College of Forestry and the Oregon Forest Research Laboratory

2004 Annual Bibliography From the Director Greetings. regon State’s Forest Research Labo- ratory is supported by the State Leg- Oislature and forest landowners for the purpose of developing and providing knowledge that will help achieve the fullest utilization of Oregon’s forest resources for economic, social, and environment values. This bibliography recaps the research efforts and findings of our scientists.

Scientific progress requires a continuous effort of asking critical questions, proposing probable theories, conducting research, gathering data, drawing conclusions, and then publishing the results in order to expand the body of knowledge available to other scientists. Such published results provide a benchmark for other scientists to confirm, disprove, expand upon, develop new questions from, or use to support related research findings.

This annotated bibliography lists and describes the publications of our scientists between January 1, 2004, and De- cember 31, 2004. The publications are arranged by the major program areas studied by our scientists. The studies highlighted in these publications were supported by grants from public agencies and private industries, donors, Oregon appropriations, and Oregon Harvest Tax. Many of these publications are available from the Forestry Communications Group, http://www.cof.orst.edu/pubs_products.php, or directly from the authors as reprints.

This bibliography provides a brief highlight into the broad depth and range of research being conducted by our scientists. The knowledge they obtain is critical for a full understanding of the forest-related issues important to Oregon, the nation, and the world. I hope that you, as another scientist, a policy-maker, a landowner, a forest-related business person, or a concerned citizen, will find the information useful and recognize that we are dedicated to providing knowledge that will have significant and positive effects on the practice of forestry and the management of all forest resources. f

Research results find application in many areas as Or- egon Forest Research Laboratory scientists and their cooperators publish their findings. Papers published between January 1, 2004 and December 31, 2004 are grouped here according to the Oregon Forest Re- search Laboratory’s five program areas:

r Forest Regeneration r Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity r Integrated Protection of Forests and Watersheds r Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies r Wood Processing and Product Performance

To Order Publications Copies of many Oregon Forest Research Laboratory publications are available from

Forestry Communications Group Oregon State University 256 Peavy Hall Corvallis, OR 97331-7401 Phone: (541) 737-4271 FAX: (541) 737-4077 Email: [email protected] Web site: http://fcg.cof.orst.edu

Please indicate author(s), title, and publication number if known.

Compilation, word processing, design, and layout by Forestry Communications Group

Table of Contents

4 Forest Regeneration

8 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

36 Integrated Protection of Forests and Watersheds

47 Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies

57 Wood Processing and Product Performance Forest Regeneration

Anekonda, T, C Jones, BN Smith, and LD Hansen. 2004. white spruce seed rain from basal area during an ex- Differences in physiology and growth between ceptionally good seed year. The data were collected coastal and inland varieties of Douglas-fir seed- in 1999, 2000, and 2001 from three boreal forest lings in a common garden. Thermochimica Acta cover types (white spruce; mixed white spruce-quak- 422: 75–79. ing aspen-balsam poplar; and quaking aspen-balsam poplar) in northwestern Alberta. Seed rain was For tree geneticists and physiologists, silviculturists, significantly correlated with white spruce basal area and forest managers. Seedlings of a coastal and an only on 1999, when seed rain was 10 times greater interior variety of Douglas-fir and their F hybrids were 2 than in 2000 and nearly 60 times greater than in grown in nursery beds in a common garden in a coastal 2001; therefore, only data from that year were used climate. Growth traits, bud burst, carbon isotope ratios, to develop the equation. and respiration traits differed between varieties. The isotope ratios of the progeny were similar to those of Howe, GT, SN Aitken, DB Neale, KD Jermstad, NC the interior variety, but the respiration traits resembled Wheeler, and THH Chen. 2004. From genotype to those of the coastal variety. Only respiratory heat rate phenotype: Unraveling the complexities of cold and height growth differed between families within adaptation in forest trees. Canadian Journal of varieties. The slower growing interior variety, which Botany 81: 1247–1266. was more stressed in the coastal climate, had greater carbon isotope discrimination. For tree geneticists and biotechnologists. The genetic traits associated with the complex processes Badre, TH, PL Marshall, VM LeMay, H Temesgen, and involved in cold adaptation in temperate and boreal A-A Zumrawi. 2004. Regeneration imputation trees appear to be under strong natural selection, models for complex stands of southeastern Brit- but within-population levels of genetic variations ish Columbia. Forestry Chronicle 80: 271–278. are high. Phenological traits have the highest heri- tabilities. Cold adaptation traits seem to be con- For silviculturists, growth-and-yield modelers, and trolled largely by multiple genes with small effects; forest managers. Tabular and most similar neighbor interactions between loci and environment are (MSN) imputation techniques to predict natural common. The authors suggest that markers should regeneration in complex stands were compared. be developed for cold adaptation candidate genes. Both approaches provided good estimates of regen- Multilocus, multiallelic analyses can then be used to eration. The tabular technique was easier to use. discover genotype-phenotype relationships. It may The MSN method was a better predictor, however, ultimately be possible to use such techniques to and mimicked conditions that were not found in the predict genotype performance in breeding programs sampled population. and to increase understanding of evolutionary ecology of forest trees. Gilmore, DW, and CA Berger. 2004. White spruce basal area as a predictor of seed rain during an excep- Jacobs, DF, R Rose, DL Haase, and PO Alzugaray. 2004. tional seed year in northwestern Alberta. North- Fertilization at planting impairs root system west Science 78: 75–78. development and drought avoidance of Douglas- For forest managers and geneticists. The objective fir Pseudotsuga( menziesii) seedlings. Annals of of this study was to develop an equation to predict Forest Science 61: 643–652. Forest Regeneration

For reforestation researchers, field forestry personnel, temperature coefficients of heat and CO2 rates. Men- and silviculturists. Seedlings of Douglas-fir (1 + 1 bar- docino plants, from a coastal site, were more stressed eroot) were planted in a drought-prone clearcut in the in the interior common garden site, as evidenced by Oregon Coast Range. Seedlings were divided into two greater fractionation of carbon isotope ratios. The initial root-volume classes and either fertilized or not persistence of significant differences in respiratory fertilized in the planting hole. Summer predawn xylem and photosynthetic properties in the common garden water potential values were consistently lower in fertil- shows that these processes are genetically adapted to ized seedlings in both root-volume classes, and root the native climate of the seed source. development by several measures was less in fertilized seedlings. Because root volume growth was positively Krueger, JA, and KJ Puettmann. 2004. Growth and injury correlated with predawn xylem water potential, field patterns of eastern white pine (Pinus strobus L.) fertilization practices should take into account the seedlings as affected by hardwood overstory den- probable drought level of the site. sity and weeding treatments. Northern Journal of Applied Forestry 21: 61–68. Johnson, GR. 2005. Common families across test se- For silviculturists and forestland managers. Vegeta- ries—how many do we need? Forest Genetics 11(2): tion surrounding white pine (Pinus strobus) seedlings 103–112. underplanted under a range of overstory densities in For forest geneticists. Many forest tree-breeding a hardwood stand in Minnesota was weeded monthly programs include common families in different series or annually or left unweeded over 4 years. Removing of trials in order to allow adjustment for site variation herbaceous weeds did not improve seedling growth in in comparing families planted on different sites. The any conditions. Weeding woody vegetation benefited author modeled the situation in which common fami- diameter growth only in areas with relatively open lies are used to directly estimate site effects, which are overstory. It also improved height growth in areas with then used to adjust family means. Computer simula- denser overstory. Both overstory removal and weed tion indicated that four common families in each series control increased incidence of seedling injuries such of progeny trials generally provide a stable comparison as rust infection or insect damage. Improving growing across sites. Five or six could be used if a low heritabil- conditions, whether by overstory removal or weeding, ity trait was being tested or if severe genotype-by-en- improves seedling growth rates but must be balanced vironment interaction seemed to be likely. with the potential for more seedling injuries under more open growing conditions. Keller, EA, TS Anekonda, BN Smith, LD Hansen, JB St. Clair, and RS Criddle. 2004. Stress and respiration Lee, C-S, H-J Cho, and H Yi. 2004. Stand dynamics of traits differ among four geographically distinct introduced black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) Pinus ponderosa seed sources. Thermochimica Acta plantation under different disturbance regimes 422: 69–74. in Korea. Forest Ecology and Management 189: 281–293. For seed physiologists and tree geneticists. Seedlings of ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa var. ponderosa) For silviculturists and vegetation management spe- obtained from four geographically distinct seed sourc- cialists. Black locust was heavily used in the 1960s es (Willamette and Deschutes in Oregon, Mendocino for reforestation of deforested mountains in South and Eldorado in California) were grown for 2 years in Korea. Distribution of the species tended to be posi- a common garden near Corvallis, Oregon. Respiratory tively correlated with human population size, density,

heat and CO2 of elongating shoot tips, measured at or both. Black locust has invaded lowland, but not five temperatures from 15 °C to 35 °C, did not dif- upland, vegetation. Native oaks usually succeed black fer among seed sources at a given temperature. The locust, but sprouts and suckers of black locust in areas Deschutes plants, which came from the coldest, driest, disturbed by humans often interrupt such succession. and most variable climate, had the highest Arrhenius The authors recommend incorporating their observed Forest Regeneration

correlation between disturbance regimes and black hardwoods is an object. Other factors possibly affect- locust occurrence into management plans to control ing advance regeneration require further study. black locust. Meilan, R. 2004. Molecular biology of forest trees, Lee, CS, JH Kim, H Yi, and YH You. 2004. Seedling estab- pp. 229–236 in Encyclopedia of Forest Sciences, J lishment and regeneration of Korean red pine (Pinus Burley, ed-in-chief, J Evans and J Youngquist, eds. densiflora S. et Z.) forests in Korea in relation to Elsevier, London. soil moisture. Forest Ecology and Management 199: For biotechnologists and forest tree geneticists. The 423–432. author briefly explains transformation (inserting a For silviculturists. The authors investigated the effects gene into the genome of an individual cell) and regen- of light and water availability on seed production, eration (causing that cell to differentiate into a whole dispersal, and germination and on seedling establish- organism) as they pertain to plants and introduces ment, survival, water potential, and relative water recombinant DNA techniques. He then describes “plat- content of Korean red pine. Seed production and forms” for the study of tree biology, including marker- viability were comparable from year to year. Dispersal aided selection, gene-tagging methods, poplar genome diminished exponentially from the edge of the stand sequence and information, transformation to confirm studied. Germination rates were 90% with irrigation gene functionality, and high-throughput analyses used and <40% without. Seedling survival ranged from 8% to assess gene expression and chemical characteriza- in the canopy gap treatment (70% of light intercepted) tion. Finally, he discusses recent progress in applied to 90% in an open-ground, irrigated setting. Water biotechnology, public concern about its use, and safe- stress was considered the primary factor in mortality. guards necessary for commercialization of transgenic trees, including flowering control, engineering repro- MacDonald, GB, ML Cherry, and DJ Thompson. 2004. Ef- ductive sterility, and ensuring transgene stability. fect of harvest intensity on development of natural regeneration and shrubs in an Ontario boreal Newton, M, and P Balandier. 2004. Synthesis: Social mixedwood stand. Forest Ecology and Management and economic considerations in forest vegetation 189: 2007–2022. management, pp. n.a., in Proceedings, Fourth Inter- For silviculturists. In order to test the hypothesis that national Conference in Forest Vegetation Manage- partial cutting inhibits development of hardwoods and ment, June 17–22, 2002, Nancy, France. www.ifvmc. other competitors and favors conifers, an upper boreal org/ifvmc4-social.html mixedwood stand in northeastern Ontario was har- For silviculturists, economists, and social scientists. vested to achieve four nominal basal area (BA) reduc- The authors summarize and synthesize related papers tions (0, 36, 68, and 100%). Photosynthetically active presented by speakers at an international conference radiation (PAR) transmittance was linearly and posi- on forest vegetation management. The topics covered tively related to initial BA reduction 1, 3, and 5 years include perceptions as drivers of public opinion, alterna- after harvest, but the relationship became weaker tives to herbicides as vegetation management tools, en- over the 4 years. Level of BA reduction accounted for vironmental consequences of forest vegetation manage- 31% of variation in conifer sampling diameter growth, ment, and economics of forest vegetation management. 61% of variation in hardwood regeneration height growth, and 21% of variation in shrub height growth, St Clair, JB, NL Mandel, and KJS Jayawickrama. 2004. but did not account for significant variation in height Early realized genetic gains for coastal Douglas-fir growth of conifer advance regeneration. In view of in the northern Oregon Cascades. Western Journal their results, the authors recommend against partial of Applied Forestry 19: 195–201. cutting to promote conifer advance regeneration. They recommend removing the entire overstory if conifer For tree geneticists and silviculturists. In block-plot sapling stock is adequate or if maximizing growth of realized genetic gain trials for coastal Douglas-fir, Forest Regeneration

realized genetic gains in height, diameter, and stem Indian plum, red elderberry, and evergreen and volume were similar 5 years after planting to those red huckleberry. In Washington, at least 50 shrubs predicted from progeny tests. Thirty to 50 replicates or (in the case of rhizomatous species) microplots were shown to be necessary if statistically significant were sampled for each of eight species. The most differences between improved and unimproved popu- useful predictor of flower or fruit abundance in all lations are to be detectable. cases was plant size; plant age, closely correlated with plant size, also was a good predictor. In some Wender, BW, CA Harrington, and JC Tappeiner, II. 2004. species, site and overstory competition variables Flower and fruit production of understory shrubs in contributed to explaining flower or fruit abundance. western Washington and Oregon. Northwest Sci- In Oregon, the responses of five species to four ence 78: 124–140. levels of thinning were observed for 2–4 years (~15 For plant reproductive biologists and ecologists. The shrubs or microplots/treatment/year) on two sites. relationships between reproductive output and plant Thinning increased the probability and abundance size and age, site factors, and overstory density were of flowering and fruiting in two species and did not examined in nine understory shrub species: vine maple, affect one species. The response of the remaining Oregon grape, California hazelnut, salal, oceanspray, two species was positive but not consistent.

Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

Akay, AE, and J Sessions. 2004. Harvesting: Roading J Karlsson, J Lundeberg, O Nilsson, G Sandberg, and transport operations, pp. 259–269 in Ency- SH Strauss, B Sundberg, M Uhlen, S Jansson, and clopedia of Forest Sciences, J Burley, ed-in-chief, J P Nilsson. 2004. A transcriptional timetable of Evans and J Youngquist, eds. Elsevier, London. autumn senescence. Genome Biology 5(4): R24.1– R24.13. For harvest managers and forest engineers. Forest roads should be located and designed to minimize For tree geneticists and biotechnologists. This data- costs of construction and maintenance while satisfy- base catalogs changes in gene expression that occur ing geometric design specifications and controlling as leaves begin to senesce. The authors created a environmental impacts. Road location involves office DNA microarray consisting of 13,490 clones. Using planning, field reconnaissance, selection of final the microarray, they studied transcript abundance alignment, and on-the-ground layout. Road design in leaves of a free-growing aspen tree (Populus must serve to control construction, maintenance, tremula) in northern Sweden during natural autumn and transportation costs while taking into account senescence. A major shift in gene expressions, from vehicle performance and environmental impacts. The photosynthetic competence to energy generation by primary geometric design considerations are stop- mitochondrial respiration, fatty acid oxidation, and ping sight distance, middle ordinate distance, vehicle mobilization of nutrients, was observed. Transcrip- off-tracking requirements, road gradient, and hori- tional activity increased before signs of senescence zontal and vertical curves. Construction operations were visible. include clearing and grubbing, building earthwork, surfacing, drainage, and seeding and mulching. Aubry, KB, CB Halpern, and DA Maguire. 2004. Ecologi- Maintenance is needed for the road surface, the cal effects of variable retention harvests in the roadway drainage, and ditches and culverts. Many northwestern United States: the DEMO study. For- aspects of construction and maintenance can be ests Snow and Landscape Research 78: 119–137. handled so as to protect the environment. Wetlands For silviculturists and forest ecologists. Although and stream crossing require special planning and trees are routinely retained in harvest units on design considerations. federal lands in the northwestern US, the ecological benefits ensuing from this management Akay AE, O Erdas, and J Sessions. 2004. Determining practice are uncertain. The large-scale, long-term productivity of mechanized harvesting machines. experiments necessary to determine such benefits Pakistan Journal of Applied Science 4:100–105. are rarely done because they are expensive and For researchers in forest engineering and forest time-consuming. The Demonstration of Ecosystem operations. The factors affecting the productivity of Management Options (DEMO) study, mandated mechanized harvesting machines are presented in by the US Congress in 1993, includes six 13-ha the context of evaluating their application in devel- harvest treatments replicated at six locations in oping countries. mature Douglas-fir forests. The levels and patterns of retention in the treatments provide strong con- Andersson, A, J Keskitalo, A Sjödin, R Bhalerao, F trasts. Preharvest data were collected 1994–1996, Sterky, K Wissel, K Tandre, H Aspeborg, R Moyle, the treatments were harvested in 1997–1998, and Y Ohmiya, R Bhalerao, AM Brunner, P Gustafsson, the initial postharvest data were collected in 2001. Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

Ecological responses were measured and public authors suggest that harvest layout should maintain perceptions of visual quality were assessed. The a spatially connected network of remnant for- most valuable information will come in the future est patches containing interior forest species, and as the stands mature. amount and level of disturbances during harvest should be limited, in order to facilitate recovery of Bachelet, D, RP Neilson, JM Lenihan, and RJ Drapek. understory vegetation. 2004. Regional differences in the carbon source- sink potential of natural vegetation in the U.S.A. Boisvenue, C, H Temesgen, and P Marshall. 2004. Environmental Management 33 (Suppl. 1): S23– Selecting a small tree height growth model for S43. mixed-species stands in the southern interior of British Columbia, Canada. Forest Ecology and For ecologists and those interested in carbon se- Management 202: 301–312. questration. Variability in carbon (C) storage from 1895–1994 was simulated in six regions of the For silviculturists and forest mensurationists. The United States. Simulated variations in C fluxes were authors compared several small tree height-growth largest in the Midwest and showed the smallest models with respect to how well they fit data from amplitudes in the Northeast. The Southeast alter- major tree species in the interior cedar hemlock and nated by decade between being a C source and a C interior Douglas-fir zones (BC Biogeoclimatic Ecosys- sink in response to climatic variation. In the 1930s, tem classification). The best predictor of small tree drought depleted soil C and created a large C source height growth for both conifers and hardwoods was in the Midwest and the Great Plains. In western a nonlinear model that incorporated transformations regions, large yearly C fluxes are released from fire- and combinations of slope, aspect, current height, prone areas, reducing temporal variation in C stock; and basal area of larger trees. This model was to be these areas are impacted by prolonged drought and incorporated into an adaptation (PrognosisBC) of regional increase in rain caused by clime shifts. Un- the Forest Vegetation Simulator, which is US-based, der two warm climate scenarios, the Northeast and for British Columbia. Southeast are projected to become primarily sources and the two westernmost regions to become sinks Bottomley, PJ, AE Taylor, SA Boyle, SK McMahon, JJ during the 21st century. Rich, K Cromack, Jr, and DD Myrold. 2004. Re- sponses of nitrification and ammonia oxidizing Berger, AL, KJ Puettmann, and GE Host. 2004. Harvest- bacteria to reciprocal transfers of soil between ing impacts on soil and understory vegetation: adjacent coniferous forest and meadow vegeta- the influence of season of harvest and within-site tion in the Cascade Mountains of Oregon. Micro- disturbance patterns on clear-cut aspen stands in bial Ecology 48: 500–508. Minnesota. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 34: 2159–2168. For microbial ecologists, silviculturists, and soil scientists. Soil cores were transferred between forest For silviculturists, forest planners, and land manag- and meadow sites in order to study the effect of ers. Soil disturbance and effects on understory veg- disturbance, vegetation, and roots on nitrification etation resulting from harvesting aspen were char- and the community composition of ammonia-oxidiz- acterized along a disturbance gradient (from high to ing bacteria. Nitrification responded within 1 year to low): landings, skid trails, and areas off skid trails. the transfers, but little change was observed in the Soil disturbance and vegetation composition dif- composition of the ammonia-oxidizing bacteria. fered off skid trails from those on landings and skid trails, where they were similar. Sites that were more Brunner, AM, and O Nilsson. 2004. Revisiting tree diverse and less disturbed before harvest (winter- maturation and floral initiation in the poplar harvested sites) were less altered than less diverse, functional genomics era. New Phytologist 164: more disturbed sites (summer-harvested sites). The 43–51. Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

For tree geneticists and biotechnologists. The ge- opmental stage, and environmental conditions. They nome sequence of Populus trichocarpa was recently conclude that the best reference gene for a given set released. Researchers now have a new tool set to of conditions should allow very small but biologi- study developmental processes related to the peren- cally significant changes in gene expression to be nial and tree life strategies. Most of what is known detected. about regulation of the floral transition comes from research on the annual Arabidopsis thaliana. The Campbell, JL, O Sun, and BE Law. 2004. Supply side authors compare flowering inArabidopsis and trees controls on soil respiration among Oregon for- and discuss how recent findings in theArabidopsis ests. Global Change Biology 10: 1857–1869. system can be used in conjunction with those in the For ecologists and silviculturists. Annual soil respira- Populus system to elucidate the regulatory mecha- tion rates were compared with net primary produc- nisms for tree maturation and floral initiation. tion (NPP) and the allocation of carbon to various ecosystem pools in three forest types with different Brunner, AM, VB Busov, and SH Strauss. 2004. Poplar climates. Across the 36 plots, which also included genome sequence: functional genomics in an eco- three replicates of four age classes, annual soil respi- logically dominant plant species. Trends in Plant ration was moderately correlated with belowground Science 9: 49–56. NPP, but not with aboveground NPP. In spite of the For tree geneticists and biotechnologists. Poplars different climatic conditions, soil respiration per (Populus spp.) are widely used model organisms for unit live fine root biomass was similar in all forests. tree molecular biology and biotechnology, in addi- Trends among age classes within forest type were tion to providing a range of ecological services and inconsistent and did not necessarily reflect cross- wood products. The genome has been sequenced to site trends. The results are consistent with a strong approximately 6x depth, and many characteristics influence on soil respiration of carbohydrate supply make poplars especially useful in research, includ- to the rhizosphere. Belowground carbon allocation ing facile transformation, vegetative propagation, may affect some regional patterns of soil respira- rapid growth, relatively small genome, and extensive tion more than abiotic constraints on subsequent expressed sequence tags. The authors discuss how metabolism. these characteristics, coupled with the high genetic and ecological diversity, are allowing researchers to Castellano, MA, JM Trappe, and DL Luoma. 2004. probe the genetics controlling ontogeny, adaptation, Sequestrate fungi, pp. 197–213 in Biodiversity and physiology. of Fungi: Inventory and Monitoring Methods, GM Mueller, GF Bills, and MS Foster, eds. Elsevier Brunner, AM, IA Yakovlev, and SH Strauss. 2004. Vali- Academic Press, New York. dating internal controls for quantitative plant For fungal taxonomists, mycorrhiza researchers, gene expression studies. pp. n.a. BMC Plant Biol- and ecologists. Most sequestrate fungi (truffles and ogy 4(14): doi:10.1186/1471-2229-4-14. their allies) fruit belowground, so sampling for these For molecular plant biologists. In order to measure highly diverse organisms poses special challenges. gene expression accurately by real-time reverse The options are presented here, including various transcription PCR (RT-PCR), a valid reference must plot sizes and configurations and use of time-con- be used to normalize the data. The authors describe straint methods. a simple method to define and to evaluate measures of gene expression stability statistically and graphi- Chen, J, KT Paw U, SL Uslin, TH Suchanek, BJ Bond, cally from analysis of variance and linear regression. KD Brosofske, and M Falk. 2004. Net ecosystem In analyzing RT-PCR to study 10 poplar housekeep- exchanges of carbon, water, and energy in young ing genes, they found that the genes differed widely and old-growth Douglas-fir forests. Ecosystems 7: in expression stability, depending on tissue, devel- 534–544. 10 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

