DOCSLIB.ORG

Chapter Four Marriage During the Revolution

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Chapter Four Marriage During the Revolution Florida State University Libraries Electronic Theses, Treatises and Dissertations The Graduate School 2013 Revolutionary Marriage: Family, State, and Natalism from the Ancien Régime to the Napoleonic Era Allyce Smith Follow this and additional works at the FSU Digital Library. For more information, please contact [email protected] THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES REVOLUTIONARY MARRIAGE: FAMILY, STATE, AND NATALISM FROM THE ANCIEN RÉGIME TO THE NAPOLEONIC ERA By ALLYCE SMITH A Thesis submitted to the Department of History in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Degree Awarded: Spring Semester, 2013 Allyce Smith defended this Thesis on March 28, 2013. The members of the supervisory committee were: Rafe Blaufarb Professor Directing Thesis Darrin McMahon Committee Member Suzanne Sinke Committee Member The Graduate School has verified and approved the above-named committee members, and certifies that the Thesis has been approved in accordance with university requirements. ii I dedicate this Thesis to my sister, Madison. Your unwavering support and positivity made this entire process possible. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I want to thank my committee members for their superior guidance throughout the writing process. Dr. Blaufarb, thank you for pushing me to become a better writer. Dr. McMahon thank you for enlightening me on current historiography. Dr. Sinke, thank you for believing in me as an undergraduate student in your Senior Seminar class. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ vi Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... vii 1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................1 2. MARRIAGE BEFORE THE REVOLUTION ........................................................................3 3. THE INTERNAL DYNAMICS OF MARRIAGE ................................................................13 4. MARRIAGE DURING THE REVOLUTION ......................................................................23 5. MARRIAGE DURING THE NAPOLEONIC-ERA .............................................................42 6. MARRIAGE AND FAMILY THROUGH ART ..................................................................59 7. CONCLUSION .....................................................................................................................75 REFERENCES ..............................................................................................................................76 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH .........................................................................................................82 v LIST OF FIGURES 1 Jean-Marc Nattier, Madame Marsollier and her Daughter, 1749 .....................................60 2 Jean-Baptiste Greuze, The Village Bride, 1721 .................................................................62 3 Elisabeth Vigée Lebrun, Self-Portrait with her Daughter Julie, 1786 ..............................64 4 Jan Bernard Duvivier, Portrait of the Villiers Family, 1790 .............................................66 5 Marguerite Gérard, The First Steps, C. 1795-1800 ...........................................................68 6 Jacques-Louis David, The Sabine Women Intervene in the Struggle between the Sabini and the Romans, 1799 ........................................................................................................70 7 Louis Leopold Boilly, The Reading of the Eleventh Bulletin of the Grade Armée, 1807 .72 vi ABSTRACT Marriage and family relations underwent a dynamic change during the French Revolution. However, seeds of change can be detected in eighteenth century marital trends. Changing ideals were not only for the elite of French society but permeated through the lower rungs of the third estate. Although it is debatable as to where these changes began, it is undeniable that they in fact occurred. Resistance to these changes from family, state, and church created a power struggle for the control of marriage. In the end, this power struggle reflected the tumultuous regime changes of the French Revolution. These changing cultural ideals are not only reflected in legislative changes, but in contemporary conceptions of childhood and emotional attachment. The very heart of this change lays within a fundamental attitude shift which can be detected around 1750 and full matured in the early nineteenth century. Families continued to influence marital choice throughout the French Revolution. However, an emphasis on personal choice became more common. As families examined couples of the past they sought to create a new order where companionship between husband and wife took on a new importance. The State encouraged marriage as a source of stability for France. In addition, marriage led to the creation of legitimate citizens. Natalism was not only a state supported policy, but encouraged by philosophers of the day. This growing emphasis on children further developed the concept of childhood and motherhood. The family unit as a whole took on unprecedented importance. vii CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION The French Revolution represented a shift in values. New definitions of marriage and family emerged. These changes are found within legislation, literature, and art of the period. The change was real and evident in all classes. Society felt that the Revolution could not move forward unless the family evolved as well. As a result, marriage and family came to the forefront of politics during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Revolutionaries