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Science, Technology and Development ISSN : 0950-0707

CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS THREATS TO HUMAN SECURITY IN OF

Amit Kumar Mandal Ph.D. Research Scholar Department of Political Science Utkal University Bhubaneswar,

ABSTRACT Sundarbans is one of the biggest mangrove forests in the world and a UNESCO World Heritage site. This zone is occupied by few of the world’s poorest persons categorized by low levels of socio-economic signs. However, it is wealthy zone in the world with regards to natural wealth and biodiversity. Weather transformation is apparent here and is one of the significant drivers of relocation, food anxiety and poverty in this region. The core intention of our study is to evaluate socio-economic impact of weather transformation and its implications for accessibility of natural wealth, and so know adaptation necessities of people. The deterioration in food security and lack of other growing selections in the look of climate variability are a serious threat to the economic viability of population. We have tried to analyse vulnerability constructed on LIFE framework. The Sundarbans Reserved Forest and its neighbouring buffer zone are one of the greatest diverse and richest natural resource areas in the People’s Republic of west Bengal. Sundarbans performance a consequential role for supporting wide range of floral and faunal biodiversity and ecosystem services those maintenance livelihoods of local communities. Furthermost of the communities in buffer zone of Sundarbans are depends on Sundarbans resources for their livelihoods. Key words- Sustainable livelihoods, Natural Resource Base Activities, Job Diversification and Transformation, Migration, human-environment interactions INTRODUCTION The Indian Sundarbans is located at the funnel designed bay head in the eastern sea board of , South 24-Parganas, the largest district of West Bengal is also one of the most densely populated one with a population of over 70 lakhs at present. The Sundarban Biosphere Reserve which is home to hundreds of species of animals, birds & plants, is also located in this District. They do not have many strong and high buildings that can be used as shelters during large scale disasters and they hardly have any large vessel to help large scale evacuation. Bay of Bengal is known for cyclones during the pre and post season. The geographical location of Sundarbans becomes vulnerable to cyclones. Hazra et al (2002) Food security must to be an affair of great importance for a country like India anywhere more than one 3rd population is assessed to be absolutely poor and one half of all children bony in single way or alternative (Dev. M.S, 2010). Such is the gravity of the issues that not only the scientific world but the common masses are also frequently found discussing about it. Climate of our planet is changing rapidly day by day. Basically two parameter temperature and rainfall are significant. Changing of these two parameters effects and food fabrication. Owing to the climate change, productions of food grains are decreasing rapidly. Besides agriculture and food production is also badly affected by intensity of drought, floods, tropical cyclones and others are increasing climatic hazards. These problems accelerate the difficult of food refuge and poverty. a highly populated country and due to the climate change food production is decreasing constantly and thus various social problems are arising. Water is most important thing for agriculture and food production. In India and West Bengal there are various regions where water availability is very low. So, sustainable water management is needed for the food production. Agriculture is under threat due to climate change. Agriculture or food production is directly related to food security. Agricultural pattern has to be change due to the climate change. Lack, heat-salt and flood accepting crop

