that Māori children are less likely than Pākehā children to attend early childhood education institutions, as shown in Table 6. The table demonstrates that nearly 80 per cent of rural East Coast census area Māori Year 1 students had attended early childhood education, meaning they are far less likely to attend this educational service than Māori children nationally. In the East Cape, only 75 per cent of Māori Year 1 students had attended early childhood education. Higher proportions of Māori children had attended early childhood education in Ruatoria, Tokomaru Bay and Wharekaka though, between 90 and 93 per cent. Of the number of Pākehā that were Year 1 students in the rural East Coast census area in 2008, all had previously participated in early childhood education. It should be noted that the numbers employed in calculating the attendance percentages are small, and therefore should be read with caution.

119 Ibid. 120 Ministry of Education, Prior Participation in Early Childhood Education: New Entrants, undated (downloaded 21 May 2009) 121 Ibid. 58

Table 6: Prior participation of Year 1 students in early childhood education in the rural East Coast, 2008 Attended ECE Did not attend ECE Unable to establish Participation (%) attendance Pākehā Māori Total Pākehā Māori Total Pākehā Māori Total Pākehā Māori Total East Cape 3 41 44 0 13 13 0 1 1 100 75.93 77.19 Ruatoria 0 11 11 0 1 1 0 0 0 - 91.67 91.67 Tokomaru Bay 0 9 9 0 1 1 0 0 0 - 90.00 90.00 Tolaga Bay 2 7 9 0 3 3 0 6 6 100 70.00 75.00 Tarndale-Rakauroa 6 11 17 0 5 5 1 0 1 100 68.75 77.27 Wharekaka 16 14 30 0 1 1 0 0 0 100 93.33 96.77 Rural East Coast 27 93 120 0 24 24 1 7 8 100 79.49 83.33 Source: Ministry of Education122

According to the Ministry of Education‟s early childhood directory, in early 2009 there were 13 early childhood education providers in the rural East Coast census area, from Hicks Bay in the north to Whangara in the south.123 All but one of these are kōhanga reo – Māori language immersion early childhood education centres.124 As noted earlier, a large proportion of the rural East Coast census area population who are aged under five years old are Māori. As Māori immersion education providers, kōhanga reo expose children in their early years to te reo Māori. According to Te Puni Kōkiri, the revitalisation of te reo Māori is „seen as an important process in the overall growth and advancement of the Māori community‟.125 It is shown later in this chapter that Māori in the East Coast census area have a greater likelihood of being able to speak te reo than Māori living in other parts of New Zealand.

The choice of education providers in the rural East Coast census area is, understandably, more limited than in the urban East Coast census area. For urban

122 Ministry of Education, Prior Participation of Year 1 Students in ECE by Ethnicity for East Coast CAUs: 1 July 2008, 2009. Information provided by Information Officer from the Ministry of Education following personal request (by email), 22 May 2009. Note that the table excludes international students. 123 Ministry of Education, Educational Institutions and their Contact Details, 2009 (downloaded 20 May 2009). The 13 early childhood centres are: Paikea Preschool Incorporated, Awatere Te Kohanga Reo, E Tipu Kohanga Reo, Hinerupe Kohanga Reo, Hiruharama Kohanga Reo, Marotini Kohanga Reo, Nga Whanau Whanui, Te Ao Tawarirangi Kohanga Reo, Te Whanau A Hinetapora, Te Whanau Pani Kohanga Reo, Waiapu Kohanga Reo, Whakarua Te Kohanga Reo, and Wharekahika Kohanga Reo. 124 Ibid. 125 Te Puni Kōkiri, Progress Towards Closing Social and Economic Gaps Between Māori and Non-Māori: A Report to the Minister of Māori Affairs (Wellington: Te Puni Kōkiri, 2000), p20 59

East Coast census area Māori, simply because a child resides in a certain census area unit does not necessarily mean they will attend an early childhood centre or school in that area. This qualifier should be kept in mind when reading Table 7, which details the prior participation rates of Māori and Pākehā Year 1 pupils in early childhood education in the urban East Coast census area. Again, caution must be employed when drawing conclusions from the table due to the small numbers used.

Table 7: Prior participation of Year 1 students in early childhood education in the urban East Coast, 2008

Attended ECE Did not attend ECE Unable to establish Participation (%) attendance Pākehā Māori Total Pākehā Māori Total Pākehā Māori Total Pākehā Māori Total Kaiti North 9 43 52 0 4 4 0 3 5 100 91.49 92.86 Kaiti South 0 22 24 0 1 1 0 1 2 0 95.65 96.00 Outer Kaiti 0 21 21 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 95.45 95.45 Tamarau 0 8 9 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 88.89 90.00 Wainui 13 10 24 0 0 0 6 6 13 100 100 100 Urban East Coast 22 104 130 0 7 7 6 11 21 100 93.69 94.89 Source: Ministry of Education126

Compared with the rural census area units, there is a greater likelihood that urban East Coast census area Year 1 Māori children had prior participation in early childhood education. In fact, the proportion of 5-year-old urban East Coast census area Māori children who attended early childhood institutions (93.69 per cent) is greater than the proportion of Māori children who did across the Gisborne district (90 per cent). However, Māori children are less likely than Pākehā children in the urban East Coast census area to attend early childhood education.

126 Ministry of Education, Prior Participation of Year 1 Students in ECE by Ethnicity for East Coast CAUs: 1 July 2008, 2009. Information provided by Information Officer from the Ministry of Education following personal request (by email), 9 July 2009. Note that the table excludes international students, and that the „total‟ column includes all ethnic groups. 60

4.2 Schooling For the total New Zealand schooling population, Māori students‟ achievement rates at the end of their schooling is lower than that for Pākehā students. In 2007, 71 per cent of Pākehā school leavers achieved NCEA Level 2 or above, whereas only 44 per cent of Māori school leavers attained this standard. For the total population of school leavers (including Pacific Island peoples, Asian peoples, and other ethnicities), 66 per cent achieved Level 2 or above by the time they left school. The proportion of Māori students who attained the highest category of attainment – University entrance, or Level 3 qualifications or higher – was less than half that of Pākehā. A total of 44 per cent of Pākehā school leavers achieved this standard in 2007, as did only 18 per cent of Māori school leavers.

Table 8: Highest attainment of school leavers by ethnic group, 2006-2007 Pākehā Māori Total Highest attainment of school leavers 2006 2007 2006 2007 2006 2007 (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) UE, Level 3 qualification or higher 41 44 15 18 36 39 Half-way to a Level 3 qualification 8 8 7 8 8 8 Level 2 qualification 16 19 14 17 16 18 Sub-total NCEA Level 2 or above 65 71 37 44 60 66 Half-way to a Level 2 qualification 7 8 11 12 9 9 Level 1 qualification 7 7 9 9 7 7 Half-way to a Level 1 qualification 7 7 13 15 8 8 Less than half-way to a Level 1 qualification 4 4 10 10 5 5 Little or no formal attainment 9 3 22 10 11 5 Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 Source: Ministry of Education127

In the Gisborne district in 2007, 87.1 per cent of Pākehā school leavers attained NCEA Level 1 or above, while 65 per cent of Māori school leavers attained this standard. These proportions roughly mirror the national population NCEA Level 1 achievement rates, in which 85.9 per cent of Pākehā and 65.3 per cent of Māori attained this level.128

127 Ministry of Education, School Leavers: 2007, 2008 (downloaded 21 May 2009) 128 Ministry of Education, School Leavers with NCEA Level 1 or Above, undated (downloaded 21 May 2009) 61

A data request from the Ministry of Education revealed information about the percentage of students with the highest attainment of NCEA Level 1 or above, specific to the East Coast census area. In the East Cape census area unit, 82 per cent of Māori students gained Level 1 or above in 2007 (down from 100 per cent in 2005). In Ruatoria, 70 per cent of Māori students did (up from 42 per cent in 2005), while 100 per cent achieved this in Tolaga Bay (up from 55 per cent in 2005).129 The dramatic fluctuations in achievement rates between 2005 and 2007 are due to the small number of students attending the schools in these districts. No school-leavers data can be given for the other three rural census area units because there are no secondary schools in those areas.130 Only four composite schools (catering for Year 1 – 15 students) operate in the rural East Coast census area.131

The most recent Education Review Office (ERO) reports for these four composite schools can offer further qualitative information about the quality of secondary schooling offered in the rural East Coast census area. The ethnic composition of these schools is Māori dominated. For three schools, Māori make up over 97 per cent of the student population, while for the fourth school 89 per cent are Māori.132 As an overview, the most recent ERO report for Te Waha o Rerekohu Area School noted positive changes since 2005, particularly in terms of progress towards improving students‟ learning and achievement through building teacher capability.133 Te Kura Kaupapa Māori o te Waiū o Ngāti Porou was found to provide a highly supporting learning environment and high expectations were

129 Ministry of Education, Percentages of Students with Highest Attainment NCEA Level 1 or Above by Ethnicity for Selected Area Units 2004 to 2007, 2009. Information provided by Information Officer from the Ministry of Education following personal request (by email), 22 May 2009 and 16 June 2009 130 Ibid. 131 According to the Ministry of Education, these schools are Te Waha o Rerekohu Area School, in Te Araroa; Te Kura Kaupapa Māori o te Waiū o Ngāti Porou, in Ruatoria; Ngata Memorial College, in Ruatoria; and Tolaga Bay Area School, in Tolaga Bay. See Ministry of Education, Educational Institutions and their Contact Details. 132 Education Review Office, Supplement Review Report: Te Waha o Rerekohu School, 2007 (downloaded 31 July 2009) Education Review Office, Te Ripoata o te Arotake o te Aho Matua: Te Kura Kaupapa Māori o te Waiū o Ngāti Porou, 2007 (downloaded 31 July 2009) Education Review Office, Education Review Report: Ngata Memorial College, 2006 (downloaded 31 July 2009) Education Review Office, Education Review Report: Tolaga Bay Area School, 2006 (downloaded 31 July 2009) 133 Education Review Office, Supplement Review Report: Te Waha o Rerekohu School 62

held for students.134 In the most recent Ngata Memorial College ERO report, notable progress was made between 2004 and 2005 to provide students with more opportunities to achieve credits in NCEA. But raising student achievement was nonetheless found to be a major challenge facing trustees and staff.135 The senior managers of Tolaga Bay Area School were found to have made clear progress in developing more consistent teaching strategies.136

There are no secondary schools in the urban East Coast census area, as pupils from these areas must travel across the Gisborne township to attend one of Gisborne‟s four secondary schools.137 It is therefore difficult to isolate any figures showing the achievement rates of Māori students in the urban East Coast census area from the rest of the Gisborne district. The achievement rates of Māori students in the Gisborne district were presented earlier, and showed that in 2007 over 87 per cent of Pākehā school leavers attained NCEA Level 1 or above compared to 65 per cent of Māori school leavers. Māori students were thus 22 per cent less likely than Pākehā to attain this educational standard.

4.3 Decile ratings Every school in New Zealand is assigned a „decile‟. School deciles are calculated and allocated to distribute additional funding to schools that draw their roll from low socio-economic areas. According to the Ministry of Education, this practice is carried out because „[s]tudents from low socio-economic communities face more barriers to learning than students from high socio-economic communities‟.138 Schools are ranked according to a score based on five socio- economic factors derived from census data. Decile 1 schools are amongst the 10 per cent of schools with the highest proportion of low socio-economic score students. At the other end of the spectrum, decile 10 schools have the lowest

134 Education Review Office, Te Ripoata o te Arotake o te Aho Matua: Te Kura Kaupapa Māori o te Waiū o Ngāti Porou 135 Education Review Office, Education Review Report: Ngata Memorial College 136 Education Review Office, Education Review Report: Tolaga Bay Area School 137 Ministry of Education, Prior Participation of Year 1 Students in ECE by Ethnicity for East Coast CAU: 1 July 2008, 2009. Information provided by Information Officer from the Ministry of Education following personal request (by email), 23 June 2009 138 Ministry of Education, Glossary: Socio-Economic Decile Band, undated (downloaded 23 June 2009) 63

proportion of low socio-economic scores.139 (It should be noted that these school decile scores are allocated on a reverse scale to the NZDep scores as discussed in chapter three. For example, a NZDep score of 10 indicates the area has one of the most deprived NZDep scores in the country, whereas a school decile score of 10 indicates the reverse, that the school‟s roll is drawn from students in a very high socio-economic area).

According to the Ministry of Education, Year 1 school children from low decile schools are less likely to have attended early childhood education than are children from high decile schools.140 In 2008, the percentage of Year 1 students in decile 1 schools who attended early childhood education was 81.9 per cent, while the percentage of Year 1 students in decile 10 schools who attended early childhood services was 99.1 per cent.141 The Ministry of Social Development has reported that school children from low socio-economic communities are less likely than pupils from higher socio-economic communities to achieve higher school qualifications, which has implications for moving on to higher education learning. In 2007, 49 per cent of school leavers in schools in decile 1-3 communities (the most disadvantaged communities) attained NCEA Level 2 qualifications. In contrast, 62 per cent of pupils leaving schools from decile 4-7 communities attained higher school qualifications, as did 79 per cent of those leaving schools from decile 8-10 communities.142 The relationship between decile number and achievement level for school leavers is demonstrated in the following Ministry of Education graph.

139 Ibid. 140 Ministry of Education, Prior Participation in Early Childhood Education: New Entrants 141 Ibid. 142 Ministry of Social Development, The Social Report 2008, p39 64

Graph 11: Highest attainment of school leavers by decile of school, 2007

Source: Ministry of Education143

According to the Ministry of Education‟s website, 17 schools (primary and secondary) operated in the rural East Coast census area in early 2009, from Potaka south to Whangara. Of these 17 rural East Coast census area schools, 11 are rated as a decile 1, three are a decile 2, and two schools are a decile 3.144 In the rural East Coast census area in 2006, over two-thirds of the school age population were Māori (68.8 per cent, or 1125 out of 1635, of the 5-14 year olds).145 Rural East Coast census area children (both Māori and non-Māori) are thus clustered in areas with low decile schools.

Urban East Coast census area children have more schools to choose from in the Gisborne township, and are less restricted in the choice of school to attend. Most

143 Ministry of Education, School Leavers: 2007 144 Ministry of Education, Educational Institutions and their Contact Details The 17 schools are: Potaka School, Te Kura Kaupapa Māori o Te Waiū o Ngāti Porou, Hatea-A-Rangi, Ngata Memorial College, Te Kura Kaupapa Māori o Kawakawa mai Tawhiti, Te Kura Kaupapa Māori o Tokomaru, Te Waha o Rerekohu Area School, Tikitiki School, Whangara School, Te Kura Kaupapa Māori o Mangatuna, Tolaga Bay Area School, Mata School, Te Puia Springs School, Hiruharama School, Makarika School, Te Kura Kaupapa Māori o Tapere-Nui-A-Whatonga, and Te Kura Kaupapa Māori o Waipiro. 145 Statistics New Zealand, Ethnic Group (Grouped Total Responses) by Age Group, for the Census Usually Resident Population Count, 1991, 1996, 2001 and 2006 65

schools in the Gisborne township do not have zoning restrictions administered by the Ministry of Education. It is useful to note the school decile rating of the four high schools in the Gisborne township. Lytton High School is a decile 2 school, Gisborne Girls‟ High School and Gisborne Boys‟ High School are both decile 3 schools, and Campion College is a decile 6 school.146 At Lytton, 70 per cent of the school population were Māori in 2008.147 At Gisborne Girls‟ High, 55 per cent of students were Māori in 2009,148 while at Gisborne Boys‟ High 64 per cent of students were Māori in 2006.149 At Campion, 21 per cent of the school student body were Māori in 2005.150

4.4 Tertiary study The New Zealand population is becoming increasingly educated at the highest levels of study. Baxendine et al. have reported that the national population was better educated in 2001 than it was a decade earlier.151 The proportion of people over 20 years of age who had no qualifications dropped from 35 per cent in 1991 to 28 per cent in 2001. A total of 7 per cent of the population aged over 20 held a Bachelors degree or higher in 1991, while 12 per cent of this population held this qualification a decade later.152 The following graphs provided by Ian Pool, Sandra Baxendine, Bill Cochrane, and James Lindop (from the University of Waikato‟s Population Studies Centre) show increased educational attainment amongst Māori and Pākehā within different regions between 1986 and 2001.153

146 Ministry of Education, Educational Institutions and their Contact Details 147 Education Review Office, Education Review Report: Lytton High School, 2008 (downloaded 24 September 2009) 148 Education Review Office, Education Review Report: Gisborne Girls’ High School, 2009 (downloaded 24 September 2009) 149 Education Review Office, Education Review Report: Gisborne Boys’ High School, 2006 (downloaded 24 September 2009) 150 Education Review Office, Education Review Report: Campion College, 2005 (downloaded 24 September 2009) 151 Sandra Baxendine, Bill Cochrane, A. Dharmalinga, Sarah Hillcoat-Nallétamby, and Jacques Poot, p16 152 Ibid. 153 I. Pool, S. Baxendine, W. Cochrane, and J. Lindop, New Zealand Regions, 1986-2001: Education and Qualifications (Hamilton: Population Studies Centre, University of Waikato, 2005), p4 66

Graph 12: Percentage of population over 20 years with university qualifications by ethnicity and region, 1986-2001

Source: I. Pool, S. Baxendine, W. Cochrane, and J. Lindop154

154 Ibid. 67

The tertiary student population greatly diversified between 1991 and 2001 in terms of ethnicity. The proportion of tertiary students identifying as Pākehā dropped from 85 per cent to 63 per cent.155 According to the Ministry of Education, overall Māori participation rates in tertiary education exceeded those of all other ethnic groups in 2005.156 The Māori participation rate in tertiary study decreased slightly from 22.7 per cent in 2004 to 22.1 per cent in 2005. While Māori do have possibly the highest overall participation rate in the tertiary sector, it is at the qualification level that Māori drop to below that of Pākehā. Māori participation rates in qualifications below degree level exceed those of non- Māori.157

Tertiary education benefits individual well-being in terms of earning potential. Average earnings are nearly one third (32 per cent) higher for people who have a tertiary education, than those with upper secondary and post-secondary school non-tertiary education.158 The Ministry of Education highlighted the results of a study showing that income returns generated by educational achievement are greater for Māori than they are for non-Māori. This is because „Māori with no qualifications are relatively more disadvantaged with respect to non-Māori in terms of income than are Māori with qualifications‟.159 This further validates the importance of Māori educational attainment.

In 2006, nearly 40 per cent of the New Zealand population aged 15 years and older reported having a post-school qualification, while 25 per cent of the population aged 15 years and older have no qualifications at all. In contrast, of the national Māori ethnic population almost 28 per cent have a post-school qualification, while close to 40 per cent of Māori have no formal qualifications.160 In other words, within the total New Zealand population, more people hold post-school qualifications than the number without qualifications. But for Māori, more people are without qualification than the number with formal qualifications.

155 Sandra Baxendine, Bill Cochrane, A. Dharmalinga, Sarah Hillcoat-Nallétamby, and Jacques Poot, p16 156 Ministry of Education, Māori Participation in Tertiary Education 2005, 2007 (downloaded 24 June 2009) 157 Ibid. 158 Ministry of Education, Impact of Education on Income (downloaded 23 June 2009) 159 Ibid. 160 Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Māori: 2006 Census, 2007 (downloaded 14 August 2009) Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About New Zealand: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 21 April 2009) 68

The 2006 Census data on the populations with and without post-school qualifications in the East Coast census area, the Gisborne district, and New Zealand, are graphed below. In seven of the 11 relevant East Coast census area units, there is a greater proportion of residents holding no formal qualifications than that of the national Māori population. Three East Coast census area units have a higher percentage of people with post-school qualifications than the number of people without any qualifications; however it is in these census area units that the Māori populations are at their lowest (making up less than one-third of the census area unit population).

Graph 13: Percentage of residents in the East Coast, the Gisborne District, and New Zealand with post-school qualifications and nil qualifications, 2006

60.0%

50.0%

40.0% Post-school 30.0% qualification 20.0% No formal qualification 10.0%

0.0%

Wainui Ruatoria Tamarau Gisborne East Cape Tolaga Bay WharekakaKaiti NorthKaiti SouthOuter Kaiti New Zealand Tokomaru Bay Tarndale-Rakauroa New Zealand Maori

Source: Statistics New Zealand161

161 Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About East Cape: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Ruatoria: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Tokomaru Bay: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Tolaga Bay: 2006 Census, undated, (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Tarndale-Rakauroa: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Wharekaka: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Kaiti North: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Kaiti South: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Outer Kaiti: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Tamarau: 2006 Census, undated 69

A breakdown of the type of qualification held by the proportion of Māori and Pākehā in the relevant East Coast census area units is provided below. A more detailed table with the number of residents with each qualification appears in the appendix. Table 9 shows that in every census area unit relevant to the East Coast inquiry district, in the Gisborne district, and New Zealand as a whole, a higher proportion of Māori than Pākehā have no qualifications. There is also disparity between Māori and Pākehā achievement rates in terms of school and post-school educational attainment. In nearly all levels of education, a higher percentage of Pākehā achieve these levels in the East Coast census area units, in the Gisborne district, and in New Zealand, than the percentage of Māori. It is notable that in the four rural East Coast census area units with the largest Māori populations, that of East Cape, Ruatoria, Tokomaru Bay, and Tolaga Bay, the proportions of Māori and Pākehā without qualifications are fairly similar and high. In the remaining census area units, and the Gisborne district as a whole, there are greater variances between Māori and Pākehā educational achievement.