saw marriage and family as the medium through which change could be perpetuated. As a result, the family became a political instrument of the revolution. Not only was the family moved to the forefront of political debates and propaganda but it became a secular institution as well. Chapter two and three explore marriage and family during the ancien régime. The power struggle of the ancien régime between church and state for control over marriage shaped legislation and attitudes before the Revolution. Chapter four explains marriage during the Revolution. Eventually, the revolutionary government asserted its authority by taking marriage out of the hands of the Catholic Church. This shift in management was never reversed, even after the Bourbon restoration in the nineteenth century. Once marriage and family was firmly within the government's grasp, revolutionaries re-imagined marriage as a partnership. Both husband and wife shared responsibilities. The revolutionary couple was transformed into a strong unit which would strengthen France. Overall the family became more egalitarian. Siblings would now partake in equal inheritance from their parents. Distinctions of gender in this case were set aside giving brothers and sisters equal status. Society began to emphasize marriage as a emotionally fulfilling. Starting in the mid eighteenth century there was a detectable attitude shift towards and love and companionship between spouses. The very words society used to characterize marriage changed. Revolutionaries seized the opportunity to solidify the idea of love. Images and rhetoric emphasized the importance of emotional fulfillment when choosing a spouse. In the end, revolutionary society believed that love could be a uniting and strengthening factor in their new social order. These changes continued into the early nineteenth century. Chapter five explains how Napoleon continued to shape and support revolutionary changes in marriage and family. Contrary to popular depictions, he did in fact provide a sense of continuity from the 1790s. Napoleon and his government saw the value of families as political 1 instruments. He supported the government's continuing legislative changes through the family. Napoleon ensured that the importance of family life continued to be emphasized to the public. In addition, he supported the Revolution's egalitarian model of family by deliberately giving all offspring of a legitimate union the right to equal inheritance. Emotional fulfillment continued to be encouraged within marriage. Companionship was still an ideal of French society under Napoleon. Certain types of feeling such as desire and love may have been de-emphasized, but the emphasis was still a stark contrast with early eighteenth century France. Napoleon also reinforced marriage as a secular institution. Despite the Concordat with Rome, the government still held ultimate authority in marital matters. A civil ceremony was the only legitimizing manner of contracting a marriage for men and women. A religious ceremony was only a matter of tradition. Despite some differences in the implementation of change, revolutionary values towards the family continued to develop well into the nineteenth century. The French Revolution undoubtedly built upon new attitudes which appeared during the mid eighteenth century. However it was not until 1789 that these changes could be fully realized. Revolutionary leaders and citizens recognized that the family unit was a powerful aspect of cultural and legislative change. Chapter six illustrates how artwork during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries represents the pervasiveness of these changes within all classes. 2 CHAPTER TWO MARRIAGE BEFORE THE REVOLUTION Introduction Marriage during the ancien régime
Load more

Recommended publications
  • The Basques of Lapurdi, Zuberoa, and Lower Navarre Their History and Their Traditions
    Center for Basque Studies Basque Classics Series, No. 6 The Basques of Lapurdi, Zuberoa, and Lower Navarre Their History and Their Traditions by Philippe Veyrin Translated by Andrew Brown Center for Basque Studies University of Nevada, Reno Reno, Nevada This book was published with generous financial support obtained by the Association of Friends of the Center for Basque Studies from the Provincial Government of Bizkaia. Basque Classics Series, No. 6 Series Editors: William A. Douglass, Gregorio Monreal, and Pello Salaburu Center for Basque Studies University of Nevada, Reno Reno, Nevada 89557 http://basque.unr.edu Copyright © 2011 by the Center for Basque Studies All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America Cover and series design © 2011 by Jose Luis Agote Cover illustration: Xiberoko maskaradak (Maskaradak of Zuberoa), drawing by Paul-Adolph Kaufman, 1906 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Veyrin, Philippe, 1900-1962. [Basques de Labourd, de Soule et de Basse Navarre. English] The Basques of Lapurdi, Zuberoa, and Lower Navarre : their history and their traditions / by Philippe Veyrin ; with an introduction by Sandra Ott ; translated by Andrew Brown. p. cm. Translation of: Les Basques, de Labourd, de Soule et de Basse Navarre Includes bibliographical references and index. Summary: “Classic book on the Basques of Iparralde (French Basque Country) originally published in 1942, treating Basque history and culture in the region”--Provided by publisher. ISBN 978-1-877802-99-7 (hardcover) 1. Pays Basque (France)--Description and travel. 2. Pays Basque (France)-- History. I. Title. DC611.B313V513 2011 944’.716--dc22 2011001810 Contents List of Illustrations..................................................... vii Note on Basque Orthography.........................................