For ecologists and silviculturists. Understanding net some thirty years of Landsata data collection and ecosystem exchange (NEE) of carbon (C) and water the contributions of Landsat to ecology. in different ages and types of ecosystem is key to estimating the cumulative carbon budget at larger Colgan III, W, and JM Trappe. 2004. NATS truffle and scales. The authors used eddy-covariance to measure truffle-like fungi 10: Pachyphloeus thysellii sp. NEE of C, water, and energy in forests dominated nov. (Pezizaceae, Pezizomycotina). Mycotaxon 90: by Douglas-fir in the Wind River Valley, Washington. 281–284. They measured in a 40-year-old stand in 1998, a For fungal taxonomists and ecologists. This new truffle 20-year-old stand in 1999, and a 450-year-old stand species was discovered during field research on bio- in both years. During the warm, dry summers, all mass production of fungi in relation to forest thinning stands were net carbon sinks. For individual years, at Fort Lewis, Washington. Morphologically it is most the 450-year stand was a C source in 1998, but a closely related to a species from southern Europe. sink in 1999. As expected, the most C was assimi- lated and the least water was lost through evapo- Compton, JE, LS Watrud, LA Porteous, and S DeGrood. transpiration in the 40-year-old stand. 2004. Response of soil microbial biomass and Claridge, AW, and JM Trappe. 2004. Managing habitat community composition to chronic nitrogen for mycophagous (fungus-feeding) mammals: a additions at Harvard Forest. Forest Ecology and burning issue?, pp. 938–946 in Conservation of Management 196: 143–158. Australia’s Forest Fauna, 2nd Edition, D Lunney, For soil ecologists and microbiologists. Soil microbial ed. Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales, response to increases in ecosystem nitrogen (N) Mosman, NSW, Australia. availability may feed back on ecosystem carbon (C) For foresters, ecologists, and mycologists. Some and N dynamics. Soil microbial biomass, composi- proponents of frequent prescribed burning in Aus- tion, and substrate utilization were measured in pine tralia have suggested that burning promotes fruiting and hardwood stands at the Harvard Forest Chronic of truffle-like fungi used as a major food source by N Amendment Study. DNA community profiles were many small mammals. Field experiments and knowl- used to assess functional and structural genes for edge of fungal morphogenesis and ecology provide important N cycling processes. Added N decreased strong evidence that, in contrast, prescribed burning microbial biomass C in the O horizon in both stands either has little effect on fungal fruiting or may sup- and utilization of N-containing substrates in pine press it for a year or two postfire. soils. Fungal counts were not clearly related to added N. Microbial community DNA profiles, how- Cohen, WB, and SN Goward. 2004. Landsat’s role in ever, were greatly influenced by N addition. ecological applications of remote sensing. BioSci- ence 54: 535–545. Conradie, I, WD Greene, JF Cox, and GE Murphy. 2004. Value recovery with harvesters in southeastern For ecologists and others interested in remote sens- USA pine stands. Forest Products Journal 54(12): ing. In recent decades, explicit spatial and temporal 80–84. ecological studies have mushroomed, thanks to technological advances in remote sensing, geo- For logging planners and managers and forest engi- graphic information systems (GIS), and modeling. neers. Even though a cut-to-length harvest system Remote sensing allows modeling of biogeochemi- is thought by many to produce more values from cal cycles and characterization of land cover, for- cut stems, it is rarely used in southeastern forests. est structure and fragmentation, and biophysical The authors used optimization software to calculate attributes of vegetation. Data acquired by Landsat the optimal recoverable value and compared that sensors are the most pivotal remotely sensed data value with actual recovered value at three harvest in spatial and temporal scaling. The authors review sites. Actual recoveries ranged from 90% to 94% of 11 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

the optimal recoverable value. Value loss resulted terminant of plant growth have produced inconsistent from cutting fewer but longer logs than optimal, results. The authors proposed and tested the hypoth- harvester measuring errors, and cutting logs that did esis that the importance of neighborhood interac- not meet product specifications. tions is determined by the relative dominance of a particular species. The best predictors of growth of the Cornell, JL, and L Kellogg. 2004. Practical Methodol- dominant (taller) species and neighborhood interac- ogy for Operational Layout of Commercial Skyline tion indices of subordinate species were interaction Thinning Systems. Research Contribution 45, For- indices that reflected the size of a tree relative to the est Research Laboratory, Oregon State University, population. On the basis of their findings, they sug- Corvallis. gest that the size structure of plant populations may explain the spatial scale of plant interactions, and the For logging operators and harvest planners. On-the- relative dominance hypothesis may help to elucidate ground harvest unit layout, especially in skyline-thin- the mechanism of plant competition. ning operations, is critical to meeting multiple resource objectives of the land manager and maintaining the DiFazio, SP, GT Slavov, J Burczyk, S Leonardi, and SH economic viability of the timber-harvesting operator. Strauss. 2004. Gene flow from tree plantations This phase of an operation can optimize the layout and and implications for transgenic risk assessment, harvesting of a sale or unit. This publication is an over- pp. 405–422 in Plantation Forest Biotechnology view of practical methodology aspects for the layout for the 21st Century, C Walter and M Carson, eds. of skyline thinning operations and provides a general Research Signpost, Kerala, India. outline of the components of the overall planning process of skyline thinning operations. For tree geneticists and biotechnologists. The ability to measure and predict gene flow is critical in Curtis, RO, and DD Marshall. 2004. Douglas-fir growth assessing the impacts of transgenic forest plant- and yield: Research 1909–1960. Western Journal ings on surrounding populations and ecosystems. of Applied Forestry 19: 66–68. Integrating gene flow estimates with ecological and demographic data in spatially explicit simulation For silviculturists and forest historians. The authors models permits projections of transgene dispersal. of this article call The Yield of Douglas-fir in the Pa- The authors discuss several methods of measuring cific Northwest, (USDA Bulletin 201, 1961) “…per- gene flow and how to choose a method. They then haps the most influential single research publication present a case study of gene flow in poplar, in which ever produced in the Northwest”. It was the culmi- they combine a variety of data from a large-scale, nation of more than 50 years of research, set the long-term study into a spatial simulation model. pattern for research in other species in the region, Their results indicate that studies of long-distance, and, with its earlier versions (1930, 1949, 1961), rather than local, gene dispersal are most critical. greatly influenced owners to move to planned long- The model allows analysis of many scenarios of eco- term management. This article traces the history logical conditions and transgenic movements. and evolution of growth-and-yield research over 5 decades, including the principal figures and research Domec, JC, JM Warren, FC Meinzer, JR Brooks, and R stations involved. Coulombe. 2004. Native root xylem embolism and stomatal closure in stands of Douglas-fir and D’Amato, AW, and KJ Puettmann. 2004. The relative ponderosa pine: mitigation by hydraulic redistri- dominance hypothesis explains interaction dy- bution. Oecologia 141: 7–16. namics in mixed species Alnus rubra/Pseudotsuga For tree physiologists. Water moves passively from menziesii stands. Journal of Ecology 92: 450–463. moist to dry soil by way of roots. The authors investi- For silviculturists and ecologists. Previous studies of gated how this hydraulic redistribution affected root the importance of neighborhood competition as a de- hydraulic functioning during drought in young and 12 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

old-growth Douglas-fir and ponderosa pine trees growth, yield, and structural development were on four sites. As the dry season progressed, root studied in two trials, one using Pinus contorta and P. embolism increased to 55% loss of conductivity in ponderosa and the other using Abies grandis and P. the young Douglas-fir trees and 75% in the young ponderosa. As spacing increased, standing volume ponderosa pine, whereas loss of conductivity never and periodic annual increment decreased in both exceeded 30 or 40% in old growth of the respective trials. Early growth rates in mixed plots were fastest species. Hydraulic redistribution maintained soil wa- in the least shade-tolerant species and slowest with ter potentials at levels that reduced loss of shallow the most shade-tolerant. Initial differences in volume root functions in the old-growth trees of both spe- growth rates decreased with time in mixed-species cies. In the young ponderosa pine stand, where there plots. Mixing P. contorta and P. ponderosa did not was little hydraulic redistribution, root function was produce yield benefits, but mixingA. grandis and seriously impaired and did not recover well when P. ponderosa did seem to benefit yield at all spac- rains returned. In both species, root xylem embolism ings. Spacing and species composition are important appeared to act with stomata to limit water loss. influences in stand production and development. Hydraulic redistribution seems to be important in maintaining shallow root function and preventing Gartner, BL, JR Moore, and BA Gardiner. 2004. Gas in total stomatal closure during dry periods. stems: abundance and potential consequences for tree biomechanics. Tree Physiology 24: 1239– Filip, GM, CG Parks, FA Baker, and SE Daniels. 2004. 1250. Artificial inoculation of decay fungi into Douglas- For ecophysiologists. A survey of many species fir with rifle or shotgun to produce wildlife trees showed that sapwood typically contains about 20% in western Oregon. Western Journal of Applied gas content by volume. A modeling exercise showed Forestry 19: 211–215. that the gas may increase the stem’s mechanical For silviculturists and wildlife biologists. Snags provide stability by providing a wider stem diameter, thereby important nesting habitat for cavity-nesting birds. making the tree better able to withstand bending. Douglas-fir trees, either live or killed by topping, were inoculated with either Phellinus pini or Fomitopsis Gerson, EA, and RG Kelsey. 2004. Piperidine alkaloids cajanderi delivered by rifle (as inoculated dowels) or in North American Pinus taxa: implications for shotgun (as inoculated sawdust) or were treated with chemosystematics. Biochemical Systematics and sterile dowels or sawdust. After 5 years, mortality of Ecology 32: 63–74. topped trees was 100%, and at least half had sap For plant systematists and natural products chem- rot. Nearly 50% showed evidence of wildlife activists. Piperidine alkaloids were extracted from 10 ity. Sap rot incidence or wildlife did not differ among taxa of Pinus growing in the southwestern United the shooting or fungal treatments. None of the live States and Mexico. Eight contained alkaloids, one inoculated trees showed external evidence of decay contained only a trace, and one yielded no alkaloids. or wildlife use. Destructive sampling of live, shot trees On the basis of the alkaloid profiles,P. leiophylla var. showed decay in both sterile and viable inoculum. chihuahuana was deemed to be appropriately clas- Topping appears to be a faster way to create wildlife sified as a variety of P. leiophylla, the designation of habitat than shooting live trees. P. discolor as a separate species was supported, and it is suggested that P. ponderosa arizonica might be Garber, SM, and DA Maguire. 2004. Stand productivity a species distinct from P. ponderosa. Water stress did and development in two mixed-species spacing not alter alkaloid composition. trials in the Central Oregon Cascades. Forest Sci- ence 50: 92–105. Gonda, HE, DA Maguire, GO Cortés, and SD Tesch. For silviculturists and forest managers. The effects 2004. Stand-level height-diameter equations for of species composition and initial spacing on stand young ponderosa pine plantations in Neuquén, 13 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

Patagonia, Argentina: Evaluating applications Douglas fir Pseudotsuga( menziesii) were planted in of equations developed in the western United a range of proportions in mixed plantations in Or- States. Western Journal of Applied Forestry 19: egon. In some plantations the species were planted 202–210. simultaneously; in others, red alder was planted 5 years after Douglas-fir. Simultaneous planting For biometricians and forest mensurationists. Pon- slowed growth of Douglas-fir and resulted in low derosa pine is the most widely planted species in crown bases and a great deal of stem defect in red northern Patagonia, a region that shares several alder. When red alder was planted later, alder stem climatic and geographical characteristics with the Pacific Northwest. The authors tested two linear and form was not affected and height to crown base of two nonlinear height-diameter models commonly Douglas-fir decreased as the proportion of red alder used in the western United States for 127 plots in increased. Height to crown base of Douglas-fir was young ponderosa pine plantations in Patagonia. The increased when Douglas-fir density was doubled but models did not differ in any important way, but one was not affected when red alder was used to double of the nonlinear models had certain advantages. stand density. Lumber from either species grown in Biases may occur if missing heights within a plot are mixed stands may be inferior or have lower product estimated by regional, rather than plot-level, equa- recovery because of growth characteristics resulting tions. The height of trees in Patagonia was gener- from mixed species. ally overestimated when coefficients derived from trees in the Pacific Northwest were used in the two Hagar, J, S Howlin, and L Ganio. 2004. Short-term re- nonlinear models. sponse of songbirds to experimental thinning of young Douglas-fir forests in the Oregon Cascades. Groover, A, JR Fontana, C Ma, R Martienssen, SH Forest Ecology and Management 299: 333–347. Strauss, and R Meilan. 2004. Gene and enhancer For wildlife biologists, ornithologists, and silvicultur- trap tagging of vascular-expressed genes in pop- ists. Commercial thinning could be used to increase lar trees. Plant Physiology 134: 1742–1741. structural diversity of managed conifer stands, but For forest geneticists and biotechnologists. Using managers prescribing thinning need to know how transformation by Agrobacterium tumefaciens, the wildlife might respond to thinning regimens. The authors inserted gene and enhancer trap vectors authors studied how songbirds respond to three carrying the B-glucuronidase reporter gene into the intensities and patterns of thinning in 40-year-old poplar genome. About 40% of the genes expressed stands dominated by Douglas-fir. Thinning increased in leaves were expressed only in the veins. The species richness and diversity of breeding songbirds. genes governing development and function of stem Density increased in four species and decreased in secondary vascular tissues overlapped significantly five species after thinning, but thinning did not ex- with those genes governing primary vascular tissue clude any species. The authors suggest that a variety in other organs. This system eliminates the need for of thinning intensities and patterns should be used rounds of sexual recombination. Plant biologists to maximize avian and stand structural diversity in can use this system to reference the poplar genome young, conifer-dominated stands. sequence directly and to identify novel genes. Hann, DW, and ML Hanus. 2004. Evaluation of non- Grotta, AT, BL Gartner, and SR Radosevich. 2004. spatial approaches and equation forms used to Influence of species proportion and timing of predict tree crown recession. Canadian Journal of establishment on stem quality in mixed red alder Forest Research 34: 1993–2003. plantations. Canadian Journal of Forest Research For silviculturists and forest mensurationists. The 34: 863–873. authors modeled tree crown recession (ΔHCB) in For forest managers, silviculturists, and wood prod- Douglas-fir, using two nonspatial approaches. The ucts manufacturers. Red alder (Alnus rubra) and allometric method estimates ΔHCB from the differ- 14 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

ence in the height to crown base (HCB) predicted Holub, S, and K Lajtha. 2004. The fate and retention by a static HCB equation at the beginning and the of organic and inorganic 15N-nitrogen in an old- end of the growth period. The incremental method growth forest soil in western Oregon. Ecosystems predicts ΔHCB from an equation developed from 7: 368–380. permanent plot data. They tested two allometric For ecologists, ecophysiologists, and soil scientists. and six incremental equation forms, as well as three Because very little atmospheric nitrogen (N) is de- ways to determine the end-of-growth-period tree posited on forests in the Pacific Northwest, studies and plot attributes for the allometric method. The there can give some indication of the function of the best incremental equation form was superior to the N cycle in other regions before heavy deposition of best allometric equation forms in explaining varia- inorganic N began. The fate of N added to in situ soil tion. The best incremental form modified a previ- cores as ammonium, organic N, tannin-complexed ously developed nonlinear logistic equation by using organic N, and the N -fixing lichenLobaria oregana measured stand age instead of measured tree age, 2 was traced. Total 15N recovery was consistent from but this form can be applied only to data from even- aged stands. The second best incremental equation, the first to the last sampling dates, ranging from which can be applied to data from both even-aged 74% to 109% for all N additions. The largest N-re- and uneven-aged stands, uses tree growth effective tention pool was the litter/organic horizon. Microbial age instead of measured tree age in the nonlinear biomass initially contained nearly all the added am- equation. monium N in the litter/organic horizon and also was important in retention of N from the other forms of Harmon, ME, K Bible, MG Ryan, DC Shaw, H Chen, J N addition. When organic matter was complexed Klopatek, and X Li. 2004. Production, respira- with tannin, the cycling of N seemed to slow, but tion, and overall carbon balance in an old-growth the ultimate distribution of added organic N was Pseudotsuga—Tsuga forest ecosystem. Ecosys- not significantly affected. Retention of added N was tems 7: 498–512. affected little by season.

For ecologists and ecophysiologists. Carbon (C) Homann, PS, SM Remillard, ME Harmon, and BT Bor- stores, growth, mortality, litterfall, respiration, and mann. 2004. Carbon storage in coarse and fine decomposition were measured in an old-growth fractions of Pacific Northwest old-growth forest stand in Wind River Experimental Forest, Washing- soils. Soil Science Society of America Journal 68: ton. These measurements were used to estimate 2023–2030. gross and net primary production, autotrophic and heterotrophic respiration, and net ecosystem pro- For soil scientists and ecologists. Although soil is a duction. Total mean C stores were 61,990 g/m2, with major carbon (C) pool, estimates of soil C pools and 39,800 g/m2 stored as live C and 22,092 g/m2 in their controlling variables present considerable un- the detritus and mineral soil. Total mean net pri- certainty. This study set out to determine the impor- mary production was 597 g C/m2/year. Mean gross tance of the coarse fraction (>2 mm) in whole soil C primary production was estimated to be 1,906 g C pools in old-growth coniferous forests in the Pacific m2/yr from a mean autrotrophic respiration of 1,309 Northwest. Seven of the 18 forests sampled had C in g C/m2/year. Mean heterotrophic respiration was 577 the coarse fraction, averaging 23% of the whole-soil g C/m2/year.The long-term net ecosystem produc- C. After soil disaggregation, an average of 20% of tion indicated that this stand might be a small sink, the whole-soil C remained in the coarse fraction. The although eddy-flux measurements at the same site whole-soil C pool in the surface 100 cm of mineral indicated that it is a larger sink. The authors be- soil was positively related to available water capac- lieve that temporal differences between the sets of ity, annual precipitation, and coarse woody debris, measurements is the most likely explanation for the similar to results obtained with the fine fraction. discrepancy. Including the coarse fraction affects the quantifica- 15 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

tion of soil C pools in many old-growth forests in and absolute streamflow 1–5 and 15–25 years after the Pacific Northwest, although it does not change forest removal were positively related to the age of our understanding of the roles of climate and soil the forest when it was cut. texture in controlling soil C. Joseph, G, and R Kelsey. 2004. Ethanol synthesis and Irvine, J, BE Law, M Kurpius, PM Anthoni, D Moore, and aerobic respiration in the laboratory by leader P Schwarz. 2004. Age-related changes in ecosys- segments of Douglas-fir seedlings from winter tem structure and function and the effects on and spring. Journal of Experimental Botany 55: carbon and water exchange in ponderosa pine. 1095–1103. Tree Physiology 24: 753–763. For tree physiologists and silviculturists. Stem seg- For ecologists, ecophysiologists, and tree physiolo- ments from terminal leaders of Douglas-fir had gists. Even though structure and productivity change higher constitutive ethanol concentrations in May, as forests age, annual rates of water loss sometimes when cambial cells were actively metabolizing, than are not affected. The authors studied tree transpira- in December, when cambial cells were dormant. tion, leaf specific conductance, gross ecosystem pro- Various alterations of incubation conditions induced duction, and stand and leaf area indexes in young ethanol production, especially in December. The (~25 years), mature (~90 years), and old (~250 authors conclude that changes in cambium physiol- years) stands of ponderosa pine in a drought-prone ogy and phenology that can influence the induction region of central Oregon. When water was readily of fermentation and ethanol production need to be available, the difference in leaf specific conductance considered when comparing fermentation among (KL) between the youngest and the oldest trees was species, seasons, or ages. nearly six-fold; transpiration per unit leaf area was also highest in the young trees. When water became Jumpponen, A, AW Claridge, JM Trappe, T Lebel, and limiting, KL declined much more in young trees (5X) DL Claridge. 2004. Ecological relationships among than in mature (~2X) or old (<30%) trees. Gross hypogeous fungi and trees: inferences from association analysis integrated with habitat modeling. ecosystem production was 69–85% higher and wa- Mycologia 96: 510–525. ter use efficiency was 55–65% higher in the mature and old stands than in the young stands. For researchers in forest mycology and ecology. Association analyses by contingency tables and Jones, JA, and DA Post. 2004. Seasonal and succes- generalized linear modeling were compared to infer sional streamflow response to forest cutting and relationships among hypogeous (belowground-fruit- regrowth in the northwest and eastern United ing) ectomycorrhizal fungi. Both methods produced States. Water Resources Research 40(5):WO5203, similar results: some species formed positively asso- doi 10.1029/2003WR002952. ciated groups, indicating similar habitat preferences, whereas others were negatively associated. For forest hydrologists and forest managers. The authors analyzed daily observations of climate and Kelliher, FM, DJ Ross, BE Law, DD Baldocchi, and NJ streamflow at 14 treated/control basin pairs where Rodda. 2004. Limitations to carbon mineralization forests had been regrowing after removal in the in litter and mineral soil of young and old ponder- 1930–2002 period. One to 5 years after forest re- osa pine forests. Forest Ecology and Management moval, maximum daily increases were higher in co- 191: 201–213 nifer sites than at deciduous sites. Spring streamflow surpluses were observable up to 35 years after forest For soil scientists. In the ponderosa pine forests removal in conifer basins; in eastern deciduous for- of central Oregon, summer drought is a usual oc- est basins, however, deficits appeared in winter and currence. Forests there regenerate naturally after spring after 10–15 years. Changes in both relative clearcutting. Factors limiting mineralization were

16 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

compared in old and regenerating stands. The stands For plant ecologists and forestland managers. The were similar in mass of litter and dead fine roots authors developed multiple linear regression and

and in net mineral nitrogen (N) and CO2 carbon regression tree models for total and deciduous shrub (C) mineralization rates. Concentrations of total N, cover in the Oregon coastal province, using data extractable organic N, extractable C, and microbial from regional forest inventories and research and C and N were significantly higher in young stand-lit- mapped climatic and topographic information. In ter, likely because of litterfall from the understory in both types of models, forest structure variables were the young stand and the lack of understory in the most important in explaining total and deciduous old. Wetting increased net mineral N production in shrub cover. Tree models performed similarly to or field-moist soils and also increased litter and soil better than MLR models; their performance ap- microbial respiration rates. The availability of water pears to be greatly improved by response variable appeared to be much more limiting to mineralization transformation. Tree models provided a more explicit of litter and soil carbon than a lack of available C or understanding of relationships. They also provided N substrates. thresholds for anticipating shifts in shrub cover that are useful to forest managers. There are several pos- Kellogg, L, and B Spong. 2004. Production and Costs sible reasons why both types of models lack strong of Cut-to-length Thinning: Experience from the predictive power. Willamette Young Stand Project. Research Con- tribution 47, Forest Research Laboratory, Oregon Kramer, MG, P Sollins, and RS Sletten. 2004. Soil State University, Corvallis. carbon dynamics across a windthrow disturbance sequence in southeast Alaska. Ecology 85:2230– For harvest planners, forest managers, and forest 2244. engineers. Young (40- to 50-year-old) Douglas-fir stands in the Willamette National Forest in the For ecologists and soil scientists. Windthrow may Cascade Mountains of Oregon were commercially redistribute and mix mineral and organic soil hori- thinned to achieve vegetation- and wildlife-related zons in shallow mountain forest soils. The authors objectives. Harvesting and forwarding production examined the patterns of soil carbon (C) in water- and costs were compared among three mechanized sheds along a windthrow disturbance sequence. thinning treatments: light thin [(115 residual trees Light-fraction C pools were similar in all watersheds, per acre (tpa)], light thin with 0.5-ac openings but BH horizon heavy-fraction C pools and soil C (92 residual tpa), and heavy thin (53 residual tpa) stocks decreased markedly as disturbance increased. stands. Using data from detailed time studies, the Mobile organic C accumulated in mineral horizons authors developed two regression equations to primarily by sorption to mineral particles, especially predict delay-free harvest cycle and forwarding cycle in the thicker illuvial horizons. Mobile organic C also times. Delay information was gathered from both may have become immobilized through flocculation shift-level and detailed time studies. Total costs for of metal-bearing organic acids in the thicker illu- each treatment were obtained by combining costs vial horizons. In watersheds where windthrow had for harvesting, forwarding, and moving equipment produced more intense soil mixing, levels of strongly for the entire operation. Harvesting and forward- humified soil organic matter were lower, and more ing costs did not differ significantly between light of the organic matter was partially decomposed and and heavy treatments, but were higher in the light- particulate. thin-with-openings treatment. Total thinning costs ranged from $28.08 to $34.62/100 ft3. Krankina, ON, ME Harmon, WB Cohen, DR Oetter, O Zyrina, and MV Duane. 2004. Carbon stores, sinks, Kerns, BK, and JL Ohmann. 2004. Evaluation and pre- and sources in forests of northwestern Russia: diction of shrub cover in coastal Oregon forests Can we reconcile forest inventories with remote (USA). Ecological Indicators 4: 83–98. sensing results? Climatic Change 67: 257–272. 17 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

For forest ecologists and those interested in carbon are compared and discussed. The model was used to cycling. Carbon (C) stocks and fluxes in large forest simulate growth of a stand in Scotland for which net regions are primarily estimated from forest invento- ecosystem exchange measurements were available; ries and remote sensing data. Estimates of total C the assumptions that had to be made to estimate net and of mean C sinks in live forest mass in the St. Pe- ecosystem exchange from the model are discussed. tersburg region for the early 1990s, as obtained from Landsat imagery and from forest inventory data, Latta, G, and CA Montgomery. 2004. Minimizing the were consistent. Nineteen percent of the forest area cost to stand level management for older forest was a net C source. Minor increases in harvest or structure in western Oregon. Western Journal of declines in biomass growth could reverse the weak Applied Forestry 19: 221–231. average net C sink in total ecosystem biomass. For forest managers and policy makers, conservationists, and economists. Because old-growth forest Laliberte, AS, and WJ Ripple. 2004. Range contrac- is thought to have declined dramatically in area in tions of North American carnivores and ungulates. the Pacific Northwest, repeated thinning that leaves BioScience 54: 123–138. many fewer trees than the usual commercial thin For wildlife biologists and conservation biologists. has been proposed as a management strategy to Large-scale range contractions and expansions of stimulate development of older forest structure. 43 carnivores and ungulates in Canada, the United A random search heuristic and an individual tree States, and Mexico were examined. For 17 species, simulation model (ORGANON) were used to develop range had contracted over more than 20% of their cost-effective management regimes for softwood historic range. Species richness also declined mark- forest stands in western Oregon that would meet edly, with the temperate grasslands and broadleaf- older forest structural criteria, as defined by the mixed forest biomes losing the highest number of Oregon Department of Forestry, for 30 years before species, on average. The contractions were wide- clearcut harvest. These regimes achieve old forest spread and resulted from Euroamerican settlement structure at minimum reduction in the value of the and subsequent development. forest for timber production. The opportunity cost for such management, estimated for each of a wide Landsberg, JJ, and RH Waring. 2004. Top-down models range of stand types, was positively correlated with and flux measurements are complementary meth- site quality, stand age, and stocking. ods of estimating carbon sequestration by forest canopies: illustrations using the 3-PG model, pp. Law, BE, and S Verma. 2004. Introduction, pp. 1–5 37–50 in Forests at the Land-Atmosphere Inter- in Handbook of Micrometeorology. A Guide for face, M Mencuccini, J Grace, J Moncrieff, and KG Surface Flux Measurements and Analysis, X Lee, McNaughton, eds. Oxford University Press. W Massman, and B Law, eds. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston. For scientists interested in combining micrometeorological techniques with physiologically based growth For atmospheric scientists, micrometeorologists, and models to estimate the carbon storage by planta- ecosystem scientists. This chapter introduces a book tions. Micrometeorological measurement of surface comprising nine chapters developed by invited par- fluxes and biomass inventories are two of the most ticipants in a 2002 workshop hosted by AmeriFlux. important methods for estimating the carbon bal- The papers summarize and expand on the principal ance of forests. Values obtained by the two methods topics of the workshop: averaging and detrending, must be consistent. The authors show how a simple coordinate rotation, low and high frequency correc- process-based model (3-PG) can be used to bridge tions, flux corrections for cross contamination, time the gap between the two types of measurements. series analysis, post-field data quality control, and Several ecosystem models with flux measurements advection and modeling.