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variabilities, original ways to irrigate crops and improved ways to accomplish soils are just about of the technologies that hold great promise to help farmers today and into future (Moorhead, 2009). The rainfall pattern of the Indian Sundarbans Region is changing day by day. Rainfall occurs in this region mainly throughout the monsoon period (June to September). The agricultural system of this region is almost entirely dependent on rainfall as this region is highly saline and facilities have not developed. The salinity condition of soil is very high as the ground water is also saline. The farmers are totally dependent on rain water for their cultivation. The flooding by saline water added extra burden and making more vulnerable groups who are living in and dependent on agriculture. The chief detached of the study is to analyse the temporal distribution of rainfall of the Indian Sundarbans region to examine the future trend of this rainfall, which is very important for effective water management of the area. Rainfall data of 29 years for a period of 1987 to 2015 have been collected from Central Soil Salinity Research Institute (CSSRI), Canning (220 15’N and 880 40’E), South 24 Parganas district of West Bengal. Different statistical and mathematical analysis has been done to find out Monsoon Rainfall Index (MRI). Constructed on time series investigation (Croxten et al, 1988) the prediction of future rainfall trend has been visualised. One of the chief indicators of man’s wellbeing is food availability, which in turn depends upon food production and distribution. Food distribution is something which is entirely in the hands of men but production is something which cannot be governed by man alone. The present day agriculture regime is such that it is highly dependent on climatic variables, chiefly temperature and precipitation (Srinivasan, 2007). Agriculture in India is dependent upon climate, especially rainfall, which is erratic in nature. As a result production takes a hit. But this is something which is not in the hands of man; what can be done, but is not being done, is addressing those issues which aggregate the problem of food security. The sectors which lack proper attention are:  Food hoarding: People hoard food products to earn higher profits; even influential people are involved in some scams, as is evident from numerous media sources.  Proper planning: With respect to setting up of irrigation and related projects. The needs and supply should be properly assessed and accordingly, suggestions ought to be provided.  Mediating the existing water disputes around the country.  Financial reforms to boosts agricultural investment, and also to keep the cultivators in business providing easy technical and technological solutions, access to finance and raw materials.  Analysing and implementing best practices around the world. Annually there is a risk of cyclone along the Bay of Bengal coast. The deadliest cyclones in the world have formed here, including the 1970 Meghna estuary Bhola super cyclone, which killed 500,000 people. The misery and destruction caused by cyclones along the coast of Bengal has been greater than anywhere else in South Asia and the environmental and social problems that set the stage for disaster continue to be exceptionally severe. On average monsoon and tropical weather disturbances produce 4 to 6 storms annually. Severe cyclonic storms bring unmeasured tragedies to the lives of fishermen, seafarers, woodcutters, honey collectors, agriculturists, secluded tribes and caste peasants. This is even more chronic in the Sundarbans delta, World Heritage Site and home to the endangered Royal Bengal tiger, tropical mangroves and pristine backwaters. Nonetheless, there is very little interest among

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social scientists in India in studying cyclones from a range of disciplinary perspectives; historical, anthropological and economic. The extensive and sophisticated historiographies of the environment in India do not deal at all with maritime hazards. Hence, it is of significant import to analyse cyclone-related disasters from a critical political, economic and ecological perspective. The discourse of global warming induced coastal environment vulnerability periodically published by NGOs, international donors/aid providers and climate change advocacy groups sets the tone in important policy contexts to explain environmental catastrophes like cyclones and tropical storms that assault the coastal belts of the global south. Climate change affects over food system. Food system encompass activities related to production of food; and the outcomes of these activities that contribute to food security, such as food availability, food access including affordability, distribution and bent and food use including affordability (FAO, 2008). One of the chief indicators of man’s well-being is food availability, which is true depends upon food production and distribution. Food distribution is something which is entirely in the hands of men but production is something which cannot be governed by man alone, climate plays an important part in it. The present day agriculture regime is such that it is highly dependent on climate variables, chiefly precipitation and temperature. Food security is a very much related with climate and effect of this observed in the Indian Sundarbans Region. The aim of this thesis is to relate the climatic variability, mainly rainfall variability with crop production, crop diseases and agricultural loss. The effect of crop production due to climatic vulnerability basically cyclone and draw local understanding of cyclone effect through. Harvey (1993) pointed out that there is a dialectical relationship between nature, society and disaster that leads to environmental change with a substantial impact on marginalised communities who are forced to occupy these vulnerable places. In my fieldwork interviews, I recorded villagers’ mass migration in their search for employment after the Aila cyclone of 2009. They are migrated to different parts of India as casual labourers, factory workers and day labourers. The theoretical slant that I take in this paper is based on the political economic-environmental method, directing on the historical- structural magnitudes of susceptibility to threat (Oliver-Smith, 1996). The Bengal delta remained relatively virgin up until the mid-18th century when the colonial administration decided to open up the region for land reclamation and revenue assessment. This brought major changes in the environment as small streams and rivers dried up, the mangroves were dwarfed in size and the free interplay of marine and freshwater was interrupted by the construction of embankments, dykes, polders and canals. Large-scale geomorphic change has thus been a part of the Sundarbans ecological antiquity. Artifacts discovered in the region present evidence of the unpredictable nature of the Bengal delta that has made permanent settlement nearly impossible, impeding civilizations from penetrating the delta (Westland, 1871). The beginning of the eighteenth century marked the period of land reclamation by landless peasants that made the islands in the Sundarbans delta habitable for human settlement. However, as the land reclamation programme gained a persistent pace the settlements and agricultural croplands were exposed to cyclones and tropical storms as the mangrove windbreaks were cleared to reclaim wetland. The imperial scientific knowledge on tropical weather disturbances also advanced during this period (Grove, 1995). The colonial administration used weather knowledge to develop port facilities and ensure maritime safety to British mercantile ships in the Bay of Bengal and Indian Ocean, helping British mercantile trade in Calcutta to flourish after the deadly 1864 cyclone. The law of marine and atmospheric sciences developed hand in hand with the colonial empire to protect British merchant ships in the Indian Ocean from shipwreck caused by tough windstorm and cyclonic storms. The built-up urban landscape surrounding Calcutta