Table 9: Highest qualification for Pākehā and Māori aged over 15 years in the East Coast, 2006 No Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 or 4 Level 1, 2, 3 Level 5 or 6 Bachelor Qualification Certificate Certificate Certificate or 4 Diploma Degree and Gained at Gained at Gained at Certificate Level 7 Qual. School School School Gained Post- or Higher School Pākehā Māori Pākehā Māori Pākehā Māori Pākehā Māori Pākehā Māori Pākehā Māori Pākehā Māori East Cape 38% 40% 13% 14% 8% 8% 4% 2% 14% 11% 8% 6% 5% 4% Ruatoria 37% 38% 11% 15% 7% 10% 7% 5% 11% 9% 11% 7% 4% 4% Tokomaru Bay 32% 38% 14% 14% 7% 6% 7% 3% 11% 15% 11% 10% 7% 4% Tolaga Bay 33% 39% 19% 16% 7% 5% 4% 5% 9% 11% 9% 5% 6% 4% Tarndale-Rakauroa 28% 45% 16% 14% 14% 9% 5% 2% 12% 8% 9% 4% 9% 4% Wharekaka 22% 33% 16% 16% 11% 8% 3% 3% 16% 12% 11% 7% 12% 7% Rural East Coast 28% 39% 16% 15% 11% 8% 4% 3% 14% 11% 10% 6% 9% 4% Kaiti North 21% 29% 13% 14% 9% 8% 5% 5% 14% 16% 12% 10% 14% 8% Kaiti South 28% 41% 14% 14% 9% 6% 4% 4% 17% 13% 9% 6% 7% 4% Outer Kaiti 36% 41% 16% 14% 9% 8% 3% 2% 16% 13% 6% 4% 6% 3% Tamarau 34% 40% 15% 16% 8% 6% 5% 3% 18% 14% 7% 5% 4% 3% Wainui 9% 19% 12% 19% 12% 12% 4% 5% 16% 17% 14% 7% 28% 15% Urban East Coast 23% 38% 14% 15% 10% 7% 4% 3% 16% 14% 10% 5% 13% 4% Gisborne District 27% 38% 15% 15% 10% 8% 4% 3% 16% 13% 9% 6% 10% 5% New Zealand 23% 36% 13% 15% 9% 5% 5% 5% 15% 13% 9% 5% 15% 6% Source: Statistics New Zealand162

(downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Wainui: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Gisborne District: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About New Zealand: 2006 Census 162 Statistics New Zealand, Ethnic Group (Grouped Total Responses) and Highest Qualifications by Sex, for the Census Usually Resident Population Count Aged 15 Years and Over, 2006, undated (downloaded 17 August 2009) 70

4.5 Te reo Māori Language, Sceats et al. argue, is an indicator of cultural capital.163 Statistics New Zealand report that in the past, information on te reo Māori was used as a proxy measure of the transmission and retention of Māori culture.164 The number of people who identify as Māori who speak te reo Māori is also an indicator used by the Ministry of Social Development to demonstrate cultural identity.165 The Ministry emphasised the importance of speaking te reo by stating, „[l]anguage is a central component of culture and a necessary skill for full participation in Māori society‟.166

The Ministry of Social Development reported that at the 2006 Census, 4 per cent of the total New Zealand population reported having conversation skills in te reo Māori, and 84 per cent of these people were Māori. 167 In that year, 1.6 per cent of Pākehā said that they could speak in te reo Māori, while 24 per cent of the Māori population stated that they could hold a conversation in te reo.168 The Ministry of Social Development reported in 2006 that „Māori who live in areas with a high proportion of Māori residents are the most likely to be Māori language speakers‟.169 Regions with the highest proportions of Māori who speak te reo are Gisborne (32 per cent), the Bay of Plenty (31 per cent), and Northland (28 per cent).170

Te Puni Kōkiri has written that in the northern parts of the East Coast region, local Māori were able to retain control of their communities following the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi.171 This, together with the publication and circulation of Māori language newspapers, and the establishment of the Young Māori Party, limited the need for widespread use of the English language.172 By the 1970s, however, following depopulation and the collapse of an economic base, the

163 Janet Sceats, Tahu Kukutai, and Ian Pool, p22 164 Statistics New Zealand, Culture and Identity Statistics Domain Plan: Draft for Consultation (Wellington: Statistics New Zealand, 2009) p30 165 Ministry of Social Development, The Social Report 2008, p79 166 Ibid. 167 Ibid, p82 168 Ibid, pp82-83 169 Ibid, p83 170 Ibid. 171 Te Puni Kōkiri, Te Oranga o te Reo Māori i te Rohe o Te Tairāwhiti me Takitimu 2006, 2008 (downloaded 19 June 2009), p2 172 Ibid. 71

„language was in danger of dying out‟.173 This concern prompted the establishment of kōhanga reo on the Coast. Another initiative is Radio Ngāti Porou, which helps promote te reo in this area.174 A 2004 survey on Māori listeners of Radio Ngāti Porou revealed that listeners felt it is important to hear Ngāti Porou dialect on the Coast.175 Local historian Stephen Donald notes that the local radio station of Tolaga Bay, Uawa FM, was launched in 2003.176

The proficiency with which Māori speak te reo has been measured by Te Puni Kōkiri through Health of the Māori Language surveys, conducted in 2001 and 2006. Survey data was aggregated to the regional level.177 The relevant region for the East Coast inquiry district, and thus this report, is Tairāwhiti/Takitimu. The Tairāwhiti/Takitimu region covers the Gisborne District and Hawkes Bay Regional Councils. The 2006 survey revealed that around 10 per cent of Māori adults in the Tairāwhiti/Takitimu region have high levels of speaking proficiency, and a further 19 per cent speak te reo „fairly well‟.178 There are higher levels of passive skills in te reo Māori in the Tairāwhiti/Takitimu region, that is, more people are able to listen and read Māori than the number of people able to speak and write Māori. Te Puni Kōkiri maintains there is „a level of latent Māori language ability in the region‟, which may be due to „childhood exposure to the language, and/or opportunities to maintain or develop passive skills through listening to Māori television and radio‟.179 Within this region, 68 per cent of Māori adults were dissatisfied with their language proficiency, and desired to improve their language skills. This is evidence that there is a positive attitude towards te reo Māori in the Māori community.180

The percentage of the total East Coast census area (Māori and non-Māori) who speak te reo, according to the 2006 Census, is shown in Table 10. Some parts of the East Coast census area, particularly those in the northern areas, have better levels of use and knowledge of te reo Māori than the national Māori and total New Zealand populations. In the rural areas of East Cape, Ruatoria, and

173 Ibid. 174 Ibid. 175 Radio Ngati Porou, Te Reo Irirangi o Ngati Porou: Te Reo Whakakotahi i te Iwi 1987-2008 (Ruatoria: Radio Ngati Porou, 2008) p89 176 Stephen Donald, Historic Tolaga Bay: An Overview of Uawa History (Tolaga Bay: Rakopu Press, 2006) 177 Te Puni Kōkiri, Te Oranga o te Reo Māori i te Rohe o Te Tairāwhiti me Takitimu 2006, p5 178 Ibid. 179 Ibid, pp9-10 180 Ibid, p11 72

Tokomaru Bay, between 40 and 46 per cent of the population speak te reo, while only 16.5 per cent of the Gisborne district population speak te reo. (However, 32.2 per cent of the Gisborne district Māori population speak te reo). This is likely to be due to the higher proportion of Māori within some of the East Coast census area units, compared to the Gisborne district as a whole. In urban East Coast census area units with Māori comprising over 60 per cent of the population (Kaiti South, Outer Kaiti, and Tamarau), between 20 and 27 per cent speak te reo.

Table 10: Percentage of population who are speakers of te reo Māori in the East Coast, the Gisborne district, and New Zealand, 2006 % population who % population who are Māori speak te reo Māori East Cape 87.9 45.3 Ruatoria 94.8 46.0 Tokomaru Bay 78.6 40.5 Tolaga Bay 78.4 36.8 Tarndale-Rakauroa 41.3 12.7 Wharekaka 33.3 10.6 Kaiti North 28.1 9.1 Kaiti South 64.1 20.5 Outer Kaiti 79.9 27.3 Tamarau 75.6 23.6 Wainui 18.4 3.3 Gisborne district 47.3 16.5 Māori in Gisborne district 100 32.2 New Zealand 14.6 4.1 Māori in New Zealand 100 23.7 Source: Statistics New Zealand181

The Māori language competencies of the total population within the East Coast census area units, the Gisborne district, and New Zealand are divided into age groups below. It shows the age spread of the total population (Māori and non-

181 Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About East Cape: 2006 Censu; Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Ruatoria: 2006 Census; Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Tokomaru Bay: 2006 Census; Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Tolaga Bay: 2006 Census; Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Tarndale-Rakauroa: 2006 Census; Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Wharekaka: 2006 Census; Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Kaiti North: 2006 Census Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Kaiti South: 2006 Census; Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Outer Kaiti: 2006 Census; Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Tamarau: 2006 Census; Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Wainui: 2006 Census; Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Gisborne District: 2006 Census; Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About New Zealand: 2006 Census 73

Māori) who can speak te reo. Within the rural and urban East Coast census areas, a slightly higher percentage of the total population who speak te reo are aged under 15 years, than the proportion of the Gisborne district and New Zealand populations. In the 15-29 year old age group, in comparison with the Gisborne district population (20 per cent), there is a smaller proportion of rural East Coast census area te reo Māori speakers (16 per cent) and a larger proportion of urban East Coast census area Māori language speakers (23 per cent). Of the older population, 14 per cent of the total rural East Coast census area te reo speakers are aged 65 years and older (similar to the Gisborne district proportion at 12 per cent). In the urban East Coast census area, 9 per cent of te reo Māori speakers are aged over 65, which more closely mirrors the New Zealand population at 8 per cent.

Table 11: Percentage of population by age group who are speakers of te reo Māori in the East Coast, the Gisborne district, and New Zealand, 2006 Under 15 15-29 Years 30-64 Years 65 Years and Years Over East Cape 27% 16% 42% 16% Ruatoria 30% 18% 40% 12% Tokomaru Bay 36% 11% 42% 11% Tolaga Bay 32% 17% 39% 12% Tarndale-Rakauroa 27% 20% 38% 15% Wharekaka 23% 16% 48% 13% Rural East Coast 28% 16% 41% 14% Kaiti North 28% 22% 43% 7% Kaiti South 29% 22% 37% 12% Outer Kaiti 31% 26% 35% 8% Tamarau 28% 23% 39% 10% Wainui 18% 18% 53% 12% Urban East Coast 29% 23% 38% 9% Gisborne District 27% 20% 40% 12% New Zealand 25% 24% 42% 8% Source: Statistics New Zealand182

The available 2006 Census statistics do not provide specific data on the te reo Māori capabilities of Māori residents in the East Coast census area, but 2001 Census data on this topic is available. The 2001 data provides information about

182 Statistics New Zealand, Language Spoken (Total Responses) by Age Group, for the Census Usually Resident Population Count, 2006, undated (downloaded 17 August 2009) 74

the languages spoken by Māori within individual census area units. The following table displays the number of Māori within the East Coast census area units, as well as Māori in the Gisborne district and in New Zealand, who speak te reo Māori. It shows that amongst the total Māori population in East Cape, Ruatoria, Tokomaru Bay, and Tolaga Bay, approximately half speak te reo Māori. The proportion of the total population who speak Māori in other census area units relevant to the East Coast are lower than in East Cape, Ruatoria, Tokomaru Bay, and Tolaga Bay. But in these remaining East Coast census area units, all proportions of te reo Māori speakers are approximately equal to, or in most cases above, the proportion of Māori who speak te reo nationally. Consistent with the Ministry of Social Development‟s observation at the regional level, East Coast census area units with higher proportions of Māori residents tend to have higher numbers of Māori language speakers.

Table 12: Language spoken by Māori in the East Coast, the Gisborne district, and New Zealand, 2001 English Māori Total people % of total Total usually % of total (stating none, people who resident usually resident

one or more speak Māori population population who languages) speak Māori East Cape 2067 1098 2166 50.7% 2199 49.9% Ruatoria 693 366 726 50.4% 735 49.8% Tokomaru Bay 333 180 351 51.3% 354 50.8% Tolaga Bay 609 324 642 50.5% 654 49.5% Tarndale-Rakauroa 621 207 639 32.4% 648 31.9% Wharekaka 627 192 654 29.4% 666 28.8% Kaiti North 411 102 429 23.8% 441 23.1% Kaiti South 1482 573 1575 36.4% 1599 35.8% Outer Kaiti 1635 579 1710 33.9% 1734 33.4% Tamarau 1599 522 1671 31.2% 1701 30.7% Wainui 180 48 186 25.8% 189 25.4% Gisborne District 18,228 6594 19,089 34.5% 19,365 34.1% New Zealand 494,679 130,485 518,730 25.2% 526,281 24.8% Source: Statistics New Zealand183

As noted earlier, there are 13 early childhood education providers in the rural East Coast census area, and 12 of these are kōhanga reo. There are 17 schools in

183 Statistics New Zealand, Language Spoken (Total Responses) and Age Group, for the Māori Ethnic Group Census Usually Resident Population Count, 2001, undated (downloaded 17 August 2009) 75

this area, of which six are kura kaupapa Māori and one is bilingual. Therefore Māori children in the rural East Coast census area have many opportunities to attend a Māori immersion education institution, which assists te reo Māori learning. In the Gisborne township, there are fewer Māori immersion schools – one kura kaupapa Māori (Te Kura Kaupapa Māori o Ngā Uri a Maui), and one bilingual school (Waikirikiri School).184

Throughout New Zealand, 25.3 per cent of Māori children were enrolled in Māori-medium early childhood education in 2007. This included kōhanga reo (where the primary language of teaching and learning is in te reo Māori), and ngā puna reo and puna kohungahunga (parent-led playgroup where the primary language of teaching and learning can be te reo or a combination of te reo and English). This is a decrease from 32 per cent in 2001 of Māori children in Māori- medium early childhood education.185 The proportion of Māori students enrolled in Māori-medium schooling decreased slightly between 2001 and 2007, from 17.1 per cent to 15.8 per cent. The number of kura kaupapa throughout the country has grown from 13 in 1992 to 68 in 2007. One research report has shown that Year 11, 12, and 13 Māori students are more likely to meet the literacy and numeracy requirements for NCEA Level 1 by the end of Year 11 at Māori- medium schools than at English-medium schools.186

4.6 Summary Educational achievement is an important socio-economic indicator both in itself and through its inter-linkages with other variables such as employment, occupation, and income. A number of government ministries have highlighted the relationship educational attainment has with other social and economic outcomes. The Ministry of Social Development noted in its Social Report 2008 that people with few educational qualification are more likely to be unemployed and earn less income when in work. This subsequently affects people‟s economic standard of living.187

184 Ministry of Education, Educational Institutions and their Contact Details: School Directory, 2009 (downloaded 14 July 2009) 185 Ministry of Education, Ngā Haeata Mātauranga: Annual Report on Māori Education 2007/08, p84 186 Ibid. 187 Ministry of Social Development, The Social Report 2008, p34 76

The Ministry of Education‟s online statistical data and research publication space, Education Counts, notes that higher levels of education have been shown to be linked to greater likelihood of participation in the labour market, lower risks of unemployment, greater access to further training, and receiving higher income on average. Further, the Ministry of Education argues that labour market advantages may be the „primary economic and social outcome‟ of education, because people can achieve a higher standard of living through higher income earnings.188 The flow on effects from education outcomes for Māori go further than employment and income, according to Te Puni Kōkiri. They also affect Māori housing, criminal justice, and health, and influence the likelihood of criminal offending and family instability.189 In other words, educational participation and attainment affects nearly every sphere of personal and family well-being.

With this in mind, the education data presented in this chapter has offered mixed results about Māori residents in the East Coast census area. Little specific data about the attendance and achievement of Māori in the East Coast census area is available, at all education levels. This is partly due to the low population in the district, and partly due to the schools‟ geographic placement. For example, no Ministry of Education data could be collected on urban East Coast census area Māori school leavers, because there are no secondary schools within those boundaries (rather, the secondary schools are on the other side of the Gisborne township). Nevertheless, some broad findings have been made and require comment.

Throughout New Zealand, increasing numbers of Māori and non-Māori children are attending early childhood education. Across the Gisborne district, 95 per cent of Pākehā Year 1 students had attended early childhood education services in 2008. The proportion of Māori Year 1 children who had attended early childhood education in the Gisborne district was 90 per cent in 2008 – the same percentage of Māori children throughout New Zealand. Rural East Coast census area Māori children are, however, much less likely to attend early childhood education. Only 80 per cent of Māori children were early childhood education attendees in the rural East Coast census area, compared with 100 per cent of Pākehā children.

188 Ministry of Education, Unemployment Rate by Highest Qualification, 2008 (downloaded 20 May 2009) 189 Te Puni Kōkiri, Progress Towards Closing Social and Economic Gaps Between Māori and Non-Māori: A Report to the Minister of Māori Affairs, p15 77

These figures must be treated with caution though, as the raw numbers of new entrants used to calculate these percentages are low. Nearly 94 per cent of Māori children in the urban East Coast census area had attended early childhood education prior to starting primary school. In the rural East Coast census area, nearly all early childhood facilities are kōhanga reo.

It is difficult to isolate the achievement rates of Māori school leavers in the East Coast census area. This is because there are secondary schools in only three of the six rural census area units, and none in the five relevant urban census area units. Of the three rural East Coast census area units from which data can be analysed, the percentages of students who achieved NCEA Level 1 or above fluctuated so severely over the 2005 to 2007 period that reliability of data is questionable. More general data for the total Gisborne district shows that while 87 per cent of Pākehā achieved NCEA Level 1 or above, this was achieved by only 65 per cent of Māori school leavers. Further indications could come from the low decile ratings of schools in the East Coast census area, where low decile ratings generally correspond with poorer achievement rates, but again we confront the same problem of few secondary schools within the East Coast census area. There is a relationship between low decile rating of schools and poor educational achievement. However, this speculation does not offer conclusive evidence about Māori rates of educational attainment in the East Coast census area, as distinct from the Gisborne district.

In New Zealand, the proportion of Māori without a qualification is approximately 38-39 per cent, whereas only around 25 per cent of Pākehā are without qualifications. In the East Coast census area, Pākehā educational attainment rates across nearly all levels (from certificate to doctoral) are higher than that for Māori. In the East Coast census area units with the highest proportion of Māori residents (East Cape, Ruatoria, Tokomaru Bay, and Tolaga Bay) there is a fairly narrow gap between Māori and Pākehā educational achievement rates, relative to the other East Coast census area units. In nearly all East Coast census area units, more residents have no formal qualifications than the number of who have post- school qualifications. In contrast, for the total New Zealand population, there are more people holding post-school qualifications than the number of people without qualifications.

Māori in the East Coast census area are more likely to speak te reo Māori than the national Māori population. In 2001, approximately half of the Māori populations in the East Cape, Ruatoria, Tokomaru Bay, and Tolaga Bay rural census area units 78

spoke te reo. In the remaining East Coast census area units, the proportion who speak te reo was equal to, or in most cases higher than, the proportion who speak te reo nationally. The number of Māori able to speak te reo is likely to be helped by the vast majority of early childhood education providers in the rural East Coast census area being kōhanga reo. Far fewer early childhood centres and schools in the urban East Coast census area (and the Gisborne township) are Māori immersion education providers.