18 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

Law, BE, D Turner, J Campbell, OJ Sun, S Van Tuyl, Lee, X, W Massman, and B Law, eds. 2004. Handbook WD Ritts, and WB Cohen. 2004. Disturbance and of Micrometeorology. A Guide for Surface Flux climate effects on carbon stocks and fluxes across Measurements and Analysis, Kluwer Academic western Oregon USA. Global Change Biology 10: Publishers, Boston. 1429–1444. For atmospheric scientists and micrometeorologists. For ecophysiologists, ecosystem modelers, and Studies of surface-air flux are a critical component biometricians. Using simulations based on field and of micrometeorology, the study of near-ground remote-sensing observations and a process model, atmospheric processes at a relatively small scale. the authors produced a carbon (C) budget for the Micrometeorological methods are key to the stud- forest area of Oregon and determined the relative ies carried out by FLUXNET, the consortium of the influence of climate and disturbance on C stocks international networks of flux sites, but assumptions and fluxes among the ecoregions included. Simu- on which the methods are based have been restric- lated annual net ecosystem production (NEP) for tive and deficient. A uniform theoretical framework the whole region was 13.8 Tg C. The highest mean has also been lacking. In 2002, AmeriFlux hosted a NEP was in the Coast Range ecoregion; the lowest workshop to discuss standardization of flux diagnos- was in the East Cascades ecoregion. Ecoregions tics and analysis. The workshop participants devel- varied widely in mean C stocks and in above- and oped papers, presented in this book, on the topics belowground partitioning. Total C stock was 2765 perceived to be the most relevant to observation Tg C. Wildfires in 2002 caused a much larger flux and diagnostics of surface flux. of C to that atmosphere than had been the case during the late 1990s. Harvest removed ~5.5 Tg C Lehmkuhl, JF, LE Gould, E Cazares, and DR Hosford. annually from the study area over the 1995–2000 2004. Truffle abundance and mycophagy by north- period. Net biome production on the land indicates ern flying squirrels in eastern Washington forests. that the study area was a sink, compensating for Forest Ecology and Management 200: 39–65. ~52% of the state’s fossil carbon dioxide emissions For wildlife biologists and mycologists. Little is in 2000. known about truffle abundance and rodent mycophagy in dry interior montane forests. The authors Lee, K-S, WB Cohen, RE Kennedy, TK Maiersperger, and sampled four stands each in dry open ponderosa ST Gower. 2004. Hyperspectral versus multispec- pine forest, mesic young mixed conifer forest, and tral data for estimating leaf area index in four mesic mature mixed conifer forest at low elevations different biomes. Remote Sensing of Environment in the eastern Cascade Range. They sampled the soil 91: 508–520. for hypogeous sporocarps during two spring seasons For ecophysiologists and biometricians. Field mea- and collected fecal pellets from live-trapped flying surements of leaf area index (LAI) in four biomes squirrels over four fall seasons. Twenty-two species (row-crop agriculture, tallgrass prairie, mixed hard- were collected in all, 19 of which were Basidiomyco- wood-conifer forest, and boreal conifer forest) were tina. Eleven species contributed >90% of the truffle taken at the same general time and grain size by biomass in each cover type. Cover types differed both Landsat ETM+ and AVIRIS (airborne visible/ in truffle assemblages, richness, and biomass. Fall infrared imaging spectrometer) imagery. LAI was squirrel diets were about 78% fungi from 23 gen- predicted better by models with selected subsets era and 22% plant material. Cover type did not of individual AVIRIS channels than by broadband affect composition, richness, evenness, or fungus: datasets. Stronger models were obtained in general plant material ratio in the diet. More truffle genera when based on actual, rather than simulated, ETM+ were detected in fall fecal samples than in spring data. There appeared to be no inherent advantage soil samples. Although managing low-elevation dry to MODIS spectral properties over those of ETM+ in forest to obtain stable fire regimes might reduce estimating LAI. truffle diversity at the stand scale, it might increase 19 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

diversity and persistence long-term on the beta and For mycologists and silviculturists. Ectomycorrhizal landscape scale. fungi are good indicators of disturbance effects on below-ground ecosystems. The authors examined the Lesser, MR, M Cherry, and WH Parker. 2004. Investiga- effects of green-tree retention regimes on epigeous tion of limestone ecotypes of white spruce based (mushroom) and hypogeous (truffle) production in on a provenance test series. Canadian Journal of the spring and fall fruiting seasons. Two patterns Forest Research 34: 1119–1127. (aggregated and dispersed) and four levels (100, 75, 40, and 15%) of retention in three locations were For silviculturists. The authors examined the evi- used. The number of taxa was reduced least in the dence for limestone ecotypes in white spruce (Picea 75%-aggregate retention treatment and most in glauca (Moench) Voss) by remeasuring a series of the 15%-dispersed treatment. Sporocarp production provenance trials in Ontario. Test sites and prov- declined in all treatments after treatment. Sporocarp enances differed significantly, but there were no production was nearly eliminated from the 15%- significant interactions that would support the exis- aggregate treatment and significantly reduced in tence of limestone ecotypes. In contrast, an earlier the 15%-dispersed treatment. The 40%-dispersed field study showed a strong interaction between test treatment showed no treatment effect on the fall site and provenance bedrock type. Because of the crop. The authors conclude that combining dispersed design of the remeasured provenance trials and the and aggregated retention should be useful when way the provenances were classified, the results of maintaining sporocarp production is a management this study do not disprove the existence of limestone goal. The combination would ameliorate the effects ecotypes. of clearcutting and may maintain higher sporocarp production in the aggregates. Lipow, SR, K Vance-Borland, JB St Clair, J Henderson, and C McCain. 2004. Gap analysis of conserved Ma, C, SH Strauss, and R Meilan. 2004. Agrobacte- genetic resources for forest trees. Conservation rium-mediated transformation of the genome- Biology 18: 412–423. sequenced poplar clone, Nisqually-1 (Populus For forest geneticists, conservation biologists, and trichocarpa). Plant Molecular Biology Reporter 22: ecologists. The authors developed a gap analysis 311–312. approach to evaluate whether eight species of For forest biotechnologists. The complete DNA conifers in western Oregon and Washington had sequence of the Nisqually-1 poplar clone has been adequate genetic resources conserved in situ in released by the US Department of Energy. An ef- protected areas. They found that in most of the study ficient means of transformation and regeneration is region genetic resources were well protected in situ, required in order to improve the usefulness of this with the exception of noble fir in the Willapa Hills sequence in genomics research. The authors grew of southwest Washington. A possible in situ gap leaf disc and stem explants with a strain of Agrobac- for Douglas-fir in the southern Puget lowlands was terium tumefaciens that contained a plasmid vector compensated for by extensive ex situ resources in having genes for neomycin phosphotransferase the area. Their method was effective in evaluating (NPTII) and β-glucuronidase (GUS) and examined the genetic resources of forest trees across a large factors that affect transformation rate. The level of region. thidiazuron in the culture influenced transformation efficiency. The GUS gene was expressed in leaf, stem, Luoma, DL, JL Eberhardt, R Molina, and MP Amaran- and root tissue of transgenic plants, and both select- thus. 2004. Response of ectomycorrhizal fungus able and marker and reporter genes were found in sporocarp production to varying levels and pat- all lines with B-glucosidase activity. The protocol, terns of green-tree retention. 2004. Forest Ecol- which had a 6% efficiency, allowed recovery of ogy and Management 202: 337–354. transgenic plants in 6 months. 20 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

Mainwaring, D, and DA Maguire. 2004. The effect of McDowell, NG, DR Bowling, BJ Bond, J Irvine, BE Law, local stand structure on growth and growth effi- P Anthoni, and JR Ehleringer. 2004. Response ciency in heterogenous stands of ponderosa pine of the carbon isotopic content of ecosystem, and lodgepole pine in central Oregon. Canadian leaf, and soil respiration to meteorological and Journal of Forest Research 34: 2217–2229. physiological driving factors in a Pinus ponderosa ecosystem. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 18, For silviculturists and forestland managers. Basal GB1013, doi:10.1029/2003GB002049. area and height growth of individual trees in uneven-aged stands of ponderosa and lodgepole pine For ecophysiologists, soil ecologists, and tree physi- in central Oregon were analyzed. Distance-depen- ologists. The objective of this research was to de- dent variables improved growth prediction when termine whether meteorological and physiological added to models that had had only distance-inde- driving factors were related to ecosystem-respired 13 13 13 13 pendent variables. Small trees negatively affected δ C (δ CR), including soil-respired δ C (δ CR-soil) 13 13 the growth of larger trees. Volume growth efficiency and foliage-respired δ C (δ CR-foliage) over 2 weeks of lodgepole pine decreased with increasing levels in a 250-year-old ponderosa pine forest in central of spatial occupancy; efficiency of ponderosa pine, Oregon. Stomatal conductance (Gc) and net eco- however, was greatest when crown base sapwood system CO2 exchange were negatively correlated and crown projection areas were highest. The final with atmospheric vapor pressure deficit (vpd). There models distinguished between the effects of relative was a negative correlation, with a 2-day time lag, 13 13 height, which was positive, and increasing tree size, between δ CR and Gc, but δ CR was not correlated with other variables measured. The significant which was negative. 13 13 driving parameters for δ CR-soil and δ CR-foliage were Marshall, H, and GE Murphy. 2004. Economic evalu- different, possibly because of different controls over ation of implementing improved stem scanning the isotopic content of tissue-specific respiratory fluxes. Because the strong meteorological controls systems on mechanical harvester/processors. New of G and net ecosystem CO exchange were associ- Zealand Journal of Forest Science 34(2): 158–174. c 2 13 ated with similar variation in δ CR-soil, but only minor 13 13 For logging planners and forest engineers. Mechani- variation on δ CR, the authors conclude that δ CR is cal harvesters and processors increase productivity controlled by the time-dependent interaction be- and safety but are less efficient than motor manual tween canopy and belowground processes. log bucking systems in extracting the maximum value from a tree. The authors evaluated three McDowell, NG, DR Bowling, A Schauer, J Irvine, BJ procedures in terms of productivity, cost and value Bond, BE Law, and JR Ehrlinger. 2004. Associations recovery for scanning and bucking Douglas-fir between carbon isotope ratios of ecosystem res- and ponderosa pine: conventional operation, with piration, water availability, and canopy conduc- changes and decisions made by the machine opera- tance. Global Change Biology 10: 1767–1784. tor, automatic full scan before optimization and For ecophysiologists and tree physiologists. The bucking, and partial scanning of a portion of the authors tested whether canopy conductance regu- 13 stem, with qualities and dimensions forecast before lates the stable carbon isotope signature (δ CR) optimal bucking. New value improvement for the of ecosystem respiration in a semiarid old-growth automated scanning procedure ranged from -7% to ponderosa pine forest in Oregon. For comparison, 13 8% over the conventional procedure. The best net they also evaluated δ CR in a wet young plantation value improvement was obtained with the full-scan of Douglas-fir near the coast. At both sites, variabil- 13 procedure. Breakeven costs for new equipment for ity in δ CR was highest when rainfall was abundant 13 scanning, forecasting, and optimization ranged from and lowest during summer drought. The δ CR was $0 to over $2 million US, depending on several fac- consistently more positive in the pine forest than tors. in the Douglas-fir forest. In the Douglas-fir forest, 21 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

soil water content and vapor pressure deficit were with an old-growth forest. Transpiration, sap flux 13 the most important governors of δ CR, whereas δ density, and total stand sapwood area were greater 13 CR in the pine forest was relatively insensitive to in the young stand. Sap flux density was higher in these factors. Canopy-gas exchange appeared to young red alder than in young Douglas-fir and in old 13 be weakly coupled to δ CR on the dry site even Douglas-fir than in old western hemlock trees. The 13 when trees had groundwater access. The δ CR and greatest influences on stand differences in water soil temperature were strongly correlated with soil use were tree age, sapwood basal area, and species temperature during drought on both sites. The au- composition, in that order. The authors estimated thors conclude that their data support their original that vegetation in the riparian area of the young hypothesis that canopy-level physiology is a critical stand used 3.27X more water over the measurement 13 regulator of δ CR, but belowground respiration may period. Their reports support the suggestion that for- become more important during dry periods. est management changes site water balance.

Meilan, R, D Ellis, G Pilate, AM Brunner, and J Skin- Murphy, G, H Marshall, and MC Bolding. 2004. Adap- ner. 2004. Accomplishments and challenges in tive control of bucking on harvesters to meet genetic engineering of forest trees, pp. 36–51 in order book constraints. Forest Products Journal The Bioengineered Forest: Challenges to Science 54(12): 114–121. and Society, SG Strauss and HD Bradshaw, eds. For logging planners and forest engineers. Sensors Resources for the Future, Washington, DC. and computers on modern harvesters can optimally For forest geneticists and biotechnologists. The use buck each harvested stem to maximize its value. of transgenes in long-lived perennial crops, such as Basing optimal bucking on marking prices likely trees, has been achieved many times but still pres- will not give sufficiently high yields to meet order ents several challenges. Transgenes can be readily book constraints. The authors developed an adap- introduced into trees, but tissue culture techniques tive control heuristic and tested it on three virtual still do not allow growing trees from single cells. and one real-world stand in which the location and Furthermore, transgenes cannot yet be introgressed detailed description of every stem were known. into superior genotypes because of the long growth Using the heuristic improved compliance with order period of trees and the lack of suitable breeding book target proportions in all four stands. Improve- lines. Other challenges include stability of gene ment ranged from 17% to 22% when preharvest expression over the years or decades of a rotation; inventory data were used and 19% to 22% when soma clonal variation; and transgenic containment stem information was gathered during the harvest- and genetically engineered sterility, including social, ing process. political, and ethical, as well as scientific, considerations. The author discusses recent research in and Nalle, DJ, CA Montgomery, JL Arthur, S Polasky, and the relative importance of each of these areas. NH Schumaker. 2004. Modeling joint production of wildlife and timber. Journal of Environmental Moore, GW, BJ Bond, JA Jones, N Phillips, and FC Economics and Management 48: 997–1017. Meinzer. 2004. Structural and compositional For researchers in forest economics, wildlife popula- controls on transpiration in 40- and 450-year-old tion simulation modeling, and forest management. riparian forests in western Oregon, USA. Tree The authors demonstrate a method for spatial mod- Physiology 24: 481–491. eling of optimal forest management for timber pro- For ecophysiologists, tree physiologists, and silvicul- duction and selected wildlife populations. The model turists. The authors studied how tree age, species integrates an economic model of softwood log mar- composition, and sapwood basal area affect stand- kets with a biological wildlife population model. The level transpiration on two adjacent watersheds, one case study is set in the Cascade Range of western with a young, mature conifer forest and the other Oregon and models two wildlife populations (great 22 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

horned owl, which prefers old forest and can travel would bring tree composition and distribution to long distances, and porcupine, which prefers young resemble the continuous canopy cover at Wind River, forest and has limited dispersal capability) over 100 but such was not the case. Although fire suppres- years. The case study demonstrates potential ineffi- sion increased stem density at Teakettle, it did not ciency of current management with widely divergent fill gaps, stratify the canopy by shade tolerance, public and private ownership objectives, in compari- or otherwise produce patterns similar to those at son to a scenario in which ownerships are ignored Wind River. A minimum canopy cover needed for and landscape is managed optimally for timber and tree establishment may not have been present at the wildlife species. Teakettle. Reducing canopy cover to release regeneration should be used cautiously as a management Neilson, RP. 2004. Projecting potential landscape technique in the Southern Sierra Nevada. dynamics: issues and challenges, pp. 42–46 in Pro- ceedings: Views from the Ridge--Consideration Olson, GS, EM Glenn, RG Anthony, ED Forsman, PJ for Planning at the Landscape Scale. USDA Forest Loschl, WJ Ripple, and JA Reed. 2004. Modeling Service, General Technical Report PNW-GTR-596, demographic performance of northern spotted Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland OR. owls relative to forest habitat in Oregon. Journal of Wildlife Management 68: 1039–1053. For forest planners, resource managers, and landscape ecologists. Natural resource science and For ecologists, forestland managers, and avian management has shifted recently from a site-based, biologists. Little is known about how habitat affects single-issue perspective to a landscape perspective the demographic performance of northern spotted that recognizes the complexity, multiplicity, and owls. The authors developed models to relate owl interrelatedness of natural resources. The author survival and productivity to forest composition and discusses his personal views of the challenges landscape patterns, as well as age, sex, presence involved in predicting possible trajectories of com- of barred owls, and climate. Survival was affected plex landscapes over very large spatial extents from by the amount of late and midseral forests within small-scale processes. He restricts his comments to 1,500 m of nests and by precipitation during the the process-based approach to ecosystem modeling, nesting season. Reproductive rates were affected by as empirically based models cannot accept changing amount of edge between late and midseral forests climate as input. and other habitat classes, parent ages, amount of precipitation during nesting season, and presence of North, M, J Chen, B Oakley, B Song, M Rudnicki, A barred owls. Gray, and J Innes. 2004. Forest stand structure and pattern of old-growth western hemlock/Douglas- Parker, GG, ME Harmon, MA Lefsky, J Chen, R Van Pelt, fir and mixed-conifer forests. Forest Science 50: SB Weis, SC Thomas, WE Winner, DC Shaw, and JF 299–311. Franklin. 2004. Three-dimensional structure of an old-growth Pseudotsuga-Tsuga canopy and its For ecologists, silviculturists and forestland manag- implications for radiation balance, microclimate, ers. Competition for light resulting from fire sup- and gas exchange. Ecosystems 7: 440–453. pression should result in few gaps and higher stem density of shade-tolerant species. Species composi- For ecologists and ecophysiologists. The authors de- tion, structure, spatial pattern, and environmental termined the vertical distribution of foliage, crowns, factors were compared between two old-growth external surface area, wood biomass, and canopy forests: western hemlock/Douglas-fir at the Wind volume of an old-growth Douglas-fir/western River Canopy Crane Research facility in the Pacific hemlock forest in the central Cascades of southern Northwest and mixed conifer at the Teakettle Ex- Washington. They also estimated spatial variation perimental Forest in the southern Sierra Nevada. It of certain structural aspects and of microclimate. was hypothesized that fire suppression at Teakettle Large-stem crowns dominated the structure and 23 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

much of the spatial variation. Canopy surfaces in forest health initiatives need to understand bet- vertical profile generally were at a maximum in the ter how forest structure is related to susceptibility lower to middle third of the canopy. The height of to wildfires outside the range of natural variability that maximum and the value of the stand leaf area and how much treatment may be needed to reduce index varied according to method. The deep narrow susceptibility to an acceptable level. Working within crowns and numerous gaps render the outer canopy the ponderosa pine zone, the authors found that, on surface very complex. The surface area of the outer average, 86% of trees >5 cm in breast height were canopy is 12 times that of the ground and includes <101 years old, and young tree density was nega- a large, very porous volume that provides several tively correlated with that of old trees. Age classes qualitatively distinct environments. The authors dis- differed significantly in species composition. Model- cuss the implications of structural characteristics of ing predicted that crown kill would be >70% on 5 of old growth forests and the complexity they generate 14 plots and 50% on another 5 plots, but thinning in terms of ecosystem function. trees <20 cm dbh and burning to reduce logging slash would prevent torching even under extreme Pendall, E, S Bridgham, PJ Hanson, B Hungate, DW conditions. The amount of thinning required to Kicklighter, DW Johnson, BE Law, Y Luo, JP Me- prevent active crown fire was highly variable among gonigal, M Olsrud, MG Ryan, P Thornton, and S plots. Landsat Thematic Mapper might be useful for Wan. 2004. Belowground process responses to rapid risk assessment.

elevated CO2 and temperature: A discussion of observations, measurement methods, and models. Pilz, D. 2004. The Biscuit Fire Brewer’s Spruces. Conifer New Phytologist 162: 311–322. Quarterly 21(3): 6–11. For soil scientists and ecologists. Atmospheric For conifer enthusiasts. This article is a tale of

carbon dioxide (CO2) and temperatures are rising, symbolically replanting Brewer’s Spruce seedlings probably affecting ecosystem carbon (C) cycling, as into an area of the Kalmiopsis Wilderness-Siskiyou well as climate. Processes occurring underground National forest burned by the 2002 Biscuit Fire. regulate storage of large amounts of C and may be

quite sensitive to elevated CO2 and temperature. Pilz, D, NS Weber, MC Carter, CG Parks, and R Molina. They therefore are key in the global C cycle. Different 2004. Productivity and diversity of morel mush- components of the belowground ecosystem respond rooms in healthy, burned, and insect-damaged distinctively to environmental change. Increased C forests of northeastern Oregon. Forest Ecology

supply from elevated CO2, increased respiration and and Management 198: 367–386. decomposition rates from warming, and indirect For mycologists, forest managers, and mushroom effects on availability of soil moisture and nutrients harvesters. Morels are an important commercial may alter underground processes and affect long- crop. Using thinning and prescribed fire to recre- term net C storage. The authors synthesize what is ate conditions present in forests before wide-scale currently known about such belowground responses fire suppression presents opportunities to promote and feedbacks, discuss methodological challenges, morel crops, but our understanding of morel diver- and present approaches to integrating models and sity, ecology, and productivity precludes taking full measurements. advantage of such opportunities. This paper reports the first unbiased landscape-level estimates of morel Perry, DA, HA Jing, A Youngblood, and DR Oetter. 2004. mushroom productivity and describes several morel Forest structure and fire susceptibility in volcanic species, yet to be validly named, on the basis of landscapes of the eastern high Cascades, Oregon. genetic and morphological analysis. Three of five Conservation Biology 18: 913–926. putative species at the study sites fruited only on For conservation biologists, land managers, and burned soils in the first spring after a wildfire, and ecologists. Managers designing multidimensional two fruited either on unburned soils or in the sec- 24 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

ond year after a fire. In general, forests burned by beaver (Castor canadensis) populations, and food wildfire were more productive than those disturbed webs. Risk of predation may profoundly affect the by insect damage; healthy forests were the least structure of ecosystems and native biodiversity. productive. Additional research is needed to understand how lethal and nonlethal effects of predation interact in Puente, ME, CY Li, and Y Bashan. 2004. Microbial structuring ecosystems. populations and activities in the rhizoplane of rock-weathering desert plants. II. Growth promot- Ripple, WJ, and RL Beschta. 2004. Wolves, elk, willows, ing of cactus seedlings. Plant Biology 6: 643–650. and trophic cascades in the upper Gallatin Range For forest and microbial ecologists. In order to assess of Southwestern Montana, USA. Forest Ecology growth promotion of cactus seedlings by four bacte- and Management 200: 161–181. rial species isolated from the rhizoplane of cacti For ecologists, wildlife biologists, and land manag- growing in bare lava, bacteria were inoculated onto ers. From the mid-1920s to the mid-1990s, wolves cacti seedlings placed in ground rocks. The bacteria (Canis lupus) were absent from the upper Gallatin fixed nitrogen and weathered the rocks, mobilizing winter range of elk (Cervis elaphus) in Montana. useful minerals. Inoculation promoted survival and The authors found that willow (Salix spp.) had been growth of cactus and helped supply essential miner- browsed to the point of suppression when wolves als for at least 12 months. were gone, but browsing intensity diminished in some areas after their return. To examine whether Puente, ME, Y Bashan, CY Li, and VK Lebsky. 2004. browsing levels reflect terrain that influences pre- Microbial populations and activities in the rhizo- dation risk for elk, the authors measured browsing plane of rock-weathering desert plants. I. Root intensities and heights of Booth willow (S. boothii) colonization and weathering of igneous rocks. along the Gallatin River and a tributary. In narrow Plant Biology 6: 629–642. regions of the Gallatin Valley, where predation risk For forest ecologists and microbiologists. To deter- is high, willows were relatively tall. Willows in more mine bacteria and fungi in the rhizoplane of desert open or upland areas, where predation risks are plants, such as cacti and wild fig trees, growing in low, generally remained short. The authors discuss rocks, root samples were observed by bright-field alternative mechanisms but conclude that changes and fluorescence microscopy and emission scanning in willow communities as wolves were removed and electron microscopy. The dominant bacterial groups then reintroduced were consistent with a top-down colonizing the rhizoplane were fluorescent pseu- trophic cascade model. They suggest that wolf domonads and bacilli. Some of the microorganisms recovery may be a management option in efforts

fixed in vitro 2N and produced volatile and nonvola- to restore riparian plant communities and sustain tile organic acids, which could be involved in chemi- biodiversity. cal weathering of rocks. Rock, J, KJ Puettmann, HA Gockel, and A Schulte. Ripple, WJ, and RL Beschta. 2004. Wolves and the ecol- 2004. Spatial aspects of the influence of silver ogy of fear: Can predation risk structure ecosys- birch (Betula pendula L.) on growth and quality tems? BioScience 54: 755–766. of young oaks (Quercus spp.) in central Germany. Forestry 77: 235–247. For ecologists and wildlife biologists. Wolves (Canis lupus), major predators of large herbivores, disap- For silviculturists and forestland managers. The peared from Yellowstone National Park in the mid- authors investigated how interference by silver birch 1920s and were reintroduced in 1995. The authors (Betula pendula L.) influences oaks in clusters. On examined the trophic cascades of carnivore-her- one site, oaks were smaller and birch exerted no bivore interactions on woody browse species and consistent interference on height or diameter at ecological responses, involving riparian functions, breast height. On the second site, where the oaks 25 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