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became a pivotal centre of decision-making and the scientific knowledge revolved around securing its safety for port facilities that sustained colonial capitalist expansion in India. This can be confirmed in considering the fact that in colonial Bengal there was one meteorological and cyclone-warning station set up in Alipore, Kolkata and the condition has not changed ever since. It was built after the 1864 super cyclone to protect the interests of shipping lines and British capitalist interests in Calcutta. The in 1947 was another major political and social, as well as ecological, upheaval for decolonized South Asia, forcing more than two million people to cross the Bengal borderlands. It was the most significant migration of people in twentieth century Asia and has left its footprint on the coastal environment due to population pressure, refugee influx and the growth of new settlements in the coastal borderland. The state of West Bengal had to grapple with the refugee influx from East Pakistan as thousands crossed over during and after India’s partition (Das, 2000). While Muslims stayed on in Bengal there was a large influx of Hindu refugees from East Pakistan, and later (Chatterjee, 1992). This migration flow artificially inflated the West Bengal population to nearly double on the eve of India’s independence. Most of the refugees struggled to find land for survival, living temporarily in relief and rehabilitation camps. Although many were resettled in different parts of India, a significant number stayed in West Bengal and through their kin connections and networks ended up in the Sundarbans (Mallick, 1999). Many among them depended on the land for their livelihood and they were predominantly peasant cultivators (bhag chasi) and landless tenants (ryots) of the erstwhile East Bengal (landlords). The Indian Sundarbans between 21° 32'-22° 40' north and between 88° 85'-89° 00' east is home to 4.5 million people. The majority of these people trace their origins either to East Midnapore District across the River Hugli or across what is now the international border into parts of Bangladesh depending on their location in the Sundarbans; many still have live contacts with their places of origin. The population of Hindus and Muslims is almost equal in the Sundarbans though there are islands and villages where one religious group overwhelmingly outnumbers the other but hamlets are almost always composed of single or similar religious and ethnic identities. Caste and religious scruples in the Sundarbans villages do not apply as strongly as they do in mainland villages, especially, in terms of occupation, though marriages are along religious and ethnic lines. Use of violence is not uncommon in Sundarbans villages, but seldom has it been used along religious lines. Only one of my elderly respondents mentions of religious violence some time in his youth. Often incidents of violence go unreported unless it results in death due to the fact that each of the Development Blocks usually has only one Police Station. For a resident of the Sundarbans islands, enforcement is not something associated with the state but with the dominant political party, more so, if that party is one among the nine in the Left Front. The state for a typical Sundarbans resident is not something that they have to deal with on a regular basis or even once. The Sundarbans is a region of global significance because of its unique coastal zone ecology. The mangrove forests also offer protection against storms, tidal surges, and erosion to not only local communities but also to the city of Kolkata (Calcutta), about 130 kilometres away. This was very poignantly brought home by the tsunami disaster of 26 December 2004 and Aila severe cyclone on 27th may 2009. The Mangrove forest of this region is said to be decreasing due to climatic vulnerability, and also the production of food is decreasing in this region. Another major problem of the region is salinity of water that affects agriculture and food production very badly. The region is also highly vulnerable for tropical cyclones which originate in the Bay of Bengal and usually hit the Sundarbans region along with tidal surges.

