Reclaiming the Past: the search for the kidnapped children of Argentina’s disappeared Ari Gandsman Department of Anthropology McGill University, Montreal January 2008 A thesis submitted to McGill University in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy © 2008 Ari Gandsman Abstract During the military dictatorship in Argentina between 1976 and 1983, an estimated 30,000 civilians disappeared. Most of these individuals were kidnapped by the military and taken to clandestine prisons where they were tortured and killed. The children of these victims were also seized, and pregnant women were kept alive long enough to give birth. An estimated 500 infants and young children of the disappeared were given for adoption to families with close ties to the military. Las Abuelas de Plaza de Mayo (the Grandmothers of the Plaza de Mayo) were formed to discover the fate of their grandchildren. This thesis examines the key role that the search for the kidnapped children of the disappeared has played in Argentina’s post-dictatorship human rights struggle. As an ethnography of human rights, I analyze how human rights struggles are waged over competing empathetic appeals. The thesis focuses on public debates and legal contents. It is divided into three interrelated sections: the first focuses on the disappeared, the second on the search for and recovery of the children of the disappeared and the third on family member organizations. In debates about the disappeared, I trace the shifting view of the disappeared within human rights discourse from innocent victims in the aftermath of the dictatorship to political activists in the present. I then examine how this view has also been called into question. I also analyze the place of survivors, including accusations of treachery made against them. Part 2 discusses the search for and recovery of the kidnapped children of the disappeared. In particular, I examine legal cases both in the early years and after the kidnapped children became adults. I analyze the Grandmothers’ public campaigns and discuss the challenges of restitution. The final part of this thesis examines the larger political context of the Grandmothers’ search. In particular, I examine debates between reformist and radical sectors of the human rights struggle in Argentina and the election of Néstor Kirchner as President in 2003 and his subsequent embrace of the human rights movement. The thesis concludes by examining the consequences of the human rights’ movement from opposition force to part of the political establishment. Résumé Durant la dictature argentine, qui dura de 1976 à 1983, environ 30 000 civils ont disparu. La majorité de ces individus ont été kidnappés par l’armée argentine et jetés dans des prisons clandestines où on les tortura avant de les tuer. Les enfants des victimes ont également été saisis, et les femmes enceintes gardées en vie juste le temps de donner naissance. Un estimé de cinq cents bébés et enfants en bas âge de personnes disparues ont été donnés en adoption à des familles liées à l’armée. Las Abuelas de Plaza de Mayo (Les grands-mères de la Plaza de Mayo) fut formé pour découvrir le sort de leurs petits-enfants. Cette thèse examine le rôle central que la recherche des enfants kidnappés a pris dans la lutte de droits de la personne en Argentine post-dictatoriale. En tant qu’ethnographie des droits de la personne, j’analyse comment les luttes des droits de la personne sont en concurrence avec d’autres demandes empathiques. La thèse met l’emphase sur les débats publics et contenus légaux. Elle est divisée en trois sections inter reliées : la première met l’accent sur les personnes disparues, la deuxième sur la recherche et la récupération des enfants des disparus et la troisième sur les organismes des membres de la famille. Dans les débats concernant les disparus, je trace les changements d’opinions sur les personnes disparues dans le discours des droits de la personne de victimes innocentes à la suite de la dictature à activistes politiques dans le présent. Par la suite, j’examine comment ce point de vue a également été remis en question. J’analyse aussi la place des survivants, incluant les accusations de trahison faites contre eux. La partie 2 discute la recherche et la récupération des enfants kidnappés. En particulier, j’examine des cas légaux autant dans les jeunes années que plus tard lorsque les enfants ont atteint la majorité. J’analyse les campagnes publiques des Abuelas et discute des difficultés de la restitution des enfants à leurs vraies familles. Dans la dernière partie de cette thèse, j’examine le contexte politique plus large de la recherche des Abuelas. Notamment, j’examine les débats entre les secteurs réformistes et radicaux de la lutte pour les droits