were larger, the birch had a negative influence. Inter- Proceedings of the Second Conference on Klam- ference did not affect crown type. Oak crown centers ath-Siskiyou Ecology, May 29–31, 2003, Cave shifted away from birch, and proportion of trees Junction, Oregon. Siskiyou Field Institute, Cave with good stem form increased with distance from Junction, Oregon. birch. Foresters may be able to determine when to For silviculturists and plant ecologists. Diverse spe- remove the influence of overtopping birch by moni- cies composition, steep environmental gradients, toring crown shift. and lack of understanding of regional variation in Salwasser, H. 2004. Future forests: environmental and riparian vegetation make riparian restoration in the social contexts for forest biotechnologies, pp. Klamath-Siskiyou region challenging. The authors 3–11 in The Bioengineered Forest: Challenges to conducted a riparian inventory extending from the Science and Society, SG Strauss and HD Bradshaw, eastern Siskiyou Mountains to the Coast Range of eds. Resources for the Future, Washington, DC. northwest Oregon. Four watersheds were included. Species sorted independently along the gradients For forest biotechnologists and policymakers. For- and were associated with specific climatic, topo- ests provide many social, cultural, ecological, and graphic, and disturbance settings. The authors pro- material benefits, but forests are diminishing in area pose strategies for riparian restoration based on the overall while human populations are growing. The observed complex patterns of response of species to author discusses what will be required for sustain- environmental variation and life history strategies. able management so that forests can continue to provide the values and services that we have come Sarr, D, K Puettmann, R Pabst, M Cornett, and L Argui- to expect. ello. 2004. Restoration ecology: New perspectives and opportunities for forestry. Journal of Forestry Santiago, LS, G Goldstein, FC Meinzer, JB Fisher, K 102(5): 20–24. Machado, D Woodruff, and T Jones. 2004. Leaf photosynthetic traits scale with hydraulic con- For restoration and forest ecologists and forest man- ductivity and wood density in Panamanian forest agers. Restoration ecology has become increasingly canopy trees. Oecologia 140: 543–550. important in land management. The authors discuss the relationship and opportunities for exchange be- For plant physiologists and wood anatomists. Water tween restoration ecology and forestry. They present transport capacity, wood density, and wood anatomy two case studies, one conducted in California and were studied with respect to their relationship to leaf one in Minnesota, that demonstrate how concepts photosynthetic traits in 20 species of canopy trees. of restoration ecology can contribute to the field Allocation to photosynthetic potential appeared to be of forestry. They conclude that forestry can gain proportional to maximum water capacity. As water conceptual breadth, new techniques for research transport efficiency varied, efficient use of water and management, and new jobs from implementing appeared to be traded off against efficient use of ni- restoration ecology. trogen in photosynthesis. Wood density may constrain physiological functions to specific operating ranges. Schwarz, PA, BE Law, M Williams, J Irvine, M Kurpius, The results thus link photosynthetic allocation with and D Moore. 2004. Climatic versus biotic con- branch hydraulics and indicate that tree hydraulic straints on carbon and water fluxes in seasonally architecture can provide insight into comparisons of drought-affected ponderosa pine ecosystems. leaf level measurements among species. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 18:GB4007, doi:10.1029/2004GB002234. Sarr, DA, and DE Hibbs. 2005. Woody plant distributions in western Oregon riparian forests: insights For plant physiologists and ecologists. Climatic and for restoration and management, pp. 119–127 in biotic controls on gross primary production (GPP) KL Mergenthaler, JE Williams, and ES Jules, eds. and water vapor fluxes were studied over 4 years

26 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

in young, mature, and old stands of ponderosa pine may occur because the growth form and reproduc- in eastern Oregon that are seasonally affected by tive biology of the species promote near-neighbor drought. Climatic variation exerted the least effect pollinations. More information about the genetic on GPP at the old stand and the greatest at the variation of adaptive traits is needed. mature stand. Interannual variation in leaf area influenced fluxes in the young stand more than did Slavov, GT, GT Howe, I Yakolev, KJ Edwards, KV Kru- climate. The old stand also had the lowest interan- tovskii, GA Tuskan, JE Carlson, SH Strauss, and nual variation of net ecosystem exchange (NEE). In WT Adams. 2004. Highly variable SST markers landscapes with a high frequency of younger stands, in Douglas-fir Mendelian inheritance and map climatic variation and leaf area change between locations. Theoretical and Applied Genetics 108: years likely will produce large interannual variation 873–800. in GPP and NEE. For tree geneticists and biotechnologists. The authors developed 22 highly variable SSR markers in Skov, K, TE Kolb, and KF Wallin. 2004. Tree size and Douglas-fir and confirmed their Mendelian inheri- drought affect ponderosa pine physiological re- tance. Twenty markers were mapped to 10 linkage sponse to thinning and burning treatments. Forest groups. Fifteen single-locus markers were considered Science 50: 81–91. to be the most suitable for DNA fingerprinting and For silviculturists and forestland managers. The parental analysis because they were highly polymor- responses of trees established pre- and post- Eu- phic and had unambiguous phenotypes. roAmerican settlement to three levels of thinning and burning were examined. The treatments were Smith, JE, D McKay, CG Niwa, WG Thies, G Brenner, unthinned/unburned (control), light thinning and and JW Spatafora. 2004. Short-term effects of burning, and heavy thinning and burning. The study seasonal prescribed burning on the ectomycor- took place over two years that differed in precipi- rhizal fungal community and fine root biomass in tation. Predawn water potential of both pre- and ponderosa pine stands in the Blue Mountains of post-settlement trees were consistently higher in Oregon. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 34: both thinning treatments than in the control. Net 2477–2491. photosynthetic rate and stomatal conductance For researchers and managers in forest ecology and increased in the thinned treatment only when soil soils. In order to determine the effects of seasonal water availability was lowest; increases were greater prescribed fire on the belowground ectomycorrhizal in post-settlement trees. Thinning did not affect community and live fine root biomass, ectomycor- foliar nitrogen. rhizae were sampled from four replications of three treatments (fall underburning, spring underburning, Slavov, GT, and P Zhelev. 2004. Allozyme variation, and a unburned control) before and after underburn- differentiation, and inbreeding in populations of ing. Live root biomass following spring underburning Pinus mugo in Bulgaria. Canadian Journal of For- was similar to the unburned treatment, whereas live est Research 34: 2611–2617. root biomass was largely removed to a depth of 10 For tree geneticists. Ten polymorphic allozyme loci cm by fall underburning. The successful reintroduc- were used to assess genetic variation in 17 popu- tion of fire to the ecosystem to achieve the desired lations of Pinus mugo. Polymorphism and gene future condition of large-tree ponderosa pine re- diversity were comparable to mean values for tention with low fuel loads may require more than gymnosperms, but somewhat lower than in pines underburning in a single season. with large, continuous ranges. There was no differentiation among populations or isolation by distance. Smith, TG, and CC Maguire. 2004. Small-mammal All loci in all populations showed moderate levels of relationships with down wood and antelope inbreeding. This nonequilibrium population structure bitterbrush in ponderosa pine forests of central 27 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

Oregon. Forest Science 50: 711–728. cayed CWD were not affected by its presence. CWD exerted only a slight effect on soil chemistry, which For ecologists and mammologists. Little is known was limited to surface mineral soils. about the interactions between down wood or antelope brittle brush (Purshia tridentata) with small Sterky, F, RR Bhalerao, P Unneberg, B Segerman, P mammal populations in the ponderosa pine forests Nilsson, AM Brunner, L Charbonnel-Campaa, JJ of central Oregon. The authors estimated population Lindvall, K Tandre, SH Strauss, B Sundberg, P density, survival, and reproductive status of yellow- Gustafsson, M Uhlen, RP Bhalerao, O Nilsson, G pine chipmunks (Tamias amoenus), golden-mantled Sandberg, J Karlsson, J Lundeberg, and S Jansson. ground squirrels (Spermophilus lateralis), and deer 2004. A Populus EST resource for plant functional mice (Peromyscus maniculatus) under three down- genomics. Proceedings of the National Academy wood and shrub cover conditions on ponderosa of Sciences 101: 13,951–13,956. pine/antelope bitterbrush forests. Ground squirrel survival was more than four times higher on units For tree geneticists and biotechnologists. The au- with high down-wood volume, and higher down- thors analyzed 102,019 expressed sequence tags wood volume also was associated with increased (ESTs) of Populus, the internationally accepted ground squirrel density. Chipmunk densities were model for molecular tree biology. The ESTs clustered 57% higher on units with higher total shrub cover, into 11,885 clusters and 12,759 singletons. They also and increases in both total shrub and live bitter- provided more than 400 full clone sequences. These brush cover were associated with increased chip- will provide a basis for future annotation of the munk density. Neither down-wood volume or shrub Populus genome sequence. The coding content of cover affected deer mouse populations significantly. the perennial Populus genome is very similar to that Management activities influencing down wood or of the annual Arabidopsis thaliana, indicating that bitterbrush likely will also change the composition of differences in gene regulation are primarily respon- small mammal communities. sible for differences in their life forms. Because their genomes are so similar, information on the function- Spears, JDH, and K Lajtha. 2004. The imprint of coarse al genome of each genus will be valuable for studies woody debris on soil chemistry in the Western of the other. Oregon Cascades. Biogeochemistry 71: 163–175. For biogeochemists, soil ecologists, and those inter- Strauss, SH. 2004. GE trees: the buzz is not from chain- ested in nutrient recycling. As coarse woody debris saws. TimberWest (May/June): 50. (CWD) turns into dissolved organic matter (DOM), it For timber producers and members of the public. may create a spatially defined chemical imprint on Although genetically engineered (GE) trees have the soil. DOM is carbon-rich and acidic, and many been widely used in some countries, such as Chile, soil processes are associated with it. The potential Brazil, and China, consumers in Europe, Japan, and, imprint of CWD was investigated by sampling leach- to some extent, the United States and elsewhere, are ates, soil solutions, and soil under CWD in different concerned that the plants produced by biotechnol- states of decay; control samples were taken from ogy are dangerous. The author explains the current under the forest floor without CWD. Leachates from practices of biotechnology, presents the concerns of CWD had lower pH and higher levels of polyphenols those opposed to its use, and discusses precautions and DOC than controls; chemical fractions of the being implemented to meet those concerns and DOC, however, were similar in CWD and control allow bioengineered trees to help meet the wood leachates. Soil under CWD had lower pH, more ex- products needs of the future. changeable acidity, and more exchangeable alumi- num and iron than control soils. Differences between Strauss, SH, and AM Brunner. 2004. Tree biotechnology control soils and those under CWD disappeared at in the 21st century: Transforming trees in the light depths >5 cm, and soils under the most highly de- of comparative genomics, pp. 76–97 in The Bioen- 28 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

gineered Forest: Challenges to Science and Soci- liable. Biosafety can be improved by several means, ety, SG Strauss and HD Bradshaw, eds. Resources given the needed time, commitment, and partner- for the Future, Washington, DC. ships. For tree geneticists and biotechnologists. Genetic Sun, OJ, J Campbell, BE Law, and V Wolf. 2004. Dynam- engineering allows isolation, modification, and ics of carbon storage in soils and detritus across reinsertion of genes and effective trait modifications chronosequences of different forest types in the within the same or among different species. Genetic Pacific Northwest, USA. Global Change Biology engineering complements traditional breeding pro- 10: 1470–1481. grams for trees, particularly in enabling deployment of novel, dominant “domestication” alleles that For forest ecologists and biogeochemists. The ob- increase productivity or product quality in inten- jectives of this study were to determine (1) the sively managed situations while presenting very influence of climate and forest type on variation little threat to wild populations. Both technical and of carbon (C) stocks and fluxes in soils and detrital biosocial constraints present obstacles to genetic pools and (2) solid and detrital C accumulation and engineering in trees, and research is the most critical turnover after stand-replacing disturbance. Carbon need if genetically engineered products are to be in soils and detritus (forest floor and woody debris) commercially available in the next 10 to 20 years. was determined in chronosequences in stands that ranged in age from <13 to >600 years and repre- Strauss, SH, and FM Martin. 2004. Poplar genomics sented the range of forest types in the Pacific North- comes of age. New Phytologist 164: 1–4. west. Soil C (to 100 cm depth) ranged from 36 ± 10 kg C/m2 in coastal Sitka spruce/western hemlock For tree geneticists and biotechnologists. In this forests to 7 ± 10 kg C/m2 in semiarid ponderosa commentary, the authors describe the increase in pine forest, with forests across the Cascade Moun- value of poplars as a model for molecular tree biol- tains having values between 10 and 25 kg C/m2. ogy over the past decade. The genome sequence Soil and detritus C turned over fastest on mesic soon to be released will provide a catalog of all sites of Douglas-fir/western hemlock forests in the genes and their regulatory environments. The field is Cascade Mountains. The relative contribution of soil now moving into detailed studies over a wide range and detritus C to total ecosystem C decreased as of topics, including developmental processes, adap- a negative exponential function of stand age in all tation to biotic and abiotic stresses, and metabolism. forest types. Solid C storage reached the asymptote Poplars have extensive populations in the wild and a between 150–200 years. diversity of uses, and the precise genetic dissection of the genus that is becoming possible therefore Suzuki, N and BC McComb. 2004. Associations of small has important, often direct, implications for ecology, mammals and amphibians with beaver-occupied conservation, breeding and biotechnology. streams in the Oregon Coast Range. Northwest Science 78: 286–293. Strauss, SH, AM Brunner, VB Busov, C Ma, and R Mei- For wildlife biologists and ecologists. Beavers cause lan. 2004. Ten lessons from 15 years of transgenic disturbances near streams that may influence habi- Populus research. Forestry 77: 455–465. tat of small mammals and amphibians. Beaver-occu- For forest biologists and breeders. In the experience pied and unoccupied reaches of five streams in the of the authors with transgenic poplars in both the Oregon Coast Range were examined with respect laboratory and the field, transformation has proven to vegetation structure and capture rates of small to be extremely useful in biotechnology and func- mammals and amphibians. Occupied reaches had tional genomic research. They discuss 10 points they less percent cover by stinking currant and all shrubs have learned from their experience and conclude combined and greater cover by elderberry, grasses, that transformation in this organism is extremely re- and sedges than did unoccupied reaches. Captures 29 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

of individual species of small mammals and amphib- all species, the inclusion of the relative position of a ians were the same in occupied and unoccupied tree and stand density in the base height-diameter reaches, but species typical of early successional models increased the accuracy of prediction. stages or ponds were captured more frequently in occupied reaches. Capture rates of five species of Tollefson, JE, FJ Swanson, and JH Cissel. 2004. Fire small mammals were more variable in occupied severity in intermittent stream drainages, west- reaches. The authors suggest that this high variabil- ern Cascade Range, Oregon. Northwest Science ity is associated with the more diverse vegetative 78: 186–191. and physical characteristics of occupied reaches. For ecologists and forestland managers. Postfire live canopy cover in streamside and upland zones Swanston, C, PS Homann, BA Caldwell, DD Myrold, L on southeast and southwest facing slopes of 33 Ganio, and P Sollins. 2004. Long-term effects of watersheds was estimated from aerial photographs. elevated nitrogen on forest soil organic matter Canopy cover was essentially the same in stream- stability. Biogeochemistry 70: 229–252. side and upland areas. Severity data from aerial For forest ecologists and biogeochemists. This study photographs and from filed data were highly cor- addressed how nitrogen (N) addition may change related. Fire severity may differ along streams of decomposition rate in five organic matter pools: difference sizes, contributing to structural diversity organic horizons (Oe+a), whole mineral soil (WS), on the landscape scale. and the light fraction (LF), heavy fraction (HF), and a physically recombined fraction (RF) of the mineral Trappe, JM. 2004. Habitat and host associations of soil. Respiration, mineralized N, and active microbial Craterellus tubaeformis in northwestern Oregon. biomass were measured after a 300-day incubation. Mycologia 96: 498–509. Cumulative respiration was 15% lower in samples Understanding the ecological characteristics of the with elevated N. Respiration was twice as high in winter chanterelle (Craterellus tubaeformis) is key to the Oe+A as in the LF and 35% higher in the WS its conservation and requires knowledge of its habitat than in the RF. Nitrogen treatments were similar in and host associations. The authors surveyed forest mineralized N, as were the LF and HF. Net N mineral- types in northwestern Oregon for mycorrhizal associ- ized decreased with higher C:N ration in the LF, but ates. They found that stand age and the presence increased in the HF. Active microbial biomass the WS of well-decayed coarse woody debris (CWD) were sig- and RF decreased towards the end of the incuba- nificantly related to chanterelle occurrence, especially tion, corresponding with decreasing respiration and in stands <100 years old, but not to standing crop increasing nitrate. Elevated N had a stabilizing effect biomass. Probability of occurrence and crop biomass on organic matter in both whole soil and soil frac- were not related to slope, elevation, or aspect. The tions in the long term. occurrence of chanterelles in the area was highly correlated with the presence of western hemlock (Tsuga Temesgen, H, and KV Gadow. 2004. Generalized height- heterophylla), and their mycorrhizal association was diameter models for major tree species in complex confirmed. This species can also form mycorrhizae stands of interior British Columbia, Canada. Euro- with Douglas-fir and Sitka spruce Picea( sitchensis), pean Journal of Forest Research 123: 45–51. but rarely does so unless hemlock is also present. For researchers in growth-and-yield modeling. Two Genetic differences in chanterelle populations sug- sets of tree height and diameter functions were gest that there may be several species in eastern and evaluated for their predictive abilities for major tree western North America and Europe. species in British Columbia. The first set estimated height as a function of individual tree diameter; the Trappe, JM. 2004. The ways of herbaria: a cautionary second set estimated height as a function of indi- note for users of herbarium collections. Inoculum vidual tree diameter and stand-level attributes. For 55(3): 3–4. 30 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

For taxonomic, ecologic and molecular researchers. these are a C sink. Mean annual harvest was greater Organism names on collections in herbaria are often than mean annual net ecosystem production. Rela- incorrect. Taxonomists, ecologists and molecular tively little of the site on the west Cascades had biologists should confirm the identity of herbarium been harvested, and the area was accumulating C. materials used in their research to avoid wrongly designating the species reported in their publica- Turner, DP, SV Ollinger, and JS Kimball. 2004. Integrat- tions. ing remote sensing and ecosystem process models for landscape- to regional-scale analysis of Treuhaft, RN, BE Law, and GP Asner. 2004. Forest at- the carbon cycle. BioScience 54: 573–584. tributes from radar interferometric structure and For researchers interested in monitoring forest its fusion with optical remote sensing. BioScience productivity and carbon sequestration. This paper 54: 561–571. reviews recent developments in remote sensing For forest ecologists and researchers in remote sens- and ecosystem modeling related to analysis of the ing. Changes in forest vegetation structure can sub- carbon cycle. Satellite capabilities with respect to stantially impact the carbon cycle and other ecologi- mapping vegetation type, biomass, stand age, phe- cal processes, thereby affecting carbon storage and nology, leaf area index, and net ecosystem produc- climate. InSAR (interferometric synthetic aperture tion are discussed. Simulating modeling is described radar) adds a vertical dimension to two-dimensional as a means to synthesize satellite data, distributed remote sensing and complements the capabilities of meteorological data, and our best understand of lidar (light detection and ranging), allowing global, biophysical processes. three-dimensional remote sensing of forest structure that can improve assessment of forest structure and Turner, DP, S Ollinger, ML Smith, O Krankina, and M associated biophysical quantities, such as biomass. Gregory. 2004. Scaling net primary production to Future InSAR experiments, recent airborne and a MODIS footprint in support of Earth Observing spaceborne demonstrations, and information provid- System product validation. International Journal ed by ecologists about structure will suggest ways to of Remote Sensing 25: 1961–1979. measure global vegetation structure from space. For researchers interested in mapping and monitor- Turner, DP, M Guzy, MA Lefsky, WD Ritts, S van Tuyl, ing net primary production. Net primary produc- and BE Law. 2004. Monitoring forest carbon tion (NPP) is beginning to be estimated based on sequestration with remote sensing and carbon imagery from Earth orbiting satellites. This paper cycle modeling. Environmental Management 33 compares three approaches to using ground-based (4):457–466. measurements of NPP to produce NPP data layers for the purposes of validating the satellite-derived For researchers interested in landscape ecology and NPP estimates. A notable benefit of a scaling ap- carbon flux. Carbon (C) flux associated with forest proach based on ecosystem process models is that harvesting, as well as with the biological processes the biophysical mechanisms associated with the of net primary production and heterotrophic respira- variations in NPP are treated. tion, was analyzed for two study areas in western Oregon. The approach employed Landsat satellite Unsworth, MH, N Phillips, T Link, BJ Bond, M Falk, imagery and the Biome-BGC ecosystem process ME Harmon, TM Hinckley, D Marks, and KT Paw model. The Coast Range and West Cascades sites U. 2004. Components and controls of water flux differed significantly in terms of the rate that C in an old-growth Douglas-fir—western hemlock was being sequestered on the landscape. The Coast ecosystem. Ecosystems 7: 468–481. Range site was mostly private land managed for timber production. Much of this area was in young, For tree physiologists and ecophysiologists. Rates of productive age classes, and simulations indicate sap flow in dominant trees, changes in soil moisture, 31 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

and evaporation from coarse woody debris were of insects and produced normal capsules and mature measured in an old-growth Douglas-fir/western seeds, whereas ovaries of flowers from which insects hemlock ecosystem during dry summer periods at had been excluded produced small capsules and Wind River, Washington. In order to examine the fac- undeveloped or no seeds. Flowers showed an early- tors controlling the components of ecosystem water acting self-incompatibility system in which germi- loss, the measurements were compared with eddy- nating pollen tubes failed to reach the ovary. After covariance measurements of water-vapor fluxes cross-pollination by hand, pollen tubes penetrated above the forest (Ee) and at the forest floor (Eu). to the ovary. Insect cross-pollination also resulted in Transpiration accounted for about 70% of (Ee-Eu). penetration of pollen tubes to the ovary. The self- The data suggest that water partitioning between incompatibility system in this species resembles that understory and overstory changed over the season. in some species of Trillium, a closely related species.

Valachovic, YS, BA Caldwell, K Cromack, Jr, and RP Wagner, RG, M Newton, EC Cole, JH Miller, and BD Griffiths. 2004. Leaf litter chemistry controls on Shiver. 2004. The role of herbicides for enhancing decomposition of Pacific Northwest trees and forest productivity and conserving land for biodi- woody shrubs. Canadian Journal of Forest Re- versity in North America. Wildlife Society Bulletin search 34: 2131–2147. 32: 1028–1041. For soil scientists and forest ecologists. Initial leaf lit- For forest managers and wildlife biologists. Herbi- ter chemistry of 16 conifers, hardwoods, and shrubs cides are often used in modern forest management common in the Pacific Northwest was determined to increase reforestation success and timber yield. and correlated with first-year decomposition rates. The use of herbicides, however, is often viewed Species differed significantly in litter chemistry and as conflicting with conservation of biodiversity. In decomposition rates. For all species combined, 30 of the 23 studies examined in this paper, wood vol- the 36 variables tested were strongly correlated with ume yield of major commercial species generally first-year decay rate; acid-unhydrolyzable proantho- increased 30–300% with effective, usually herbi- cyanidins, lignocellulose index, and acid-unhydrolyz- cide-based, management of competing vegetation able residue were most highly correlated with decay over a wide range of site conditions. Properly used rate. No one variable was a universal predictor of herbicides appear to have only short-term nega- decay rate for each of the 16 species, although phe- tive effects on wildlife. Using herbicides to increase nolic components were more frequently significant. yields from intensively managed plantation will be Including measurements of reactive and residual crucial in meeting growing demand for wood, as phenolic fractions and acid-hydrolysable lignin im- well as demands for wildlife habitat and biodiversity proved on traditional proximate leaf litter analyses. conservation.