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As a result floods occur with the consequence of ingression of saline water which increase salinity of agricultural fields and convert the agricultural lands into fallow land. The salinity level of agricultural land after the severe cyclone Aila has increased from average 1.2ppt to 2.4ppt. Soil pH has also got changed. As an outcome production of food grains has reduced markedly (Debnath, 2013). The ground water in this region is also saline and there is no scope of irrigation by deep tube wells. The agriculture of the whole region depends on monsoon rainfall. The trend of monsoon rainfall is seasonally as well as annually dynamic. The main crop of this region is paddy which is cultivated in the monsoon period. Monsoon is highly variable in nature in this region and it is generally shifting. As a result, water scarcity is found during the germination period and surplus is observed in the harvesting period. Temperature trend is not significantly changing, but fluctuation of temperature has increased in the winter season. With the changing nature of climatic parameters attack of insects in the agricultural field has also increased hampering production, which requires proper investigation. Thus, the problem of food insecurity is increasing due to change of climatic parameters and climatic hazards PEOPLE OF SUNDARBANS Sundarbans, home of about 4 million people, of whom 56% are landless, is measured to be one of the greatest backward areas in West Bengal. Literacy rate is below 35%. Most of the communities do not have electricity or safe drinking water and agricultural productivity is lower than the state average. Insufficient organization, poor announcement services, lack of admittance to clean drinking water, well-being, education facilities and a delicate and limited natural resource base have contributed to a low level of development and high poverty incidence in the region (ADB 2001). In spite of such high inhabitants burden on its forest resources and environmental dangers like siltation, cyclone, flooding and rise in sea level, the amount of the Sundarbans mangrove forest protection of West Bengal has not altered significantly in the last 25 years and it is a exclusive example of cohabitation of human and terrestrial life (UNEP 2003). But then again there have been about severe variations in the composition of the Sundarbans mangrove forest at environment level.

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Cause of forest decline

Direct Underlying

Market failures

Natural causes Resulting from human  Unpriced forest goods and services activity  Hurricanes  Monopolies and monopsonistic forces  Natural fires  Agricultural expansion Mistaken policy interventions  Pests  Cattle ranching  Floods  Logging  Wrong incentives

 Mining and oil extraction  Regulatory mechanism  Construction of dam’s  Government investment roads Governance weaknesses

 concentration of land ownership  Weak or non-existent ownership and land tenure arrangement  Illegal activities and corruption

Agents

 Slash and bum farmers  Agribusiness  Cattle ranchers  Miners  Oil corporations

 Loggers  Non timber commercial corporations

Fig 1: The underlying causes of deforestation

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CHANGING CHARACTER OF CLIMATE One of the raging issues in the technical world is that climate change. Such is the gravity of the issue that not only the scientific world, but the common masses are also frequently found discussing about it. Climate change in simple terms signifies the changing climatic pattern around the world. It is a scientifically proven fact that the earth’s climate has witnessed alternating periods when the temperature had raised and fallen. NOAA National Weather Service indicates that climate change is an extended period change in the data of the weather (including its averages). Water scarcity and the dependency on rain-fed agriculture have been identified to contribute the sensitivity of the region. The sensitivity is increased by population growth which is the strongest in Egypt. Another major concern is failure to implement policies which address both agriculture specific needs and socio-economic developments, considerably increases the hazard that climate change pays to social dissimilarity and uncertainty in North . Human lives and health are expected to be affected by extreme rainfall events, together directly over improved mortality due to actions such as floods and droughts and also incidentally over effects of morbidity and mortality related to deviations in food security and financial security. In the perspective of West Bengal Mishra, (2012) in his paper “Climate Change and Adaptation Strategy in Agriculture - A West Bengal Scenario” mentioned that climate change is neither a fantasy nor a story prepared by wishful thinking of a group of scientist; rather sufficient ground truth proves the phenomena on a hard reality. This problem has not only been a subject of great fascination for meteorologists, climatologists and geographers but became a matter of serious concern to environmental scientists, agricultural scientists, planners, policy makers, farmers and common man engaged in weather sensitive activities. Straight to marginal declination is noticed in central and south western part of Gangetic West Bengal and slight to moderate increasing trend is noticed along the coastal belt along with north western part of Gangetic West Bengal. NEED FOR CHANGE IN PEOPLE LIVELIHOODS While asking this common question to my common respondents in different places of the Indian Sundarbans, I got the answer that there were several reasons that influenced them to take that decision. Amongst them, growth of salinity levels, uneven rainfall patterns and temperature variation, frequent inundation by tidal surge, increasing production cost of farming, promising and profitable future of shrimp farming and available financial and technical supports for shrimp farming have tempted a lot. This question was asked in the time of focus group discussion when all the groups responded in same way. The mostly indicated two factors; one is the change of governments’ development policy. Most of them were saying that the usual climate patterns were changing over the last few decades, but they do not know exactly what the reasons behind these changes are. Very few of them have a minimum knowledge of climate change. But all of them said that they have very little knowledge on climate change and its future impact. ALTERNATIVE MEANS OF LIVELIHOODS Whenever, principal occupations are not able to properly support, the people diversify their occupation and try to cope up with adverse situation. Sometimes, job transformation is also occurred. These processes at first are begin at local level. Job diversification or transformation is only possible when alternative means of livelihoods are exist at local level. If alternative means of livelihoods compensate the risk posed by stressors on principal occupations, a huge proportion of people are retain their as usual residence place.