79

5 EMPLOYMENT STATUS, OCCUPATION, AND INDUSTRY This chapter explores key contemporary employment statistics for Māori in the East Coast census area, including employment rates and the most common types of occupations and industries that Māori work within. Most of the data used in this chapter is gathered from the 2001 and 2006 Censuses. Other data is drawn from secondary literature, such as the Ministry of Social Development‟s Social Report 2008. Commentary on the effects of the 1980s economic reforms on the Māori workforce is included to provide a context within which to interpret the contemporary employment profile of Māori in the East Coast census area. The education data discussed in the previous chapter should be considered alongside these employment statistics, due to the inter-related nature of the variables. Sceats et al. illustrate the relationship between education and employment by noting that the actual and potential skill base (as measured by educational achievement) coupled with the size and components of the workforce population, „constitute the human capital of a population and reflect its capacity for development‟.190

5.1 Employment status Traditionally, few differences were apparent at the sub-national level in New Zealand in terms of economic conditions and standards of living, according to Sandra Baxendine, Bill Cochrane, and Jacques Poot.191 Sub-national variances have more recently, however, grown. Changes emerged when the 1967 to 1968 recession was felt more in some regions than in others. Economic reforms and increased globalisation over the past two decades has widened income distribution further. In addition, regions are becoming more and more diverse in terms of demographics, economics and social features.192

190 Janet Sceats, Tahu Kukutai, and Ian Pool, „The Socio-Demographic and Economic Characteristics of Maori in the Wairarapa ki Tararua Region, c.1981-2001‟, report commissioned by the Crown Forestry Rental Trust, November 2002, Wai 863 #A28, p58 191 Sandra Baxendine, Bill Cochrane, and Jacques Poot, Description and Spatial Analysis of Employment Change in New Zealand Regions: 1986-2001 (Hamilton: Population Studies Centre, University of Waikato, 2005), p2 192 Ibid. 80

Perhaps most notably, the 1980s saw the introduction of significant economic upheaval through wide-ranging and dramatic Crown policy initiatives. Economist and commentator Brian Easton writes that by the end of the Fourth Labour government‟s term, it „was privatising many state trading operations... and applying commercialist principles to many other activies as well‟.193 According to Jane Kelsey, a law professor at the University of Auckland, from the earliest stages of these reforms Māori workers and Māori communities suffered the most.194 Te Puni Kōkiri reported that approximately 100,000 net job losses resulted from the economic restructuring that took place in the mid-1980s.195 These job losses occurred mainly in the manufacturing sector and state industries (including railways, forestry and public works), and because Māori were concentrated in these sectors, disparities between Māori and non-Māori grew. The problem was exacerbated, Te Puni Kōkiri argues, by Māori having a comparatively youthful population and with lower levels of educational attainment.196

The extent to which Māori workers suffered during this period is illustrated in the following figures. Māori unemployment, which was 11.3 per cent in 1986, more than doubled to 25.4 per cent in 1992, before lowering to 10.2 per cent in 2003 and 9.5 per cent in 2004.197 Māori unemployment dropped further to 7.7 per cent in 2007. In contrast, the unemployment rate for Pākehā rose from 3.3 per cent in 1986 to peak at 7.9 per cent in 1992, before dropping to 2.6 per cent in 2007.198 The rise in Māori employment from 2002 up to 2007 was encouraged by strong economic growth.199

Communities in the East Coast region were hit hard by the 1980s economic reforms. Te Araroa historian Bob McConnell writes that the 1970s were the years of hope in Te Araroa (located at the northern end of the East Coast inquiry

193 Brian Easton, The Commercialisation of New Zealand (Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1997), p13 194 Jane Kelsey, A Question of Honour?: Labour and the Treaty (Wellington: Allen & Unwin New Zealand Limited, 1990), p2 195 Te Puni Kōkiri, Progress Towards Closing Social and Economic Gaps Between Māori and Non-Māori: A Report to the Minister of Māori Affairs (Wellington: Te Puni Kōkiri, 2000), p21 196 Ibid. 197 Department of Labour, Trends in Māori Labour Market Outcomes 1986-2003, 2005 (downloaded 30 June 2009), p1 198 Ministry of Social Development, The Social Report 2008 (Wellington: Ministry of Social Development, 2008), p47 199 Department of Labour, Māori Labour Market Outcomes, 2007 (downloaded 3 August 2009). 81

district), as new forestry operations created a sense of looming prosperity.200 This excitement was manifested in the whole community joining with the local school pupils to take part in the first forestry planting in the district. But the 1980s turned into „years of despair‟ for East Coast communities. McConnell shared the following observations in 1993:

Traumatic changes affecting the whole county had their worst affects in those areas that had been on the „ragged edge‟, and Te Araroa suffering with the rest of the Coast has become, in a few short years, a community very largely dependent upon Social Welfare handouts for its existence.201

Charles Rau similarly notes in another area of the East Coast region, Waiapu, that the early 1980s brought a „high of enthusiasm‟. He elaborates on this point:

Never before in the history of the century had there appeared on the horizon so much promise. The whole economic and social future of the area was showing potential… Most people had money in their pockets and their future looked good‟.202

In 1984 the Labour government came to power, and Roger Douglas was appointed as Finance Minister. With „Rogernomics‟ came the privatisation of the forestry sector, in turn leading to unemployment. One particular policy of these Government reforms that affected Waiapu was the sale of the Forest Service and the abolition of tax incentives for forestry planting.203 Another policy that affected this area of the Coast was the Government‟s initiative to rectify the problem of the oversupply of grapes nationwide. Growers were paid $7000 for every acre of grapes they destroyed.204 According to Rau, the decision for all of the joint venture vineyards in Tikitiki to be sprayed and destroyed was made by a person „up in the ranks of Maori Affairs‟.205 Rau writes that consequently, „[u]nemployment and social welfare became the growth industry, in fact practically the only industry as far as the majority was concerned‟.206

200 Bob McConnell, Te Araroa: An East Coast Community. A History (Gisborne: The Gisborne Herald Co. Ltd, 1993), p336 201 Ibid. 202 Charles Rau, 100 Years of Waiapu (Gisborne: Gisborne District Council, 1993), p78 203 p80 204 p79 205 p80 206 Ibid. 8 2

In 2008, New Zealand, along with the rest of the world, encountered an economic recession. Finance Minister Bill English described the intensity of this recession, by noting that „[w]orld growth is at its weakest in three generations‟.207 Statistician David Grimmond stated in 2009 that adverse social effects of this economic downturn will be felt more by people in the Gisborne district than anyone else in the country. The recession, Grimmond argues, will have an uneven impact on the New Zealand population, and Gisborne‟s young and low-income families will be hit hard.208 In November 2009, the Gisborne Herald reported that the East Coast region (which includes Hawke‟s Bay) and was „now worst in New Zealand for people without work‟.209 The national unemployment rate was at a nine-year high of 6.5 per cent, while the East Coast region had jumped from 7.3 per cent in June 2009 to 10.0 per cent in September 2009.210

The most recent official census figures available for unemployment are from 2006. In the East Coast census area, significantly higher proportions of Māori are unemployed than Pākehā, as shown in Table 13. According to the 2006 Census, the unemployment rate in the rural East Coast census area for Pākehā is approximately 5 per cent, compared to 12 per cent for Māori. Greater disparity between Pākehā and Māori unemployment rates is seen in the urban East Coast census area, where Pākehā unemployment is 5 per cent compared to 14 per cent for Māori. In some East Coast census area units, Māori unemployment rates are higher than that for Māori in the Gisborne district, and for Māori in New Zealand. For example, Māori unemployment rates in four rural East Coast census area units, East Cape, Ruatoria, Tokomaru Bay, and Tolaga Bay, range from 13 to 18 per cent, compared to the Gisborne district‟s Māori unemployment rate of 12 per cent. The Māori unemployment rates in three urban East Coast census area units, Kaiti South, Outer Kaiti, and Tamarau, range from 13 to 17 per cent.

207 Bill English, Budget Speech, 2009 (downloaded 3 August 2009) 208 Jessica Wauchop, Gisborne Kids Will Feel Bite the Most, 2009 (downloaded 18 September 2009) 209 Kiri Gillespie and NZPA, Jobless Rate Doubles, 2009 (downloaded 19 November 2009) 210 Ibid. 83

Table 13: Unemployment rates for Pākehā and Māori in the East Coast, 2006

Pākehā Māori East Cape 10% 13% Ruatoria 27% 18% Tokomaru Bay 12% 14% Tolaga Bay 3% 15% Tarndale-Rakauroa 4% 10% Wharekaka 2% 7% Rural East Coast 5% 12% Kaiti North 3% 8% Kaiti South 7% 16% Outer Kaiti 9% 17% Tamarau 9% 13% Wainui 2% 11% Urban East Coast 5% 14% Gisborne District 5% 12% New Zealand 4% 11% Source: Statistics New Zealand211

The overall rural and urban East Coast census area unemployment rates (in 2006) for Māori and Pākehā closely mirror those for the Gisborne district as a whole. The greatest disparities between Māori and Pākehā unemployment is in the census area units closest to, and within, the Gisborne township. Pākehā unemployment rates are higher in the East Cape, Ruatoria, and Tokomaru Bay, than they are for Pākehā in the Gisborne district. Major discrepancies between Māori and Pākehā unemployment rates are seen at the national level as well. At the 2006 Census, Pākehā unemployment was 4 per cent, and Māori unemployment was 11 per cent.212 Only in Ruatoria do Pākehā have higher unemployment levels than Māori (27 per cent compared to 18 per cent), however readers must bear in mind that there are very few Pākehā residents (around 5 per cent) in this census area unit. It is not known what has caused this anomaly.

211 Statistics New Zealand, Work and Labour Force Status and Ethnic Group (Grouped Total Responses) by Sex, for the Census Usually Resident Population Count Aged 15 Years and Over, 2006, undated (downloaded 17 August 2009) 212 Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About New Zealand: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 21 April 2009) 84

The unemployment rates for Pākehā and Māori in the East Coast census area units are graphed below. Graph 14 explicitly shows very high unemployment rates for this area when compared to the national average of 5 per cent. Employment disparities between Māori and Pākehā in the East Coast are also evident.

Graph 14: Unemployment rates for Pākehā and Māori in the East Coast, 2006

30%

25%

20% Pakeha 15% Maori 10%

5%

0%

Wainui Ruatoria Tamarau East Cape Tolaga Bay WharekakaKaiti North Kaiti SouthOuter Kaiti Tokomaru Bay Tarndale-Rakauroa

Source: Statistics New Zealand213

More detailed work and labour force data for Māori and Pākehā in the East Coast census area is provided below. The labour force is comprised of people working or available for work. Statistics New Zealand defines the total labour force as people aged over 15 years who „regularly work for one or more hours per week for financial gain, or work without pay in a family business, or are unemployed and actively seeking part-time or full-time work‟.214 According to Sceats et al., people aged between 15 and 65 are more generally considered to comprise the working age population.215 But this population does not necessarily constitute the

213 Statistics New Zealand, Work and Labour Force Status and Ethnic Group (Grouped Total Responses) by Sex, for the Census Usually Resident Population Count Aged 15 Years and Over, 2006 214 Statistics New Zealand, National Labour Force Projections 2006 (base) - 2061, 2008 (downloaded 17 August 2009) 215 Janet Sceats, Tahu Kukutai, and Ian Pool, p58 85

labour force because it includes, amongst others, people not seeking work and people caring for children.216 According to a publication by Ian Pool, Sandra Baxendine, Bill Cochrane, and James Lindop, who are associated with the University of Waikato‟s Population Studies Centre, regions with the smallest percentage of people of working ages between the years 1986 and 2001, were Gisborne and Northland.217 Conversely, the major metropolitan areas of Auckland and Wellington had the highest proportions of people in the working age group. There are also differences between the nationwide Māori and Pākehā working age populations, reflecting the younger age structure of Māori.218

Table 14: Work and labour force status of Pākehā and Māori in the East Coast, 2006 Employed Unemployed Total Labour Not in the Force Labour Force Pākehā Māori Pākehā Māori Pākehā Māori Pākehā Māori East Cape 210 699 24 102 231 801 171 642 Ruatoria 36 195 12 42 45 237 30 192 Tokomaru Bay 45 114 6 18 51 132 36 87 Tolaga Bay 96 210 3 36 102 246 66 156 Tarndale-Rakauroa 507 261 21 30 525 288 141 123 Wharekaka 705 246 15 18 717 267 168 123 Rural East Coast 1599 1725 81 246 1671 1971 612 1323 Kaiti North 621 234 21 21 642 258 420 99 Kaiti South 423 555 30 105 453 660 306 414 Outer Kaiti 264 606 27 126 291 735 186 444 Tamarau 321 612 30 93 351 702 186 354 Wainui 657 123 15 15 672 135 210 45 Urban East Coast 2286 2130 123 360 2409 2490 1308 1356 Source: Statistics New Zealand219

The proportion of Māori and Pākehā populations employed in full-time and part- time employment in the East Coast census area are generally similar to those of the Gisborne district and New Zealand. The key exception is the employment

216 Ibid. 217 I. Pool, S. Baxendine, W. Cochrane, J. Lindop, New Zealand Regions, 1986-2001: Labour Market Aspects of Human Capital (Hamilton: Population Studies Centre, University of Waikato, 2006), p3 218 Ibid. 219 Statistics New Zealand, Work and Labour Force Status and Ethnic Group (Grouped Total Responses) by Sex, for the Census Usually Resident Population Count Aged 15 Years and Over, 2006 86

status of rural East Coast census area Māori, of whom a lower proportion is employed full-time, at 72 per cent (and by extension, a greater proportion employed part-time). The data is displayed as percentages below. More detailed percentages of individual census area units appear in the appendix.

Table 15: Employment status of Pākehā and Māori in the East Coast, the Gisborne district, and New Zealand, 2006

Employed full-time Employed part-time Pākehā Māori Pākehā Māori Rural East Coast 76% 72% 24% 28% Urban East Coast 74% 78% 26% 22% Gisborne District 75% 76% 25% 24% New Zealand 76% 78% 24% 22% Source: Statistics New Zealand220

According to the Ministry of Social Development, people of different age groups typically have different unemployment rates.221 The Ministry reported that the unemployment rate for 15 to 24 year olds has, in every year since records for unemployment began in 1986, been greater than that for older age groups. This is because, the Ministry says, younger people have fewer skills and less experience and thus take longer to find suitable employment.222 East Coast census area Māori are younger than the New Zealand population. Employment status data by age is not available at the census area unit level for the 2006 Census. However, 2006 Census data for the total Gisborne district is available. The unemployment rate for 15-24 year olds in the Gisborne district is 16.6 per cent, for 25-44 year olds it is 7.4 per cent, for 45-64 year olds it is 3.7 per cent, and the unemployment rate for people aged 65 years and over is just over one per cent.223

In the East Coast census area, and indeed the Gisborne district and the country as a whole, Pākehā unemployment rates are much lower than that for Māori. In

220 Ibid. 221 Ministry of Social Development, The Social Report 2008, p46 222 Ibid. 223 Economic Development Unit: Gisborne District Council, Gisborne QuickStats, 2009 (downloaded 14 July 2009) 87

addition, smaller proportions of Pākehā have no qualifications. The following table summarises statistics already used in this chapter showing the percentage of Māori and Pākehā who have no qualifications, along with the unemployment rates for the selected areas. There appears to be a relationship between unemployment and lack of formal education qualifications. Te Puni Kōkiri has highlighted the relationship between educational achievement and the unemployment benefit, stating that „[l]ower levels of educational attainment among Māori expose them to a greater risk of unemployment and, therefore, likelihood to receive the unemployment benefit.224 Sources of personal income, and the disproportionate number of East Coast census area Māori receiving the unemployment benefit, are explored in the next chapter.

Table 16: Percentage without qualifications and unemployment rates for Pākehā and Māori in the East Coast, the Gisborne district, and New Zealand, 2006 Pākehā Māori No Unemployment No Unemployment qualification rate qualification rate Rural East Coast 28% 5% 39% 12% Urban East Coast 23% 5% 38% 14% Gisborne District 27% 5% 38% 12% New Zealand 23% 4% 36% 11%

The above table shows that, on average, the proportion of residents in the East Coast census area, the Gisborne district, and New Zealand who do not hold formal qualifications is 1 ½ times greater for Māori than it is for Pākehā. Yet the unemployment rates in these areas are roughly 2 ½ times greater for Māori than they are for Pākehā. University of Canterbury economics lecturers Liliana Winkelmann and Rainer Winkelmann have questioned whether disparities in unemployment remain once controlling for demographic and socio-economic factors.225 Their statistical analysis revealed that education is more beneficial to Māori than it is to non-Māori.226 Research undertaken by Ministry of Education researchers Bhaskaran Nair, Warren Smart, and Roger Smyth supports this contention; they found that the „premium‟ for completing a bachelors degree is

224 Te Puni Kōkiri, Progress Towards Closing Social and Economic Gaps Between Māori and Non-Māori: A Report to the Minister of Māori Affairs, p30 225 Liliana Winkelmann and Rainer Winkelmann, „Determining the Relative Labour Status of Māori and non- Māori Using a Multinomial Logit Model‟, Labour Market Bulletin, no 1 (1997), p24 226 Ibid. 88

higher for Māori than for other ethnic groups.227 The „downside‟ of this revelation, Winklemann and Winkelmann argue, however, is that „having no qualifications imposes an exceptionally high penalty on Māori‟.228

5.2 Occupation Ian Pool, Sandra Baxendine, Bill Cochrane, and James Lindop charted the percentage distribution of the total Māori and Pākehā employed populations for 1986 and 2001.229 The authors remark that the occupations in which Māori participate to higher degrees than Pākehā are generally those requiring fewer or lower qualifications.230

Table 17: Percentage distribution of employed population aged 15-64 years for New Zealand, by occupation and ethnicity, 1986 and 2001

Source: I. Pool, S. Baxendine, W. Cochrane, and J. Lindop231

227 Bhaskaran Nair, Warren Smart, and Roger Smyth, „How Does Investment in Tertiary Education Improve Outcomes for New Zealanders‟, Social Policy Journal of New Zealand, no 1 (2007), p209 228 Liliana Winkelmann and Rainer Winkelmann, p57 229 I. Pool, S. Baxendine, W. Cochrane, and J. Lindop, New Zealand Regions, 1986-2001: Industries and Occupations (Hamilton: Population Studies Centre, University of Waikato, 2005), p25 230 Ibid. 231 Ibid. 89

The table above illustrates that 47 per cent of all employed Māori worked in the production, transport, trades and elementary occupation category in 1986, which declined to fewer than 30 per cent in 2001. Like that for Māori, the main occupational category for Pākehā was in production, transport, trades and elementary fields, in 1986. In 2001, however, Pākehā were most likely to be in professional or technical (or related) work.

A series of pie graphs follow showing the occupational distributions for different populations aged over 15 years, according to the 2006 Census. The graphs show occupational data for Māori and Pākehā in the rural East Coast census area, Māori and Pākehā in the urban East Coast census area, Māori nationwide, and the total New Zealand population.

Graph 15: Occupations of rural Graph 16: Occupations of rural East Coast Pākehā, 2006 East Coast Māori, 2006

4% 6% 8% 10% 13% 11% 7% 10% 4% 10% 7% 5% 6% 7% 10% 10% 7% 38% 2% 25%

Source: Statistics New Zealand232 Source: Statistics New Zealand233

Legislators, Administrators and Managers Professionals Technicians and Associate Professionals Clerks Service and Sales Workers Agriculture and Fishery Workers Trade Workers Plant and Machine Operators and Assemblers GraphLabourers 17: andOccupations Elementary Service of urban Workers GraphNot Elsewhere 18: Occupations Included of urban

232 Statistics New Zealand, Occupation (NZSC099 V1.0 Major Group) by Ethnic Group (Grouped Total Responses), for the Employed Census Usually Resident Population Count Aged 15 Years and Over, 2001 and 2006, undated (downloaded 17 August 2009) 233 Ibid. 90

Graph 17: Occupations of urban Graph 18: Occupations of urban East Coast Pākehā, 2006 East Coast Māori, 2006

4% 9% 6% 7% 13% 10% 6% 13% 9% 9% 18%

7% 13% 7%

12% 14% 15% 9% 13% 6%

Source: Statistics New Zealand234 Source: Statistics New Zealand235

Graph 19: Occupations of total Graph 20: Occupations of total NZ population, 2006 NZ Māori population, 2006

6% 8% 9% 6% 14% 9% 8% 11% 15% 8% 10% 14% 6% 12% 10% 8% 14% 11% 6% 15%

Source: Statistics New Zealand236 Source: Statistics New Zealand237

Legislators, Administrators and Managers Professionals Technicians and Associate Professionals Clerks Service and Sales Workers Agriculture and Fishery Workers Trade Workers Plant and Machine Operators and Assemblers Labourers and Elementary Service Workers Not Elsewhere Included

234 Ibid. 235 Ibid. 236 Ibid. 237 Ibid. 91

In the rural East Coast census area, the main occupational category for Māori is agriculture and fishery workers. One quarter of this rural Māori population are employed in these professions. A greater proportion of East Coast census area Pākehā are employed in this occupation group though, at 38 per cent. The next most common occupation for Māori in the rural East Coast census area is professionals, at 11 per cent (although 13 per cent are in the category „not elsewhere included‟). The other main occupation categories for rural East Coast census area Māori are service and sales workers, plant and machine operators and assemblers, and labourers and elementary service workers, who all make up 10 per cent each. For rural East Coast census area Pākehā, the next main occupation (after agriculture and fishery workers) is legislators, administrators and managers, and professionals, who comprise 10 per cent each. The dominance of the agriculture and fisheries occupational group is perhaps a natural reflection of the East Coast region‟s landscape. That is, the district is bordered by the sea and has a large rural landscape.

Quite predictably, fewer Māori and Pākehā in the urban East Coast census area are employed as agriculture and fishery workers than their rural counterparts, although it is the second-equal most popular occupation for urban East Coast census area Māori (13 per cent). The main occupation for Māori in the urban East Coast census area is service and sales workers (14 per cent). Pākehā in the urban East Coast census area have a rather different occupation profile. Their main occupation category is professionals (18 per cent), followed by service and sales workers (15 per cent), and legislators, administrators and managers (13 per cent).