    [Show full text]
  • The Franco-Prussian War: Its Impact on France and Germany, 1870-1914
    The Franco-Prussian War: Its Impact on France and Germany, 1870-1914 Emily Murray Professor Goldberg History Honors Thesis April 11, 2016 1 Historian Niall Ferguson introduced his seminal work on the twentieth century by posing the question “Megalomaniacs may order men to invade Russia, but why do the men obey?”1 He then sought to answer this question over the course of the text. Unfortunately, his analysis focused on too late a period. In reality, the cultural and political conditions that fostered unparalleled levels of bloodshed in the twentieth century began before 1900. The 1870 Franco- Prussian War and the years that surrounded it were the more pertinent catalyst. This event initiated the environment and experiences that catapulted Europe into the previously unimaginable events of the twentieth century. Individuals obey orders, despite the dictates of reason or personal well-being, because personal experiences unite them into a group of unconscious or emotionally motivated actors. The Franco-Prussian War is an example of how places, events, and sentiments can create a unique sense of collective identity that drives seemingly irrational behavior. It happened in both France and Germany. These identities would become the cultural and political foundations that changed the world in the tumultuous twentieth century. The political and cultural development of Europe is complex and highly interconnected, making helpful insights into specific events difficult. It is hard to distinguish where one era of history begins or ends. It is a challenge to separate the inherently complicated systems of national and ethnic identities defined by blood, borders, and collective experience.
    [Show full text]
  • Rémi Pach the LINGUISTIC MINORITIES of FRANCE France Is
    ISSN 0258-2279 = Literator 7 (1986) Rémi Pach THE LINGUISTIC MINORITIES OF FRANCE ABSTRACT Although France is one of the most centralized countries in Europe, its ap­ parent unity must not conceal that it is made up of many linguistic groups, and that French has only in recent years succeeded in becoming the com­ mon language of all the French. The situation of each one of the seven non­ official languages of France is at first examined. The problem is then situ­ ated in its historical context, with the emphasis falling on why and how the French state tried to destroy them. Although the monarchy did not go much further than to impose French as the language of the administration, the revolutionary period was the beginning of a deliberate attempt to substi­ tute French for the regional languages even in informal and oral usage. This was really made possible when education became compulsory: the school system was then the means of spreading French throughout the country. Nowadays the unity of France is no longer at stake, but its very identity is being threatened by the demographic weight, on French soil, of the im­ migrants from the Third-World. France is without any possible doubt the most heterogeneous country in Western Europe, as it includes no less than seven linguistic minori­ ties : Corsicans, Basques, Catalans, Occitans, Alsatians, Flemish and 85 THE LANGUAGES OF FRANCE i?|n.niviANnl NON-ROMANnS IDinMS H I^^CO H SrCA H ^g] CATAWH DIAI.CCT8 o r OCCITAN 86 Bretons.' Most of these were conquered by means of wars.
    [Show full text]
  • Isolation and Economic Life in Eighteenth-Century France
    Isolation and Economic Life in Eighteenth-Century France The Harvard community has made this article openly available. Please share how this access benefits you. Your story matters Citation Rothschild, Emma. 2014. “Isolation and Economic Life in Eighteenth-Century France.” The American Historical Review 119 (4) (October): 1055–1082. doi:10.1093/ahr/119.4.1055. Published Version doi:10.1093/ahr/119.4.1055 Citable link http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:34334612 Terms of Use This article was downloaded from Harvard University’s DASH repository, and is made available under the terms and conditions applicable to Open Access Policy Articles, as set forth at http:// nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:dash.current.terms-of- use#OAP 1 ISOLATION AND ECONOMIC LIFE IN EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY FRANCE1 The history of France in the world is now newly and brilliantly transnational.2 It is also disconnected, for the most part, from the largest stories of national destiny. 3 There are two Frances, in an enduring understanding: a real France, or “la France profonde,” of the majority of individuals who lived local, small-scale and immobile lives; and a France of the superficial or fluctuating 1 I am grateful to the staff of the Archives Municipales d’Angoulême and the Archives Départementales de la Charente, to Sunil Amrith, Keith Baker, Benjamin Golub, Victoria Gray, Ian Kumekawa and David Todd for many illuminating comments and conversations, to Robert A. Schneider, to Ian Kumekawa, Amy Price and Madeleine Schwartz for collaboration in collecting and visualizing information about Angoulême, and to the Joint Center for History and Economics for an inspiring research environment.