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In SBR, more attractive alternative livelihoods are ecotourism, livestock and dairy farming and agro-frost based industries. ‘SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) analysis of ecotourism in the Sundarbans’ by Mahua Bhattacharya and Parthajoy Bhattacharya (2011) expressed that basic infrastructure for tourism in SBR is adequate. Variety of natural attractions, local people’s strong support for ecotourism, unique culture of the local people and global attention (UNSCO’s natural world heritage site) are important strengths of ecotourism in Sundarbans. But, lack of coordination among local people, low participation of local residence and little incentive for the local people in terms of income generation is main weaknesses of ecotourism in Sundarbans. Cattle, birds and egg production have been increased at the rate of 3.9per cent, 2.98 per cent and 1.57 per cent per year respectively from 2005-06 to 2007-08. But, buffaloes and goats production have been declined in trend during that period (B.A.E & S, Govt. of W.B.) production is substantial lower then state average, but it has been increasing in trend. Sundarbans does not have any heavy industries. Main industries of Sundarbans are related to fishing, operation of fish hatcheries and fish farm, food products and processes (fish, and meat) woods and its products, tobacco production spinning and weaving, leather and its related products etc. (B.A.E& S, Govt. of W.B.). These industries, directly and indirectly, depend on agriculture, fishing and forestry. Whenever, agriculture and fishing are in great trouble, future of these industries become black. Number of factories has been gradually decreased from 2000-01 to 2005-06 in S 24 Parganas. In 2000-01, there were 1168 industries, but in 2005-06, it became 1142. Live stocks, poultry and dairy provide some amount of support but it requires to be more organized in form. Ecotourism have enormous opportunity but it is hindered due to proper management. Heavy industries set up are not possible owing to environmental concern. But, there have wide scope of households industries with the help of natural resources. Proper infrastructure, financial assistance and technical knowledge are essential for these. OCCUPATION AND MIGRATION: Total 200 household (HH) were surveyed. Out of 200 households, 74 per cent (147 HH) reported migration (referred as migrated HH) and only 27per cent (53 HH) households did not report (referred as non-migrated HH). Within 147 migrated household 65 per cent HHs are under Sadhupur Census village and 35 per cent HH are under Luxbagan Census village. Out of 53 non-migrated HHs 49 per cent HHs are included within Luxbgan and 51per cent households are included within Sadhupur Census village. Among migrants, male are highly predominant (89 per cent), female are very less (11per cent). On an average one person migrates from each household. Occupational attachment of migrants before migration reveals that more than half of the migrants (51per cent) were engaged in farming and nine per cent in fishing. Apart from that, a substantial numbers of migrants were student (22 per cent). Number of migrated housewives was also a noticeable figure (six per cent). Most of the migrated students were studying in middle (47per cent) and secondary and higher secondary (31per cent) classes. Household members reported that those who migrated for studying purpose attached themselves with short-term vocational trainings like repairing of transistor, T.V., refrigerator, mobile and electrical wearing of houses for boys and nursing and tailoring for girls. Their main target was to complete the respective courses as early as possible and entering into job market to support their family. They also informed that decision for work

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leaving their study or joining vocational training courses was done at household level by their members. Actually it is also a kind of livelihood strategy to reduce the risk of household.