A larger proportion of Māori in the East Coast census area are employed as agricultural and fishery workers, than the national Māori population. Only 6 per cent of Māori nationwide have this occupation, which is the same percentage as that for the total New Zealand population. East Coast census area Māori are less likely than Māori nationally to work as a legislator, administrator or manager (9 per cent nationally compared to 6 per cent on the East Coast), and significantly less likely to work in these professions when compared with the total New Zealand population (of which 14 per cent are employed in this occupation). There is a disproportionately low number of Māori in the rural and urban East Coast census areas working in a professional occupation (11 per cent for rural Māori and 10 per cent for urban Māori) compared to the total population (15 per cent). Nevertheless, the proportion of East Coast Māori in this occupation is higher than that for Māori nationally (9 per cent). In the urban East Coast census area, 18 per cent of Pākehā have an occupation listed as a professional.

92

„Professional‟ occupations are those categorised as (1) legislators, administrators and managers, (2) professionals, and (3) technicians and associate professionals. A lower proportion of Māori in the rural East Coast census area (24 per cent) are represented in „professional‟ occupations, than the proportion of Māori in the urban East Coast census area (28 per cent) and nationally (28 per cent). The percentage of Māori in the East Coast census area in the broad professional occupation category is significantly lower than the proportion of the total population (41 per cent). This has implications for earning capacity. Statistics New Zealand reports that at the 2006 Census, the highest median personal incomes (of $47,200) were attributed to those employed in this „professional‟ occupation grouping.238 Graph 21 illustrates the differences between each group of occupations in terms of their median annual personal income.

Graph 21: Median annual personal income for employed people in New Zealand aged over 15 years, by occupation, 2006

Source: Statistics New Zealand239

238 Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Incomes: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 4 August 2009) 239 Ibid. 93

The national Māori population is increasingly working in skilled and highly skilled occupations. According to the Department of Labour, this is a reflection of a shift towards higher levels of Māori educational achievement and attainment.240 In 1988, 68.5 per cent of Māori in the working age had no qualification, whereas in 2003 this had fallen to less than 40 per cent. The employment rate of Māori with a qualification was 68 per cent in 2003, falling just short of the same employment variable of non-Māori at 70 per cent.241

5.3 Industry Data on industry and ethnic group at the territorial authority level for the 2006 Census is readily available, but this data is not available by census area units. The 2006 Gisborne district data on industry is therefore presented to provide the most recent statistics available. This is supplemented by 2001 census area unit level data on industry to ensure the statistics are relevant to the East Coast census area. The following graphs first illustrate the extent to which the Gisborne district and New Zealand populations engage in a variety of industries, and second, the extent to which the Pākehā and Māori populations in the Gisborne district engage in each industry.

The graphs reveal that the main industries in which residents of the Gisborne district work, in 2006, are agriculture, forestry and fishing (18.3 per cent), retail trade (11.6 per cent), manufacturing (9.6 per cent), health (9.5 per cent) and community services and education (9.1 per cent). These are also the main industries for the total New Zealand population. While property and business is the second most common industry for the national population (at 12.8 per cent), it is less prevalent in the Gisborne district (at 7.5 per cent). There is a dominance of the agricultural, forestry and fishing industry in the Gisborne district (18.3 per cent), compared to New Zealand (6.9 per cent). The appendix contains an additional table setting out these percentages.

240 Department of Labour, Trends in Māori Labour Market Outcomes 1986-2003, p4 241 Ibid. 94

Graph 22: Industry of total populations in New Zealand and the Gisborne district, 2006

20.0% 18.0% 16.0% 14.0% 12.0% 10.0% 8.0% 6.0% 4.0% 2.0% 0.0%

Mining Education Construction Retail Trade Manufacturing Wholesale Trade Transport & StorageFinance & Insurance Not Elsewhere Included Agri., Forestry & Fishing Communication Services Govt. Admin. and Defence Personal & Other Services Property & Business Services Accom., Cafes and Restaurants Health & Community Services Electricity, Gas & Water Supply Cultural & Recreational Services

New Zealand Gisborne

Source: Statistics New Zealand242

The graphs also show that within the Gisborne district, higher proportions of Māori than Pākehā work in the agricultural, forestry and fishing industry (20.2 per cent compared to 17.1 per cent). Māori are also more likely than Pākehā in the Gisborne district to work in the manufacturing and education industries. Fewer Māori than Pākehā work in the retail trade (8.9 per cent compared to 13.5 per cent), and the health and community services industry (8.5 per cent to 10 per cent).

242 Statistics New Zealand, Industry (ANZSIC96 V4.1 Division) and Ethnic Group (Grouped Total Response) by Sex, for the Employed Census Usually Resident Population Count Aged 15 Years and Over, 2001 and 2006, undated (downloaded 17 August 2009) 95

Graph 23: Industry of Pākehā and Māori populations in the Gisborne district, 2006

25.0%

20.0%

15.0%

10.0%

5.0%

0.0%

Mining Education Construction Retail Trade Manufacturing Wholesale Trade Transport & StorageFinance & Insurance Not Elsewhere Included Agri., Forestry & Fishing Communication Services Govt. Admin. and Defence Personal & Other Services Property & Business Services Accom., Cafes and Restaurants Health & Community Services Electricity, Gas & Water Supply Cultural & Recreational Services

Pakeha Maori

Source: Statistics New Zealand243

The importance of the agriculture, forestry and fishing industry to Māori within the Gisborne district is substantiated further by the fact that Māori business activity here is centred on this industry. A New Zealand Institute of Economic Research report on Māori business and economic activity published in 2005, reveals that the „chief sector of importance to the Gisborne region in terms of asset investment is agriculture, fishing and forestry‟, representing over half (51.0 per cent) of the Gisborne Māori asset base.244 The greatest operating surplus is generated through the property and business services sector though, which contributes over a third of the operating surplus in the region.245 Data that is more specific to the East Coast census area is only available via the Statistics New Zealand website for the 2001 Census. It is useful to report on this information, even though it is more dated, as the data is directly relevant to the East Coast census area and not skewed by broader Gisborne district-wide statistics.

243 Ibid. 244 New Zealand Institute of Economic Research, Māori Business and Economic Activity: A Regional and Sectoral Analysis. Report to Te Puni Kōkiri (Wellington: New Zealand Institute of Economic Research, 2005), p27 245 Ibid. 96

Graph 24: Industry of Māori in the rural and urban East Coast, 2001

40.0% 35.0% 30.0% 25.0% 20.0% 15.0% 10.0% 5.0% 0.0%

Mining Education Construction Retail Trade Manufacturing Wholesale Trade

Transport and StorageFinance and Insurance Not Elsewhere Included Communication Services Agri., Forestry and Fishing Govt. Admin. and Defence Personal and other Services Property and Business Services Accomm., Cafes and Restaurants Health and Community Services Electricity, Gas and Water Supply Cultural and Recreational Services

Rural East Coast Maori Urban East Coast Maori

Source: Statistics New Zealand246

The graph above shows that for Māori in the East Coast census area, the most common industry in 2001 was the agriculture, forestry and fishing industry. A total of 35.7 per cent of rural East Coast census area Māori workers and 21.5 per cent of urban East Coast census area Māori workers were employed in this industry. The next highest category of industry for rural East Coast census area Māori was education (14.8 per cent), while all other industries comprised under 7.0 per cent for this population. The second highest category of industry for urban East Coast census area Māori was manufacturing (12.2 per cent), followed closely by retail trade at (10.0 per cent). The appendix contains a table with a detailed break down of the percentages of Māori in the rural and urban East Coast census area employed within the above industries.

The Te Araroa, Ruatoria, and Tolaga Bay township development plans (dated 2007, 2008, and 2007 respectively) all identified economic development as a key

246 Statistics New Zealand, Industry, Ethnic Group (Level 1 Grouped Total Responses) and Sex, for the Employed Census Usually Resident Population Count Aged 15 Years and Over, 2001, undated (downloaded 17 August 2009) 97

issue facing their communities. In Te Araroa, the need for sustainable industries in the area was raised.247 A further issue noted was the lack of infrastructure and facilities to cater for, and thus reap the economic benefits of, tourism. There was a general feeling that the Gisborne District Council was not assisting in this regard.248 Similarly, in Ruatoria, issues raised by the community included the need to encourage business development that is economically, environmentally, socially, and culturally sustainable.249 Business facilitation and assistance was identified as a need for Tolaga Bay, particularly for local people with business ideas.250 These rural East Coast communities want their council to focus on, and respond to, their need for economic development and prosperity.

5.4 Summary According to the Ministry of Social Development, there are numerous factors that affect unemployment and employment rates. These include economic conditions, migration flows, people‟s qualifications and abilities, and their decision whether to undertake paid work.251 The Department of Labour‟s 2007 report titled Māori Labour Market Outcomes argued that Māori are over-represented amongst the unemployed (a situation that has persisted into 2009), „points to continuing disadvantage which is related to standard indicators of unemployment likelihood such as younger age profile, education and location‟.252 The relationship between labour force status, education, as well as income levels, has also been noted by Murton.253 Thus data presented in this chapter should be read with the previous chapter on educational participation and attainment in mind, as well as the following chapter on personal and household income levels.

According to the 2006 Census, in the 11 East Coast census area units the Māori unemployment rate ranges between 7 and 18 per cent. The Gisborne district‟s Māori unemployment rate is 12 per cent – slightly higher than that nationally for

247 Gisborne District Council, Te Araroa Township Development Plan, 2007 (downloaded 7 August 2009) 248 Ibid. 249 Gisborne District Council, Ruatoria Township Development Plan, 2008 (downloaded 7 August 2009) 250 Gisborne District Council, Tolaga Bay Township Development Plan, 2008 (downloaded 7 August 2009) 251 Ministry of Social Development, The Social Report 2008, p45 252 Department of Labour, Māori Labour Market Outcomes, 2007 253 Brian Murton, „The Crown and the Peoples of Te Urewera: The Economic and Social Experience of Te Urewera Maori, 1860-2000‟, report commissioned by the Waitangi Tribunal, 2004, Wai 894 #H12, p25 98

Māori, which is 11 per cent. Māori have higher unemployment rates than Pākehā in the East Coast census area. However, Pākehā unemployment rates were high in some census area units when compared to the total national unemployment rate.

The main occupational category for Māori and Pākehā in the rural East Coast census area is agriculture and fishery workers, followed by professionals for both groups, according to the 2006 Census. This dominance of agriculture and fishing occupations is predictably less evident in the urban East Coast census area. The main occupation for Māori in the urban East Coast census area is service and sales workers, followed closely by plant and machine operators and assemblers, and labourers and elementary service workers. Approximately 25 per cent of Māori in the East Coast census area are represented in the broader „professional‟ occupations (which are those categorised as legislators, administrators and managers, professionals, and technicians and associate professionals), compared with 28 per cent of the nationwide Māori population and 40 per cent of the total New Zealand population.

The main industry in the Gisborne district for both Māori and Pākehā in 2006, was the agriculture, forestry and fishing industry. This is also the primary sector of Māori asset investment within the district. The 2001 Census data offers statistics specific to the East Coast census area, and reveals that most rural and urban East Coast census area Māori work in this industry as well – 35.7 per cent of rural East Coast Māori workers and 21.5 per cent or urban East Coast Māori workers. The second most prominent industry for Māori in the rural East Coast census area was education, while for Māori in the urban East Coast census area it was manufacturing.

99

6 PERSONAL AND HOUSEHOLD INCOME The purpose of this chapter is to report on the income distribution of Māori in the East Coast census area, and how it compares with Māori and Pākehā populations in the Gisborne district and in New Zealand. Data is largely drawn from the 2001 and 2006 Censuses. Statistical data on personal income, household income, and sources of personal income are explored in turn. Like other variables employed in this report, they, and their effects on the population, are largely inter-dependent. Income levels have important effects on many aspects of personal and family life. As Te Puni Kōkiri has pointed out, income „is closely linked with levels of educational attainment, labour force activity, and can also be associated with access to adequate housing, levels of health status, and criminal activity‟.254

6.1 Personal income Māori average incomes have not kept up with the rise of non-Māori average incomes in recent times. Gould reports that between 1991 and 2001, the average Māori income per capita increased by 18 per cent, whereas non-Māori incomes rose by 23 per cent over the same period.255 Further, „the lower Māori deciles have in turn failed to keep pace with the Māori average‟.256 Research led by University of Auckland sociology professor Peter Davis found in 2007 that „the real incomes of Māori and Pacific couples with children, as a proportion of real European incomes, have declined since 1996‟.257 Davis expanded on this finding:

Rising prosperity lifted the real incomes of two-parent European families by 23.1 per cent between the 1996 and 2006 Censuses, while the real incomes of Maori families rose by only 21.3 per cent... Ethnic gaps have also widened for home ownership and overcrowding.258

254Te Puni Kōkiri, Progress Towards Closing Social and Economic Gaps Between Māori and Non-Māori: A Report to the Minister of Māori Affairs (Wellington: Te Puni Kōkiri, 2000), p26 255 John Gould, „Socio-economic Gaps Between Māori and Māori: Outcomes of Sixteen Iwi 1991-2001‟, Journal of the Polynesian Society, vol 114, no 1 (2005), p40 256 Ibid. 257 Simon Collins, Pakeha Further Ahead in Earnings, 2007 (downloaded 27 August 2009) 258 Ibid. 100

Between 1998 and 2009, Māori earned 85 per cent of what Pākehā earned. By 2007, the ratio of Māori to Pākehā median hourly earnings fell further to 81 per cent.259

When examining personal incomes at the aggregate level, Murton argues that the median (or midpoint) measure is normally more reliable than using the mean (or average) for analysis, which can be distorted by very high and very low incomes.260 The 2006 Census shows that the median income for the national Māori population aged 15 years and over, is less than the median income for all New Zealanders aged 15 years and over. The total Māori median is $20,900, while the total New Zealand median is $24,400.261 In other words, Māori only earn approximately 86 per cent of what the average New Zealander earns. The Gisborne district has one of the lowest median annual personal incomes in the country ($20,600) – second only to the West Coast ($20,400).262 The Ministry of Social Development reported that in 2007, the lowest median hourly wages throughout the country were in the Gisborne-Hawkes Bay region, at $16.00 per hour, while the highest median hourly wages for wage and salary earners was $20.00 in Wellington.263 Within the Gisborne district, there are marked differences between the median income of the total population and the Māori population. The Gisborne district median income is $20,600, but for Māori in the district it is $17,500.

In seven of the 11 East Coast census area units, median incomes of residents (Māori and non-Māori) are lower than that for the Gisborne district. Median incomes are particularly low for rural residents in the East Cape, Ruatoria, Tokomaru Bay and Tolaga Bay census area units. In these census area units Māori make up over 78 per cent of the resident populations. Table 18 compares the unemployment rates, most common occupational groups, and median incomes of the relevant East Coast census area units, with the Gisborne district and New Zealand populations. There is a clear relationship between high unemployment and low incomes. The census area units with unemployment rates

259 Ministry of Social Development, The Social Report 2008 (Wellington: Ministry of Social Development, 2008), p51 260 Brian Murton, „The Crown and the Peoples of Te Urewera: The Economic and Social Experience of Te Urewera Maori, 1860-2000‟, report commissioned by the Waitangi Tribunal, 2004, Wai 894 #H12, p25 261 Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About New Zealand: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 21 April 2009) 262 Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Incomes: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 4 August 2009) 263 Ministry of Social Development, The Social Report 2008, p51 101

over 10 per cent are those with Māori making up over 64 per cent of the population.

Table 18: Unemployment rates, occupations, and median incomes of residents in the East Coast, the Gisborne district, and New Zealand, 2006 % population Over 15 and Most common Median who are unemployed occupational income Māori group East Cape 87.9 12.2% Labourers $14,100 Ruatoria 94.8 18.4% Labourers $14,800 Tokomaru Bay 78.6 12.1% Professionals $15,500 Tolaga Bay 78.4 10.7% Labourers $15,100 Tarndale-Rakauroa 41.3 5.5% Managers $22,600 Wharekaka 33.3 3.1% Managers $24,800 Kaiti North 28.1 4.0% Professionals $24,600 Kaiti South 64.1 11.7% Labourers $18,300 Outer Kaiti 79.9 14.7% Labourers $16,300 Tamarau 75.6 11.4% Labourers $18,900 Wainui 18.4 3.3% Professionals $31,800 Gisborne district 47.3 7.2% Labourers $20,600 Gisborne district Māori 100 12.4% Labourers $17,500 New Zealand 14.6 5.1% Professionals $24,400 New Zealand Māori 100 11% Labourers $20,900 Source: Statistics New Zealand264

The northernmost area units in the East Coast census area have higher levels of unemployment, and considerably lower median incomes, than the Gisborne district. The median income of East Cape and Ruatoria (Māori and non-Māori)

264 Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About East Cape: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Ruatoria: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Tokomaru Bay: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Tolaga Bay: 2006 Census, undated, (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Tarndale-Rakauroa: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Wharekaka: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Kaiti North: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Kaiti South: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Outer Kaiti: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Tamarau: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Wainui: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Gisborne District: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About New Zealand: 2006 Census 102

residents is roughly $10,000 less than that for the average New Zealander. In the East Cape, Ruatoria, Tokomaru Bay, and Tolaga Bay, median incomes range from $14,100 to $15,500. The median income for the Gisborne district Māori population is $17,500, while the median income for the national Māori population is $20,900.

Median personal incomes by ethnicity (namely Māori and Pākehā) in the East Coast census area are not readily available through the Statistics New Zealand website. However, tables are available showing the number of Māori and Pākehā in the East Coast census area who earn select groupings of income. In the appendix, the percentages of Māori and Pākehā earning within these income brackets are set out for each census area unit relevant to the East Coast. A table of the rural and urban East Coast census areas, the Gisborne district, and New Zealand Māori and Pākehā populations and their income distributions are shown in the table below. Note that percentages do not add up to 100, as some respondents did not state their income.

Table 19: Personal incomes of Pākehā and Māori in the rural and urban East Coast, the Gisborne district, and New Zealand, 2006 $5,000 or $5,001 - $10,001 - $20,001 - $30,001 - $50,001 Less $10,000 $20,000 $30,000 $50,000 or More Rural East Coast Pākehā 15% 8% 22% 14% 20% 14% Māori 15% 12% 29% 13% 14% 5% Urban East Coast Pākehā 12% 8% 24% 16% 21% 14% Māori 14% 10% 25% 17% 17% 5% Gisborne District Pākehā 12% 7% 25% 16% 21% 13% Māori 14% 10% 26% 16% 17% 5% New Zealand Pākehā 11% 7% 22% 14% 22% 19% Māori 14% 9% 20% 16% 21% 9% Source: Statistics New Zealand265

Graph 25 pictorially demonstrates that in the East Coast census area fewer Māori (both rural and urban) earn more than $50,001 than Pākehā. The graph shows an over-representation of Māori on the left-hand side of the graph (that is, lower

265 Statistics New Zealand, Total Personal Income (Grouped) by Ethnic Group (Grouped Total Responses) and Sex, for the Census Usually Resident Population Count Aged 15 Years and Over, 2006, undated (downloaded 17 August 2009) 103

earning), and an over-representation of Pākehā on the right hand side (that is, higher earning). There are greater proportions of Māori than Pākehā in the income groups under $20,000 in the East Coast census area. A total of 56 per cent of rural and 49 per cent the urban Māori earn under $20,000 per year. Whereas 45 per cent of rural and 44 per cent of urban Pākehā earn under this amount. Approximately 5 per cent of Māori earn over $50,000 per year, while the incomes of roughly 14 per cent of Pākehā exceed this figure. However, compared to the total New Zealand Māori and Pākehā populations, of whom 9 per cent and 19 per cent respectively earn over $50,000, both East Coast census area Māori and Pākehā are under-represented in the highest earnings category.

Graph 25: Personal incomes of Pākehā and Māori in the rural and urban East Coast, 2006

35%

30%

25% Rural East Coast Pakeha 20% Urban East Coast Pakeha

15% Rural East Coast Maori Urban East Coast Maori 10%

5%

0% $5,000 or $5,001 - $10,001 - $20,001 - $30,001 - $50,001 or Less $10,000 $20,000 $30,000 $50,000 More

Source: Statistics New Zealand266

According to Gould, it has become „widely acknowledged‟ that the Māori unemployment rate is a factor of limited significance in explaining lower Māori income levels. Māori perform less paid work per capita than non-Māori, but this is not only due to a higher Māori unemployment rate. Rather, Gould argues that this outcome is due to the Māori age structure that features a lower proportion of people in the working ages, a lower labour force participation rate, and a larger

266 Ibid. 104

proportion of the labour force not in paid employment.267 One way to help alleviate Gould‟s concerns is to measure socio-economic well-being by using household income, rather than personal income, statistics.