Vance, NC, P Bernhardt, and RM Edens. 2004. Pol- Waldien, DL, MM Cooley, J Weikel, JP Hayes, CC Ma- lination and seed production in Xerophyllum guire, T Manning, and TJ Maier. 2004. Incidental tenax (Melanthiaceae) in the Cascade Range of captures of birds in small-mammal traps: a cau- central Oregon. American Journal of Botany 91: tionary note for interdisciplinary studies. Wildlife 2060–2068. Society Bulletin 32: 1260–1268. For plant taxonomists and pollination and plant For wildlife biologists and ecologists. The incidence reproductive biologists. Because of the flower of birds captured in small-mammal traps was as- structure of Xerophyllum tenax, self-pollination is sessed for eight research projects in Massachusetts, inevitable. Controlled hand-pollination experiments Oregon, and Washington. During 703,138 total were used to compare the pollination system with trap-nights, 867 birds, representing 17 species, reproductive success. Ovaries of flowers from un- were captured. Four species (song sparrow, spotted bagged inflorescences were visited by several kinds towhee, and Steller’s and gray jays) accounted for 32 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

86% of the captures; over half the captures were of environment. Biochemical and structural indices of ground-foraging species. Capture rates of birds were stress are discussed. relatively high in Tomahawk and Sherman traps in two studies; captures were negligible in pitfall and Whitlock, C, CN Skinner, PJ Bartlein, T Minckley, and JA Ugglan traps in four studies. The great variability in Mohr. 2004. Comparison of charcoal and tree-ring avian capture rates within trap types across studies records of recent fires in the eastern Klamath makes it difficult to predict when and where avian Mountains, California, USA. Canadian Journal of capture would be likely. When a study includes both Forest Research 34: 2110–2121. birds and small mammals, researchers should take For fire ecologists and historians. Fire histories are into account potential negative effects on small- determined from tree-ring records, which go back a mammal trapping on the avian component. few hundred years, and lake-sediment cores, which go back several thousand years. Tree-ring and lake Walter, ST and CC Maguire. 2004. Conifer response to sediment data from four watersheds in the Klamath three silvicultural treatments in the Oregon Coast Mountains over the last 300 years allowed compari- Range foothills. Canadian Journal of Forest Re- son of the two approaches in a regime of frequent search 34: 1967–1978. low- to moderate-severity fires, rather than in the For silviculturists. Three silvicultural treatments high-severity fires studied previously. Sediment cores (group-selection cut, two-story regeneration harvest, from small lakes provided charcoal data; tree-ring and clearcut) were applied to 30 stands of Douglas- records were obtained from fire-scar chronologies at fir, 85–125 years old. Ten years after treatment, there several sites within each watershed. The approaches was no difference in tree basal area, diameter, or complemented and supplemented each other. The tree height growth, or in crown width or fullness among ring records showed fires that were not evident in the treatments. Live crown ratio was largest in clearcuts, sediment cores; the charcoal data showed variations and the highest proportion of trees with epicormic in fuel loading and burning at broader spatial scales. branching was found in two-story stands. Mortality The sediment records showed regional burning in of residual green trees was highest in clearcuts and the late 19th and early 20th centuries; both data sets lowest in group-selection stands. showed that fires declined in the late 20th century.

Waring, RH. 2004. Tree physiology: Stress, pp.1628– Wimberly, MC, and JL Ohmann. 2004. A multi-scale 1632 in Encyclopedia of Forest Sciences, J Burley assessment of human and environmental con- ed-in-chief, J Evans and J Youngquist, eds. Elsevier, straints on forest land cover change on the London. Oregon (USA) Coast Range. Landscape Ecology 19: 631–646. For those interested in how physiologists measure and predict the susceptibility of trees to pathogen For landscape and forest ecologists and land and insect attack. Trees must adapt to stress if they managers. The objective of the study was to in- are to survive, but adaptation can limit growth and crease understanding of human influences on the competitiveness in more favorable environments, abundance and pattern of forest habitat. Integra- and surviving one stress can increase adaptability tion of forest survey data and maps of a 25,000- to another. The author analyzes the mechanisms by km2 landscape from 1936 with satellite imagery which trees withstand stress from radiation, drought and GIS data from the same area in 1996 showed and flooding, temperature extremes, mechanical that the total area of closed canopy forest over forces, toxic compounds, and nutritional deficien- the 30 years changed little. Large-conifer forests cies. Using an integrative physiological process decreased from 42% to 17% of the landscape over model to illustrate how seasonal climate variation the 30 years, however, while small-conifer forests causes stress, he compares the performance of Pinus increased from 21% to 39%. The proportion of land ponderosa and Eucalyptus globulus in a nonnative in private ownership was the strongest predictor of 33 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

changes in the proportion of large-conifer forest at and shoot growth characteristics vary with respect the subbasin, watershed, and subwatershed scales; to height in young and old Douglas-fir trees. Turgor contributions by other variables were minor. Dif- decreased as height increased. Branch elongation, ferent management regimes on private and public leaf dimensions, and leaf mass/area showed verti- ownerships apparently have led to distinctive cal trends indicating that turgor limitation on shoot pathways of landscape change that are consistent growth increased with increasing height. No osmotic across spatial scales. adjustment was observed in May, and in July it was insufficient to compensate fully for the gravita- Winner, WE, SC Thomas, JA Berry, BJ Bond, CE Coo- tional component of water potential. The potential per, TM Hinckley, JR Ehleringer, JE Fessenden, B constraints on turgor imposed by this component Lamb, S McCarthy, NG McDowell, N Phillips, and superimposed on phenologically driven changes in M Williams. 2004. Canopy carbon gain and water leaf water relations may not be distinguishable from use: analysis of old-growth conifers in the Pacific those associated with soil water deficits. Northwest. Ecosystems 7: 482–497. Yano, Y, K Lathja, P Sollins, and BA Caldwell. 2004. For tree physiologists and ecophysiologists. Leaf- Chemical and seasonal controls on the dynam- level physiological processes (photosynthesis, ics of dissolved organic matter in a coniferous respiration, stomatal conductance, water potential, old-growth stand in the Pacific Northwest, USA. stable carbon (C) isotope values, and biogenic hy- Biogeochemistry 71: 197–223. drocarbon emissions) were analyzed for Douglas- fir, western hemlock, and western red cedar in an For biogeochemists and those interested in nutrient old-growth forest at the Wind River Canopy Crane cycling. Soil organic matter (SOM), the largest pool Research Facility. Photosynthesis was consistently of terrestrial carbon (C), is formed and lost as dis- highest in Douglas-fir and lowest in western red solved organic matter (DOM) is retained or released. cedar and showed pronounced vertical gradients. Little is known, however, about how the DOM Net photosynthesis and stomatal conductance de- source affects its chemical composition or how that pended strongly on vapor-pressure deficit in Doug- composition affects its retention. Production of dis- las-fir and declined during drought. Foliar respira- solved organic carbon (DOC) and dissolved organic tion was lowest in western red cedar and similar in nitrogen (DON) was often greater in the shallow the other two species. Water use efficiency varied mineral soil than in the O horizon, in contrast to re- with species and tree height. Leaf water potential ports for other sites. The DOM in the O and mineral was most negative in Douglas-fir and similar for soil horizons may have different origins, as suggest- the other species. Estimated gross primary produced by a shift in chemical composition. The hydropho- tivity, as modeled from the physiological measure- bic and hydrophilic acid fractions dominated the soil 2 ments, was about 22 Mg C/m /year. More refined solution at all depths in the field, and increases and estimates of stand level C balance and long-term decreases in these fractions explained much of the predictions of changes in C balance will require net production and removal of total DOC. More of physiological studies. the free amino fraction was lost to deep soil water at this site than at others, suggesting that less labile Woodruff, DR, BJ Bond, and FC Meinzer. 2004. Does DON was retained. Total DOM retained in mineral turgor limit growth in tall trees? Plant, Cell and soil possibly can be estimated by certain field-mea- Environment 27: 229–236. sured parameters. For tree physiologists and silviculturists. The gravi- tational component of water potential can sig- Young, AL, and M Newton. 2004. Long overlooked nificantly reduce water potential near the tops of historical information on Agent Orange and TCDD tall trees unless there is osmotic adjustment. The following massive applications of 2,4,5-T-con- authors investigated how leaf-tissue water relations taining herbicides, Eglin Air Force Base, Florida. 34 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

Environmental Science & Pollution Research 11: sociated TCDD. Environmental Science & Pollution 209–221. Research 11: 347–348.

For toxicologists and environmental scientists. The Young, AL, JP Giesy, PD Jones, and M Newton. 2004. aerial spray systems for military herbicides used in Environmental fate and bioavailability of Agent support of the war in Vietnam were tested in grids on Orange and its associated dioxin during the the Eglin Air Force Base. The test site was established Vietnam war. Environmental Science & Pollution Research 11: 359–371. in 1961; because most of the vegetation had been removed, ground-based residues and high solar ex- For toxicologists and environmental scientists. These posure of initial residues could be followed. The soils, articles and the associated “Authors’ Perspective” editorial address concerns about the likelihood of fauna, flora, and aquatic ecosystems of the test areas troops having been exposed to the herbicide Agent were studied from 1969 through 1984. Less than Orange and its contaminant TCDD (2,3,7,8-tetra- 1% of TCDD in soil when sampling began was there chlorodibenzo-p-dioxin) during the Vietnam War. after 10 years. TCDD was detected in 16 of 45 species This article reviews the scientific literature on the examined; these species all lived in close contact with environmental fate of Agent Orange. It addresses contaminated soil. Field studies of more than 50 gen- an aspect of the exposure model envisioned by the erations of the beach mouse showed minimal effects Committee on the Assessment of Wartime Exposure of exposure to TCDD-contaminated soil on health and to Herbicides in Vietnam of the National Academy of Sciences’ Institute of Medicine, but not addressed reproduction. Although great amounts of herbicides in their final report. On the basis of their review, the and TCDD were applied to the site, no long-term authors conclude that ground troops in Vietnam who adverse ecological effects were found. had only incidental contact with the herbicide most likely were not exposed to TCDD. TCDD biogrades Young, AL, JP Giesy, P Jones, M Newton, JE Guilmartin, photochemically, is not very bioavailable, and dis- Jr, and PF Cecil, Sr. 2004. Editorial: Assessment of sipates rapidly in the environment. In addition, little potential exposure to Agent Orange and its as- reached the forest floor after aerial spraying.

35 Integrated Protection of Forests and Watersheds

Beschta, RL, JJ Rhodes, JB Kauffman, RE Gresswell, mineral soil exposure and net deposition/erosion GW, Minshall, JR Karr, DA Perry, FR Hauer, and CA within riparian zones, stream habitat indicators, Frissell. 2004. Postfire management on forested and aquatic macroinvertebrate communities were public lands of the western United States. Conser- comparable between streams receiving SMZs and vation Biology 18: 957–967. undisturbed reference streams during the first year after treatment. Streams without an SMZ For conservation biologists, ecologists, and forest had significantly higher streamwater temperature, managers. Forest land management after fire may lower habitat stability rating, and higher density of influence forest and aquatic systems for decades or macroinvertebrates, providing additional evidence longer. On the basis of their experience and the pub- of SMZ effectiveness. lished literature, the authors suggest that retaining large trees, rehabilitating firelines and roads and, in Chung, W, and J Sessions. 2004. Uphill and downhill some instances, planting native species are promis- gradeability of log trucks with short log trailers. ing approaches to restoration after fire. On the other Western Journal of Applied Forestry 19: 88–94. hand, seeding exotic species, livestock grazing, placing structures in or near streams, removing large For forest engineers, harvest planners, and research- trees, ground-based logging, and road construction ers in forest engineering. With the introduction of would generally interfere with ecosystem recovery. mechanized harvester and forwarder systems that The need persists to increase our understanding of produce short logs, log trucks pulling short log the effects of postfire treatments in the context of trailers are becoming more common on steep forest societal and ecological goals. roads. The authors derive equations to predict uphill and downhill gradeability of log trucks with short Carroll, GD, SH Schoenholtz, BW Young, and ED Dibble. wood trailers. The equations can be used in road 2004. Effectiveness of forestry streamside man- design and equipment performance evaluation. agement zones in the sand-clay hills of Missis- sippi: Early indications. Water Air Soil Pollution: Chung, W, J Sessions, and HR Heinimann. 2004. An Focus 4: 275–296. application of a heuristic network algorithm to cable logging layout design. International Journal For riparian biologists and ecologists. Monitoring of Forest Engineering 15(1): 11–24. compliance with initiatives to promote forestry best management practices (BMPs) in the southern For harvest planners and forest engineers. The au- states over the last 10 years indicates that ac- thors used a heuristic network algorithm to optimize ceptance has been very high. Whether BMPs have cable logging layouts and developed a computerized protected water quality and aquatic habitat effec- model to implement the method. The model includes tively has not been as well documented. In order logging feasibility and cost analysis modules. A case to determine effectiveness of streamside manage- study successfully applying the model to generate ment zones (SMZs), three treatments (undisturbed harvesting plans indicates that the method is best reference, clearcut with an SMZ, or clearcut with used for preplanning. no SMZ) were evaluated in low-order streams in a part of north central Mississippi where forest man- Dodds, KJ, and DW Ross. 2004. Douglas-fir beetle lipid agement is intensive. Water quality parameters, levels in relation to tree physical characteristics. 36 Integrated Protection of Forests and Watersheds

Journal of the Entomological Society of British Everest, FH, DJ Stouder, C Kakoyannis, L Houston, G Columbia 101: 13–20. Stankey, J Kline, and R Alig. 2004. A Review of Scientific Information on Issues Related to the For forest entomologists. No significant differences Use and Management of Water Resources in the (P > 0.05) in brood adult lipid levels in relation to Pacific Northwest. General Technical Report PNW- bole position, phloem thickness, or bark thickness GTR-595, USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest were found. Douglas-fir beetle does not appear to Research Station, Portland OR. benefit, in the form of increased lipid levels, from oviposition at different bole positions. For water resource managers and policymakers. Fresh water is provided abundantly by forested Dodds, KJ, DW Ross, C Randall, and GE Daterman. watersheds in the Pacific Northwest. Industrial, mu- 2004. Landscape level validation of a Douglas-fir nicipal, agricultural, and recreational activities in the beetle stand hazard-rating system using geo- region depend on adequate and sustainable supplies graphical information systems. Western Journal of of fresh water, and future development depends Applied Forestry 19: 77–81. on conservation and expansion water resources in For forest entomologists and forest managers. The the region. The authors review and synthesize the authors validated a hazard-rating system for Doug- current knowledge about and condition of water las-fir beetle (Dendroctonus pseudotsugae), using a resources in the Pacific Northwest. geographical information system (GIS) to combine aerial detection survey maps and historical infes- Filip, GM, and LM Ganio. 2004. Early thinning in tation data. Infested acreage and tree mortality mixed-species plantations of Douglas-fir, hem- were highest in moderate- and high-hazard stands, lock, and true fir affected byArmillaria root even though their total area was less than that in disease in west central Oregon and Washington: other hazard classes. As beetle populations became 20-year results. Western Journal of Applied For- epidemic, tree mortality and infested area were estry 19: 25–33. greater in high-hazard areas. Their methods provide For forest pathologists and silviculturists. The effects a novel way to validate a forest insect hazard-rat- of precommercial thinning on root disease caused by ing system. Armillaria was studied in four plantations (Douglas- fir and noble fir, Douglas-fir and western hemlock, El-Hajj, Z, K Kavanagh, C Rose, and Z Kanaan-Atallah. Douglas-fir alone, and Shasta red fir and mountain 2004. Nitrogen and carbon dynamics of a foliar hemlock) in the Cascade Range. After 20 years, biotrophic fungal parasite in fertilized Douglas-fir. crop tree quadratic mean diameter growth and New Phytologist 163: 139–146. basal area/acre growth were significantly greater in For forest pathologists and silviculturists. Nitrogen thinned than unthinned plots, but crop tree mortality (N) fertilizer isotopically enriched with 15N was was not affected by thinning. applied to 10-year-old Douglas-fir trees naturally Fitzgerald, SA. 2004. Improving fire resiliency of Pa- infected with Swiss needle cast disease. Fertilization cific Northwest forests. Western Forester 49: 1–5. increased foliar N, resulting in increased % N, % C, and fruiting in the fungal parasite and increasing For forestland managers. The author discusses fire disease severity. Needle δ15N increased in needles ecology, including historical aspects, and the fire associated with pseudothecia at the same time behavior triangle (weather, topography, and fuel, as pseudothecial δ15N declined. Thus, the parasite and their complex interactions). He points out that responded to the nutritional status of the host, and managers can influence only the fuel component of the disease became more severe as N available in the triangle. In the last decade, the number of fires the tree needles increased. that are “uncharacteristic” has increased, primarily

37 Integrated Protection of Forests and Watersheds

because fuels have increased and forest structure liams, and ES Jules, eds. May 29–31 2003, Cave Junc- and composition have changed, due largely to tion, OR. Siskiyou Field Institute, Cave Junction OR. changes in fire regime and increased fire suppres- For forest pathologists. The seventy species of the sion. He discusses several treatments to improve fire pathogenic genus Phytophora, while more closely resiliency, including thinning, pruning, prescribed related to kelps and brown algae than to true fungi, fire, and mowing shrubs. behave like the latter in many ways. Fifteen species Freer, J, H McMillan, JJ McDonnell, and K Beven. 2004. of the genus are found in Oregon forests, three of Constraining dynamic TOPMODEL responses for which cause major, ecosystem-changing damage imprecise water table information using fuzzy to Port-Orford-cedar (P. lateralis), oak (P. ramorum, rule based performance measures. Journal of the sudden oak death pathogen), and golden chin- Hydrology 291: 254–277. quapin (P. cambivora). Other species have similar dramatic adverse effects on forests in other parts For hydrologists and hydrology modelers. Rainfall of the world. Epidemics are set off by such factors runoff and water table information were used to as invasion of new, susceptible plant communities, calibrate dynamic TOPMODEL for application to global warming and changing rainfall patterns, hu- the Maimai M8 catchment in New Zealand. Spatial man-assisted dispersal, and hybridization. representation of the model structure was improved by using different parametric representations of Hjerdt, KN, JJ McDonnell, J Seibert and A Rodhe. 2004. hillslope and valley bottom landscape units. Distri- A new topographic index to quantify downslope bution of water table elevations was calculated for controls on local drainage. Water Resources Re- each time step at each location and used to derive search 40, W05062, doi:10.1029/2004WR003130. fuzzy estimates of the water table depth for the For hydrologists and watershed managers. The topo- whole time series. The rainfall–runoff data could graphic ln(α/tanβ) index is widely used to quantify be estimated by many combinations of parameter topography, an important control on hydrological values. Using the fuzzy water table elevations to processes. This index, however, uses only a small constrain the model responses reduced the number amount of the information available in a digital of behavioral parameter sets. Improvements to the elevation model. In particular, it does not consider model structure for the two landscape units were the effect of downslope topography on local drain- required, especially for the hillslope location. age, which could be important in controlling hydrau- Gresswell, RE, DS Bateman, GW Lienkaemper, and TJ lic gradients. The authors propose a new index for Guy. 2004. Geospatial techniques for developing estimating hydraulic gradient, which involves calcu- a sampling frame of watersheds across a region, lating how far downhill a parcel of water must move pp. 515–528 in GIS/Spatial Analyses in Fishery to lose a certain amount of potential energy, and and Aquatic Sciences, T Nishida, PJ Kailola, and CE demonstrate its use in hydrological, geomorphologi- Hollingworth, eds. Fishery and Aquatic GIS Re- cal, and biogeochemical applications. search Group, Saitama, Japan. Ice, GG, DG Neary, and PW Adams. 2004. Effects of For managers and researchers in fisheries science. wildfire on soils and watershed processes. Journal The authors describe geospatial tools used to iden- of Forestry 102(6): 16–20. tify a probability-based sampling design for coastal For soil and watershed scientists and watershed cutthroat trout in western Oregon. managers. Wildfire, especially when severe, can alter Hansen, E. 2004. Phytophthora in the world’s forests, forest soils markedly in many ways, such as remov- pp 10–12 in Proceedings of the 2nd Conference on ing plant matter and litter and decaying debris, Klamath-Siskiyou Ecology, KL Mergenthaler, JE Wil- affecting nutrient cycling and availability, increasing soil water repellency, and changing soil moisture, 38 Integrated Protection of Forests and Watersheds

structure, and infiltration. Water quality is negatively tion: more water, higher host density, and shorter impacted by factors such as overland runoff, in- distance from road surface to the first potentially in- channel debris torrents, and increasing temperatures fected host. Vehicular and foot traffic both disperse and nutrient concentrations. The authors describe the pathogen, but vehicular traffic does so over several classes of soil burn severity and discuss how much longer distances. The number of infections in intensity of fire affects soil. They also treat water- the study area had been grossly underestimated in shed processes altered by fire, other water resource previous surveys. effects of fire, and the role of forest management in dealing with wildfire effects on watersheds. Karr, JR, JJ Rhodes, GW Minshall, FR Hauer, RL Beschta, CA Frissell, and DA Perry. 2004. The effects of Ice, GG, PW Adams, RL Beschta, HA Froelich, and G postfire salvage logging on aquatic ecosystems in Brown. 2004. Forest management to meet water the American West. BioScience 54: 1029–1033. quality and fisheries objectives: Watershed stud- For riparian biologists, policymakers, and con- ies and assessment tools in the Pacific Northwest, servationists. Postfire salvage logging, a practice pp. 239–261 in A Century of Forest and Wildland encouraged by recent changes in forest policies, Watershed Lessons, GG Ice and JD Stednick, eds. regulations, and laws, often delays natural recov- Society of American Foresters, Bethesda MD. ery. Focusing on aquatic ecosystems, the authors For forestland managers, fishery biologists, and highlight several ways in which postfire logging hydrologists. The authors summarize the history adversely affects natural recovery, degrades aquatic and evolution of forest management in the Pacific conditions, reduces the distribution and abundance Northwest since harvest began in the region. As of native aquatic species, and disrupts economic results of watershed research, stream management benefits for human communities that depend on zones have been instituted to protect water quality; aquatic resources. They offer 10 policy recommenda- road practices have been changed to reduce erosion tions as guidelines for management of public lands and sediment delivery to streams; and silvicultural so as to protect and enhance restoration of aquatic chemicals are now applied so as to reduce drift, resources after wildfire. Their recommendations with no-spray buffers along streams. Assessment include allowing natural recovery to occur with techniques have been developed to evaluate man- minimal intervention, retaining old or large trees, agement alternatives, and management practices protecting soils and ecologically sensitive areas, address specific watershed hazards and in-stream avoiding the creation of new roads and landings or risks. The authors call for increased quantitative and placing structures in streams, limiting reseeding and qualitative monitoring of water and further develop- replanting, prefire conservation and restoration of ment of assessment tools. watersheds, continuing research, monitoring, and assessment, and educating the public. Jules, ES, MJ Kauffman, AL Carroll, and WD Ritts. 2004. Assessing the landscape spread of the fatal Port Kattelmann, R, and GG Ice. 2004. Dry/cold, wet/warm, Orford cedar root disease, pp. 13–20 in Proceed- and transient snow: regional differences in forest ings of the 2nd Conference on Klamath-Siskiyou snow hydrology, pp. 187–200 in A Century of For- Ecology, KL Mergenthaler, JE Williams, and ES est and Wildland Watershed Lessons, GG Ice and Jules, eds. May 29–31 2003, Cave Junction OR. Sis- JD Stednick, eds. Society of American Foresters, kiyou Field Institute, Cave Junction OR. Bethesda MD. For forest pathologists. Phytophthora lateralis began For hydrologists. Climate affects snowpack ac- to infect Port Orford cedar in Oregon in 1952 and cumulation and melt and, therefore, hydrological has now spread to most of the cedar’s natural range. response to timber harvest. In forest stands, snow All infections were in roaded areas. The authors accumulation and melt also are affected by the found that three factors increase the risk of infec- presence or absence of the canopy. In openings, 39 Integrated Protection of Forests and Watersheds

more snow accumulates and evapotranspiration is but may not be easily accessible to people from reduced. Under the canopy, snow intercepted by the diverse backgrounds. This annotated bibliography canopy may melt and pass through the snowpack, reviews 11 guides to stream habitat improvement and spring melting may be delayed by shade. Forest so that readers can find literature appropriate to management to use these characteristics to opti- their needs. All reviews begin with summaries of the mize water yield have less effect as runoff increases. contents, stated audiences, and goals of each guide. Water supplies in the West, which depend heavily Reviews also include subjective comments on the on snowmelt, may be seriously affected by global strengths and weaknesses of each guide. Finally, this climate change if regional warming changes the bibliography includes recommendations of guides dominant form of winter precipitation from snow to and combinations of guides judged most useful for a rain or rain on snow. range of purposes.