Besides, a fairly large number of housewives also moved out for same reason. Fig 2: Migrants by occupation status before migrating from the study area On the other hand near about 62 per cent migrants attached themselves with construction work followed by 15per cent with agriculture, seven per cent with manufacturing, five per cent with service sectors and three per cent worked as maid servant. These figures infer that an overwhelming majority of labour migrants engaged in secondary and tertiary sector at their destinations. Most of the migrants were either unskilled or semi- skilled migrants since their best option are construction labour, maid-servant (female), security guard, carpenter, industrial labour, petty and as agricultural labourer. Comparison of before and after occupation status of migrants, reveal that most of the migrants has switched their job from primary sectors to secondary and tertiary sectors. Thus, through increasing income and sectoral transformation migrants has reduced their risks which are posed at the place of origin. RECOMMENDATIONS TO IMPROVE THE LIVELIHOODS The following recommendations to progress the livelihoods of limited communities, while sustaining the functioning of the mangrove ecosystem, may therefore be drawn from our study:  Loan dependence should be reduced. If illegal payments could be eliminated, households would gain enough free cash resources to finance operating and maintenance costs of their occupations.  Local communities should be encouraged to cooperate in the marketing of their products in order to reduce dependence on traders and ‘middlemen’.  NGOs might have a particular role in supporting local communities in finding new sources of income generation.

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 Empowerment of women and supporting their potential role in contributing to family income generation, e.g. establishment of small trade and handicrafts, might further increase income security.  A potential opportunity lies in developing sustainable tourism alternatives based on community involvement, in close cooperation with park authorities.  Education initiatives may additionally increase the scope for a more efficient use of resources.  Disaster prevention and management should be substantially improved to provide adequate warning of natural calamities (e.g. cyclones, floods). Support in securing an adequate supply of drinking water, and waste water management, would help local communities.  Energy sources (e.g. ) should be developed as an alternative to using wood harvested for fuel from the ecosystem. SECURING LIVELIHOODS FOR SUNDARBANS FOREST For improving and securing livelihoods for Sundarbans forest dependency people, I give my recommends in the followings  Government should be implement strong low enforcement for protect water Hijacker influencing on forest harvesters income and torturing.  Ensure good governance for eliminating corruption of forest staffs for extra money collection from harvesters in illegal way.  It should be free from the loan dependency of the harvesters for harvesting cost that make them stress and paying significant amount of interest. It can be solved easily if stop the water hijacker money collection and invest this money for harvesting cost.  Harvesters can make own society for their unity and deposit their money and use this money during their harvesting for removing their loan dependency  Government can create a loan scheme without interest for the harvesters GOs and NGOs can support for extra income generating for household by creating scope for alternative income generating.  Empowerment of women and support aid for their income generating i.e. establishment of small trade, tailoring and handicraft business.  Develop sustainable eco-tourism and ensure the local community involvement and benefit form eco-tourism.  Harvesters can build their own harvesting product market direct selling their product (reduce dependency on middle man) for their benefit.  Government should support for educating the forest dependency family through free education and set up programme for forest dependency community education. CONCLUSION This article has analysed the socio-economic impact of climate change and its implications on natural resources/ecosystem services. In this situation, not only local business environments are affected but also national as well as global business environments are affected. In spite of adaptation having certain costs it would be wise enough to go for true adaptation because ultimately cost of climate change, which the human beings have to bear, is much higher than cost of adaptation. The Mangrove forest of this region is said to be decreasing due to climatic vulnerability, along with the production of food. Salinity of water also affects the agriculture and food production very badly. Then the people gradually diversify or transform their activities. But alternative means of livelihoods at local level are not so sufficient and organized in manner to