6.2 Household income Household income has been advocated as a better measure of social and economic well-being, than personal income. According to Murton, household income is considered a more useful measurement of well-being because individual income does not differentiate between one or more incomes coming into the household.268 The household measurement might be considered particularly appropriate for Māori households (that is, when one or more members of the household identify with the Māori ethnic group) because there is generally a greater number of dependent people in these homes, particularly children. According to Ian Pool, Sandra Baxendine, Bill Cochrane, and James Lindop, the Gisborne district had the highest child dependency ratio to working adults in the country between 1986 and 2001.269 Dependency ratios are one way to measure the age structure of a population, by focussing on the relationship between the older and younger persons of a population to those at working ages. The ratio, Pool et al. contend, can be used as „a proxy for economic, social and fiscal burdens‟.270 Pool et al. explain that regions with high dependency levels generally tend to have high numbers of children, and typically have concentrations of the Māori population.271 While 2006 Census data on household incomes by ethnicity and census area unit is not readily available through the Statistics New Zealand website, 2001 data is and is graphed below.

Household incomes for Māori and Pākehā in the East Coast census area appear to be generally similar at most income groupings up to the $30,000 point, in Graph 26. Clear discrepancies emerge past the $40,000 household income point though. Higher proportions of rural and urban East Coast census area Pākehā have household incomes over $40,000 than do rural and urban East Coast census area

267 John Gould, p31 268 Brian Murton, p28 269 I. Pool, S. Baxendine, B. Cochrane, J. Lindop, New Zealand Regions, 1986-2001: Population Structures (Hamilton: Population Studies Centre, University of Waikato), 2005, 17 270 Ibid, p1 271 Ibid, p17 105

Māori. The proportion of rural and urban East Coast census area Pākehā with household incomes over $40,000 is 37.3 per cent and 37.9 per cent respectively. Whereas only 19.3 per cent of rural East Coast census area Māori households, and 23.5 per cent of urban East Coast census area Māori households, earn over $40,000 per year. At the highest end of the scale, 14.5 per cent and 15.6 per cent of rural and urban East Coast census area Pākehā respectively have household incomes of $70,000 or above. The proportions or rural and urban East Coast census area Māori households in this category are far lower, at 5.8 and 7.0 per cent respectively. Additional percentage data for these groups appears in the appendix.

Graph 26: Household incomes of Pākehā and Māori in the rural and urban East Coast, 2001

18.0% 16.0% 14.0% 12.0% 10.0% 8.0% 6.0% 4.0% 2.0% 0.0% Zero $1 - $5,001 - $10,001 $15,001 $20,001 $25,001 $30,001 $40,001 $50,001 $70,001 Income $5,000 $10,000 ------or More or Loss $15,000 $20,000 $25,000 $30,000 $40,000 $50,000 $70,000

Rural East Coast Pakeha Urban East Coast Pakeha Rural East Coast Maori Urban East Coast Maori Linear (Rural East Coast Pakeha) Linear (Urban East Coast Pakeha) Linear (Rural East Coast Maori) Linear (Urban East Coast Maori)

Source: Statistics New Zealand272

272 Statistics New Zealand, Tenure of Household, Ethnic Group in Household (Level 1 Grouped Total Responses) and Total Household Income, for Households in Private Occupied Dwellings, 1991, 1996 and 2001, undated (downloaded 17 August 2009) 106

There are four black linear trend lines in the above graph. Trend lines that appear on graphs show the general trend the data is heading in. The two trend lines with the steepest incline are those for rural and urban East Coast census area Pākehā. The two trend lines with a more measured slope are for rural and urban East Coast census area Māori. The trend lines highlight two striking observations. The first is the similarities of the rural and urban East Coast census area Māori, and rural and urban East Coast census area Pākehā. The second is the disparity between Māori and Pākehā household incomes in the East Coast census area.

The National Advisory Committee on Health and Disability (known as the National Health Committee) advises the Ministry of Health on the kinds of personal health, disability support, and public health services that, in their opinion, should be publicly funded.273 In a 1998 publication entitled The Social, Cultural and Economic Determinants of Health in New Zealand: Action to Improve Health, the Committee argued that income is „the single most important modifiable determinant of health and is strongly related to health and well being‟.274 The Committee made further connections between income and employment, and employment and education.

The main factor determining adequate income is participation in paid employment, particularly full-time employment… Education is critical in determining people‟s social and economic position and thus their health. A low level of education is associated with poor health status.275

The above factors, in turn, affect the standards of housing people can afford. In addition, „[o]vercrowding, damp and cold have direct detrimental effects on physical and mental health‟.276 Each of these factors – income, employment, education, and housing – is therefore linked. In addition, in the Committee‟s opinion, all of the factors ultimately affect personal health and well-being. The standard of Māori well-being, by using these measures, is thus lower than Pākehā well-being.

273 National Advisory Committee on Health and Disability (National Health Committee), The Social, Cultural and Economic Determinants of Health in New Zealand: Action to Improve Health (Wellington: National Advisory Committee on Health and Disability, 1998), p3 274 Ibid, p8 275 Ibid, pp8-9 276 Ibid, p9 107

6.3 Sources of income The sources of income for rural East Coast census area Māori, urban East Coast census area Māori, and the total New Zealand population, according to the 2006 Census, are graphed below (Graphs 27-29). A table in the appendix shows more detailed numbers relating to sources of income for Māori in the East Coast census area. The main source of income for all three populations is wages and salaries, with Māori in the urban East Coast census area having the highest proportion in this category (45 per cent). Māori in the rural East Coast census area (39 per cent) have a lower proportion sourcing their income from wages and salaries than the total New Zealand population (41 per cent). While 17 per cent of the New Zealand working population source income through interest, dividends and investments, only 5 per cent of East Coast census area Māori do the same.

The proportion of the New Zealand population that gain income from self- employment or through their own business endeavours is 11 per cent, compared to 7 per cent of Māori in the rural East Coast census area and 5 per cent of Māori in the urban East Coast census area. According to the Department of Labour, overall there have been major increases in the number of Māori within New Zealand who are self-employed. Between 1981 and 2001, the number of self- employed Māori increased by 156 per cent (from 6700 to 17,100), whereas non- Māori self-employment increased by 97 per cent.277

The number of people who source their income through government benefits is disproportionately high amongst Māori in the East Coast census area. According to the 2006 Census, government benefits (which include the unemployment, sickness, domestic purposes, invalids, and other government benefits) are received by approximately 10 per cent of the total New Zealand population, and by roughly 29 per cent of Māori in the rural and urban East Coast census area. In other words, East Coast Māori are nearly three times as likely to receive a government benefit compared to the national average. Breaking this down further, 2 per cent of the national population receive an unemployment benefit, compared to 11 per cent of the rural East Coast census area Māori population (more than five times the national average) and 7 per cent of the urban East Coast census area Māori population (over three times the national average). East Coast census area Māori also compare unfavourably with the national population in

277 Department of Labour, Trends in Māori Labour Market Outcomes 1986-2003, 2005 (downloaded 30 June 2009, p6 108

terms of receiving domestic purposes benefits. Only 2 per cent of the national population receive this benefit. In comparison, 7 per cent and 10 per cent of Māori receive this benefit in the rural and urban East Coast census areas respectively. This data suggests that one reason why Māori household incomes in the East Coast census area are lower than that of the total population could be that they receive a disproportionate amount of their income from government benefits.

Lower proportions of Māori in the urban East Coast census area gain their income from New Zealand Superannuation (5 per cent) compared to the national population (10 per cent), perhaps reflecting the youthful age structure of Māori. Notably, though, 9 per cent of rural East Coast census area Māori receive income from this source, which is consistent with earlier statistics showing the older age structure of rural East Coast census area Māori relative to their urban and national counterparts.

The source of personal income can have important effects on the living standards of family members, particularly children. According to Krishnan, Jensen, and Rochford, from the Knowledge Group at the Ministry of Social Development, extensive research has shown a connection between low parental income and a range of negative outcomes for children, including levels of educational attainment and employment participation.278 Krishnan et al.‟s research suggests that not only does poverty have these negative effects on children, but children from families who rely on government transfers are more disadvantaged than children whose families rely on market incomes.279 The authors define living standards in terms of limitations of resources (that is, economising on particular activities or purchases), and measured these standards amongst poor children. They emphasised that there is a threat to children‟s well-being through restricting access to healthcare due to its cost.280 Further, Deborah Ball and Moira Wilson (also from the Ministry of Social Development) have acknowledged studies that have shown parental income as having „small to modest positive associations with cognitive development and levels of attainment as children move through the school system, and with employment propensities and incomes in

278 Vasantha Krishnan, John Jensen, and Mike Rochford, „Children in Poor Families: Does the Source of Family Income Change the Picture?‟, Social Policy Journal of New Zealand, issue 18 (2002), pp118-119 279 Ibid, p145 280 Ibid, pp145-146 109

adulthood‟.281 Therefore the source of income, as well as the level of personal and household income, impacts on the wider family.

Graph 27: Sources of personal Graph 28: Sources of personal income for rural East Coast income for urban East Coast Māori, 2006 Māori, 2006

Source: Statistics New Zealand282 Source: Statistics New Zealand283

Graph 29: Sources of personal income for total NZ population, 2006

Source: Statistics New Zealand284

281 Deborah Ball and Moira Wilson, „The Prevalence and Persistence of Low Income Among New Zealand Children: Indicative Measures From Benefit Dynamics Data‟, Social Policy Journal of New Zealand, issue 18 (2002), p93 282 Statistics New Zealand, Sources of Personal Income (Total Responses) by Ethnic Group (Grouped Total Responses), for the Census Usually Resident Population Count Aged 15 Years and over, 2006, undated (downloaded 17 August 2009) 283 Ibid. 110

6.4 Summary Throughout New Zealand, Māori on average earn $3500 less than the total population. The Gisborne district has the second lowest median annual personal income in the country, according to the 2006 Census. The Gisborne district median income is $20,600, but for Māori in the district it is $17,500. East Coast census area residents, however, have even lower average median incomes. In the three rural census area units that fall wholly within the East Coast inquiry district, along with East Cape, median incomes are between $14,100 and $15,500. This equates to roughly two thirds of the average median income for all New Zealanders, or put another way, $10,000 less than that for the average New Zealander. These four census area units – East Cape, Ruatoria, Tokomaru Bay, and Tolaga Bay – have large Māori populations. The comparatively low incomes of rural East Coast census area residents are coupled with high unemployment rates. Smaller proportions of Māori than Pākehā in the East Coast census area earn over $50,000.

Discrepancies between Māori and Pākehā incomes in the East Coast census area are seen at the household level. Household incomes of Māori and Pākehā in the East Coast census area, in 2001, were roughly similar at most income groupings up to the $30,000 point. Far higher proportions of Pākehā, however, have household incomes over $40,000 than do Māori in the East Coast census area. Approximately 37 per cent of Pākehā households in the East Coast census area had incomes over $40,000 at the 2001 Census, while less than 20 per cent of rural East Coast Māori households, and 23.5 per cent of urban East Coast Māori households, had incomes exceeding this amount.

In 2008, the Ministry of Social Development noted a number of detrimental effects of low incomes.

Insufficient economic resources limit people‟s capability to participate in and belong to their community and wider society and otherwise restrict their quality of life. Furthermore, long-lasting low family income in childhood is associated with negative outcomes, such as lower educational attainment and poorer health.285

That Māori in the East Coast census area generally have low personal and household incomes might then have implications for other indicators of well- being, such as education and health.

284 Ibid. 285 Ministry of Social Development, The Social Report 2008, p62 111

Like that for the total New Zealand population and for Pākehā in the East Coast census area, Māori in the East Coast census area largely draw their income from wages and salaries. Māori in the East Coast census area are less likely than the national population to source income through interest, dividends and investments (17 per cent compared to 5 per cent). A disproportionate number of East Coast census area Māori, particularly those in the rural sector, source income from government benefits, which may explain the low levels of income in this area. Roughly one in four rural East Coast census area Māori receives government benefits, compared to one in 10 of the national population. The proportion of Māori in the rural East Coast census area that receives New Zealand Superannuation is nearly the same as the proportion of the total national population, reflecting the older demographics of the area. A much lower number of urban East Coast census area Māori receive New Zealand Superannuation though, as their age structure is more in line with that of the national Māori population.

112

7 HOUSING AND HOUSEHOLD ACCESS TO TELECOMMUNICATIONS This chapter provides a profile of the housing situation of Māori in the East Coast census area. McPherson and Belgrave point out that housing costs and housing standards offer an indication of economic standard of living, and of poor health and negative well-being.286 Statistical data on housing tenure is presented first, which has been largely drawn from the 2001 and 2006 Censuses, combined with secondary material. Household crowding is then discussed, with most data coming from secondary sources, including commissioned reports on housing experiences and housing quality, and Ministry of Social Development and Statistics New Zealand reports on household crowding. Household crowding is measured using a variety of indexes. Lastly, census data is used to show the rates of access to the telephone, the internet, and a motor vehicle for Māori in the East Coast census area. These variables are measures of social connectedness.

7.1 Household ownership Statistics New Zealand defines a household as „either one person who usually resides alone, or two or more people who usually reside together and share facilities (such as eating facilities, cooking facilities, bathroom and toilet facilities, and a living area), in a private dwelling‟.287 A Māori household has at least one person of the household identifying with the Māori ethnic group. Similarly, a Pākehā household has at least one person of the household identifying with the European ethnic group. Ian Pool, Sandra Baxendine, Bill Cochrane, and James Lindop maintain that household tenure – whether a person owns a house or rents accommodation – influences their perceived socio- economic status.288

286 Mervyl McPherson and Michael Belgrave „A Socio-demographic Profile of the People of Marutuahu and Pare Hauraki‟, report commissioned by the Crown Forestry Rental Trust, 2002, Wai 686 #V5, p15 287 Statistics New Zealand, Household Definitions, undated (downloaded 17 August 2009) 288 I. Pool, S. Baxendine, W. Cochrane, and J. Lindop, New Zealand Regions, 1986-2001: Household and Families, and their Dwellings (Hamilton: Population Studies Centre, University of Waikato, 2005), p19 113

Pool et al. have shown that there had been a general decline in the proportion of people owning their own home over the 15-year period from 1986 to 2001. In 1986, seven out of 10 households in New Zealand achieved home ownership. In 2001, the proportion of home ownership by household had fallen to two-thirds.289 Home ownership rates had dropped both in regions where house prices were high (such as Auckland) and low (such as Gisborne), compared to the national average. In 2001, the Gisborne district had the lowest rate of home ownership in the country, at 58.2 per cent.290 According to Pool et al., the ethnicity of the household occupier is an important factor in home ownership, which could help explain the regional variations in home ownership rates.291 The difference between Pākehā and Māori home ownership rates across New Zealand widened from 20 percentage points in 1986 to 22 percentage points in 2001.292

According to Te Puni Kōkiri, prior to 1940, Māori were more likely to live in owned homes than were non-Māori. By the early 1950s, however, this trend had reversed.293 A primary driver of this reversal, it is argued, is Māori migration to urban centres where rental accommodation was the only affordable option for housing.294 In spite of the fall in numbers of Māori owning their own home, Te Puni Kōkiri report that Māori do have „a strong desire to become home owners‟.295

The following table presents age standardised percentages of households owned (that is, age standardised to the age structure of the occupiers for each household type in New Zealand in 1996), by ethnicity of occupier and region, in 1986 and 2001. Lowest levels of home ownership amongst Māori in 2001 were in Auckland (42.1 per cent) and Wellington (44.0 per cent), followed closely by Hawkes Bay (44.2 per cent) and Gisborne (44.9 per cent). Highest levels of ownership amongst Māori were in Southland (58.1 per cent) and the West Coast (57.0 per cent). Pool et al. point out that declines in home ownership between 1986 and 2001 occurred both in areas where property prices were high, such as

289 I. Pool, S. Baxendine, W. Cochrane, and J. Lindop, New Zealand Regions, 1986-2001: Household and Families, and their Dwellings, p20 290 Ibid. 291 Ibid, p25 292 Ibid. 293 Te Puni Kōkiri, Progress Towards Closing Social and Economic Gaps Between Māori and Non-Māori: A Report to the Minister of Māori Affairs (Wellington: Te Puni Kōkiri, 2000), p31 294 Ibid. 295 Ibid, p32 114

Auckland, and in areas where property prices were relatively low, such as Gisborne.296

Table 20: Age standardised percentages of households owned, by ethnicity and region, 1986 and 2001

Source: I. Pool, S. Baxendine, W. Cochrane, and J. Lindop297

The proportion of Māori households that do not own their own home in regions across the country, in 1991 and 2001, are graphed below. Statistics New Zealand reports that the proportion of households in which at least one Māori person was living, and the house was not owned by the occupants, rose from 44.8 per cent to 51.9 per cent over this period. In 1991, in all 16 regions, less than half of Māori residents lived in dwellings that they did not own. One decade later, in eight of these 16 regions (including the Gisborne district), more than half of Māori lived in homes that they did not own.298 While it is not argued that this trend is directly associated with a particular government policy, this change did occur within the context of housing policy changes introduced by the incoming National government in 1991. University of Canterbury professor of sociology David

296 Ibid, p20 297 Ibid. 298 Statistics New Zealand, Māori Ethnicity in Households – Tenure of Household, 2004 (downloaded 2 July 2009) 115

Thorns writes that this National government‟s first budget prioritised reducing the direct role of the state in providing housing benefits, increasing consumer choice, and containing the fiscal cost of housing assistance.299

Graph 30: Percentage of households with at least one person of Māori ethnicity that do not own dwelling, by region, 1991 and 2001

Source: Statistics New Zealand300

Of the major ethnic groups in New Zealand, those most likely to own their own home at the 2006 Census were those recorded in the „Other ethnicity‟ category. As noted elsewhere, there was a dramatic increase in the number of people who reported their ethnicity as „Kiwi‟ or „New Zealander‟ at this Census, and were subsequently recorded under the „Other ethnicity‟ category. Most people that

299 David C. Thorns, „Housing Policy in the 1990s – New Zealand a Decade of Change‟, Housing Studies, vol 15, no 1 (2000), p130 300 Ibid. 116

gave this type of response had previously recorded themselves as New Zealand European or Pākehā. A total of 65.3 per cent of the people recorded as „Other ethnicity‟ owned or partly owned their own home, compared to roughly 30 per cent of Māori. The following graph from Statistics New Zealand shows the proportions of dwelling ownership by ethnic group. For the sake of completeness and thorough comprehension, Statistics New Zealand‟s footnotes are included to clarify key differences between the 2001 and 2006 data.

Graph 31: Ownership of home by ethnic group in New Zealand, 2006

Source: Statistics New Zealand301

301 Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Housing: 2006 Census, 2007 (downloaded 17 August 2009) 117

The Gisborne district had the lowest home ownership rate in New Zealand in 2006, at 57.5 per cent.302 The Gisborne district also had the highest percentage of households that rent their dwellings, at 35.5 per cent (compared to 31.1 per cent nationally).303 To ascertain home ownership rates amongst Māori in the East Coast census area, analysis is required at the census area unit level. The 2006 Census data for tenure of household by ethnicity at the census area unit level is not readily available, but the 2001 Census data is and is reproduced in percentage format below.

Table 21: Percentage of Pākehā and Māori in the East Coast who own or partly own dwelling by usual residents, 2001 Total dwelling owned or partly Total dwelling not owned or partly owned by usual resident(s) owned by usual resident(s) At least one At least one At least one At least one Pākehā ethnicity Māori ethnicity Pākehā ethnicity Māori ethnicity in household in household in household in household East Cape 58.0% 57.3% 36.6% 37.5% Ruatoria 50.0% 53.4% 46.2% 43.8% Tokomaru Bay 60.7% 58.1% 35.7% 39.5% Tolaga Bay 62.8% 45.8% 34.9% 50.0% Tarndale-Rakauroa 63.2% 50.7% 34.0% 44.8% Wharekaka 70.6% 48.7% 27.1% 47.4% Kaiti North 78.4% 57.1% 19.3% 41.1% Kaiti South 61.4% 37.5% 35.3% 59.1% Outer Kaiti 58.1% 35.3% 40.0% 61.3% Tamarau 61.2% 45.6% 37.1% 52.6% Wainui 76.1% 69.0% 22.1% 27.6% Gisborne District 68.6% 45.7% 28.9% 51.1% New Zealand 69.7% 46.8% 28.3% 50.5% Source: Statistics New Zealand304

Home ownership amongst Māori and Pākehā is roughly even the East Cape, Ruatoria, and Tokomaru Bay census area units. Māori home ownership rates are higher in these areas than for the Gisborne district. Greater discrepancy appears

302 Tairawhiti District Health, Statistics: Tairawhiti District Health, 2009 (downloaded 20 July 2009) 303 Ibid. 304 Statistics New Zealand, Tenure of Household, Ethnic Group in Household (Level 1 Grouped Total Responses) and Total Household Income, for Households in Private Occupied Dwellings, 1991, 1996 and 2001. Note, percentages may not add up to 100 because „not elsewhere included‟ responses are not displayed. 118

closer to the urban centre of the Gisborne township, where there is up to a 24- percentage point difference between Pākehā owning their home and Māori owning their home. Māori in the East Coast census area are most likely to own their home in Wainui (69.0 per cent), Tokomaru Bay (58.1 per cent), East Cape (57.3 per cent), and Kaiti North (57.1 per cent). Māori are least likely to own their home in the two urban census area units of Outer Kaiti (35.3 per cent) and Kaiti South (37.5 per cent). In the broader Gisborne district, 45.7 per cent of Māori own their home compared to 68.6 per cent of Pākehā. The 2001 Census housing tenure data is graphed below.