Keim, RF, and AE Skaugset. 2004. A linear system Keim, RF, AE Skaugset, TE Link, and A Iroumé. 2004. model of dynamic throughfall rates beneath A stochastic model of throughfall for extreme forest canopies. Water Resources Research 40, events. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 8: W05208, doi 10.1029/2003WR002875. 23–24. For hydrologists and watershed researchers and For hydrologists and watershed researchers and managers. The model described in this paper uses managers. Forest canopies intercept precipitation only data of time-varying rainfall and storm total before it reaches the ground, reducing its amount throughfall to predict time-varying throughfall rates. and intensity, but modification of extreme events by Mean efficiency of prediction for two forest stands the presence of a canopy is poorly understood. The in the Pacific Northwest was slightly higher when authors extrapolated measured rainfall and through- calibrated to 48 storms (0.84) than when calibrated fall to expected throughfall during extreme events, to all storms simultaneously (0.82). Median mean using a stochastic model that coupled a stochastic hydraulic residence times of precipitation in the model of rainfall with stochastic models of evapora- canopy ranted from 8 to 30 minutes averaged across tion and precipitation transfer through canopies. Ex- all storms. Model predictions and performance were treme-event intensities were reduced 5–30% by the about the same for transfer functions whether they canopy, depending on duration and return interval. were based on published equations or on exponen- Evaporative losses may have been more important tial or gamma distributions. The model was not af- in frequent events, but water transfer through the fected by characteristics of rainstorms, giving similar canopy was probably more important in the rarest calibrated models of water transfer for all sizes and events. intensities of storm. Kelsey, RG, and DK Manter. 2004. Effect of Swiss Keim, RF, AB Price, TS Hardin, AE Skaugset, DS Bate- needle cast on Douglas-fir ethanol and mono- man, RE Gresswell, and SD Tesch. 2004. An Anno- terpene concentrations, oleoresin flow, and host tated Bibliography of Selected Guides for Stream selection by the Douglas-fir beetle. Forest Ecology Habitat Improvement in the Pacific Northwest. and Management 190: 241–243. Research Contribution 44, Forest Research Labo- For forest pathologists, phytochemists, and ento- ratory, Oregon State University, Corvallis. mologists. Because stressed trees have often been For forestland managers, ecologists, and conserva- linked with insect activity, the authors investigated tionists. Interest in stream habitat improvement in whether infection of Douglas-fir by Swiss needle the Pacific Northwest is widespread among land cast (SNC, Phaeocryptopus gaeumannii) influenced managers, governmental and nongovernmental activity of the Douglas-fir beetle,Dendroctonus organizations, and the lay public. Several guides pseudotsugae. They also examined factors that influ- to stream habitat improvement have been written ence beetle attraction and host susceptibility. SNC 40 Integrated Protection of Forests and Watersheds

reduced woody tissue ethanol concentrations, resin cal pocket contents, interior galleries of the colonies, flow, and beetle attraction. The number of attacks and detritus and soils surrounding the colonies. was not reduced and galleries went deeper and for Yeasts cultured from carpenter ant nest material longer distances into the tree, but no eggs, larvae or and material around the nest were different from adults were found in excavated galleries. Although yeasts cultured from the infrabuccal pocket. The there have been no beetle outbreaks associated with yeast Debaryomyces polymorphus, which has been SNC, the weakened oleoresin defense systems of isolated from other ant species, was obtained more SNC-infected trees might make them susceptible to frequently from the infrabuccal pocket than from an outbreak if other events led to increased beetle other material. population densities. McDonnell, JJ. 2004. HP today and HP tomorrow. Hy- Kimberling, DN. 2004. Lessons from history: Predicting drological Processes 14: 2739–2741. successes and risks of intentional introductions For hydrologists and prospective authors. As he for arthropod biological control. Biological Inva- leaves the editorship of the “HP today and HP tomor- sions 6: 301–318. row” section of Hydrological Processes, the author For forest entomologists and managers. Controlling reflects on the 5 years he served in that capacity. He nonnative invasive species with nonnative biological discusses invited commentaries, scientific briefings, control agents is one approach to their manage- and other components of the section and thanks ment. The outcome of introducing control agents, those who have assisted him in diverse ways. however, is difficult to predict. The author compiled a database of 13 life history traits and 8 descriptive McDonnell, JJ. 2004. Subsurface stormflow and lateral variables for 87 nonnative insect biological control water transfers, pp. 322–328 in Vegetation, Water, species in the continental United States. Logistic Humans and the Climate: A New Perspective on regression models showed the most important life an Interactive System, P Kabat, M Claussen, PA history traits to be host specificity, whether the Dirmeyer, JHC Gash, L Bravo de Guenni, M Mey- agent was a predator or a parasitoid, and the num- beck, RA Pielke, Sr, CJ Vörösmarty, RWA Hutjes, ber of generations/year. For the 37 cases for which and S Lütkemeier, eds. Springer-Verlag, Berlin. there was information about nontarget effects, the For hydrologists, climatologists, and ecologists. In important traits included sex ratio of progeny and this contribution to a chapter on “Responses of the presence of native natural enemies. Such meta- hydrological processes to environmental change at analysis of historical data can help in developing small catchment scales”, the author first discusses guidelines for nonnative control agents and predict- processes governing rapid, shallow subsurface ing ecological outcomes of introducing a range of stormflow, including transmissivity feedback, lateral nonnative species into new environments. pipe flow, shallow interflow, and pressure wave translatory flow. He then treats separation of event Mankowski, ME, and JJ Morrell. 2004. Yeasts associ- water from subsurface stormflow in the storm ated with the infrabuccal pocket and colonies of hydrograph, modeling lateral flow at the catchment the carpenter ant Camponotus vicinus. Mycologia scale, and relationships between subsurface flow 96: 226–231. and catchment-scale nutrient dynamics. Finally, he For wood preservationists, mycologists, and forest sets out critical research needs for the future. entomologists. After numerous yeast-like bodies were detected in the infrabuccal pockets of carpen- McDonnell, JJ, and R Woods. 2004. On the need for catch- ter ants (Camponotus vicinus) by scanning electron ment classification.Journal of Hydrology 299: 2–3. microscopy, the authors looked at yeast associa- For hydrologists. In this editorial, the authors point tions with carpenter ants in six colonies in Benton out that the ability of hydrologists to describe catch- County, Oregon. Cultures were made from infrabuc- 41 Integrated Protection of Forests and Watersheds

ment heterogeneity is growing faster than their measured changes in stream nitrogen (N) from the ability to use the knowledge effectively. They pro- beginning of March to the end of July in a riparian pose adopting a broad-scale classification system for wetland and a beaver meadow. Changes in ground- catchment hydrology similar to those used in other water N were also measured in the riparian wetland. + - disciplines, such as chemistry and biology, to help Groundwater N as NH4 , NO3 , and DON (dissolved meet the challenge of dealing with the tremendous organic N) was much higher within the wetland than variability in natural hydrological systems world- at its perimeter; changes of N species in streamwa- wide. Such a classification scheme would provide an ter between the inlet and the outlet of the stream important organizing principle to complement the were less marked. Wetland groundwater contributed concept of the hydrological cycle and the principle of little to stream flow. Nitrate dominated surface mass conservation. It would also provide a common water N during the spring, whereas DON was domi- language for discussion of hydrological discussions, nant during the summer. In-stream N transformation among other benefits. affected surface water N chemistry more than did groundwater transformations because they affected McGlynn, B, JJ McDonnell, J Seibert, and C Kendall. a much greater volume of water. 2004. Scale effects on runoff timing, flow source, and groundwater-streamflow relations. Water Meinzer, FC, DR Woodruff, and DC Shaw. 2004. Inte- Resources Research 40. W07504, doi:10.1029/ grated responses of hydraulic architecture, wa- 2003WR002494. ter, and carbon relations of western hemlock to dwarf mistletoe infection. Plant, Cell and Environ- For hydrologists and watershed managers. How ment 27: 937–946. catchment size and landscape organization affect runoff generation is not well understood. The authors For forest pathologists and plant physiologists. used hydrometric and tracer data obtained in a highly Dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium spp.) is a highly organized landscape to study the role of catchment destructive hemiparasitic pathogen of commercially sizes on dynamics of riparian and hillslope runoff. important conifers worldwide. Its effects on host Riparian zone groundwater levels and runoff were physiology, however, are not well understood. This strongly correlated at the headwaters, but water study examined water and carbon relations from the tables and runoff were not correlated in the valley leaf to the whole-tree scale in large western hem- bottom of the larger catchments. Catchment size was lock trees that were either heavily infected or not not related to new water contribution to runoff in two infected with hemlock dwarf mistletoe (A. tsugense). storms analyzed in detail, lag times of tracer respons- Adjustments in hydraulic architecture of infected es increased with catchment size. Hillslope and valley trees maintained leaf-specific conductivity and con- bottoms contributed directly to event runoff if the tributed to homeostasis of water transport efficiency area was already wet or the storm was large. Analysis and transpiration, even though specific hydraulic of the organization and distribution of landscape fea- conductivity was about half that of uninfected trees. tures can provide structure for investigation of runoff Maximum whole-tree water use, photosynthetic and transport of solutes. rates, and leaf nitrogen were substantially lower in infected trees than in uninfected. McHale, CP Cirmo, MJ Mitchell, and JJ McDonnell. 2004. Wetland nitrogen dynamics in an Adiron- Murphy, G, and J Firth. 2004. Soil disturbance impacts dack forested watershed. Hydrological Processes on early growth and management of radiata pine 18: 1853–1870. trees in New Zealand. Western Journal of Applied Forestry 19: 109–116. For hydrologists and wetland ecologists. In order to increase understanding of the interactions between For silviculturists and forestland managers. Trials to streams and wetlands and the hydrogeochemical examine the effect of degree of skid trail usage on processes involved in those interactions, the authors growth and early management of the next crop of 42 Integrated Protection of Forests and Watersheds

radiata pine (Pinus radiata) were set up in Esk and of interest. The authors developed a Geographic Ngaumu Forests in New Zealand. Measurements Information System (GIS) from maps and photos taken until the trees were 14 (Ngaumu) or 16 (Esk) that characterized changes in river channel and years old showed that resistance to soil penetration flood plain conditions from pre-European settlement was greatest on heavily disturbed areas, whereas to the modern time. They also assessed riparian weed competition was greatest on undisturbed and flood-plain vegetation with the GIS. Channel areas. Disturbance levels were not reflected in tree complexity and connectedness has been greatly malformation, and mortality was increased only diminished over the period studied. Seventy-two in heavily disturbed areas in Ngaumu. Height and percent of the flood-plain forest present in 1850 had diameter growth were fastest on minor skid trails; been converted to agricultural and urban land uses trees grew poorly in both completely undisturbed by 1995. Selected variables were made available for and the most heavily disturbed sites. Fewer trees development of a spatial model that can be used to were selected for low pruning and more were identify the best locations for flood-plain restoration. selected for precommercial thinning in heavily disturbed areas. Pokojska-Burdziej, A, E Strzelczyk, H Dahm, and CY Li. 2004. Effect of endophytic bacterium Pseudomonas Murphy, G, JG Firth, and MF Skinner. 2004. Long-term fulva on growth of pine seedlings (Pinus sylvestris), impacts of forest harvesting relating soil distur- formation of mycorrhizae and protection against bance on log product yields and economic po- pathogens. Phytopathologia Polonica 32: 33-47. tential in a New Zealand forest. Silva Fennica 38: For forest ecologists and forest pathologists. Pseudo- 279–289. monas fulva is a bacterial endophyte isolated from For logging planners and forest economists. The au- interior tissue of nonmycorrhizal suberized roots of thors examined the effect of soil disturbance resulting Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris). In order to determine its from forest harvesting on productivity, log product effect on seedling growth, formation of mycorrhizae, yields, and economic potential of second-rotation and protection against fungal root pathogens, the Pinus radiata. Twenty-one years after harvest, average bacterium was inoculated on pine seedlings growing tree volume was 8% lower in plots where litter had in pots of sandy soil. Inoculation significantly stimu- been removed and the topsoil compacted and 42% lated growth and increased the number of mycor- lower in plots where topsoil had been removed and rhizal roots. Inoculation also protected the seedlings the subsoil compacted than it was in controls. Degree from infection by Rhizoctonia solani. of compaction had a significant effect only where topsoil had been removed. Per-tree economic potential Ross, DW, GE Daterman, and AS Munson. 2004. Evalua- was reduced up to 60%, largely because of altered tion of the antiaggregation pheromone, 3-methyl- log product yield distribution. Projections to the end cyclohex-2-en-1-one (MCH), to protect live spruce of the rotation at age 28 indicated that the impacts of from spruce beetle (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) infes- soil disturbance at that time are likely to be similar to tation in southern Utah. Journal of the Entomo- those observed at age 21. logical Society of British Columbia 101: 45–46.

Oetter, DR, LR Ashkenas, SV Gregory, and PJ Minear. For forest entomologists. Commercially available diffu- 2004. GIS methodology for characterizing histori- sion releasers of MCH were tested for protecting live cal conditions of the Willamette River flood plain, trees from spruce beetle infestation in an area with a Oregon. Transactions in GIS 8: 367–383. high spruce beetle population in southern Utah. MCH was not effective in preventing host-tree infestation. For ecologists, hydrologists, and historians. Conser- vation and restoration of the historical Willamette Schoenholtz, SH. 2004. Hydrology: Impacts of forest River flood plain, both to protect against flooding management on water quality, pp. 377–388 in and to provide wildlife habitat, has recently become 43 Integrated Protection of Forests and Watersheds

Encyclopedia of Forest Sciences, J Burley, ed-in- For forest pathologists. Two open-pollinated families chief, J Evans and J Youngquist, eds. Elsevier Ltd., of Douglas-fir were included in each of three groups Oxford, UK. on the basis of severity of Swiss needle cast symp- toms: mild, moderate, and severe disease. Although For students, managers, and researchers of forest the trees in the different groups had about the same management effects on water quality. This chapter amount of fungus in their needles, the trees in the provides a synthesis of our current thinking regard- mild symptom group were greener and retained a ing (1) the concept of water quality, (2) the role of higher proportion of needles. Average needle reten- forested watersheds in providing water of relatively tion decreased with increased amount of pathogen high quality, and (3) commonly evaluated water DNA in the mildly affected families, increased with quality parameters and potential effects of forest decreased amount of DNA in the severely affected practices on these parameters. families, and showed no relationship in the moderately affected group. Because the groups did not Sniezko, RA, LJ Elliott, DJ Goheen, K Casavan, EM differ in amount of pathogen DNA in the needles, Hansen, C Frank, and P Angwin. 2004. Genetic tolerance rather than resistance seemed to account resistance in Port-Orford-cedar to the non-native for the differences in symptom severity. Tolerance root rot pathogen Phytophthora lateralis: a tool could be assessed by visual scoring of average to aid in restoration in infested riparian areas, needle retention over the past four growing seasons. pp. 27–32 in KL Mergenthaler, JE Williams, and ES Jules, eds. Proceedings of the Second Conference Torgersen, CE, RE Gresswell, and DS Bateman. 2004. on Klamath-Siskiyou Ecology, May 29–31, 2003, Pattern detection in stream networks: quantifying Cave Junction, Oregon. Siskiyou Field Institute, spatial variability in fish distribution, pp. 405–420 Cave Junction OR. in GIS/Spatial Analyses in Fishery and Aquatic Sci- For forest pathologists and geneticists. Although ences, T Nishida, PJ Kailola, and CE Hollingworth, Phytophthora lateralis is spreading and killing native eds. Fishery and Aquatic GIS Research Group, Port-Orford-cedar in northwestern California and Saitama, Japan. southwestern Oregon, it is not expected to cause For managers and researchers in fisheries science. its extinction or decrease its range-wide genetic The distribution of coastal cutthroat trout was highly diversity. It can, however, reduce the frequency of autocorrelated and exhibited a spherical semivario- trees providing large structural elements to riparian gram with a defined nugget, sill, and range. Wave- ecosystem function. Naturally resistant trees are so let analysis of the mainstem longitudinal profile scattered that restoration in the most severally dis- revealed periodicity in trout distribution at three eased areas will require human assistance. Orchards nested spatial scales corresponding ostensibly to have been established for several areas that will landscape disturbances and the spacing of tributary produce genetically diverse, adapted disease-resis- junctions. tant seedlings than could be used in restoration. In early tests, survival of resistant seedlings could be Uchida,T, Y Asano, T Mizuyama, and JJ McDonnell. >50%, compared with 5% in seedlings from the 2004. Role of upslope soil pore pressure on most susceptible families. lateral subsurface storm flow dynamics. Water Resources Research 40, W12401, doi:10.1029/ Temel, F, GR Johnson, and JK Stone. 2004. The rela- 2003WR002139. tionship between Swiss needle cast symptom severity and level of Phaeocryptopus gaeumannii For hydrologists and hydrological modelers. In order colonization in coastal Douglas-fir Pseudotsuga( to develop hillslope hydrologic models further, menziesii var. menziesii). Forest Pathology 34: hydrologists need new understanding from the field, 383–394. especially about how upslope soil pore pressure and

44 Integrated Protection of Forests and Watersheds

water table dynamics are linked to timing and vol- research programs integrating hydrologic subdisci- ume of subsurface storm flow. In two steep, unchan- plines that will focus on six key questions. Several neled hillslopes in Japan, one having soil with high workshops and symposia are planned. Progress will hydraulic conductivity and the other having soil with be assessed quantitatively in terms of increased pre- low conductivity, pore pressures close to the slope dictive capability. The US-based Consortium of Uni- base were related only weakly to subsurface storm versities for the Advancement of Hydrological Science flow dynamics, regardless of soil hydraulic conduc- has many links with PUB. tivity. Hillslope discharge during storm flow was strongly related to the cross-sectional area of the Weiler, M, and H Fluhler. 2004. Inferring flowtypes upslope saturated area. This relationship persisted from dye patterns in macroporous soils. Geoder- between storms on the highly permeable slope, but ma 120: 137–153. not on the low permeability slope. Thus, soil matrix For hydrologists. The authors conducted dye tracer permeability greatly influences the linkage between experiments at different irrigation rates and initial upslope pore pressure and subsurface storm flow soil moisture conditions on three hillslope sites. They dynamics. used image analysis of photographs of vertical and horizontal soil sections to discriminate between Vaché, KB, JJ McDonnell, and J Bolte. 2004. On the stained and unstained areas and to determine three use of multiple criteria for a posteriori model classes of dye concentration in stained areas. After rejection: Soft data to characterize model perfor- analyzing the vertical sections by conventional ap- mance. Geophysical Research Letters 31, L21504, proaches, they developed a new approach to clas- doi:10.1029/2004GL020843. sify flow into five types. Two occur only in the soil For hydrologists and hydrological modelers. Evalua- matrix, and three are related to the amount of water tion of land surface hydrologic models is commonly flow between macropores and the soil matrix. Mac- based on how well measured discharge corresponds ropore distribution was classified from horizontal to modeled. This strategy has significant shortcom- sections. The interaction between macropores and ings, as illustrated by this study. Including time soil matrix was quantified on the basis of the statis- source hydrograph separates improved characteriza- tical description of the spatial relationship between tion of parameter uncertainty. In one case, it resulted macropores and stained areas. The authors feel their in model rejection. approach will be broadly applicable in comparing soil infiltration regimes. Wagener, T, M Sivapalan, JJ McDonnell, P Kumar, and R Hooper. 2004. Predictions in Ungauged Basins Weiler, M, and J McDonnell. 2004. Virtual experiments: (PUB)—A catalyst for multi-disciplinary hydrol- a new approach for improving process conceptu- ogy. EOS 85(44): 451, 457. alization in hillslope hydrology. Journal of Hydrol- ogy 285: 3–18. For hydrologists. The International Association of Hydrological Sciences (IAHS) has undertaken an For hydrologists and hydrological modelers. Virtual initiative known as the IAHS Decade on Predictions in experiments are defined as “numerical experiments Ungauged Basins (PUB). Hydrologists increasingly are with a model driven by collective field intelligence” called on to develop sustainable management policies in which modeler and experimentalist cooperate that will secure water supplies, decrease flood risk, in development and analysis of results. In order to and sustain biodiversity. Although numerous models provide a useful tool for hypothesis testing, a virtual addressing this need have been developed, stream experiment model should include all experimentally gauging is fundamental to their predictive ability. The important controls in hillslope hydrology while complex problems involved in predicting response of remaining simple and using as few “tunable param- ungauged basins will require multidisciplinary collab- eters” as possible. The authors present a series of oration and synthesis. The PUB Science Plan includes virtual experiments examining interactions among 45 Integrated Protection of Forests and Watersheds

water flow pathways, source, and mixing at the hill- est management and fire, are considered. Defining slope scale. The results of their virtual model experi- the first-order controls at a particular site requires ments with a hillslope model showed how drainable critical thinking about the processes dominating in porosity and variability in soil depth exert first order that location. control on flow and transport. Virtual experiments can be used effectively, in combination with previ- Woodsmith, RD, KB Vache, JJ McDonnell, and JD ous experimental results and conceptualizations, to Helvey. 2004. Entiat Experimental Forest: Catch- isolate and examine the influence of certain controls ment-scale runoff data before and after a 1970 over a range of rainfall and wetness conditions. wildfire. Water Resources Research 40, W11701, doi:10.1029/2004WR003296. Weiler, M, and JJ McDonnell. 2004. Soil development For hydrologists and water resource managers. The and properties: Water storage and soil movement, Entiat Experimental Forest in central Washington pp. 1253–1260 in Encyclopedia of Forest Sciences, provides a hydrologic record of site-specific data J Burley, ed-in-chief, J Evans and J Youngquist, eds. from 10 years before and more than 7 years after a Elsevier, Amsterdam. wildfire. The data, which can be used in assessing For hydrologists and hydrological modelers. The hydrological response and in formulating, calibrat- properties of forest soils often differ from those ing, and testing models, are available on the Inter- under other land uses. After reviewing some basic net. Available data include daily discharge, air and definitions and physical processes affecting water water temperature, humidity, precipitation, 10-m movement and storage in the soil, the authors DEMs. watershed boundaries, and gauge locations. discuss the main processes governing movement of New instruments being installed on the forest will water through soil on the plot, hillslope, and catch- provide data on recovery from the fire in terms of ment scales. Important issues affecting water stor- water quantity, quality, and flow patterns. age and movement, in particular harvesting and for-

46 Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies

Adams, DM, and GS Latta. 2004. Effects of a forest USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research health thinning program on land and timber values Station, Portland, OR. in eastern Oregon. Journal of Forestry 102(8): 9–13. For forestland managers and policy makers. Green- For forest economists and forestland managers. Mer- house gas emissions, which are widely thought to chantable timber generated by thinning undertaken be bringing about global climate change, can be on public lands under the Healthy Forests restoration reduced by use of a variety of sinks and sources. The act could affect local sawtimber markets and the decisions needed in order to mitigate greenhouse value of private forestlands. The authors modeled gas emissions are complex and require a basis of sci- the effects of two thinning programs, subsidy and entific information. Over the last 10 years, we have nonsubsidy, in national forests on land and timber learned a great deal about how climate, ecological values. Values could increase or decrease, depending effects, economic impact, and social concerns are on ownership, regional industry output, the timing linked. The effects of dynamic interactions among of private harvests, and long-term sawtimber prices. climate, ecological, and socioeconomic systems on Trends in other western regions may be similar to natural resources should be considered in future de- those in eastern Oregon. cisions about adaptation and mitigation choices, as should unintended consequences of policies. Science Adams, PA. 2004. Mugging which burn victim? The can provide useful information about environmental, salvage controversy. Western Forester 49: 5–7. social, and economic costs and benefits of actions For policymakers and forest planners. Timber salvage and guidance in integrating responses to climate after fire is a controversial and pressing issue in the change into sustainable development. Pacific Northwest, although it is of less concern in oth- Alig, R. 2004. Land use and land cover dynamics: er parts of the United States. The author reviews the Changes in landscapes across space and time, pp. evolution of the salvage issue, including the Salvage 67–73 in Proceedings: Views from the Ridge–Con- Rider of 1995, the 1995 “Beschta Report”, the 2003 sideration for Planning at the Landscape Scale. “Sessions Report”, and other aspects of the contro- General Technical Report PNW-GTR-596, USDA versy surrounding salvage logging on the Biscuit fire. Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Sta- Because the national Society of American Foresters tion, Portland OR. seemed unlikely to draft a position paper on salvage harvest, the Oregon SAF Policy committee drafted For landscape ecologists, natural resource managers, a state position in 2003, which was adopted by the planners, and policymakers. Demographic, economic, OSAF Executive committee and by the members. and other forces are increasing pressure and con- flicts about land uses and changing land uses within Alig, R. 2004. Global climate change, carbon, and the larger landscape. Forested systems are particu- forestry: Decision-making in a complex world, pp. larly affected as demand for wood products increas- 101–116 in Climate Change, Carbon, and Forestry es simultaneously with ecological, conservation, and in Northwestern North America: Proceedings of a recreational demands. The author discusses how the Workshop, DL Peterson, JL Innes, and K O’Brian, use of land, particularly forested land, in the United eds. November 14–15, 2001, Orcas Island, Wash- States has been changing over the last two centu- ington. General Technical Report PNW-GTR-614, ries. He includes socioeconomic trends, types of land 47 Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies

use and land cover dynamics, and assessments of carbon. Studies of landowner behavior are needed land base changes in the analysis. He then addresses to help in designing incentives to change land use in future directions of land use and their implications such a way as to mitigate climate change. for policy development. Alig, RJ, and BJ Butler. 2004. Area changes for for- Alig, RJ, and AJ Plantinga. 2004. Future forestland est cover types in the United States, 1952 to area: Impacts from population growth and other 1997, with projections to 2050. General Technical factors that affect land values. Journal of Forestry Report PNW-GTR-613, USDA Forest Service, Pacific 102(8): 19–24. Northwest Research Station, Portland OR. For forest economists and forestland managers. For forestland managers and timber supply plan- Patterns of land use and cover change rapidly in ners. Many forces, both natural and anthropogenic, response to economic and political factors and are have shaped forests in the United States, producing associated with many current environmental con- a diversity of forest cover types. This study describes cerns. The authors examine historical trends in land projected changes in forest cover by area on timber- use and cover, project major land uses by region, and land areas of the United States. The projections differ discuss the implications of changing land values. In by region, owner, and forest cover type. For example, recent decades, more than 3 million acres net shifted relatively small changes in common cover types are in or out of nonfederal forests each year, with gross projected in the North, but projected changes in changes being 10 times greater. Although the United some regions and ownerships in the South are fairly States added 3.6 million acres to nonfederal forest- large. Lands dominated by softwoods are projected lands overall, forest lands in the Southeast, the Pacific to increase in area in many regions, especially on Northwest west of the crest of the Cascades, the Pa- forest industrial lands, but hardwoods are expected cific Southwest, and the Rocky Mountains decreased. to continue to dominate private lands. Forest area is lost primarily to urban and developed uses as population increases; this trend is expected Anderson, RC, and EN Hansen. 2004. Determining con- to continue, especially in the South and the Pacific sumer preferences for ecolabeled forest products: Northwest. The authors discuss the implications of An experimental approach. Journal of Forestry land use changes on forestland areas and values. 102(4): 28–32. For wood products marketers and economists. The Alig, RJ, and BJ Butler. 2004. Projecting large-scale authors measured consumer behavior with respect to area changes in land use and land cover for ter- ecolabeled forest products. When virtually identical restrial carbon analysis. Environmental Manage- ecolabeled and unlabeled plywood was offered for ment 33: 443–456. sale at a home building store, the ecolabeled product For ecologists, land managers, and those interested was associated with increased sales if the price of the in carbon sequestration. Over the past 50 years, the two products was comparable. If the price of the ecola- area of planted pine in the southern United States has beled product was higher, sales decreased. The sample increased more than 10-fold. As timber is harvested, size and design were limited in this study, so the other forest types are converted to planted pine; results are not applicable to the general population. conversely, harvested pine plantations often revert to other forest types. In order to help policy analysts Anderson, RC, and EN Hansen. 2004. The impact of concerned with global climate change, the authors environmental certification on preferences for modeled changes in land use and land cover as a ba- wood furniture: a conjoint analysis approach. For- sis for projecting future changes in planted pine area. est Products Journal 54(3): 42–50. Baseline projections indicate that planted pine area in For forest products marketers and manufacturers. the region will increase about 5.6 million ha net over Two hundred and sixty-five students in an interna- the next 50 years, notably increasing sequestered tional business class were surveyed to determine 48 Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies