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compensate it. Pull factors at the place of destinations, effect of remittance on community development, gender issues, usages of financial assistance coming from different agencies for Sundarbans development and role of governance mechanism especially set up for the biosphere reserve are not included in the scope for the study purpose. Hence, further study related to above mentioned aspects is essential to explore the additional factors. Besides, these are not sustainable in nature. At present demand of protected areas is increasing in the globally. Sheltered areas play important role for biodiversity conservation and ecological development. Secure areas might provide a diverse benefit to people. REFFERENCE 1. Dev, S.M and Sharma, A.N, 2010. Food Security in India: Performance, Challenges and Politics; Oxfam India, p-2-10. 2. Srinivasan, G et.al. (2007). Detailed Project Report, Programme on Global and Regional Climate Change, Ministry of Earth Science, , pp 5- 11. 3. Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation in the food and Agricultural Sector; Technical background Document From the Expert Consultation held on 5 to 7 March 2008, FAO, Rome. 4. Harvey, David. (1993). ‘The Nature of Environment: Dialectics of Social and Environmental change’, Socialist Register, Volume 21, pp. 1-51. 5. Grove, R.H. 1995. Green Imperialism: Colonial Expansion, Tropical Island Edens and the Origins of Environmentalism 1600–1860. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 6. Das, Samir Kumar. 2000. ‘Refugee Crisis: Responses of the Government of West Bengal,’ in Bose, Pradip Kumar (ed.) Refugees in West Bengal: Institutional Practices and Contested Identities. Calcutta: Mahanirban Calcutta Research Group. 7. Chatterjee, Nilanjana 1992. Midnight’s Unwanted Children: East Bengali Refugees and the politics of Rehabilitation unpublished PhD thesis, Brown University. 8. Mallick, Ross. (1999). ‘Refugee Settlements in Forest Reserves: West Bengals Policy Reversal and the Marichjhanpi Massacre’, The Journal of Asian Studies, 58 (1), pp. 104- 25. 9. Sarkar, Sutapa Chatterjee, (2010). The Sundarbans: Folk Deities, Monsters and Morals, New Delhi; Social Science Press; pp 30-52. 10. Debnath, A (2013). Effect of Changing Character of Climatic Parameters on Agricultural Production of South 24 Parganas District, West Bengal and Adaptations, IJAS, Vol.3, Issue.3, pp 39-46. 11. Schilling, J. et. al, (2012). Climate change, vulnerability and adaptation in North Africa with focus on Morocco; Agriculture, Ecosystem and Environment, Elsevier; 156(1). 12. Sharma, A (2008). “Impact of Climate Change on Indian Agriculture” (http;//www.eca- web.com/edi/00447.html) retrieved on 29.05.2012. 13. Gulati et. al. (2012). “Impact of Climate Change, Variability and Extreme Rainfall Events on Agricultural Production and Food Insecurity in Orissa” (http;//wwwisprs.org/processidings/xxxviii/8w/b6/7-52-isro%.20f.pdf) retrieved on 31.05.2012. 14. Mishra, S (2012). “Climate Change and Adaptation Strategy in Agriculture – A West Bengal Scenario” Geographical Review of India, vol-74, No-1, pp-1-16. 15. Bhattacharya, M., Bhattacharya, P., and Patra, B. 2011. “SWOT Analysis of Ecotourism in the Sundarbans, West Bengal, India”, http://www.philica.com/display_article.php?article_id=236 Accessed on June 30, 2012. 16. Lee, Everett, S. 1966. “A theory of Migration”. Demography, 3 (1): 47- 57. 17. ADB 2001. Report on Technical assistance to India for conservation of livelihood improvement in the Indian Sundarban. Report Series No. TAR: IND 34272.

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18. UNEP (2003). Report on Selected Satellite Images of Our Changing Environment. Report Series No. UNEP/DEWA/R.S.03-I. 19. Twyman, C. 2001. Natural Resource Use and Livelihoods in Botswana’s Wildlife Management Areas. Applied Geography 21:45-68. 20. Salafsky, N., Wollenberg, E. 2000. Linking livelihoods and conservation: A conceptual framework and scale for assessing the integration of human needs and biodiversity. WorldDevelopment 28(8):1421-1438. 21. Myers, N. 1996. Environmental Service of Biodiversity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 93:2764-2769. 22. Balmford, A., Bruner, A., Cooper, P., Constanza, R., Farber, S., Green, R.E., Jenkins, M., Jefferis, P., Jessamy, V., Madden, J., Munro, K., Myers, N., Naeem, S., Paavola, J., Rayment, M., Rosendo, S., Roughgarden, J., Trumper, K., Turner, R.K. 2002. Economic Reasons for Conserving Wild Nature. Science 297(5583):950-953. 23. Hazra et al. (2002). “Sea Level and associated changes in the Sundarbans.” Science and Culture 68. No.9-12: 309-321.

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