Graph 32: Percentage of Pākehā and Māori who own or partly own their dwelling, in the rural and urban East Coast, the Gisborne district, and New Zealand, 2001

100%

80%

60%

40%

20%

0% Rural East Rural East Urban Urban Gisborne Gisborne NZ NZ Maori Coast Coast East Coast East Coast District District Pakeha Pakeha Maori Pakeha Maori Pakeha Maori

Not Elsewhere Included Total Dwelling Not Owned or Partly Owned by Usual Resident(s) Total Dwelling Owned or Partly Owned by Usual Resident(s)

Source: Statistics New Zealand305

Graph 32 illustrates the difference between the proportion of Māori and Pākehā in the East Coast census area who own the dwelling in which they live. The gap between Māori and Pākehā home ownership rates in the rural East Coast census area is not as large as it is in the other areas graphed. Disparities between Māori and Pākehā in the urban East Coast census area, the Gisborne district, and across

305 Ibid. 119

the country as a whole, are more pronounced. Māori have higher home ownership rates in the rural than the urban East Coast census area. Rural East Coast census area Māori also have higher rates of home ownership than for Māori in the Gisborne district. In direct contrast, however, Pākehā have lower home ownership rates in the rural East Coast census area compared to Pākehā in the urban East Coast census area, the Gisborne district, and New Zealand.

According to Charles Waldegrave, Peter King, Tangihaere Walker, and Eljon Fitzgerald, from the Research Centre for Māori Health and Development at Massey University, there is a trend of higher home ownership rates amongst rural Māori than urban Māori, which persists throughout the country.306 They note that in 1981, Māori home ownership rates were highest in Northland, Taranaki, and the East Coast regions – areas with high proportions and concentrations of Māori residents compared to other regions. However, Waldegrave et al. go on to report that a number of these homes were considered to be substandard, a finding subsequently confirmed in later research.307 Sub-standard housing in the East Cape region was also identified in a 1998 National Advisory Committee on Health and Disability report.308

Māori experiences of housing in the broad East Coast region were qualitatively assessed in a 2006 report through interviews with Māori who live in the area. The interviews offered insights into the state of Māori home ownership on the East Coast. Some of Waldegrave et al.‟s findings were summarised and reported in the following way:

From a rural housing point of view, many people were unhappy with their housing conditions because they were living in inherited whānau homes that were often old and in poor repair. Many of these people lack the resources to repair and maintain their houses, but are prepared to put up with “substandard” conditions in order to be able to live in their whānau home and their own community. Rental housing is in short supply, so

306 Charles Waldegrave, Peter King, Tangihaere Walker, and Eljon Fitzgerald, Māori Housing Experiences: Emerging Trends and Issues (Wellington: Centre for Housing Research Aotearoa New Zealand, 2006), p24 307 Ibid. 308 National Advisory Committee on Health and Disability (National Health Committee), The Social, Cultural and Economic Determinants of Health in New Zealand: Action to Improve Health (Wellington: National Advisory Committee on Health and Disability, 1998), p32. Note that the report did not disclose the actual boundaries of „East Cape‟ that they refer to, however it is likely to include a large part of the East Coast inquiry district. 120

people don‟t have the option of moving from their whānau home and renting another house in the area. At the same time, people often chose not to take advantage of HNZC (Housing New Zealand Corporation) rental homes that were available outside their area because they did not wish to disengage from their communities and networks.309

While Māori in the rural East Coast census area have higher home ownership rates than that for Gisborne district Māori, the aforementioned report gives reasons to suggest the standard of housing is, in some cases, poor.

The Ministry of Social Development confirmed the existence of substandard housing on the Coast in its 2008/09 East Coast regional plan (which covers the area from Potaka in the north to Waipukurau in the south). The Ministry announced it would be working with Housing New Zealand and other government agencies to improve the quality of housing for people living in the „smaller, isolated areas of our region‟.310 Specifically, the Ministry noted that during 2008 and 2009 it would be working to „ensure that people in Ruatoria… living in substandard housing have access to services and assistance‟.311 The Rural Housing Programme is being undertaken through a „whole of government‟ effort to reduce substandard housing in Northland, East Coast, and the eastern Bay of Plenty. Part of this programme also addresses social and economic development in these areas, because it is recognised that „substandard housing is often a sign of wider social problems‟.312 In other words, housing quality is related to other socio-demographic and socio-economic variables.

7.2 Household crowding Household crowding is defined in a Statistics New Zealand 2003 report entitled What is the Extent of Crowding in New Zealand? as when „the size of a household is larger than the capacity of the dwelling to provide adequate

309 Charles Waldegrave, Peter King, Tangihaere Walker, and Eljon Fitzgerald, p74 310 Ministry of Social Development, East Coast Regional Plan for 2008/2009 (Wellington: Ministry of Social Development, 2008), p19 311 Ibid. 312 Housing New Zealand, Housing New Zealand: Rural Housing Programme, undated (downloaded 7 August 2009) 121

accommodation‟.313 The Ministry of Social Development maintains that „[h]ousing space adequate to the needs and desires of a family is a core component of quality of life‟.314 The Ministry cites national and international research that shows a connection between household crowding and certain infectious diseases, poor educational attainment and psychological distress.315 In other words, crowding has implications for family, personal and mental health, and for educational achievement. Data on household crowding broken down by ethnicity and census area unit is not readily available through the Statistics New Zealand website. Statistics New Zealand‟s 2003 report on crowding in New Zealand households from 1986 to 2001 enables some data analysis to take place though. A limited amount of relevant raw data is available from the 2001 Census.

Graph 33: Percentage of crowded households within ethnic groups in New Zealand, 1986-2001

Pākehā Māori Pacific Asian Other Total in New Zealand Source: Statistics New Zealand316

313 Statistics New Zealand, What is the Extent of Crowding in New Zealand?: An Analysis of Crowding in New Zealand Households 1986-2001, 2003 (downloaded 17 August 2009) 314 Ministry of Social Development, The Social Report 2008 (Wellington: Ministry of Social Development, 2008), p66 315 Ibid. 316 Statistics New Zealand, What is the Extent of Crowding in New Zealand?: An Analysis of Crowding in New Zealand Households 1986-2001 122

In 2001, throughout New Zealand 5.1 per cent of households were crowded and 1.2 per cent required two or more additional bedrooms.317 Māori and Pacific peoples‟ households are most likely to be crowded, but the extent of this has declined over the period 1986 to 2001, as shown in Graph 33. Māori and Pacific peoples have experienced the greatest percentage decline in overcrowding over this period. Pākehā households have actually experienced the most crowding in numerical terms, comprising over half of all crowded households over the period discussed.318

Regional household crowding rates for 2001 are shown in Graph 34. The Gisborne district is shown to have the second highest percentage of crowded households in the country (approximately 7.5 per cent), next to the Auckland region (nearly 8 per cent). Indeed the top five regions with crowded households are those with higher Māori populations than the other regions in the graph.

Graph 34: Percentage of crowded households in each region, 2001

Source: Statistics New Zealand319

317 Ibid. 318 Ibid. 319 Ibid. 123

Using a different crowding measurement scale, in 2006 one in 10 of the total New Zealand population lived in households that required one or more additional bedrooms to accommodate household members, according to the criteria of the Canadian Crowding Index.320 The graph below again highlights the disparity between the proportion of crowded Māori and Pacific peoples‟ households, and Pākehā households. However, the overall trend from 1986 to 2006 is that the proportion of crowded households is decreasing, which is persistent across all ethnic groups except the „Other ethnicity‟ category.

Graph 35: Proportion of population living in households requiring at least one additional bedroom, by ethnic group, in New Zealand, 1986-2006

Source: Ministry of Social Development321

Statistics New Zealand‟s report What is the Extent of Crowding in New Zealand? provides maps showing the extent of crowding in New Zealand. A map of the very broad East Cape area is provided and reproduced overleaf.322 The extent of

320 Ministry of Social Development, The Social Report 2008, p66. The index criteria states there should be no more than two people per bedroom. However, parents and couples can share a bedroom, children under 5 years can „reasonably‟ share a bedroom, and children under 18 years of the same sex may share a bedroom. It also states that a child aged between 5 and 17 years should not share a bedroom with one under 5 of the opposite sex. Further, single adults aged 18 years and over, and „any unpaired children‟ need a separate bedroom. See p159. 321 Ibid, p66 322 Statistics New Zealand, What is the Extent of Crowding in New Zealand?: An Analysis of Crowding in New Zealand Households 1986-2001. Note that for the purposes of this report, Statistics New Zealand uses „East Cape‟ to cover the area including the Gisborne District, Opotiki District, Napier City, Hastings District, and Wairoa District council areas. This term is distinct from the East Cape census area unit. Crowding quintiles have been calculated as at March 2001. „The percentage range of quintiles vary according to the level of crowding at that time. For example, quintile one in 1986 ranged from 0 to 3.716 percent, whereas in 2001 quintile one ranged from 0-1.75 percent‟. 124

crowding is measured by quintiles, which measure the geographic variation of crowding at a point in time. The East Cape is described as one area with the most crowded households in New Zealand. The East Cape and Auckland areas, the report notes, have „experienced persistent and severe housing problems over the last 30 years, and have been identified, by various reports on housing, as problems areas.‟323

Map 3: Quintile crowding measures in the East Cape region, 2001

Source: Statistics New Zealand324

From the map above, areas in the northern parts of the East Coast census area (including the East Cape, Ruatoria, and Tokomaru Bay census area units), as well as Tolaga Bay further south, are identified as having the highest proportions of overcrowding (quintile 5 – seen in dark red). According to Waldegrave et al.‟s qualitative research, crowding in Māori households is generally more prevalent in rural areas (such as the East Coast) than the urban areas. In some areas, high levels of crowding are attributed to the „returning of people from the cities to

323 Ibid. 324 Ibid. 125

their area of origin‟.325 A Cabinet Policy Committee Paper used as evidence in the Waitangi Tribunal‟s Te Urewera district inquiry endorses this suggestion, where it states:

Substandard housing in Northland and East Coast/Bay of Plenty is symptomatic of wider social problems in these regions. Many of the people living in substandard housing in these areas are Maori who left urban centres to move back to their turangawaewae/ancestral land. There they encountered a shortage of both jobs and housing… Moreover, due to the overall shortage of housing to accommodate the influx of migrants from cities, many families end up living with whanau in the area, leading to overcrowding.326

One crowding measure that has been applied to the 2001 Census and sorted by territorial authority is the Equivalised Crowding Index. This index is based on the need for adults to have a separate bedroom. Individuals in a couple relationship are scored as one half, as are children aged under 10 years. An equivalised number of people per bedroom is given, and any value in excess of one shows crowding.327 The Equivalised Crowding Index scores for the Gisborne district and New Zealand, according to ethnic group, are shown below. Māori, Pacific peoples and Asian peoples have higher crowding scores than Pākehā.

Table 22: Equivalised Crowding Index scores for the Gisborne district and New Zealand, 2001 Pākehā Māori Pacific Asian Other ethnicity Gisborne district 0.58 0.78 0.88 0.68 - New Zealand 0.58 0.78 0.95 0.78 0.82 Source: Statistics New Zealand328

The Ministry of Social Development has reported that the proportion of the Gisborne district‟s total population that live in crowded housing, which is defined

325 Charles Waldegrave, Peter King, Tangihaere Walker, and Eljon Fitzgerald, p85 326 List of Attachments to Evidence of Tony Marsden, Wai 894, #M23a 327 Statistics New Zealand, Crowding/Occupancy Rate: Crowding, undated (downloaded 18 August 2009) 328 Statistics New Zealand, Crowding/Occupancy Rate: Crowding Measures by Ethnic Group, undated (downloaded 18 August 2009) 126

as a home requiring one or more additional bedrooms, has decreased over the twenty year period from 1986 to 2006. Pākehā household crowding dropped from 8.3 per cent to 6.5 per cent over this period. Māori household crowding has fallen more dramatically, from 36.9 per cent to 25.7 per cent.329 But Māori are still four times as likely as Pākehā to live in a crowded home in the Gisborne district

The most recent household composition by ethnic group data available from the Statistics New Zealand website is the 2001 Census. Data is unavailable at the census area unit level. Graph 36 shows that Pākehā, Māori, Pacific, and Asian peoples live in households with similar numbers of bedrooms across the county. There is an upward progression from Pākehā to Māori to Pacific peoples to Asian peoples though, in terms of the number of bedrooms per household. In the Gisborne district, however, the main outlier is the number of bedrooms Asian peoples have per household in the Gisborne district, which is far more than that for the other ethnic groups. Graph 37 shows the number of people per bedroom in New Zealand and in the Gisborne district. Pākehā have the fewest people per bedroom in homes in the Gisborne district and in New Zealand. The number of people per bedroom is highest amongst Māori and Pacific peoples.

Graph 36: Number of bedrooms per household in the Gisborne district and New Zealand by major ethnic groups, 2001

3.5 3.4 3.3 3.2 Gisborne 3.1 New Zealand 3 2.9 2.8 Pakeha Maori Pacific Asian

Source: Statistics New Zealand330

329 Ministry of Social Development, Regional Indicators: Gisborne District, undated (downloaded 1 July 2009) 330 Statistics New Zealand, Crowding/Occupancy Rate: Crowding Measures by Ethnic Group 127

Graph 37: Number of people per bedroom in the Gisborne district and New Zealand by major ethnic groups, 2001

1.4 1.2 1 0.8 Gisborne 0.6 New Zealand 0.4 0.2 0 Pakeha Maori Pacific Asian

Source: Statistics New Zealand331

7.3 Access to telecommunications The Ministry of Social Development identifies access to a telephone and the internet as a measure of „social connectedness‟.332 Social connectedness, according to the Ministry, concerns the relationships people have with others and it is „integral to wellbeing‟.333 Telephone access enables the maintenance of social contact with friends and family, and is a line of communication for emergencies, while the internet is a means of accessing a wide range of information, which can have social, cultural, educational and economic benefits.334 Data from the 2001 and 2006 Censuses, and from the Ministry of Social Development‟s Social Report 2008, are used to create a profile of East Coast census area Māori access to telecommunications. The Statistics New Zealand website does not have these variables broken down by ethnicity for the 2006 Census, but does for the 2001 Census. Therefore both data sets are used to provide an up to date (in terms of the 2006 data) and relevant (in terms of the 2001 data) profile.

The Ministry of Social Development notes that according to the 2006 Census, 98 per cent of people in New Zealand live in households with telephone access (an

331 Ibid. 332 Ministry of Social Development, The Social Report 2008, p110 333 Ibid. 334 Ibid. 128

increase from 96 per cent in 2001).335 The Ministry also reported that 66 per cent of people live in households with access to the internet (an increase from 43 per cent in 2001).336 Māori and Pacific peoples were found to have to lowest levels of household access to telephones and the internet across the country. However, between 2001 and 2006, Māori experienced increases in access to telecommunications. Māori household access to a telephone increased from 88 to 94 per cent, and access to the internet increased from 25 to 47 per cent.337

Households in the Gisborne district are less likely than the New Zealand average to have access to a telephone, and to the internet. Less than half (49.3 per cent) of the Gisborne district have access to the internet (according to the 2006 Census), compared to roughly two thirds (66 per cent) of the national population.338 Within the Gisborne district, lower proportions of Māori have access to a telephone than their Pākehā neighbours (90.6 per cent compared to 97.5 per cent). There is also disparity between Māori and Pākehā in the Gisborne district in terms of access to the internet (37.9 per cent of Māori, compared to 62.0 per cent of Pākehā), as shown in Table 23.

Table 23: Percentage of New Zealand population with telephone and internet access in the home, 2001 and 2006 Telephone access Internet access 2001 2006 2001 2006 Gisborne district Māori 81.4 90.6 17.6 37.9 Gisborne district Pākehā 94.9 97.5 35.3 62.0 Gisborne district total 87.1 91.6 27.5 49.3 New Zealand Māori 88.3 94.4 25.3 46.7 New Zealand Pākehā 98.1 98.9 45.5 70.4 New Zealand total 96.3 98.1 42.9 66.4 Source: Ministry of Social Development339

335 Ibid, p113 336 Ibid. 337 Ibid. 338 Ibid. 339 Ibid. Ministry of Social Development, Regional Indicators: Gisborne District 129

Statistics New Zealand provides census area unit level data for all ethnicities on access to telecommunications in 2006, and this data is presented in Table 24. In the rural East Coast census area units with the highest proportions of Māori residents (East Cape, Ruatoria, Tokomaru Bay, and Tolaga Bay), households had low access to all three types of communications considered here (access to a cellphone, telephone, and the internet), in comparison to both the Gisborne district and New Zealand. Less than 33 per cent of households in these areas had access to the internet, below half that of the national average. Less than 79 per cent of households in these areas had access to a telephone. One issue raised in the Tokomaru Bay Township Development Plan (2007) was that there is a lack of phone booths in the community.340 Some local residents cannot afford landlines and have mobile phones instead, which some submitters to the Township Development Plan argued „can be worse‟.341 A further issue was that it is a toll call to phone the district hospital in the Gisborne township.342

Similarly, in the urban East Coast census area units, the areas that have a high Māori population correspond with a lower likelihood that households have access to these telecommunications. In the three urban census area units which comprise of nearly 64 per cent Māori residents, between 67.7 and 78.6 per cent of households have access to a telephone. In comparison, the Gisborne district average is 86.2 per cent, and for New Zealand it is 91.6 per cent. Between 31.4 and 37.0 per cent of households in these census area units had access to the internet, compared to 46.6 per cent of Gisborne district households, and 60.5 per cent of New Zealand households. The data shows that there is probably a relationship between Māori households and lower than average access to telecommunications.

In 1971, professor of history W.H. Oliver and Jane M. Thomson described the „relative primitiveness of communications‟ in the East Coast region.343 In more contemporary times, this appraisal is no longer relevant. However, East Coast census area households are still less likely than other areas (in the Gisborne

340 Gisborne District Council, Tokomaru Bay Township Development Plan, 2007 (downloaded 7 August 2009) 341 Ibid. 342 Ibid. 343 W. H. Oliver and Jane M. Thomson, Challenge and Response: A Study of the Development of the Gisborne East Coast Region (Gisborne: The Gisborne Herald, 1971), p4 130

district, and throughout the country) to have access to some vital telecommunication services.

Table 24: Household access to telecommunication systems in the East Coast, the Gisborne district, and New Zealand, 2006 % % % % Māori Access to Access to Access to cellphone telephone internet East Cape 87.9 47.3 75.8 31.4 Ruatoria 94.8 58.8 69.1 27.9 Tokomaru Bay 78.6 58.0 70.0 32.0 Tolaga Bay 78.4 56.2 78.7 32.6 Tarndale-Rakauroa 41.3 45.4 90.8 48.9 Wharekaka 33.3 60.5 92.4 58.1 Kaiti North 28.1 72.2 96.6 59.8 Kaiti South 64.1 65.8 76.4 37.0 Outer Kaiti 79.9 65.9 67.7 31.4 Tamarau 75.6 69.5 78.6 33.6 Wainui 18.4 81.6 93.0 70.8 Gisborne district 47.3 64.6 86.2 46.6 New Zealand 14.6 74.2 91.6 60.5 Source: Statistics New Zealand344

According to a 2004 Statistics New Zealand report, The Digital Divide, total household income has the largest effect on whether a household has internet access, and the highest qualification of the occupants has the second largest

344 Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About East Cape: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Ruatoria: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Tokomaru Bay: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Tolaga Bay: 2006 Census, undated, (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Tarndale-Rakauroa: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Wharekaka: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Kaiti North: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Kaiti South: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Outer Kaiti: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Tamarau: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Wainui: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Gisborne District: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About New Zealand: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 21 April 2009) 131

effect.345 Along with the West Coast, the Gisborne district was found to have the lowest levels of internet connections in 2001, at 25 per cent. Urban households are more likely to have internet access compared to rural households, with one key reason being that rural dwellers are confronted with slow, unstable internet connections and limited access.346

The percentages of East Coast census area Māori households with access to a telephone, fax machine, and the internet, according to the 2001 Census, are outlined in Table 25. While some of the figures may appear quite low, it must be kept in mind that this data is now (in 2009) eight years out of date. The data is nevertheless displayed to show the disproportionately low rates of access to a telephone and the internet in the East Coast census area in relation to the rest of the country. Disparities are particularly evident in East Cape, Ruatoria, Tokomaru Bay, and Tolaga Bay. Access to a fax machine is a less relevant measurement of access to telecommunications in 2009, as email and the internet have partly overtaken its role.

