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Local Dew-Point Temperature, Water Vapor Pressure, and Millimeter-Wavelength Opacity at the Sierra Negra Volcano J

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Local Dew-Point Temperature, Water Vapor Pressure, and Millimeter-Wavelength Opacity at the Sierra Negra Volcano J A&A 649, A12 (2021) Astronomy https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202039691 & c ESO 2021 Astrophysics Local dew-point temperature, water vapor pressure, and millimeter-wavelength opacity at the Sierra Negra volcano J. E. Mendoza-Torres, E. Colín-Beltrán, D. Ferrusca, and R. J. Contreras Instituto Nacional de Astrofísica, Óptica y Electrónica, San Andrés Cholula, Mexico e-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] Received 15 October 2020 / Accepted 17 February 2021 ABSTRACT Aims. Some astronomical facilities are in operation at the Sierra Negra volcano (SNV), at ∼4.5 km over the sea level (o.s.l.) in Mexico. We asses whether it is possible to estimate the opacity for millimeter-wavelength observations based on the meteorological parameters at the site. A criterion for allowing astronomical observations at SNV depends on the atmospheric opacity at 225 GHz, which has to be τ225 ≤ 0:30 Nepers. The correlation of the opacity at SNV, measured with a radiometer at 225 GHz, τ225, with the local dew point temperature, TDP, the water vapor pressure, PH2O and the water vapor content (WVC) at SNV is studied with the aim to determine whether these parameters can be used to estimate the opacity at similar high-altitude locations for astronomical observations at mil- limeter wavelengths. Methods. We used radiosonde data taken in various decades in Mexico City (MX) and Veracruz City (VR) to compute the WVC in 0.5 km altitude (h) intervals from 0 km for VR and from 2.0 km for MX to 9.5 km o.s.l. to study the altitude profile WVC(h) at SNV by interpolating data of MX and VR. We also fit exponential functions to observed WVC (WVCobs(h)), obtaining a fit WVC (WVCftd(h)). The WVCobs(h) and WVCftd(h) were integrated, from lower limits of hlow = 2:5–5.5 km to the upper limit of 9.5 km as a measure of the input of WVCobs(h ≥ hlow) to the precipitable water vapor. Results. The largest differences between WVCobs and WVCftd values occur at low altitudes. The input of WVCobs(h) to the precit- pitable water vapor for h ≥ 4:5 km ranges from 15% to 29%. At 4.5–5.0 km, the input is between 4% and 8%. This means that it is about a third of the WVC (h ≥ 4:5 km). The input above our limit (from 9.5–30.0 km) is estimated with WVCftd(h) and is found to be lower than 1%. The correlation of τ225 with TDP, PH2O, and WVCSNV takes values between 0.6 and 0.8. A functional relation is proposed based on simultaneous data taken in 2013–2015, according to which it is possible to estimate the opacity with the TDP, PH2O, or WVCSNV at the site. Conclusions. With local meteorological parameters, it is possible to know whether the opacity meets the condition τ225 ≤ 0:30 Nepers, with an uncertainty of ±0.16 Nepers. The uncertainty is low for low opacities and increases with increasing opacity. Key words. opacity – atmospheric effects – balloons 1. Introduction PWV is larger at low than at high altitudes. Qin et al.(2001) found that ∼25% of WVC is concentrated in the first 2 km of the The importance of the atmospheric water vapor for the cli- atmosphere. mate, and in general for terrestrial life, makes it the subject of Based on measurements of the WVC at different sites and study in a variety of sciences, including astronomy (Otárola et al. different conditions, atmospheric models have been developed 2009), meteorology, geophysics (Vogelmann & Trickl 2008) and (Qin et al. 2001). The shapes of the altitude profiles are similar also weather forecasting. The study of the atmospheric water is to each other, indicating that a generic function might be used important for all of them, particularly in the past years because to represent the altitude profile. Furthermore, it has been shown of the global climate change, which is leading to a general that the WVC follows a distribution with altitude that can be warming. It also leads to more extreme phenomena with short approximated by an exponential function. timescales, for example, strong precipitations and even floods To reduce the effect of the atmospheric opacity, some astro- at some locations, and to the lack of water and even droughts nomical facilities are located at high altitudes above the sea level. at other sites. The amount of water vapor in the atmosphere We refer only to altitudes above sea level throughout. Neverthe- depends on many factors that cause it to be highly variable less, for clarity we use the abbreviation o.s.l. for this altitude. with geographic coordinates and at different timescales, includ- The opacity of the atmosphere at submillimeter and millime- ing