the relative importance of five attributes of wood of combining these attributes to develop a utiliza- CD racks in their product preference and to deter- tion index that shows where on a landscape timber mine demographic and psychographic variables harvest might be used most effectively to alter stand associated with those whose primary concern was structure. The same technique theoretically could be environmental certification. Overall, environmental applied to many nontimber forest products as well. certification was considered a favorable attribute, but other attributes were more important. Willing- Bergmann, S, and JC Bliss. 2004. Foundations of ness to pay more for certified forest products was cross-boundary cooperation: Fire management at highest among those who considered environmental the public-private interface. Society and Natural certification as the most important attribute (20.8% Resources 17: 377–393. of the sample). The authors discuss marketing impli- For social scientists, fire managers, and agency land cations of their findings. managers. Based upon field research in the John Day Valley of Eastern Oregon, this article identifies key Arthur, JL, J Camm, RG Haight, CA Montgomery, and S influences on cooperation between private landown- Polasky. 2004. Weighing conservation objectives: ers and the USDA Forest Service. Such cooperation maximum expected coverage versus endangered is vital to the success of most conservation efforts species protection. Ecological Applications 14: where land ownership is mixed. Public and private 1936–1945. land managers, ranchers, forest industry representa- For researchers in forest economics, conservation tives, environmental activists, community leaders and biology, optimal nature reserve design. To help others completed in-depth interviews. Five themes decision makers choose sites for biological reserves, were found to affect cross-boundary cooperation: the authors developed a model that incorporates land tenure, power, ideology, uncertainty, and trust. multiple conservation objectives, uncertainty about what species occur in a proposed nature reserve, Bettinger, P, and M Lennette. 2004. LAndscape Man- and the cost of designating a reserve. Using data for agement Policy Simulator (LAMPS), Version 1.1. 403 terrestrial vertebrates in 147 sites in western USER GUIDE. Research Contribution 43, Forest Oregon, they demonstrate methodology for as- Research Laboratory, Oregon State University, sessing trade-offs between nature reserve design Corvallis. maximizing expected number of species covered and For forest planners, managers, and policymakers. The nature reserve design optimizing the probability of LAndscape Management Policy Simulator (LAMPS) coverage for a small set of target species. model, version 1.1, is a spatial simulation model developed to provide forest landscape planning Barbour, RJ, D Maguire, and R Singleton. 2004. Evalu- simulations for the Coastal Landscape Analysis and ating forest products as part of landscape plan- Modeling Study (CLAMS). It is designed to help ning, pp. 161–170 in Methods for Integrated Mod- policymakers, managers, and planners think through eling of Landscape Change. Interior Northwest alternative management scenarios and their poten- Landscape Analysis System (INLAS), JL Hayes, tial effects on the ecological and economic resources AA Ager, and RJ Barbour, eds. General Technical of Oregon’s Coast Range forests. LAMPS simulates Report PNW-GTR-610, USDA Forest Service, Pacific changes to landscape structure over time, incorpo- Northwest Research Station, Portland OR. rating the management intentions of the four major For timber managers and forest planners. The prob- landowner groups and vegetation dynamics. Socio- ability that a given piece of forestland will be har- economic and ecological information is used to track vested is a function of how accessible it is, physically and allocate activities across the landscape. LAMPS and administratively; how much implementing the projects, with relatively high resolution, forest condi- treatment will cost; and what the value of the har- tions across broad areas, all ownership groups, and vested material is. The authors describe the concept a planning horizon of 100 yr. This user guide pro- 49 Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies

vides instructions on how to use LAMPS for forest with high fire risk differed by location in what they landscape simulations of alternative forest policies knew about fire and fuel issues and in their judg- for the Coast Range of Oregon. ment of acceptable management practices. Differ- ences were associated with individual beliefs and Bettinger, P, D Graetz, A Ager, and J Sessions. 2004. with local social and environmental factors. Fuels The SAFED forest landscape planning model, pp. management policies and information strategies 41–63 in Methods for Integrated Modeling of should therefore not be “one size fits all”. Landscape Change. Interior Northwest Landscape Analysis System (INLAS), JL Hayes, AA Ager, and Butler, BJ, JJ Swenson, and RJ Alig. 2004. Forest frag- RJ Barbour, eds. General Technical Report PNW- mentation in the Pacific Northwest: Quantification GTR-610, USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest and correlations. Forest Ecology and Management Research Station, Portland OR. 189: 363–373. For researchers in forest and landscape planning. In For forest ecologists and land-use planners. A this book chapter, the authors describe the Simula- commonly accepted method for quantifying forest tion and Analysis of Forests with Episodic Distur- fragmentation is lacking. Focusing their analysis on bances (SAFED) model. The SAFED model is a mul- fragmentation caused by human land-use decisions, tiscale, hybrid simulation/optimization model that the authors developed a forest fragmentation index addresses both optimization of silvicultural prescrip- comprising forested area, percentage edge, and tions at the stand level and the spatial scheduling interspersion and examined the correlation between of these prescriptions on large landscapes to meet the index and socioeconomic and physical variables. multiobjective goals. Their model explained 80% of the variance of the fragmentation index across the region. Popula- Beuter, JH, and RJ Alig. 2004. Forestland values. Jour- tion density, income, and percentage agriculture nal of Forestry 102(8): 4–8. were positively correlated with the index; distance For planners, policymakers, and forest economists. to highway, percentage federal land, slope, and a This article introduces an issue of Journal of Forestry dummy variable indicating land in Oregon were devoted to discussion of forestland values. The au- negatively correlated. Separate regression models thors discuss the complex issues affecting forestland for the three components of the index gave results valuation and forest sustainability, describing who similar to the composite index. Separate models for cares about forestland value and what determines western Oregon and western Washington differed that value, anomalies in valuing forestland, and only slightly from the regional model. challenges associated with forest valuation. They then introduce each of the six other articles in the is- Canavan, SJ, and DW Hann. 2004. The two-stage sue that discuss different aspects of forest valuation. method for measurement error characterization. Forest Science 50: 743–756. Brunson, MW, and BA Shindler. 2004. Geographic For biometricians and forest mensurationists. Even variation in social acceptability of wildland fuels though any study in which actual measurements management in the western United States. Soci- are used involves measurement error (ME), such ety and Natural Resources 17: 661–678. error often is not acknowledged or dealt with. ME For forestland managers and social scientists. Cur- can severely affect model parameters and estimates rently, natural resource managers must consider the from models. Existing correction methods require social acceptability of the practices to be followed knowing the distribution of the errors. The authors and the conditions that will result. This is especially present a new method, the two-stage error distribu- true of controversial issues such as reduction of tion method, for modeling error distributions and wildland fuel hazards on federal lands in the west- compare this method with traditional methods. Their ern US. In this study, citizens surveyed in four areas method characterized ME distribution much better 50 Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies

than traditional methods when a high percentage of For forest managers, forest ecologists, natural errors were identical and worked as well as the most resource specialists and forest certification teams accurate traditional methods in other cases. It prob- in Central and South America. An overview of ap- ably will also characterize asymmetric distributions proaches for ecological monitoring in tropical forests better than traditional methods. The authors propose with an emphasis on monitoring for certification is it be used for future error modeling. presented. This paper reviews a more detailed monitoring plan described in another publication. Chavez, DJ, JF Tynon, and N Knap. 2004. Reducing crime and violence on public lands: Case studies Finegan, B, JP Hayes, D Delgado, and S Gretzinger. 2004. in the USDA Forest Service. Journal of Park and El Monitoreo Ecológico del Manejo Forestal en el Recreation Administration 22(3): 22–38. Trópico Húmedo: Una Guía para Operadores Fores- For researchers and practitioners in forest recreation. tales y Certificadores con Énfasis en bosques de Case studies uncovered information about specific Alto Valor para la Conservación. (Ecological Moni- actions taken to manage crime and violent acts and toring for Forest Management in Tropical Rainfor- resulted in the identification of key characteristics of ests: A Guide for Forest Managers and Certifiers success in law enforcement. These characteristics are with Emphasis on High Conservation Value Forests; not “business as usual” for law enforcement; they go in Spanish). WWF Centroamérica, Costa Rica. beyond the cooperative agreements that already exist. For forest managers and forest certification teams in Central and South America. An approach is present- Creighton, J, and J Sulzmann. 2004. Saving Eden ed for ecological monitoring in tropical forests, with Creek: A Play about People and Forests. V Simon- an emphasis on monitoring for certification. Moni- Brown, project coordinator. EM 8858-E, Extension toring fundamentals, methodologies for monitoring, and Experiment Station Communications, Oregon a decision tree for determining which approaches State University, Corvallis. are appropriate, techniques for using monitoring Simon-Brown, V. 2004. Saving Eden Creek Pro- data in adaptive management, and results of field gram Guide. EM 8858, Extension and Experiment trials using the approach are presented. Station Communications, Oregon State University, Corvallis. Franklin, JF and KN Johnson. 2004. Forests face new threat: Global market challenges. Issues in Science For high school, general public and natural resource and Technology. 20(4): 41–48. professionals. This original one-act play explores several aspects of the relationships of the relation- For forest products manufacturers and marketers and ships of people with forests and their attitudes to- forest planners. For the past century, forest policymak- ward this resource. It is accompanied by a program ers in the United States have assumed that timber guide to be handed out to audience members. would become increasingly scarce. Today, however, timber is in surplus and global competition is increas- Finegan, B, D Delgado, JP Hayes, and S Gretzinger. ing, diminishing the place of the United States in the 2004. El monitoreo ecológico como herramienta global wood products industry. Capital investments de manejo forestal sostenible: consideraciones have shifted to the Southern Hemisphere in response básicas y una propuesta metodológica, con énfa- to high productivity of timber plantations there and sis en Bosques de Alto Valor para la Conservación other competitive advantages. Keeping forestlands certificados dentro del marco del FSC (Ecological in timber may become too unprofitable for many monitoring as a tool in sustainable forest man- landowners, with far-reaching societal and ecological agement: general considerations and a proposed effects. The authors argue that the new economic and methodology emphasizing high conservation social situations require major revision of forest man- value forests and FSC certification; in Spanish). agement policies. Their suggested responses to the Recursos Naturales y Ambiente 42:29–42. challenges facing the wood products industry include 51 Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies

reducing the costs of managing private forests, creat- light calculations. LandMod can be used to provide ing markets for forest goods and services, purchasing assessments of land-use strategies and research as- land and conservation easements with public funds, sessments of landscape pattern-process interactions controlling land use by zoning regulations, creating requiring explicate consideration of forest structure. or maintaining a viable domestic forest industry, and increasing local community involvement in the stew- Guild, LS, WB Cohen, and JB Kauffman. 2004. Detec- ardship of public lands. tion of deforestation and land conversion in Rondonia, Brazil using change detection tech- Garber-Yonts, B, J Kerkvliet, and R Johnson. 2004. niques. International Journal of Remote Sensing Public values for biodiversity conservation poli- 25: 731–750. cies in the Oregon Coast Range. Forest Science For land use planners and those interested in remote 50: 589–602. sensing. This study compared techniques for detect- For policymakers, conservationists, and social sci- ing changes in land use, in particular for identifying entists. An economic model was used to estimate deforestation and cattle pasture formation near Jamari, Oregonians’ willingness to pay (WTP) for changes in Rononia, Brazil. The study was carried out during a levels of biodiversity protection under four conserva- time of early colonization and expansion of agricultural tion programs: salmon and aquatic habitat conser- activities. Landsat Thematic Mapper data obtained vation, forest age-class management, endangered between 1984 and 2002 and covering 94,370 ha were species protection, and large-scale conservation examined. The contrasts among forest, cleared areas, reserves. Willingness to pay differed substantially and regrowth were enhanced by using the tasseled cap across conservation programs and regional popula- (TC) transformation. Change components were identi- tions. The highest WTP was to increase the amount fied by principal components of TC images stacked in of forest with old-growth characteristics. There was a composite multi-date TC. Consecutive TC image pairs positive WTP for at least intermediate levels of bio- also were differenced and stacked into a composite diversity conservation in all regions, but respondents multi-date differenced image. The best accuracy was were also quite averse to policy changes. Resistance obtained with the multi-date TC composite classifica- to policy changes substantially offset WTP for in- tion. By 1992, 11% of the area was deforested and 7% creases in all four conservation patterns. was lost to flooding by a dam; in 1984, only 5% of the area had been cleared. Because the technique is able to Garman, SL. 2004. Design and evaluation of a forest detect land under sustained clearing, discrimination of landscape change model for western Oregon. pasture versus cultivation was improved. Ecological Modelling 175: 319–337. Hailu, YG, and RS Rosenberger. 2004. Modeling migra- For landscape ecologists and ecological modelers. tion effects on agricultural lands: A growth equi- LandMod, a spatially explicit, stochastic forest land- librium model. Agricultural and Resource Econom- scape model, was designed to simulate forest dynamics Review 33: 50–60. ics at time frames ≥500 years and spatial extents ≥18,000 ha and a grain ≤1 ha. The model was pa- For economists and land use planners and modelers. rameterized for the three forest types dominant in the Interactions among intertemporal patterns of chang- west-central Cascades of Oregon. Performance was es in population, employment, and agricultural land assessed by comparing predictions from LandMod densities in West Virginia from 1990–1999 were with those obtained from the PNWGap model and examined by estimations from a system-of-equa- with field observations. LandMod provided reason- tions model. Jobs followed people, and commuters able prediction, with the majority of critical errors gained the new jobs. At the same time, agricultural <15%. Prediction errors resulted from underpredic- land was being lost, particularly in counties with less tion of canopy-stem size in old-growth stands and of productive or fragmented agricultural land. Popu- mean size of subdominant species and from simplified lations change was elastic, but employment and 52 Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies

agricultural land density changes were not. In high in 1939, whereas the influence of environment growth or potential growth areas, growth manage- decreased considerably over time. ment combined with programs to retain agricultural land may preserve agricultural land most effectively. Kline, JD, RJ Alig, and B Garber-Yonts. 2004. Forestland social values and open space preservation. Jour- Jackson, B, M Habecker, M Kroenke, M Reichenbach, S nal of Forestry 102 (8): 39–45. Traaholt, V Simon-Brown, and B Hubbard. 2004. For conservation land planners, policymakers and Members evaluate their Association of Natural decision makers. Although the area of forestland re- Resource Extension Professionals (ANREP). Jour- mained fairly stable during the last half of the twen- nal of Extension 42(6). Available at www.joe. tieth century, both public and private forestlands are org/joe/2004december/rb1.shtml. Last accessed being lost to development and the remaining lands June 15, 2005. are shared among more people. Nonmarket (social) For extension educators and natural resource profes- values of forestlands benefit society as a whole but sionals. Members of ANREP were asked to complete generally are not accounted for in market values. a survey that would provide guidance to the As- Public and private efforts have developed to pre- sociation in strategic planning. Respondents were serve forestlands as open space. The authors discuss satisfied overall with the services, networking oppor- these efforts and their economic bases and rationale tunities, and professional development available to in the context of market values. members. Members felt that the leadership could Kline, JD, DL Azuma, and RJ Alig. 2004. Population increase communication about new programs and growth, urban expansion, and private forestry in encourage members to become committee mem- western Oregon. Forest Science 50: 33–43. bers. Survey methods and questions may be useful to other Extension-related organizations in their For planners, nonindustrial forest owners and man- own strategic planning. agers, ecologists, and social scientists. As the population of the United States grows and more people Kennedy, RSH, and TA Spies. 2004. Forest cover chang- live in the “wildland/urban interface”, private and es in the Oregon Coast Range from 1939 to 1993. other forestlands are threatened as economic and Forest Ecology and Management 200: 129–147. ecological resources. The authors developed empiri- cal models describing forest stocking, thinning, har- For ecologists, forest land managers, and land use vest, and tree planting in western Oregon as func- planners. Many policy and ecological questions tions of stand and site characteristics, ownership, require understanding changes in forest vegetation and building density and used them to explore the types over time in relation to forest management potential impacts of population growth and urban and environmental conditions. The authors as- expansion on the management practices of private sessed how ownership and environment influenced forest owners. Population growth and expansion forest vegetation from 1939 to 1993 in the Oregon were correlated with reductions in forest manage- Coast Range. Older conifer cover declined from ment and investments. Such reductions have both 36% to 15% of the landscape over this period, ecological and economic implications and may also whereas younger conifer stands increased from affect wildfire risk in populated areas. 21% to 44% of the landscape. Suburb and hardwood cover was found lower on slopes and closer Kumagai, Y, JC Bliss, SE Daniels, and MS Carroll. 2004. to streams and declined from 31% to 25% of the Research on causal attribution of wildfire: an exploratory multiple-methods approach. Society landscape by the end of the period. Ownership and Natural Resources 17: 113–127. was very important in affecting the presence of large and very large conifer cover or shrub and For forest planners and managers, wildfire research- hardwood cover by 1993, though it had not been ers, and social scientists. Victims of wildfire often 53 Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies

blame others, especially corporations or government For silviculturists and social scientists. In this edito- agencies, for their losses, even though actions by rial, the authors summarize the history of the use of property owners themselves, such as clearing areas phenoxy acids, 2,4,5,-T in particular, as herbicides in around buildings, have been shown to be the best agricultural, rangeland, and forestland management. way to protect property from wildfire damage. In They emphasize the political, social, and media issues this study, residents of communities on the western arising after use of the herbicide in Vietnam and after slope of the Sierra Nevada were surveyed about allegations of association of its use with miscarriages, their perception of the causes of wildfire damage which have resulted in its falling into disuse in spite through mail and field interviews. People who had of its environmental and economic advantages. experienced wildfire were more likely to attribute damage to other people’s actions than were people Rickenbach, MG, JC Bliss, and AS Reed. 2004. Collabor- who had not. Those who felt some sense of control atives, cooperation, and private forest ownership: or who had interacted with firefighters in a positive Implications for voluntary protection of biological manner were less likely to attribute damage to other diversity. Small-scale Forest Economics, Manage- people’s actions. The multiple-methods approach ment, and Policy 3(1): 69–83. has the potential to reveal more about the complex For social scientists, conservationists, forest owners, social dynamics associated with reaction to wildfire and those who work with forest owners. Programs than a single-method approach. for conserving biological diversity usually require cooperation among many owners having diverse Kumagai, Y, SE Daniels, MS Carroll, JC Bliss, and JA individual management objectives for their proper- Edwards. 2004. Causal reasoning processes of ties. Thirty-seven nonindustrial private forest owners, people affected by wildfire: Implications for watershed council members, and public employees agency-community interactions and communica- in two areas of coastal Oregon were interviewed tion strategies. Western Journal of Applied For- and three scenarios were developed from efforts to estry 19: 184–194. restore coho salmon in the region. Consideration of For forest planners and managers, social scientists, and ownership patterns, the structure of collaboration, those involved with communicating with the public and issues of representation affected access to criti- about wildfire prevention, control, and education.Fire cal habitat features. managers often do not understand why those suffering losses in wildfires often blame them for the damage, Sessions, J, P Bettinger, R Buckman, M Newton, and J even though wildfire damage results from complex Hamann. 2004. Hastening the return of complex interactions among natural and human factors. At- forests following fire: The consequences of delay. tribution theory can provide some understanding of Journal of Forestry 102(3): 38–45. the mechanisms underlying the blaming process. Using For researchers in forest policy, forest manage- quantitative and qualitative analyses of surveys of ment, and forest operations. In 2002, the Biscuit fire people living in fire-prone areas and of people in the burned more than 400,000 acres in southern Or- same area who actually experienced a wildfire, the egon. The authors describe the management oppor- authors found that those who had experienced wildfire tunities to restore complex forests after catastrophic tended to attribute damage to factors other than their fire, using the 2002 Biscuit Fire in southwest Oregon own action or inaction. The authors discuss the implica- as a case study. They examined the costs of post- tions of this tendency and make recommendations for fire management delay in terms of restoration of future fire education and communication. the area to structurally complex conifer-dominated forests, capture of some economic value to offset Newton, M, and AL Young. 2004. The story of 2,4,5-T: A restoration costs, and reducing insect epidemics and case study of science and societal concern. Environ- future fires. The time-sensitive nature of cost-ef- mental Science and Pollution Research 11: 207–208. fective restoration opportunities is discussed. They

54 Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies

point out that delay in making decisions and imple- workshops can help consumers define, examine, and menting restoration will lessen or eliminate the pos- apply their own values and beliefs about sustainability. sibility of economic recovery and put off the return of the area to complex forest, possibly for decades. Spies, TA. 2004. Landscape assessment in a multiownership province, pp. 33–37 in Proceedings: Views Shelby, B, JA Tokarczyk, and RL Johnson. 2004. Timber from the Ridge--Consideration for Planning at the harvest and forest neighbors: The urban fringe re- Landscape Scale, General Technical Report PNW- search project at Oregon State University. Journal GTR-596, USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest of Forestry 102(1): 8–13. Research Station, Portland OR. For land-use planners, harvest planners, and sociolo- For landscape ecologists, policymakers, and natural gists. The expansion of urban and suburban popu- resource managers. Multiownership landscapes lations into forests has increased the complexity pose complex management and scientific challenges and costs of harvesting activities, as well as public affecting their aggregate ecological conditions. The disputes and potential legal actions. Residents of Coastal Landscape Analysis and Modeling Study neighborhoods bordering the Oregon State Univer- (CLAMS) is an interdisciplinary research program sity research forest near Corvallis were surveyed designed to assess effects of forest policies on the before a proposed harvest. The residents preferred ecological and socioeconomic conditions of the specific harvest treatments and also were concerned Coast Range province. The author describes the about buffers, safety, length of harvest activities, for- general approach of CLAMS, gives an example of a est regrowth, recreation, and aesthetics. simulation of changes in forest landscape over time, discusses potential ecological consequences of dif- Shindler, B. 2004. Landscape-level management: It’s ferent management policies among ownerships, and all about context, p. 61 in Proceedings: Views identifies some of the challenges entailed in devel- from the Ridge--Consideration for Planning at the opment of integrated regional models. Landscape Scale. General Technical Report PNW- GTR-596, USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Steel, B, P List, D Lach, and B Shindler. 2004. The role Research Station, Portland OR. of scientists in the environmental policy process: For forest planners and social scientists. Although a case study from the American west. Environ- forest managers and planners are now working at mental Science and Policy 7: 1–13. the landscape scale, members of the public often For policymakers, natural resource managers, and are not clear about the concept of landscape-level social scientists. Many groups have been calling management. Better understanding of how citizens for more involvement of scientists and inclusion of view landscape requires interaction with the public, scientific information in complex decisions about outreach activities and simulations, and addressing environmental policy. Not all agree, however, that questions about risk and uncertainty. increasing involvement of scientists will generate better policy. The authors surveyed scientists, natural Simon-Brown, V. 2004. Intelligent consumption: Ad- resource managers, interest groups, and the public in dressing consumer responsibilities for natural the Pacific Northwest about what they thought the resources. Journal of Extension 42(5): http://www. role of scientists and science in the formulation of joe.org/joe/2004october/a1.shtml. Last accessed public policy should be. The groups differed signifi- June 17, 2005. cantly in what they considered to constitute science. For extension educators and natural resource profes- Many respondents would prefer research scientists sionals. Consumers, as well as producers, are respon- to work closely with managers or to become directly sible for careful use of natural resources. The author involved in scientific advocacy and decision making. discusses the roles of values and ethics in making intel- Scientists were more doubtful than members of other ligent consumer decisions and how Sustainable Living group that they could provide scientific answers and 55 Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies

were reluctant to become directly involved in policy respondents trusting the forest service to implement making. and effective prescribed fire program increased from 43% to 53% after the site visits. There were also no Sulzman, EW. 2004. Games in an introductory soil significant differences in support for prescribed fire, science course: a novel approach for increasing with all participants supporting at least some use of student involvement with course material. Journal prescribed fire. The authors discuss how field visits of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Education can be improved as an outreach method. 33: 98–101. Wing, M, D Solmie, and L Kellogg. 2004. Comparing For instructors of any course. Games used in the col- Digital Range Finders for Forestry Applications. lege classroom improved student enthusiasm for the Journal of Forestry 102(4): 16–20. subject matter. Further, those who took the optional recitation with games scored significantly higher For forest operations planners, forest engineers, sur- (7.5%) on the final exam for the corequisite lecture veyors. The costs of digital measurement tools are now course than those who did not take the optional within the reach of many organizations. The authors recitation, despite the fact that the overall mean found significant differences in reliability and accuracy GPA of the two groups was similar (P = 0.30). of five commercially available digital range finders. Digital range finders have many advantages over tra- Thompson, JR, M Anderson, and KN Johnson. 2004. ditional techniques, but users should define their needs Ecosystem management across ownerships: The clearly before choosing a specific instrument. potential for collision with antitrust laws. Conser- vation Biology 18: 1475–1481. Wondzell, SM, and PJ Howell. 2004. Developing a deci- For ecosystem managers and researchers. Cross- sion-support model for assessing condition and boundary ecosystem management is increasingly prioritizing the restoration of aquatic habitat in being advocated to address large-scale ecological the interior Columbia Basin, pp. 73–81 in Methods issues on forested landscapes. Antitrust laws limit for Integrated Modeling of Landscape Change. the forest industry’s ability to participate in regional Interior Northwest Landscape Analysis System (IN- ecosystem planning, however, because they restrict LAS), JL Hayes, AA Ager, and RJ Barbour, eds. Gen- the ability of competing firms to coordinate activi- eral Technical Report PNW-GTR-610, USDA Forest ties and share information. This paper explores the Service, Pacific NW Research Station, Portland OR. real and perceived threats of antitrust litigation to For riparian and restoration biologists, ecological model- successful ecosystem management and also ex- ers, and policymakers. The Interior Northwest Landscape plores potential solutions to this problem. Analysis System (INLAS) is a multidisciplinary effort to Toman, E, B Shindler, and M Reed. Prescribed fire: the develop analytical tools that can be used to examine the effects of policy or management options on ecologi- influence of site visits on citizen attitudes. Journal cal and socioeconomic systems. The tools being devel- of Environmental Education 35(3): 13–17. oped in the Aquatics Module will assess the biophysical For forestland managers and policymakers. A subset characteristics of streams and watersheds, landscape- of respondents to a mail questionnaire about public scale processes, including natural disturbances, and perceptions of prescribed fire was invited to visit alternative management scenarios with respect to mid- sites treated with prescribed fire and control sites scale aquatic habitat. The authors plan to apply these and answer on-site survey questions. Responses analytical tools to the Upper Grand Ronde River subba- to mail and on-site questionnaires did not differ sin as a demonstration area. The tools being developed significantly, with responses showing moderate to are intended to help natural resources specialists and strong acceptance of prescribed fire. Although not managers determine what management strategies are significantly different, the percentage of partici- most like to be compatible with guidelines for aquatic pants worried about threats to property and forests species and their habitat and management objectives increased from 25% to 43%, but the percentage of for other resources. 56 Wood Processing and Product Performance