de la personne en Argentine, et l’élection de Néstor Kirchner comme président en 2003 et son adoption subséquente du mouvement pour les droits de la personne. Cette thèse conclut en examinant les conséquences du mouvement pour les droits de la personne de force d’opposition à part entière de l’institution politique. Table of Contents Acknowledgements I Introduction 1 PART 1: The Disappeared Chapter 1: From “names in a phonebook” to “best of youth” 29 Chapter 2: On heroes and tombs: debating the disappeared 69 Chapter 3: The Ex-Disappeared: survivors at the margins 122 PART 2: The Children of the Disappeared Chapter 4: The early cases and the biologization of the Grandmothers’ claims160 Chapter 5: Two custody battles: the children of the disappeared and 197 the legacy of the past in the present. Chapter 6: “Do you know who you are?” Radical existential doubt 231 and scientific certainty Chapter 7: “A needle prick can do no harm”: compulsory extraction of blood 269 Chapter 8: Ambivalent encounters and the politics of kinship 303 PART 3: The Politics of Human Rights Chapter 9: Imperialist agents, radical revolutionaries and mild-mannered 335 reformists. Chapter 10: Dueling matriarchs: The mad Mothers and kindly Grandmothers 371 of human rights Chapter 11: From resistencia to oficialista: Kirchner’s passive revolution 417 Chapter 12: “The Axel Blumberg crusade for the lives of our children” – 454 the moral authority of grief and the politics of fear and mourning Conclusion: The Emergence of the Nieto and a culture of memory 514 Bibliography 551 Acknowledgements What leads a person to their research topic? A temptation exists for vulgar Freudian insights, an effort to find autobiographical relevance. Shortly after my arrival in Buenos Aires, I met one of my father’s oldest childhood friends for the first time. We met in a café overlooking the Plaza de Mayo. He went into hiding during the dictatorship because, in his own description, he had “three strikes against him”: He was bearded, Jewish, and a sociologist. The discussion quickly turned to what brought me to Argentina. I explained my topic. When I mentioned the term “identity” in relation to the work of the Grandmothers, he began laughing. I was confused. Perhaps I misspoke. I continued speaking. He continued laughing. I looked at him quizzically. “It’s funny to me that you’ve come to Argentina to search for identity. When your father left Argentina in ’68, he never looked back. He was searching for his identity elsewhere. So you can imagine my surprise when out of nowhere his son returns 35 years later searching for his. It’s funny.” He made this observation after I told him how the Grandmothers’ public campaigns attempt to draw young people who have doubts about their identity to contact the organization. He decided that to choose such a research topic in the country where my father grew up was revealing. Personally, I did not like the analogy he was making but perhaps he had a point. Much like the process of recovered grandchildren getting to know their biological families, I had a similar experience during fieldwork meeting a large family that I did not know. In the process, I was getting to know my father better by seeing where he grew up, meeting his friends and family. In the end, I was welcomed as part of a new family - going to birthday parties, children’s dance recitals, family dinners. Since I grew up distanced from my extended family, this was a novel experience. “Welcome Home.” These were the first words spoken to me by my cousin upon my arrival in Buenos Aires. It was intended facetiously, since he knew that it was no homecoming. This was my first time in the country. He said it because my father grew up in Argentina. Yet Argentina was not an ancestral home - it was one more stop on a diasporic journey. For receiving a long-lost relative so warmly, I would like to thank the entire Stecher clan in Argentina. In particular, I would like to thank Gustavo Stecher who helped me in immeasurable ways: from introducing me to Buenos Aires, letting me stay with him when I first arrived, helping me find an apartment, and always being there when I needed any help. I would also like to single out Cynthia, Isa, and Susana for their generosity and kindness. César Orda, although not a family member, treated me as if I were. I would also like to thank Marcelo, Hernán, Emiliana, Carlos, Deborah among others who made my stay memorable. Thanks are also due to Raul Feldman and Judith Brandwaiman. Natasha Zaretsky provided me with valuable advice when I arrived. Without the kind cooperation of Las Abuelas de Plaza de Mayo, this dissertation would have not been possible. I would like to thank everyone in the organization that took the time to help me.