    [Show full text]
  • SOCIETY and GOVERNMENT in FRANCE UNDER RICHELIEU and MAZARIN, 1624-61 by the Same Author
    SOCIETY AND GOVERNMENT IN FRANCE UNDER RICHELIEU AND MAZARIN, 1624-61 By the same author POLITICAL CHANGE IN FRANCE UNDER RICHELIEU AND MAZARIN, 1624-1661 THE KING'S DEBTS: Finance and Politics in France, 1589-1661 SOCIETY AND GOVERNMENT IN FRANCE UNDER RICHELIEU AND MAZARIN, 1624-61 RICHARD BONNEY Professor of Modern History University of Leicester M MACMILLAN PRESS © Richard Bonney 1988 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright Act 1956 (as amended), or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 33-4 Alfred Place, London WCIE 7DP. Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. First published 1988 Published by THE MACMILLAN PRESS LTD Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 2XS and London Companies and representatives throughout the world Typeset by Wessex Typesetters (Division of The Eastern Press Ltd) Frome, Somerset British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Bonney, Richard Society and government in France under Richelieu and Mazarin, 1624-61. I. France-Politics and government- 1610-1643 2. France-Politics and government-1643-1715 I. Title 944'.032 DCI23 ISBN 978-0-333-41849-9 ISBN 978-1-349-19262-5 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-19262-5 For Alexander
    [Show full text]
  • Ancien Régime</Em>
    Western Michigan University ScholarWorks at WMU Master's Theses Graduate College 12-2012 Agriculture, Influence, and Instability Under the Ancien Régime: 1708-1768 Adam J. Polk Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/masters_theses Part of the European History Commons, Geographic Information Sciences Commons, and the Nature and Society Relations Commons Recommended Citation Polk, Adam J., "Agriculture, Influence, and Instability Under the Ancien Régime: 1708-1768" (2012). Master's Theses. 82. https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/masters_theses/82 This Masters Thesis-Open Access is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate College at ScholarWorks at WMU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Master's Theses by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks at WMU. For more information, please contact [email protected]. AGRICULTURE, INFLUENCE, AND INSTABILITY UNDER THE ANCIEN REGIME: 1708-1789 by Adam J. Polk A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of The Graduate College in partial fulfillment ofthe requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts Department of Geography Advisor: Gregory Veeck, Ph.D. Western Michigan University Kalamazoo, Michigan December 2012 AGRICULTURE, INFLUENCE, AND INSTABILITY UNDER THE ANCIEN REGIME: 1708-1768 Adam J. Polk, M.A. Western Michigan University, 2012 The French Revolution has been studied from myriad perspectives. The majority of scholarship focuses on the political and urban chaos of the times. Agricultural conditions and the influence of onerous taxation and stagnant agricultural options are given only a cursory examination in most research. This thesis aims to investigate the relationship between agronomic and environmental conditions and the eruption of violence in urban centers during the French Revolution and the years leading up to it (1708-1768).