345 Statistics New Zealand, The Digital Divide: Examining the Main Characteristics that Influence Household Internet Connection in New Zealand, 2004 (downloaded 14 August 2009) 346 Ibid. 132

Table 25: Māori household access to telecommunication systems in the East Coast, the Gisborne district, and New Zealand, 2001 Access to Access to fax Access to No access to Total Māori telephone machine internet telecomm. specifying systems one or more access to telecomm. systems (inc. no access) Number (%) Number (%) Number (%) Number (%) Number East Cape 1563 (80.8) 336 (17.4) 285 (14.7) 3609 (19.1) 1935 Ruatoria 507 (76.8) 81 (12.3) 90 (13.6) 153 (23.2) 660 Tokomaru Bay 240 (79.2) 51 (16.8) 48 (15.8) 63 (20.8) 303 Tolaga Bay 408 (70.8) 75 (13.0) 84 (14.6) 162 (28.1) 576 Tarndale-Rakauroa 504 (89.4) 129 (22.9) 75 (13.3) 60 (10.6) 564 Wharekaka 546 (91.9) 150 (25.3) 159 (26.8) 45 (7.6) 594 Kaiti North 354 (91.5) 60 (15.5) 138 (35.7) 30 (7.8) 387 Kaiti South 1170 (83.0) 99 (7.0) 252 (17.9) 237 (16.8) 1410 Outer Kaiti 1167 (77.3) 78 (5.2) 153 (10.1) 342 (22.7) 1509 Tamarau 1380 (88.8) 141 (9.1) 225 (14.5) 174 (11.2) 1554 Wainui 168 (98.2) 39 (22.8) 87 (50.9) 0 (0.0) 171 Gisborne District 14,415 (84.3) 2172 (12.7) 3114 (18.2) 2658 (15.5) 17094 New Zealand 415,896 (88.3) 74,778 (15.9) 119,139 (25.3) 54,393 (11.6) 470,826 Source: Statistics New Zealand347

7.4 Motor vehicle access Household access to a motor vehicle is an additional measure of well-being. Murton argues that motor vehicle access is particularly important when people live some distance from core services, and when public transport is poorly developed.348 The rural East Coast census area encompasses both of these characteristics. Statistics New Zealand does not readily provide up to date information on household access to a motor vehicle on their website. Data from the 2001 Census is available though to offer an indication of total (Māori and non-Māori) households‟ access to a motor vehicle in the East Coast census area. In the Gisborne district at the 2001 Census, 86.7 per cent of households had

347 Statistics New Zealand, Household Access to Telecommunication Systems (Total Responses) and Sex, for Māori Ethnic Group Usual Residents in Households in Private Occupied Dwellings, 2001, undated (downloaded 11 August 2009) 348 Brian Murton, „The Crown and the Peoples of Te Urewera: The Economic and Social Experience of Te Urewera Maori, 1860-2000‟, report commissioned by the Waitangi Tribunal, 2004, Wai 894 #H12, p31 133

access to a motor vehicle, compared to 89.9 per cent for the whole of New Zealand.349

In the rural East Coast census area, the census area units with the largest proportions of Māori residents had lower levels of access to a motor vehicle than that for the Gisborne district. Some 86.1 per cent of households had access to a motor vehicle in East Cape,350 (however, in the East Cape community of Te Araroa, is has been reported that 78.9 per cent of residents have access to a motor vehicle).351 Heading south, 77.2 per cent of households had access to a motor vehicle in Ruatoria,352 84.3 per cent in Tokomaru Bay,353 and 79.8 per cent in Tolaga Bay.354 For the remaining two rural census area units that spread into the Gisborne inquiry district, 93.8 per cent of households had access to a motor vehicle in Tarndale-Rakauroa,355 as did 95.7 per cent in Wharekaka.356

For urban East Coast census area households, the proportion with access to a motor vehicle was highest in Kaiti North (91.3 per cent),357 and Wainui (97.7 per cent).358 These are areas with high proportions of Pākehā residents. The remaining urban census area units with high proportions of Māori residents were less likely to have access to a motor vehicle – 77.5 per cent of households in Kaiti South,359 76.2 per cent in Outer Kaiti,360 and 82.9 per cent in Tamarau.361

349 Statistics New Zealand, Gisborne District Community Profile, 2003 (downloaded 20 July 2009) 350 Statistics New Zealand, East Cape Community Profile: 2001 Census, 2003 (downloaded 8 July 2009) 351 Gisborne District Council, Te Araroa Township Development Plan, 2007 (downloaded 7 August 2009) 352 Statistics New Zealand, Ruatoria Community Profile: 2001 Census, 2003 (downloaded 8 July 2009) 353 Statistics New Zealand, Tokomaru Bay Community Profile: 2001 Census, 2003 (8 July 2009) 354 Statistics New Zealand, Tolaga Bay Community Profile: 2001 Census, 2003 (downloaded 8 July 2009) 355 Statistics New Zealand, Tarndale-Rakauroa Community Profile: 2001 Census, 2003 (downloaded 8 July 2009) 356 Statistics New Zealand, Wharekaka Community Profile: 2001 Census, 2003 (downloaded 8 July 2009) 357 Statistics New Zealand, Kaiti North Community Profile: 2001 Census, 2003 (downloaded 8 July 2009) 358 Statistics New Zealand, Wainui Community Profile: 2001 Census, 2003 (downloaded 8 July 2009) 359 Statistics New Zealand, Kaiti South Community Profile: 2001 Census, 2003 (downloaded 8 July 2009) 360 Statistics New Zealand, Outer Kaiti Community Profile: 2001 Census, 2003 (downloaded 8 July 2009) 361 Statistics New Zealand, Tamarau Community Profile: 2001 Census, 2003 (downloaded 8 July 2009) 134

7.5 Summary In 2006, people who identified with the „Other ethnicity‟ category were most likely to own or partly own the dwelling in which they live. A large proportion of those listed in this category gave „New Zealander‟ responses in the census, and had previously recorded their ethnicity as NZ European or Pākehā. The second ethnic group most likely to own their own home were Pākehā. In 2001, the Gisborne district had the second lowest home ownership rate in the country, at 58.2 per cent. By 2006 this had dropped further to 57.5 per cent. There is disparity between Māori and Pākehā home ownership rates in this district, where 68.6 per cent of Pākehā and 45.7 of Māori own the dwelling in which they live.

Māori and Pākehā in the rural East Coast census area have similar home ownership rates, particularly in the northern census area units. In fact in the rural East Coast census area, higher proportions of Māori own their own home than Māori from across the Gisborne district. There is disparity in home ownership rates between Māori and Pākehā, however, in census area units closest to the Gisborne township. Secondary literature has shown that, overall, Māori do tend to have higher home ownership rates in rural areas compared to Māori in urban centres.

While home ownership for Māori in the rural East Coast census area is above the Gisborne district average for Māori, literature suggests the quality of some of these homes are substandard. One reason for this state of the housing is that Māori want to live in whānau homes but do not have the resources to maintain them. The Government has identified the broad East Coast region as an area that needs assistance addressing sub-standard housing.

Household crowding can be measured in a number of ways. In all the indexes employed in this chapter, Māori households are identified as more likely to be crowded than Pākehā households; however, the proportion of Māori households that are crowded is declining. The Gisborne district had the second highest proportion of crowded households in New Zealand, next to Auckland. While East Coast census area data on crowding is unavailable, some qualitative reports suggest crowding is particularly prevalent in the East Coast region. One reason offered for overcrowding amongst Māori in the rural East Coast region is that Māori are moving back from urban centres to their ancestral lands, where there is a shortage of both jobs and housing.

135

Household access to a telephone and the internet are important measures of social connectedness. In 2006, Māori households were less likely than Pākehā households to have access to these telecommunications. Households in the Gisborne district were less likely than the total New Zealand population to have access to a telephone and the internet. Only 37.9 per cent of Māori in the Gisborne district had access to the internet, compared with 62 per cent of Pākehā. In East Coast census area units with high proportions of Māori residents, household access to a telephone and the internet was significantly lower (in some cases up to 30 percentage points lower) than that for the Gisborne district and for New Zealand. Internet access is particularly important in the rural East Coast census area due to its geographic distance from urban centres, as is access to a motor vehicle. According to 2001 Census data, East Coast census area units where over 64 per cent of the resident populations are Māori were less likely to have access to a motor vehicle than census area units with a majority of Pākehā residents.

136

8 CONCLUSION The purpose of this report is to profile the contemporary socio-demographic status of the Māori population in the East Coast census area. Particular emphasis has been given to comparisons with Pākehā in the East Coast census area, and with Māori and Pākehā in the Gisborne district. Comparisons were also made with the national population and the national Māori population. The key variables employed in this report were population, education, employment, income, and housing. New Zealand Deprivation Index scores and maps were also used. A selection of socio-demographic variables for the rural and urban East Coast census area units, for the Gisborne district, and for New Zealand is presented in the table below. In areas with higher populations of Māori, there are large proportions of residents aged under 15, and without educational qualifications. Unemployment rates are high in these areas, and the median personal incomes are low. Household ownership rates and access to a telephone are also lower.

Table 26: Summary of selected socio-demographic variables for the East Coast, the Gisborne district, and New Zealand, 2006

Population % % % % Median % % count Māori Aged No Un- Personal Household Access to under 15 Qual. employed Income ownership telephone East Cape 2706 87.9 28.9 46.5 12.2 $14,100 43.7 75.8 Ruatoria 756 94.8 32.5 42.6 18.4 $14,800 43.1 69.1 Tokomaru Bay 447 78.6 28.2 40.5 12.1 $15,500 46.9 70.0 Tolaga Bay 831 78.4 28.9 42.5 10.7 $15,100 44.7 78.7 Tarndale-Rakauroa 1650 41.3 28.5 35.4 5.5 $22, 600 41.0 90.8 Wharekaka 1914 33.3 24.9 25.2 3.1 $24,800 50.0 92.4 Kaiti North 2046 28.1 21.7 23.0 4.0 $24,600 64.9 96.6 Kaiti South 2838 64.1 30.0 40.9 11.7 $18,300 42.4 76.4 Outer Kaiti 2607 79.9 34.7 45.5 14.7 $16,300 39.6 67.7 Tamarau 2301 75.6 31.7 42.5 11.4 $18,900 46.3 78.6 Wainui 1515 18.4 21.8 11.4 3.3 $31,800 55.2 93.0 Gisborne district 44,463 47.3 26.2 33.8 7.2 $20,600 52.4 86.2 New Zealand 4,027,947 14.6 21.5 25.0 5.1 $24,400 54.5 91.6 Total Māori (NZ) 565,326 100 35.4 39.9 11.0 $20,900 N/A N/A Source: Statistics New Zealand362

362 Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Māori: 2006 Census, 2007 (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About East Cape: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); 137

According to the 2006, approximately 15 per cent of the New Zealand population self-identify as Māori. In comparison, 47.3 per cent of the Gisborne district population – which includes the East Coast census area – is Māori. In the East Coast census area, particularly in the rural area, a higher proportion of the population is Māori. In the East Cape, Ruatoria, Tokomaru Bay, and Tolaga Bay census area units, the Māori population ranges between 78 and nearly 95 per cent. Some parts of the urban East Coast census area reach close to 80 per cent. Other census area units, particularly those that straddle the East Coast inquiry and Gisborne inquiry districts, and the relevant beachfront census area units in the Gisborne district, had lower proportions of Māori residents. Overall though, the East Coast census area is characterised by communities with large Māori populations. Further, most East Coast census area Māori, particularly those in the rural area, affiliate with one or more East Coast iwi. The New Zealand Māori population is known for its youthful age structure. This trend is mirrored in the urban East Coast census area, but rural East Coast census area Māori have a higher proportion of residents aged over 65 years than that for the national Māori population. The overall population has been in decline since 1991. According to the 2006 New Zealand Deprivation Index, the East Coast census area is one of the most socio-economically deprived in the country.

Participation in early childhood education is lower amongst rural East Coast census area Māori under 5 year olds (80 per cent) than urban East Coast Māori (94 per cent). In the Gisborne district, 90 per cent of Māori Year 1 children had attended early childhood education in 2008. There are more residents in the East Coast census area without formal qualifications than with formal qualifications. For the total New Zealand population, the number of people with qualifications exceeds the number without. Across the East Coast census area, Pākehā educational achievement levels surpass that of Māori. The gap between Māori and Pākehā attainment rates is narrower in the rural than the urban East Coast census area. Encouragingly, high levels of Māori in the East Coast census area speak te reo Māori compared to the national average. In 2001, around half of the

Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Ruatoria: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Tokomaru Bay: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Tolaga Bay: 2006 Census, undated, (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Tarndale-Rakauroa: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Wharekaka: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Kaiti North: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Kaiti South: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Outer Kaiti: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Tamarau: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Wainui: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About Gisborne District: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 14 August 2009); Statistics New Zealand, QuickStats About New Zealand: 2006 Census, undated (downloaded 21 April 2009) 138

East Cape, Ruatoria, Tokomaru Bay, and Tolaga Bay Māori populations could speak te reo, and the proportions of Māori who were te reo speakers in the remaining census area units were higher than that for the national Māori population (which is 25.2 per cent). Nearly all of the early childhood education institutions in the rural East Coast census area are kōhanga reo (Māori immersion pre-schools).

In some parts of the East Coast census area Māori unemployment is nearly 18 per cent. In 2006, the New Zealand unemployment rate was 5 per cent, and the national Māori unemployment rate was 11 per cent. A relationship thus emerges between low educational attainment and high unemployment on the Coast. Some local writers have stressed how badly Māori in the East Coast region were hit by the 1980s economic reforms, and how it has led to social welfare dependency. The Gisborne and East Coast districts appear to be disproportionately affected by the 2008-09 recession as well, when compared to other regions in the country. Māori in the East Coast census area, in 2001, were most likely to be employed in the agriculture, forestry and fishing industry. This was also the main occupational category for rural East Coast census area Māori in 2006, while the main occupation for urban East Coast census area Māori was service and sales workers.

The Gisborne district had the second lowest median annual personal income in New Zealand in 2006, at $20,600. For Māori in the district annual incomes were lower still, at $17,500. East Coast census area incomes were even lower. Median incomes in East Cape, Ruatoria, Tokomaru Bay, and Tolaga Bay were between 58 and 65 per cent of the national average median income (a difference of roughly $10,000). Household income of Māori and Pākehā in the total East Coast census area, in 2001, were roughly similar at most income groupings up to the $30,000 point. But far higher proportions of Pākehā had household incomes over $40,000 than did Māori in the East Coast census area. Within this area, approximately 37 per cent of Pākehā households earned over $40,000 annually compared with less 25 per cent of Māori households. In 2006, for a disproportionately high number of East Coast census area Māori, their source of personal income was government benefits.

Māori in the rural East Coast census area had higher rates of home ownership than Māori in the Gisborne district, at just over 45 per cent. This is low compared to other parts of New Zealand though, as the Gisborne district has the lowest home ownership rates in the country. Further, secondary material suggests that 139

some housing in the broader East Coast region is substandard. Household crowding is also suggested to disproportionately affect Māori, and particularly affect the East Coast region. Access to telecommunications and a motor vehicle are particularly important for rural East Coast census area Māori, for reasons of social connectedness and for emergency response. In the East Cape, Ruatoria, Tokomaru Bay, and Tolaga Bay, access to a telephone ranged between 69 and 80 per cent, while for New Zealand 91.6 per cent of households had a telephone. Only around half the proportion of households in the above four census area units have access to the internet (roughly 30 per cent), compared with the proportion of households nationally (60.5 per cent).

The Gisborne district generally rates badly in most socio-economic indices compared to other districts and regions in the country. East Coast census area Māori, however, face even greater struggles. The socio-demographic statuses of urban and rural East Coast census area Māori are similar in a number of ways. But rural East Coast census area Māori, in particular, have fewer educational qualifications, higher unemployment rates, and lower incomes. Rural Māori have slighter higher rates of home ownership than their urban counterparts, but the quality of this housing is of concern.

In their 2000 report, Progress Towards Closing Social and Economic Gaps Between Māori and Non-Māori, Te Puni Kōkiri noted that disparities for Māori begin at infancy. From there, Māori are less likely than non-Māori to participate in early childhood education, leave school with lower levels of educational qualifications, are more likely to be unemployed and have lower incomes, in turn impacting on adequate housing and health. Te Puni Kōkiri argues that „[a]lthough the causal links are complex, there is little doubt that all these factors have contributed to the much higher offending and victimisation rates within the Māori community‟.363 These well-being variables are thus inter-related. The purpose of this research paper was not to identify causal factors leading to the current socio- demographic status of East Coast census area Māori. Nevertheless, the disproportionate disparity facing this group, in comparison to the Pākehā population in the East Coast census area, and both Māori and non-Māori populations in the Gisborne district and nationally, is striking. In sum, Māori in

363 Te Puni Kōkiri, Progress Towards Closing Social and Economic Gaps Between Māori and Non-Māori: A Report to the Minister of Māori Affairs (Wellington: Te Puni Kōkiri, 2000), p7 140

the East Coast census area are disadvantaged according to core social well-being indicators.

141

APPENDIX ONE: ADDITIONAL TABLES, GRAPHS, AND MAPS Additional tables, graphs, and maps supporting the data and analysis presented in the main body of the report are included below.

Table 27: Population number and percentage by ethnicity for the Gisborne district and New Zealand, 1991-2006 Pākehā Māori Pacific Peoples Asian Middle Other Total Eastern/ Ethnicity people Latin stated American/ African Gisborne 1991 27,600 63% 17,820 41% 504 1% 432 1% 45 0% 0 0% 43,677 District 1996 28,734 67% 19,389 45% 990 2% 561 1% 69 0% 3 0% 43,191 2001 26,466 63% 19,365 46% 1137 3% 621 1% 69 0% 3 0% 41,922 2006 22,659 54% 19,761 47% 1302 3% 729 2% 87 0% 3864 9% 41,766 New Zealand 1991 2,783,028 83% 434,847 13% 167,070 5% 99,756 3% 6330 0% 267 0% 3,345,744 1996 2,879,085 83% 523,374 15% 202,233 6% 173,502 5% 15,288 0% 516 0% 3,466,518 2001 2,871,432 80% 526,281 15% 231,798 6% 238,179 7% 24,084 1% 804 0% 3,586,641 2006 2,609,589 68% 565,329 15% 265,974 7% 354,549 9% 34,746 1% 430,881 11% 3,860,163 Source: Statistics New Zealand364

364 Statistics New Zealand, Ethnic Group (Grouped Total Responses) and Māori Descent by Sex, for the Census Usually Resident Population Count, 1991, 1996, 2001 and 2006, undated (downloaded 17 August 2009) 142

Graph 38: Pākehā and Māori population percentages for all census area units within the Gisborne district, 2006

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Wainui Ruatoria Tamarau Tiniroto Patutahi East Cape MakarakaRiverdale Manutuke TolagaWharekaka Bay Kaiti NorthKaiti SouthOuter Kaiti Matokitoki Te HaparaMangapapa Te Karaka Whataupoko Tokomaru Bay Gisborne District GisborneGisborne Central Airport Tarndale-Rakauroa

Pakeha Maori

Source: Statistics New Zealand365

365 Ibid. 143

Table 28: Māori population age structure – number and percentages, in the rural East Coast, 1991, 1996, 2001 and 2006 1991 0-14 Years 15-24 Years 25-44 Years 45-64 Years 65-74 Years 75+ Years Total East Cape 807 33% 414 17% 708 29% 396 16% 102 4% 45 2% 2472 Ruatoria 261 34% 165 22% 195 25% 96 13% 33 4% 15 2% 765 Tokomaru Bay 135 33% 60 15% 123 30% 69 17% 9 2% 12 3% 408 Tolaga Bay 180 33% 96 17% 165 30% 75 14% 21 4% 15 3% 552 Tarndale-Rakauroa 273 38% 138 19% 192 27% 102 14% 15 2% 3 0% 723 Wharekaka 198 35% 87 15% 171 30% 87 15% 18 3% 9 2% 570 Total 1854 34% 960 17% 1554 28% 825 15% 198 4% 99 2% 5490 1996 0-14 Years 15-24 Years 25-44 Years 45-64 Years 65-74 Years 75+ Years Total East Cape 861 34% 336 13% 753 30% 432 17% 102 4% 60 2% 2544 Ruatoria 297 39% 87 11% 219 28% 111 14% 36 5% 21 3% 771 Tokomaru Bay 126 32% 57 14% 99 25% 84 21% 21 5% 9 2% 396 Tolaga Bay 201 34% 108 18% 144 24% 87 15% 39 7% 12 2% 591 Tarndale-Rakauroa 291 39% 93 13% 207 28% 123 17% 21 3% 3 0% 738 Wharekaka 228 38% 90 15% 174 29% 81 13% 24 4% 6 1% 603 Total 2004 36% 771 14% 1596 28% 918 16% 243 4% 111 2% 5643 2001 0-14 Years 15-24 Years 25-44 Years 45-64 Years 65-74 Years 75+ Years Total East Cape 741 34% 219 10% 612 28% 453 21% 126 6% 51 2% 2202 Ruatoria 279 38% 84 11% 198 27% 120 16% 36 5% 18 2% 735 Tokomaru Bay 105 29% 27 8% 102 28% 96 27% 24 7% 6 2% 360 Tolaga Bay 222 34% 96 15% 162 25% 123 19% 39 6% 15 2% 657 Tarndale-Rakauroa 249 39% 84 13% 171 27% 114 18% 21 3% 6 1% 645 Wharekaka 237 35% 105 16% 183 27% 108 16% 24 4% 12 2% 669 Total 1833 35% 615 12% 1428 27% 1014 19% 270 5% 108 2% 5268 2006 0-14 Years 15-24 Years 25-44 Years 45-64 Years 65-74 Years 75+ Years Total East Cape 651 31% 234 11% 543 26% 465 22% 135 6% 72 3% 2100 Ruatoria 222 34% 96 15% 165 25% 129 20% 21 3% 15 2% 648 Tokomaru Bay 90 29% 36 12% 72 24% 69 23% 24 8% 15 5% 306 Tolaga Bay 186 31% 87 15% 135 23% 144 24% 27 5% 18 3% 597 Tarndale-Rakauroa 228 36% 93 15% 159 25% 123 19% 30 5% 6 1% 639 Wharekaka 204 34% 69 12% 165 28% 129 22% 18 3% 15 3% 600 Total 1581 32% 615 13% 1239 25% 1059 22% 255 5% 141 3% 4890 Source: Statistics New Zealand366