diurnal and seasonal variations. Other timescales might be ter wavelengths is directly related to the PWV (Otárola et al. present as well. The water vapor in addition decreases with alti- 2009, 2010 and Delgado et al. 1999), which plays a central tude, as we show below. role for astronomical observations from ground-based facilities. To integrate the water vapor content over all altitudes, the Among other conditions, the PWV depends on the altitude of the term precipitable water vapor (PWV) is commonly used. We site, that is, on the integration of the WVC above the site. The refer to the amount of water vapor integrated between two given thinner the atmosphere above a site, the lower the PWV. Above altitudes as water vapor content (WVC). The PWV decreases as high-altitude sites, it tends to be lower than for low-altitude sites the altitude of the lower limit of integration increases. Because for two reasons. First, the length of the path of integration is the WVC decreases with altitude, the input of the WVC to the shorter, and second the altitude interval that provides the higher Article published by EDP Sciences A12, page 1 of9 A&A 649, A12 (2021) WVC to the PWV (the lowest altitude range) is not included in We used radiosonde data of the University of Wyoming to the integration. build the altitude profile (we refer to the altitude with h for The PWV can be estimated by several ways, which include the numerical processing) WVCobs(h) for MX and VR. With the use of GPS, observations from space at near- and mid this information, we can calculate a complete altitude profile -infrared (IR) bands (Marín et al. 2015), Earth-based spectral from the sea level to the maximum altitudes reached by the observations at water vapor lines at radio and millimeter- balloons. Additionally, we used meteorological and radiometric wavelengths (Turner et al. 2007 and Cassiano et al. 2018), mete- data from the Large Millimeter Telescope (Ferrusca & Contreras orological radiosondes (Giovanelli et al. 2001), and others 2014; Zeballos et al. 2016) at 225 GHz at the SNV summit to (Pozo et al. 2016). Some of the methods for estimating the PWV asses whether local meteorological parameters can be used to directly take the integrated information and do not allow esti- estimate the opacity at millimeter wavelengths, as described mating the WVC at different altitude intervals. Some methods, below. The analysis is intended to establish some basis to esti- including the use of meteorological balloons that carry sondes mate τ225 based on local parameters. We computed TDP, PH2O, that take data of the atmospheric parameters at several altitudes, and the WVC based on the temperature (T) and relative humid- can obtain the WVC at different altitudes. This can allow us to ity (RH) with the aim to use the coefficients given in Eqs. (7)–(9) better know the inputs to the PWV at different altitudes and con- together with values that we fit to the observations (as we show sequently, to better know the causes of atmospheric opacity at in Tables7 and8) for this estimation. submillimeter and millimeter wavelengths. The PWV forecasting has allowed planing of observa- tions at short wavelengths (millimeter to the infrared), mak- 2. Analysis of radiosonde data ing an optimal use of astronomical facilities (Hills & Richer The temperature of the dew point for each altitude TDP(h) can be 2000; Pérez-Jórdan et al. 2015). Atmospheric models, validated estimated according to Lawrence(2005) using the RH and T, with data of global navigation satellite systems and with PWV h i RH A1T monitors (Pérez-Jordán et al. 2018; Turchi et al. 2018, 2020), B1 ln ) + 100 B1+T have provided the opportunity of planning the observations and TDP = ; (1) RH A1T A1 − ln − taking real-time decisions, and the models can even provide 100 B1+T a tool for user-defined restrictions based on PWV measure- where T is given in degrees Celsius, RH in percent, A1 = 17:625 ments (Florian et al. 2012). Additionally, studies carried out at ◦ some astronomical sites have found that local meteorological is a dimensionless constant, and B1 = 243:04 C is also a con- stant. With these values, the water vapor pressure (P (h)) may parameters and atmospheric models allow estimating the mean H2O PWV, giving values similar to those reported for these sites be computed (Alduchov & Eskridge 1996) as follows: (Giordano et al. 2013). This is particular important for values ! 17:625 TDP of PWV < 1 mm in the case of IR observations and even for P = 6:1094 exp ; (2) H2O T : forecasting the background in IR (Turchi et al. 2020). All this DP + 243 04 indicates that local meteorological parameters might be used to where TDP is given in degrees Celsius and PH2O in millibar. forecast the PWV, with the aim to improve the quality of the In the case of sondes, the computation can be made for each observations.
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