    [Show full text]
  • National and Regional Mapping in France to About 1650 Monique Pelletier
    48 • National and Regional Mapping in France to About 1650 Monique Pelletier National Mapmaking from Oronce Fine and in Italy, which were curbed by the 1559 treaty of to Guillaume Postel (1525–1570): Fine, Cateau-Cambrésis but persisted in the dreams of Cather- Jolivet, Nicolay, and Postel ine de’ Medici and her children. (For a reference map of France, covering all of the chapters in this section, see French nationalist understandings of geography were fig. 48.1.) stimulated by the Renaissance translation of Caesar’s La The maps of Fine, Jolivet, and Postel were graduated in guerre des Gaules by Robert Gaguin in 1485.1 When both latitude and longitude, unlike the modern maps in- Gaguin wrote in Latin, he used the terms “Gallia” and cluded in editions of Ptolemy’s Geography. These na- “Francia” or “Gallus” and “Francus” interchangeably, tional maps used trapezoidal projections and varied as because for him there was continuity between Gaul and much in latitude as in longitude. Only Fine’s map retained the France of his epoch.2 Working with the conviction the divisions of climate and day lengths that were found that France “succeeded” Gaul, the French geographers on the maps of Ptolemaic origin. Fine was equally atten- based their studies on the “division introduced by the tive to the historical meaning of the map, leading him to Emperor Augustus and followed by the most skilled geog- give both ancient and modern place-names, in keeping raphers of the antiquity.” 3 In their new maps, Gaul- with the historical awareness of the Renaissance that France was described in a language more sensitive to ad- glorified Gaul as “a country with the best boundaries un- ministrative entities than to topographic realism.
    [Show full text]
  • The French Revolution 1789
    Grade 10 - History Topic 3 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 1789 1 Until 1789 rule by Kings States Generals Called 1789 Fall of the Bastille, July 1789 King Louis XVI of France [http://www.biography.com/people/louis-xvi-9386943] New Constitution 1789 - 1791 Republic 1792 Extremists in Power 1793 Reign of Terror 1793 - 1794 Napoleon First The Directory Consul 1795 1799 2 [http://www.biography.com/people/napoleon- 9420291] CONDITIONS IN FRANCE BEFORE 1789 The French Revolution was the result of conditions in France in the century preceding 1789. The causes are usually considered under the following headings: POLITICAL CAUSES A. THE WORKING OF THE GOVERNMENT The government was despotic, i.e. the King had absolute power. However, there were two other powerful organisations in France: i The power of the Church a. The Catholic Church owned a large amount of land. b. It was very wealthy. c. It was not subjected to ordinary laws; it had its own legal system. d. It did not pay official taxes but gave ‘presents’ to the state on a voluntary basis. e. It was socially and educationally very important. ii The Parlements of France a. These were special courts of law that had the right to register all and therefore could refuse to register a law made by the King. b. The King could use his power of ‘Lit de justice’ whereby he could in theory force the Parlements to register the law, but in fact he was afraid to use this power in case he upset the Parlements. b. The King nominated the members of the Royal Council and they were responsible to him.
    [Show full text]
  • Variants from Standard-French Common to the Dialects of Lafayette Parish and Canada
    Louisiana State University LSU Digital Commons LSU Historical Dissertations and Theses Graduate School 1935 Variants From Standard-French Common to the Dialects of Lafayette Parish and Canada. Marie Nina bechet Pirkle Louisiana State University and Agricultural & Mechanical College Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/gradschool_disstheses Part of the English Language and Literature Commons Recommended Citation Pirkle, Marie Nina bechet, "Variants From Standard-French Common to the Dialects of Lafayette Parish and Canada." (1935). LSU Historical Dissertations and Theses. 8204. https://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/gradschool_disstheses/8204 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at LSU Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in LSU Historical Dissertations and Theses by an authorized administrator of LSU Digital Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. MANUSCRIPT THESES Unpublished theses submitted for the master1 s and doctor1s degrees and deposited in the Louisiana State University Library are available for inspection. Use of any thesis is limited by the rights of the author. Bibliographical references may be noted, but passages m y not be copied unless the author has given permission. Credit, must be given in subsequent written or published work. A library which borrows this thesis for use by its clientele is expected to make sure that the borrower is aware of tho abovo restrictions • LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY VARIANTS PROM STANDARD-FRENCH COMMON TO THE DIALECTS OP LAFAYETTE PARISH AND CANADA A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACUBTY OF THE LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY AND AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL COLLEGE IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN ENGLISH by Marie Nina Bechet Pirkle Baton Rouge, Louisiana June, 1935 UMI Number: EP69939 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted.