366 Statistics New Zealand, Ethnic Group (Grouped Total Responses) by Age Group, for the Census Usually Resident Population Count, 1991, 1996, 2001 and 2006, undated (downloaded 17 August 2009) 144

Table 29: Māori population age structure – number and percentages, in the urban East Coast, 1991, 1996, 2001 and 2006

1991 0-14 Years 15-24 Years 25-44 Years 45-64 Years 65-74 Years 75+ Years Total Kaiti North 72 28% 45 18% 78 31% 42 16% 12 5% 6 2% 255 Kaiti South 657 38% 327 19% 456 26% 231 13% 36 2% 18 1% 1725 Outer Kaiti 696 38% 405 22% 450 25% 219 12% 36 2% 12 1% 1818 Tamarau 534 37% 297 21% 396 28% 177 12% 24 2% 12 1% 1440 Wainui 30 26% 15 13% 45 39% 18 16% 6 5% 0 0% 114 Total 1989 37% 1089 20% 1425 27% 687 13% 114 2% 48 1% 5352 1996 0-14 Years 15-24 Years 25-44 Years 45-64 Years 65-74 Years 75+ Years Total Kaiti North 153 36% 75 18% 117 28% 54 13% 18 4% 6 1% 423 Kaiti South 639 39% 285 17% 468 28% 177 11% 48 3% 27 2% 1644 Outer Kaiti 723 40% 339 19% 456 25% 246 14% 36 2% 15 1% 1815 Tamarau 543 36% 297 19% 420 28% 207 14% 45 3% 12 1% 1524 Wainui 75 33% 42 19% 75 33% 21 9% 6 3% 6 3% 225 Total 2133 38% 1038 18% 1536 27% 705 13% 153 3% 66 1% 5631 2001 0-14 Years 15-24 Years 25-44 Years 45-64 Years 65-74 Years 75+ Years Total Kaiti North 156 36% 75 17% 117 27% 69 16% 9 2% 12 3% 438 Kaiti South 585 37% 291 18% 432 27% 219 14% 57 4% 18 1% 1602 Outer Kaiti 681 39% 291 17% 468 27% 234 13% 48 3% 15 1% 1737 Tamarau 648 38% 306 18% 429 25% 231 14% 60 4% 24 1% 1698 Wainui 63 34% 24 13% 51 28% 36 20% 3 2% 6 3% 183 Total 2133 38% 987 17% 1497 26% 789 14% 177 3% 75 1% 5658 2006 0-14 Years 15-24 Years 25-44 Years 45-64 Years 65-74 Years 75+ Years Total Kaiti North 186 34% 96 17% 135 25% 105 19% 18 3% 9 2% 549 Kaiti South 615 36% 297 18% 432 26% 264 16% 63 4% 15 1% 1686 Outer Kaiti 747 39% 351 18% 477 25% 276 14% 60 3% 18 1% 1929 Tamarau 573 35% 291 18% 420 26% 261 16% 57 4% 21 1% 1623 Wainui 90 33% 42 15% 78 28% 54 20% 6 2% 6 2% 276 Total 2211 36% 1077 18% 1542 25% 960 16% 204 3% 69 1% 6063 Source: Statistics New Zealand367

367 Ibid. 145

Table 30: Number of Pākehā and Māori children aged 0-4 years in the East Coast, and the Gisborne District, 2006 2001 2006 Pākehā Māori Total Pākehā Māori Total 0-4 0-4 0-4 0-4 0-4 0-4 Years Years Years Years Years Years East Cape 84 246 294 48 201 246 Ruatoria 9 84 93 9 51 60 Tokomaru Bay 15 36 42 9 24 36 Tolaga Bay 18 63 78 15 57 72 Tarndale-Rakauroa 108 72 165 84 57 141 Wharekaka 99 78 153 93 66 156 Rural East Coast 333 579 825 258 456 711 Kaiti North 108 57 147 78 51 126 Kaiti South 81 195 261 75 195 276 Outer Kaiti 87 219 279 69 249 300 Tamarau 84 228 267 66 174 234 Wainui 75 12 87 90 27 108 Urban East Coast 435 711 1041 378 696 1044 Gisborne District 2004 2298 3849 1647 2163 3651 Source: Statistics New Zealand368

368 Ibid. 146

Table 31: Highest qualification for Pākehā and Māori in the East Coast, 2006 No Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Over- Level 1, Level 4 Lev. Lev. Bach. Post Mast PhD. Not Total Qual Cert. Cert. or 4 seas 2 or 3 Cert. 5 6 Deg. & Grad Deg Deg. Else from From Cert. Sec. Cert. Post- Dip. Dip. Lev. 7 & where School School from School Post- School Qual. Hon Inc. School Qual. School Deg. PĀKEHĀ East Cape 150 51 30 15 12 21 33 12 21 15 0 3 0 33 396 Ruatoria 30 9 6 6 0 3 6 3 6 3 0 0 0 9 81 Tokomaru Bay 27 12 6 6 0 0 9 0 9 3 3 0 0 9 84 Tolaga Bay 54 30 12 6 6 3 12 3 12 6 3 0 0 15 162 Tarndale-Rakauroa 186 108 93 30 12 36 42 27 30 51 9 3 0 39 666 Wharekaka 195 144 99 30 24 36 108 39 63 72 18 15 0 51 894 Kaiti North 219 141 99 51 51 36 117 48 78 117 18 12 6 66 1059 Kaiti South 216 108 69 30 15 51 81 24 42 36 9 3 3 75 762 Outer Kaiti 171 75 42 12 6 30 48 9 21 24 3 0 0 39 480 Tamarau 183 81 42 24 6 36 57 12 27 18 0 3 0 42 531 Wainui 81 105 105 36 30 33 105 39 84 189 33 18 3 18 879 Gisborne District 4623 2595 1680 672 477 792 1959 621 999 1290 243 141 36 1149 17,277 MĀORI East Cape 579 207 114 30 6 72 81 36 45 45 6 3 3 219 1446 Ruatoria 165 66 42 24 3 18 21 12 18 15 3 0 0 51 438 Tokomaru Bay 81 30 12 6 0 6 27 9 12 6 0 3 0 21 213 Tolaga Bay 156 63 21 21 0 18 27 9 12 12 3 3 0 57 402 Tarndale-Rakauroa 183 57 39 9 0 18 15 6 12 15 0 0 0 57 411 Wharekaka 129 63 33 12 3 18 30 9 18 21 3 3 0 54 396 Kaiti North 102 51 30 18 3 15 42 18 18 27 3 0 0 27 354 Kaiti South 438 153 66 39 3 63 75 27 33 30 6 3 0 141 1077 Outer Kaiti 477 165 90 27 3 87 69 15 27 33 3 0 0 177 1173 Tamarau 423 165 66 36 3 72 75 21 36 24 6 3 0 132 1062 Wainui 33 33 21 9 0 6 24 6 6 21 3 3 0 12 177 Gisborne District 4920 1899 1026 444 39 717 978 318 426 501 81 39 6 1566 12,960 Source: Statistics New Zealand369

369 Statistics New Zealand, Ethnic Group (Grouped Total Responses) and Highest Qualifications by Sex, for the Census Usually Resident Population Count Aged 15 Years and Over, 2006, undated (downloaded 17 August 2009) 147

Table 32: Percentage of Pākehā and Māori employed full- and part-time in the East Coast, 2006 Employed full-time Employed part-time Pākehā Māori Pākehā Māori East Cape 74% 70% 26% 30% Ruatoria 73% 74% 27% 26% Tokomaru Bay 71% 69% 29% 31% Tolaga Bay 69% 73% 31% 27% Tarndale-Rakauroa 78% 71% 22% 29% Wharekaka 76% 76% 24% 24% Rural East Coast 76% 72% 24% 28% Kaiti North 73% 78% 27% 22% Kaiti South 72% 77% 28% 23% Outer Kaiti 71% 78% 29% 22% Tamarau 76% 80% 24% 20% Wainui 77% 78% 23% 22% Urban East Coast 74% 78% 26% 22% Gisborne District 75% 76% 25% 24% New Zealand 76% 78% 24% 22% Source: Statistics New Zealand370

Table 33: Number of Pākehā and Māori employed full- and part-time in the East Coast, 2006 Employed full-time Employed part-time Total employed Pākehā Māori Pākehā Māori Pākehā Māori East Cape 156 486 54 213 210 699 Ruatoria 24 144 9 51 36 195 Tokomaru Bay 30 81 12 36 45 114 Tolaga Bay 66 153 30 57 96 210 Tarndale-Rakauroa 396 183 111 75 507 261 Wharekaka 534 189 165 60 705 246 Kaiti North 453 183 165 51 621 234 Kaiti South 303 432 117 126 423 555 Outer Kaiti 186 471 75 135 264 606 Tamarau 243 486 78 123 321 612 Wainui 504 96 153 27 657 123 Gisborne District 8244 5568 2754 1749 11001 7314 Source: Statistics New Zealand371

370 Statistics New Zealand, Work and Labour Force Status and Ethnic Group (Grouped Total Responses) by Sex, for the Census Usually Resident Population Count Aged 15 Years and Over, 2006, undated (downloaded 17 August 2009) 148

Table 34: Industry of Pākehā and Māori in the Gisborne district, the total Gisborne district, and total NZ population, 2006 Agri., Mining Manufac- Electricity, Constru- Wholesale Retail Accom., Trans- forestry turing gas & ction trade trade cafes & port & & fishing water restau- storage supply rants Gisborne Pākehā 17.1% 0.1% 9.0% 0.1% 8.3% 3.6% 13.5% 4.0% 2.8% Gisborne Māori 20.2% 0.2% 10.8% 0.1% 6.8% 1.8% 8.9% 4.1% 2.5% Gisborne (total) 18.3% 0.2% 9.6% 0.1% 7.6% 3.1% 11.6% 3.8% 2.7% New Zealand (total) 6.9% 0.2% 11.4% 0.3% 7.4% 5.4% 12.0% 4.8% 3.8% Commu- Finance & Property & Govt. Educa- Health & Cultural Personal Not else nication insurance business admin. & tion community & & other where services services defence services recrea- services included tional services Gisborne Pākehā 0.5% 1.5% 7.9% 2.3% 8.9% 10.0% 1.9% 3.7% 4.7% Gisborne Māori 0.8% 0.8% 5.7% 2.9% 10.5% 8.5% 1.5% 4.5% 9.5% Gisborne (total) 0.6% 1.3% 7.5% 2.5% 9.1% 9.5% 1.8% 3.8% 6.9% New Zealand (total) 1.2% 3.2% 12.8% 3.4% 7.0% 8.1% 2.6% 3.8% 5.6% Source: Statistics New Zealand372

Table 35: Industry of Māori in the rural and urban East Coast, 2001 Agri., Mining Manufac- Electricity, Constru- Wholesale Retail Accom., Trans- forestry turing gas & ction trade trade cafes & port & & fishing water restau- storage supply rants Rural East Coast 35.7% 0.2% 3.2% 0.0% 3.6% 0.7% 5.5% 3.6% 2.9% Urban East Coast 21.5% 0.0% 12.2% 0.3% 5.0% 2.4% 10.0% 4.0% 3.3% Commu- Finance & Property & Govt. Educa- Health & Cultural Personal Not else nication insurance business admin. & tion community & & other where services services defence services recrea- services included tional services Rural East Coast 0.4% 0.4% 2.3% 2.7% 14.8% 7.0% 1.1% 5.7% 10.4% Urban East Coast 1.2% 0.5% 5.7% 2.9% 8.6% 8.8% 1.4% 4.1% 8.1% Source: Statistics New Zealand373

371 Ibid. 372 Statistics New Zealand, Industry (ANZSIC96 V4.1 Division) and Ethnic Group (Grouped Total Response) by Sex, for the Employed Census Usually Resident Population Count Aged 15 Years and Over, 2001 and 2006, undated (downloaded 17 August 2009) 373 Statistics New Zealand, Industry, Ethnic Group (Level 1 Grouped Total Responses) and Sex, for the Employed Census Usually Resident Population Count Aged 15 Years and Over, 2001, undated (downloaded 17 August 2009) 149

Table 36: Personal incomes of Pākehā and Māori in the East Coast, the Gisborne district, and New Zealand, 2006

$5,000 or $5,001 - $10,001 - $20,001 - $30,001 - $50,001 Less $10,000 $20,000 $30,000 $50,000 or More East Cape Pākehā 19% 10% 29% 10% 15% 9% Māori 16% 13% 29% 12% 13% 4% Ruatoria Pākehā 11% 15% 30% 15% 11% 7% Māori 14% 15% 29% 13% 11% 5% Tokomaru Bay Pākehā 14% 14% 31% 3% 17% 10% Māori 12% 12% 35% 14% 12% 5% Tolaga Bay Pākehā 15% 11% 35% 13% 13% 6% Māori 13% 13% 29% 13% 12% 7% Tarndale-Rakauroa Pākehā 15% 7% 17% 16% 23% 16% Māori 15% 10% 24% 17% 16% 4% Wharekaka Pākehā 15% 6% 19% 14% 22% 19% Māori 12% 6% 27% 17% 22% 6% Rural East Coast Pākehā 15% 8% 22% 14% 20% 14% Māori 15% 12% 29% 13% 14% 5% Kaiti North Pākehā 10% 6% 26% 14% 22% 17% Māori 15% 8% 21% 15% 20% 14% Kaiti South Pākehā 11% 9% 28% 19% 18% 7% Māori 14% 9% 25% 19% 14% 3% Outer Kaiti Pākehā 17% 10% 28% 14% 16% 6% Māori 14% 12% 28% 15% 16% 2% Tamarau Pākehā 11% 9% 26% 21% 19% 5% Māori 14% 8% 25% 19% 19% 3% Wainui Pākehā 12% 6% 14% 14% 25% 27% Māori 18% 12% 15% 15% 20% 17% Urban East Coast Pākehā 12% 8% 24% 16% 21% 14% Māori 14% 10% 25% 17% 17% 5% Gisborne District Pākehā 12% 7% 25% 16% 21% 13% Māori 14% 10% 26% 16% 17% 5% New Zealand Pākehā 11% 7% 22% 14% 22% 19% Māori 14% 9% 20% 16% 21% 9% Source: Statistics New Zealand374

374 Statistics New Zealand, Total Personal Income (Grouped) by Ethnic Group (Grouped Total Responses) and Sex, for the Census Usually Resident Population Count Aged 15 Years and Over, 2006, undated (downloaded 17 August 2009). Note that percentages do not add up to 100 as some respondents did not state their income. 150

Table 37: Sources of personal income for Māori in the East Coast, 2006 Wages/ Self- Inter- ACC NZ Other Unem- Sick. DPB Inva- Stud- Other Other No Salary employ est, Super/ Super ploy. Ben. lid ent Govt Source Income Divi- Vets Ben. Ben. Allow- Ben. dends, Pens. ance Invest. East Cape 621 126 63 30 198 18 222 78 117 93 36 42 24 114 Ruatoria 180 33 18 3 42 9 84 15 45 21 3 24 9 30 Tokomaru Bay 102 18 15 6 33 9 27 6 21 12 6 0 3 15 Tolaga Bay 207 30 21 12 45 3 42 27 36 9 12 21 3 24 Tarndale-Rakauroa 255 30 33 6 30 6 33 18 30 15 6 9 9 27 Wharekaka 246 39 39 12 30 3 36 12 30 9 6 15 9 18 Rural East Coast 1611 276 189 69 378 48 444 156 279 159 69 111 57 228 Kaiti North 228 42 48 6 27 6 15 9 27 9 9 15 12 21 Kaiti South 576 54 45 15 69 12 102 57 144 75 36 45 21 78 Outer Kaiti 627 42 45 24 60 6 135 63 177 90 39 51 21 69 Tamarau 609 39 54 18 75 9 90 57 135 66 33 39 21 63 Wainui 114 45 30 3 9 3 6 3 6 3 6 9 6 12 Urban East Coast 2154 222 222 66 240 36 348 189 489 243 123 159 81 243 Total East Coast 3765 498 411 135 618 84 792 345 768 402 192 270 138 471 Source: Statistics New Zealand375

Table 38: Household incomes for Pākehā and Māori in the East Coast, 2001 $ 0 or $ 1 - $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ Loss 5,000 5,001 - 10,001 15,001 20,001 25,001 30,001 40,001 50,001 70,001 10,000 ------or 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 70,000 more Rural Pākehā 1.3% 0.9% 3.6% 5.8% 7.0% 6.2% 8.7% 9.8% 10.9% 11.9% 14.5% Urban Pākehā 0.3% 1.4% 2.7% 8.6% 6.6% 5.8% 9.5% 9.1% 9.3% 13.0% 15.6% Rural Māori 1.0% 2.1% 6.3% 8.9% 8.9% 6.5% 9.3% 9.3% 6.3% 7.2% 5.8% Urban Māori 1.0% 2.6% 4.5% 9.9% 6.8% 5.3% 8.3% 7.3% 8.4% 8.1% 7.0% Source: Statistics New Zealand376

375 Statistics New Zealand, Sources of Personal Income (Total Responses) by Ethnic Group (Grouped Total Responses), for the Census Usually Resident Population Count Aged 15 Years and over, 2006, undated (downloaded 17 August 2009) 376 Statistics New Zealand, Tenure of Household, Ethnic Group in Household (Level 1 Grouped Total Responses) and Total Household Income, for Households in Private Occupied Dwellings, 1991, 1996 and 2001, undated (downloaded 17 August 2009) 151

Table 39: Number of Pākehā and Māori in the East Coast, the Gisborne district, and New Zealand, who own or partly own their dwelling, 2001

Dwelling owned or part- Dwelling not owned or part- Not elsewhere included owned by usual resident(s) owned by usual resident(s) At least 1 At least 1 At least 1 At least 1 At least 1 At least 1 European in Māori in European in Māori in European in Māori in household household household household household household East Cape 195 426 123 279 18 39 Ruatoria 39 117 36 96 3 6 Tokomaru Bay 51 75 30 51 3 3 Tolaga Bay 81 99 45 108 3 9 Tarndale-Rakauroa 273 102 147 90 12 9 Wharekaka 375 111 144 108 12 9 Kaiti North 513 96 126 69 15 3 Kaiti South 339 198 195 312 18 18 Outer Kaiti 183 183 126 318 6 18 Tamarau 213 234 129 270 6 9 Wainui 372 60 108 24 9 3 Gisborne District 7512 3000 3162 3357 270 213 New Zealand 801,006 94,602 325,533 102,114 22,365 5,529 Source: Statistics New Zealand377

Graph 39: Percentage of Pākehā and Māori in the East Coast, the Gisborne district, and New Zealand, who own or partly own their dwelling, 2001

90.0% 80.0% 70.0% 60.0% 50.0% 40.0% 30.0% 20.0% 10.0% 0.0%

Wainui Ruatoria Tamarau East Cape Tolaga Bay WharekakaKaiti NorthKaiti SouthOuter Kaiti New Zealand Tokomaru Bay Gisborne District Tarndale-Rakauroa

At least one European Ethnicity in Household At least one Maori Ethnicity in Household

Source: Statistics New Zealand378

377 Ibid. 378 Ibid. 152

Map 4: Crowding quintiles by territorial authority, 2001

Source: Statistics New Zealand379

379 Statistics New Zealand, What is the Extent of Crowding in New Zealand?: An Analysis of Crowding in New Zealand Households 1986-2001, 2003 (downloaded 17 August 2009) 153

APPENDIX TWO: DIRECTION COMMISSIONING RESEARCH

154

155

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