    [Show full text]
  • Unit 7 French Revolution
    Unit 7 French Revolution Section 1: Background to the Revolution Overview of the French Revolution ¡ French Revolution is an uprising in France against the monarchy from 1789 to 1799 which resulted in the establishment of France as a republic ¡ King of France during the Revolution= Louis XVI (will be executed by the guillotine) ¡ Queen of France during the Revolution= Austrian born Marie Antoinette (will be executed by the guillotine) ¡ In the aftermath of the Revolution, Napoleon Bonaparte come to power and crowns himself emperor of France Estate System Before the Revolution ¡ The root causes of the Fr. Rev. lay in the condition of French society ¡ Before the Revolution France was divided into three estates as it had been since the Middle Ages ¡ The burden of taxation fell almost entirely on the Third Estate ¡ Privileged classes were the nobility and the clergy First Estate ¡ First Estate= Clergy ¡ Although they were a small group (numbering about 130,000), they owned 10% of all the land in France ¡ Did not pay regular taxes ¡ Gave a “gift” of about 2% of their wealth to the crown Second Estate ¡ Second Estate= Nobility ¡ Also called the hereditary aristocracy- most powerful class in European society ¡ Numbered about 350,000, but owned 25% of the land ¡ Were very lightly taxed (exempt from the taille) Third Estate ¡ Third Estate= Commoners of society ¡ Third Estate was comprised chiefly of peasants and the urban poor but also of a middle-class bourgeoisie ¡ Bourgeoisie = professional people- lawyers, holders of public office, doctors,
    [Show full text]
  • Isolation and Economic Life in Eighteenth-Century France
    Isolation and Economic Life in Eighteenth-Century France The Harvard community has made this article openly available. Please share how this access benefits you. Your story matters Citation Rothschild, Emma. 2014. “Isolation and Economic Life in Eighteenth-Century France.” The American Historical Review 119 (4) (October): 1055–1082. doi:10.1093/ahr/119.4.1055. Published Version doi:10.1093/ahr/119.4.1055 Citable link http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:34334612 Terms of Use This article was downloaded from Harvard University’s DASH repository, and is made available under the terms and conditions applicable to Open Access Policy Articles, as set forth at http:// nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:dash.current.terms-of- use#OAP 1 ISOLATION AND ECONOMIC LIFE IN EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY FRANCE1 The history of France in the world is now newly and brilliantly transnational.2 It is also disconnected, for the most part, from the largest stories of national destiny. 3 There are two Frances, in an enduring understanding: a real France, or “la France profonde,” of the majority of individuals who lived local, small-scale and immobile lives; and a France of the superficial or fluctuating 1 I am grateful to the staff of the Archives Municipales d’Angoulême and the Archives Départementales de la Charente, to Sunil Amrith, Keith Baker, Benjamin Golub, Victoria Gray, Ian Kumekawa and David Todd for many illuminating comments and conversations, to Robert A. Schneider, to Ian Kumekawa, Amy Price and Madeleine Schwartz for collaboration in collecting and visualizing information about Angoulême, and to the Joint Center for History and Economics for an inspiring research environment.
    [Show full text]
  • Regional Languages in France: the Case of Breton
    Regional Languages in France: The Case of Breton Kerstin Mendel University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee 1 Introduction Since the days of the French Revolution the shared language has been an essential element in the national identity of France. Considered a central expression of the equality and unity of the French people, the language has since then been fiercely defended against any perceived threat or potential corruption. While the measures taken to protect French against the influx of foreign — i.e. for the most part English — words are widely known, the impact this language policy has on the approximately one dozen other indigenous languages spoken in France is often overlooked. Breton, which belongs to the Celtic language family, is one of those regional languages. It is spoken in the Northwestern part of France in an area generally called Bretagne (Brittany). The struggle of the Breton to preserve their language and identity despite the longstanding strong influence of French and the extremely restrictive language policy of the French government, are typical of the problems faced by the other minority languages in France. In my paper, I would like to examine some aspects of the relationship between Breton and French and its historical development. Since the majority of the people active in the movement to preserve and promote Breton today base the definition of the Breton identity on the historical era when Brittany was a duchy, I will begin with a brief outline of the most significant events of that period. Subsequently, I will look at the evolution of post-Revolutionary French language policy with respect to the status of Breton.
    [Show full text]