Ahmed, AA, SA El-Moghazy, MA El-Shanawany, HF candenatone, from campinceran, a tree endemic to Adbel-Ghani, J Karchesy, G Sturtz, K Dalley, and P Mexico. The compound has an isoflavan-cinnamyl Pare. 2004. Polyol monoterpenes and sesquiter- phenol quinine methide structure. pene lactones from the Pacific Northwest plant Artemisia suksdorfii. Journal of Natural Products Bermek, H, I Gülseren, K Li, H Jung, and C Tamerler. 67: 1705–1710. 2004. The effect of fungal morphology on lignino- lytic enxyme production by a recently isolated For researchers in forest products utilization and wood-degrading fungus Trichophyton rubrum wood chemistry. Many biologically active com- LSK-27. World Journal of Microbiology and Bio- pounds have been isolated from members of the ge- technology 20: 345–349. nus Artemisia. Many are sesquiterpenes and monoterpenes. Twelve new terpenoid natural products For fungal biochemists and morphologists and wood were isolated and identified in this native perennial preservationists. Growth conditions affect fungal of the coastal Pacific Northwest forests. Their charac- growth, morphology, and metabolite and enzyme terization is described in detail. production. Little is known, however, about how culture parameters affect morphology and produc- Ahmed, AA, TA Hussein, AA Mahnoud, MA Farag, PW tion of lignolytic enzymes in wood-degrading fungi. Paré, M Wojcinska, J Karchesy, and T Mabry. 2004. Trichophyton rubrum in submerged cultures ap- Nor-ent-kaurane diterpenes and hydroxylactones peared to produce manganese peroxidase efficiently. from Antennaria geyeri and Anaphalis margarita- Growing the organism in baffled or unbaffled shake cea. Phytochemistry 65: 2539–2543. flasks with working volume/total volume ratio of For phytochemists and pharmacologists. Members 10%, 25%, or 50% produced differences in morphol- of the aster genera Antennaria and Anaphalis have ogy. Manganese peroxidase and laccase appeared been used traditionally by Native Americans to treat earlier and at higher levels when the fungus was coughs, respiratory problems, and other maladies. cultivated in baffled flasks at 25% WV/TV. Oxygen The authors isolated and characterized the structure conditions affected morphology of the cultures, and of a nor-ent-kaurane diterpene and a known diter- manganese peroxidase production was best under pene, scopoletin, and sitosterol-3-O-β-glucopyrano- oxygen-rich conditions. side from Antennaria geyeri (pinewood pussytoes) and two hydroxylactones from Anaphalis margari- Bermek, H, H Yacizi, H Öztürk, C Tarmeler, H Jung, K Li, tacea (pearly everlasting). They showed both diter- KM Brown, H Ding, and F Xu. 2004. Purification penes to have bacteriostatic and bactericidal activity. and characterization of manganese peroxidase from wood-degrading fungus Trichophyton ru- Barragan-Huerta, BE, J Peralta-Cruz, RF Gonzalez- brum LSK-27. Enzyme and Microbial Technology Laredo, and J Karchesy. 2004. Neocandenatone, 35: 87–92. an isoflavin-cinnamylphenol quinine pigment For fungal biochemists and wood preservationists. from Dalbergia congestiflora. Phytochemistry 65: Lignin, one of the most important carbon sources and 925–928. contributor to the global carbon cycle, can be degrad- For plant and natural products chemists. The authors ed selectively in nature only by white-rot fungi. Man- isolated and characterized a purple pigment, neo- ganese peroxidases, one of three lignolytic enzymes 57 Wood Processing and Products Performance

produced by these fungi, may have important indus- is projected to continue to grow but to face limita- trial applications, in addition to their ecological role. tions by raw material supply and competition from Their role in degrading lignin is not well understood, other countries. however. Furthermore, their properties may vary, depending on the specific fungus. The authors purified Craig, AM, JJ Karchesy, LL Blythe, MP González- a manganese peroxidase from Trichophyton rubrum Hernández, and LR Swan. 2004. Toxicity studies on to homogeneity, characterized it, and compared its western juniper oil (Juniperus occidentalis) and properties to those of manganese peroxidases from Port-Orford-cedar oil (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana) other white-rot fungi. This manganese peroxidase had extracts utilizing local lymph node and acute der- an unusually high pI and stability in the presence of mal irritation assays. Toxicology Letters 154(3):

high concentrations of H2O2 and was heat stable at 217–224. rather high temperature. For pharmacologists and phytochemists. Possible dermal toxic effects of essential oil extracts of Bischoff, TA, CJ Kelley, J Karchesy, M Laurantos, P western juniper and Port-Orford-cedar were evalu- Nguyen-Dinh, and AG Arefi. 2004. Antimalarial ac- ated in mice and rabbits. According to a local lymph tivity of lactucin and lactucopicrin: sequiterpene node assay, mice did not respond to Port-Orford- lactones isolate from Cichorium intybus L. Journal cedar oil extract at concentrations up to 50% and of Ethnopharmacology 95: 455–457. responded to western juniper oil extract only at a For pharmacologists, ethnobotanists, and phyto- 50% concentration. In rabbits, 100% Port-Orford-ce- chemists. Before the wars in Afghanistan, folklore dar oil extract produced irritation in an acute dermal described using aqueous root extracts of Cichorium irritation study, which was reduced approximate intybus (L.) as a remedy for malaria. The light sensi- 5-fold when the extract was diluted 1:1 with olive tive sesquiterpene lactones lactucin and lactucopic- oil. Western juniper oil extract was somewhat less rin were isolated and shown to have antimalarial irritating than Port-Orford-cedar oil extract. Irritation activity by bioassay against Plasmodium falciparum. decreased with decreasing dilution. Animals bedded on wood shavings probably are not in contact with Cao, X, EN Hansen, M Xu, and B Xu. 2005. China’s essential oils at a level that will elicit a hypersensi- furniture industry today. Forest Products Journal tivity response. 54(11): 14–23. DeBell, DS, R Singleton, BL Gartner, and DD Marshall. For furniture manufacturers and marketers. China, 2004. Wood density of young-growth western the third largest furniture-producing country in the hemlock: relation to ring age, radial growth, world, has some 50,000 small to medium, privately stand density, and site quality. Canadian Journal owned furniture manufacturing companies, located of Forest Research 34: 2433–2442. mainly in four regions along the east coast. The authors discuss industry demographics, domestic For those interested in wood quality and silvicultur- and global markets, wood imports, and the future of ists. Growth and wood density traits of individual the industry. Domestic furniture markets are growing rings of breast-high stem sections of western hem- rapidly, absorbing more than 70% of gross output lock were determined and related to age and growth during 1997–2003. Exports increased nearly 600% rate. Rapid growth influenced whole ring density over the same period, and China became the num- negatively at young ages, but the effect lessened ber 1 exporter to the United States in 2000. Most with age and was insignificant after age 30. Ring exported furniture is sold more cheaply than local density was highest near the pith, declined until age products, and an anti-dumping petition was filed in 10, and increased gradually from age 25 throughout the United States in 2003. Chinese forest product 38; density was stable from ages 10–25 and after imports have also been increasingly rapidly, leading age 38. At young ages, ring width was negatively to concerns about impacts on global forests. Growth related to earlywood and latewood density and 58 Wood Processing and Products Performance

latewood proportion, but the effect disappeared for construction subjected to wind and earthquake all but latewood proportion by age 21–25. Neither hazards. Journal of Structural Engineering 130: stand density nor site class appeared to affect 1921–1930. residual differences in wood density. Growing young For structural and timber engineers. The authors hemlock in intensively managed stand generally reviewed the performance of residential buildings increases their usual uniformity in wood density. during recent hurricanes and earthquakes to identify performance goals and structural and nonstructural Eiden, CMT, RJ Leichti, TH Miller, and M Clauson. 2004. Dynamic analysis of heavy timber structures with limit states. They developed a fragility analysis friction dampers, pp. 475–480 in Proceedings of methodology to assess how light-frame wood con- the 8th World Conference on Timber Engineering, struction responds to windstorms and earthquakes Vol. 2. June 14–17, 2004, Lahti, Finland. Finnish and demonstrated the analysis for selected building Association of Civil Engineers, Helsinki. configurations and construction. A connection was established between limit state probabilities and For engineers and wood scientists. A computational the wind and earthquake hazards stipulated in ASCE study was performed to evaluate the effect of a Standard 7. passive damper system in a heavy timber frame structural system. For the two-story building system Gaibler, D, W Rochefort, J Wilson, and S Kelley. 2004. and static loading, the beam column connections Blends of cellulose ester/phenolic polymers— were adequate to control the performance of the chemical and thermal properties of blends with building within allowable drift limits. The addition of polyvinyl phenol. Cellulose 11(2): 225–237. dampers did not improve performance with respect to displacement or member forces. For those interested in biobased thermoplastic polymers. Cellulose esters (CEs) are renewable, biobased Ellingwood, BR, and DV Rosowsky. 2004. Fragility thermoplastic polymers, the properties of which assessment of structural systems in light-frame can be varied by controlling the ester substituents. residential construction subjected to natural The objective of this study was to examine ways in hazards, pp. 119 in Proceedings of Building on which to improve the strength and thermal proper- the Past: Securing the Future: Structures Congress ties and increase the usefulness of CEs. Blends of 2004, May 22–26, 2004, Nashville, Tennessee, CE and (poly)vinyl phenol (PVP) containing a latent USA, GE Blandford, ed. American Society of Civil formaldehyde source as a cross-linker were prepared Engineering. and thermally cross-linked. Semi-interpenetrating polymer networks formed in blends containing 50% For structural and timber engineers. The authors PVP and high levels of formaldehyde. reviewed the performance of residential buildings during recent hurricanes and earthquakes to identify Geng, X, H Jung, and K Li. 2004. Degradation of wood performance goals and structural and nonstructural and pulp by three fungi, Pyncoporus cinnabarinus, limit states. They developed a fragility analysis Trichophyton rubrum LKY-7, and Trichophyton methodology to assess how light-frame wood con- rubrum LSK-27, pp. 139–159 in Lignocellulose struction responds to windstorms and earthquakes Biodegradation, BC Saha and K Hayashi, eds. ACS and demonstrated the analysis for selected building Symposium Series 889. American Chemical Soci- configurations and construction. A connection was ety, Washington, DC. established between limit state probabilities and the wind and earthquake hazards stipulated in ASCE For pulp and paper technologists and manufactur- Standard 7. ers. The ability of three white-rot fungi to degrade pine, yellow poplar, and sweet gum was tested and Ellingwood, BR, DV Rosowsky, L Yu, and JH Kim. changes in functional groups after degradation of 2004. Fragility assessment of light-frame wood pine flour were analyzed. Inoculation of pine blocks 59 Wood Processing and Products Performance

with Pyncoporus cinnabarinus, Trichophyton rubrum properties of wood-polyethylene composites. LKY-7, and Trichophyton rubrum LSK-27 resulted in Journal of Applied Polymer Science 91: 3667– weight loss of 87.6% with P. cinnabarinus, 20.8% 3672. with T. rubrum LSK-27, and 3.1% with T. rubrum For researchers in wood-plastic composites. This LKY-7 after 3 months. Degradation of yellow polar paper describes a novel coupling agent (compati- and sweet gum by P. cinnabarinus was much lower bilizer) system composed of a paper wet-strength than with pine and statistically the same as by T. agent (Kymene 557H) as the wood-binding domain rubrum LSK-27; both degraded the hardwoods much and stearic anhydride as the polyethylene(PE)-bind- more efficiently than didT. rubrum LKY-7. Degraded ing domain. This compatibilizer system increased pine flour showed increased content of condensed the modulus of rupture (MOR) of the wood-PE phenolic OH groups and carboylic acid groups, composite by about 33% and the modulus of elas- decreased guaiacyl phenolic OH content, and little ticity (MOE) by about 40% over similar composites change in aliphatic OH group content. Similar trends without a stabilizer. This MOR was slightly lower and were noted in unbleached softwood kraft pulp the MOR was slightly higher than that of the com- degraded by P. cinnabarinus, indicating that struc- mercially used compatibilizer. tural alterations of lignin caused by pulping did not materially affect degradation. Gupta, R, C Basta, and SM Kent. 2004. Effect of knots on longitudinal shear strength of Douglas-fir us- Geng, X, K Li, and F Xu. Investigation of hydroxamic ing shear blocks. Forest Products Journal 54(11): acids as laccase-mediators for pulp bleaching. 77–83. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 64: 493–496. For wood scientists and technologists. Knots in lumber can negatively affect many aspects of wood For pulp and paper technologists and manufacturers. strength, but little is known about their effect on Lignin-degrading enzymes, such as laccase, that are shear strength. The effect of knots on the parallel- produced by wood-rotting fungi have potential for pro- to-grain shear strength of wood was investigated viding more environmentally friendly ways to bleach in shear block specimens, 40 with knots and 40 pulp in paper manufacture. Laccase is readily available matched clear specimens. The mean shear strength and uses atmospheric oxygen as an electron acceptor, of clear and knotted specimens did not differ sig- but it cannot degrade kraft pulp well without a me- nificantly. Orientation of knots relative to the shear diator. Many laccase mediators and laccase/mediator plane did not affect the results. systems have been investigated, but none has proven sufficiently effective to warrant commercialization. In Gupta, R, TH Miller, and D Dung. 2004. Practical solu- this study, several hydroxamic acids were synthesized tion to wood truss assembly design problems. and their usefulness as laccase mediators was tested Practice Periodical on Structural Design and in comparison with N-hydroxyacetanilide (NHA), a Construction 9: 54–60. relatively effective mediator. N(4-cyanophenyl)acetohy droxamic acid (NCPA) gave the highest brightness and For structural and timber engineers. The authors lowest kappa number of hardwood kraft pulp of all analyzed an actual metal-plate-connected wood the compounds studied. Laccase/7-cyano-4-hydroxy- truss assembly, using a system design procedure to 2H-1,4-benzoxazin-3-one was also an effective system. investigate some of the behavioral issues that may Pulp consistency, laccase dosage, NCP dosage, incu- be present in an actual, complex roof-truss assem- bation time, and oxygen pressure affected bleaching bly. The study demonstrated that various ‘system’- efficacy of a laccase/NCPA system. related issues (e.g., interaction of sub-assemblies, boundary conditions) strongly influence the behavior Geng, Y, K Li, and J Simonsen. 2004. Effects of a of an assembly, which may not be considered in new compatibilizer system on the flexural conventional design. 60 Wood Processing and Products Performance

Gupta, R, TH Miller, and MH Redlinger. 2004. Behavior increased delamination of pultruded FRP composite of metal-plate-connected wood truss joints under sheets and of a continuously laminated composite wind and impact loads. Forest Products Journal incorporating E-glass fiber bonded with epoxy from 54(3): 76–84. the glulam material. For structural and timber engineers. The objective Herzog, B, B Goodell, R Lopez-Anido, L Muszyñski, DJ of this research was to understand the behavior of Gardner, and C Tascioglu. 2004. Effect of creosote metal-plate-connected (MPC) wood truss heel and or copper naphthenate preservative treatments tension splice joints subjected to dynamic loads that of properties of FRP composite materials used for simulated hurricane wind and impact loads. It is wood reinforcement. Journal of Advanced Materi- suggested that the static tests of MPC joints may be als, SAMPE 36(4): 11–17. conducted in 1 minute to failure, like lumber, instead of 10 minutes to failure, as recommended by the For wood preservationists, wood composite manu- current standard. facturers and researchers, and structural engineers. Wooden construction elements exposed to exterior Gupta, R, TH Miller, and SMW Freilinger. 2004. Short- environments are normally treated with preserva- term cyclic performance of metal-plate-connected tive to protect them from biodeterioration. This need wood truss joints. Structural Engineering and extends to FRP (fiber-reinforced polymer)-wood Mechanics: an International Journal 17: 627–639. composites. In this study, the effects of undiluted For structural and timber engineers. The objective creosote or 1% copper naphthenate in a mineral of this research was to evaluate the performance of spirits carrier on mechanical properties were inves- metal-plate-connected truss joints subjected to cy- tigated. Interlaminar shear strength of an FRP made clic loading conditions that simulated seismic events of E-glass fiber bonded with epoxy and fabricated in the lives of the joints. The current duration of load by continuous lamination was adversely affected factor of 1.6 for earthquake loading is adequate for by creosote treatment. Both treatments adversely these joints. affected longitudinal tensile strength of a pultruded FRP composite flat sheet of E-glass fiber bonded Herzog, B, B Goodell, R Lopez-Anido, L Muszyñski, DJ with urethane. These properties were not affected by Gardner, W Halteman, and Y Qian. 2004. The effect preservative treatment in E-glass fiber bonded with of creosote and copper naphthenate preservative vinyl ester or carbon fiber bonded with vinyl ester systems on the adhesive bondlines of FRP/glulam and fabricated by the Seemann composites resin composite beams. Forest Products Journal 54(10): infusion (SCRIMP) process. Treatment did not affect 82–90. longitudinal elastic modulus in any FRP tested. Treat- ment with copper napthenate apparently improved For wood preservationists and wood composite the longitudinal tensile strength of E-glass/epoxy manufacturers and researchers. Even if a glulam composite. beam has been strengthened with fiber-reinforced polymers (FRPs), preservative treatment is still need- Hovgaard, A, and E Hansen. 2004. Innovativeness ed. The authors investigated the effects of treating in the forest products industry. Forest Products FRP-wood composites with creosote or copper nap- Journal 54(1): 26–33. thenate preservatives. Creosote treatment adversely affected shear strength under both wet and ambient For forest products marketers and planners. Contri- testing conditions of a pultruded FRP composite that butions of innovation to company success have rare- included E-glass fiber bonded with urethane. Both ly been studied with respect to the forest products preservatives decreased the shear strength of an FRP industry. Seventeen small forest products companies incorporating carbon fiber and a vinyl ester main Alaska and Oregon participated in interviews trix. In accelerated aging tests, creosote treatment about their concepts of innovativeness. The respon-

61 Wood Processing and Products Performance

dents identified seven concepts of innovation, the Langlois, J, R Gupta, and TH Miller. 2004. Effects of ref- most common being a unique product or process. Of erence displacement and damage accumulation in the seven concepts identified, six correspond with wood shear walls. Journal of Structural Engineer- product, process, or business systems innovation, ing 130: 470–479. a division prevalent in the literature. The seventh For structural and timber engineers. The objec- concept was “a way of thinking”. The respondents tives of this study were (1) to evaluate the effect practiced six steps of product development, but their of reference displacement on wall behavior under processes were not consistent or structured. fully reversed cyclic loading using the CUREE test Kent, SM, RJ Leichti, DV Rosowsky, and JJ Morrell. protocol and (2) to assess damage accumulation for 2004. Biodeterioration effects of nailed con- the imposed drift levels. The reference displacement nections, pp. 583–588 in Proceedings, 8th World could influence wall strength by up to 15%; there Conference on Timber Engineering, Vol 2. June was little or no effect on stiffness and area under 14–17, 2004, Lahti, Finland. Finnish Association of the backbone curve. Visible damage was minimal at Civil Engineers, Helsinki. drifts as high as 1%.

For engineers and wood scientists. The effect of wood Leichti, R, R Scott, and T Miller. 2004. Lateral resis- decay on the change in nail connections was examined tance of log walls and foundation anchorage. for a single brown rot fungus and one combination of Wood Design Focus 14: 3–7. sheathing and framing materials. The nailed connection retained static capacity up to a high level of sheathing For engineers and code officials. The lateral resis- decay, and then capacity was lost. Sheathing condition tance of foundation anchorage in log buildings was controlled the connection behavior. evaluated. Testing included friction tests and tests of common anchorage used in modern log buildings. Kent, SM, RJ Leichti, DV Rosowsky, and JJ Morrell. Construction and design details influenced lateral 2004. Effects of wood decay by Postia placenta force resistance and stiffness. Anchorage was ad- on the lateral capacity of nailed oriented strand- equate to meet design requirements. board sheathing and Douglas-fir framing members. Wood and Fiber Science 36: 560–572. Li, K, and X Geng. 2004. Investigation of formaldehyde-free wood adhesives from kraft lignin and a For wood preservationists and wood and structural polyaminoamide-epichlorohydrin resin. Journal of engineers. In order to determine how wood decay Adhesion Science and Technology 18: 427–439. affects the single shear strength of oriented strandboard sheathing nailed to Douglas-fir framing mem- For wood composites manufacturers and research- bers, samples of nailed connections were exposed ers in wood adhesives. Mixing alkaline kraft lignin for increasing intervals to the brown rot fungus, Pos- and a polyaminoamide-epichlorohydrin (PAE) resin tia placenta. Their strength and stiffness were tested. produces a formaldehyde-free wood adhesive. A Portions of the sheathing and the framing members 3:1 lignin/PAE ratio gave the highest shear strength were then tested for dowel bearing strength and and water resistance of the ratios tested in wood weight loss. The nailed connection retained static composites bonded with the adhesive. As press time capacity up to a high level of sheathing decay, and and temperature increased, the shear strength of the then capacity was lost. Sheathing condition con- composites increased and then plateaued. Compos- trolled the connection behavior. If the dowel-bearing ites bonded with the lignin-PAE adhesives did not capacity of the wood materials can be determined, delaminate and retained high strength even after yield models currently used in designing nailed con- treatment with boiling water. The adhesives retained nections also can predict nominal design values for their adhesion ability when stored for 2 days at nailed connections damaged by decay. room temperature.

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Li, K, X Geng, J Simonsen, and J Karchesy. 2004. Novel Lippke, B, J Wilson, J Perez-Garcia, J Bowyer, and J wood adhesives from condensed tannins and Meil. 2004. CORRIM: Life-cycle environmental per- polyethylenimine. International Journal of Adhe- formance of renewable building materials. Forest sion and Adhesives 24: 327–333. Products Journal 54(6): 8–19. For wood composites manufacturers and research- For structural engineers, wood products manufac- ers in wood adhesives. The authors describe a turers, and builders. CORRIM (the Consortium for novel adhesive system that is formaldehyde-free Research on Renewable industrial Materials) was and utilizes wood tannins, a renewable resource. formed by 15 research institutions in 1996. Two years The adhesive system, a mixture of procyanidin-type later, CORRIM published a research plan and protocol condensed tannin and polyethylenimine, performed to develop a life-cycle assessment, including a com- as well as currently used commercial adhesives. The plete life-cycle inventory (LCI) for residential struc- effects of several variables in manufacture of the tures and other uses of wood. This article summarizes adhesive on shear strength and water resistance of the findings of CORRIM’s Phase I research. The report wood composites bonded with the adhesive system provides an explanation of the LCI data, the methods are described. used in the analyses, and examples of how LI data can be used. Alternative scenarios are analyzed, and Li, K-C, S Peshkova, and XL Geng. 2004. Investigation the implications of substituting nonwood products for of soy protein-KymeneReg. adhesive systems for wood in construction are discussed. Opportunities for wood composites. Journal of the American Oil environmental improvements during the life cycle of Chemists Society 81(5): 487–491. building materials are discussed.

For wood products manufacturers and researchers. Liu, Y, and K Li. 2004. Modification of soy protein for Soya protein isolate and a commercial wet-strength wood adhesives using mussel protein as a model: agent for paper, KymeneReg.557h, were mixed and the Influence of a mercapto group. Macromolecu- tested as a new, environmentally friendly adhesive lar Rapid Communications 25: 1835–1838. system for wood composites. Shear strengths of composites bonded with these preparations were For wood composites manufacturers and researchers comparable to or higher than those of composites in wood adhesives. Commonly used wood adhesives bonded with phenol formaldehyde resins. In addi- used in forming wood composites are petroleum tion, their water resistance was high, and strength bases and contain formaldehyde, a human carcino- remained relatively high even after a boiling-water gen. Mussels secrete adhesive proteins that are strong and water resistant, but they are expensive test. and not readily available. Soy protein, which is Li, X, Y Geng, J Simonsen, and K Li. 2004. Application inexpensive and readily available, can be made into of ionic liquids for electrostatic control in wood. a strong, water-resistant adhesive by introduction of Holzforschung 58: 280–285. a DOPA-like compound. Because one of the muscle proteins contains a large amount of sulfur, the For wood products manufacturers and research- authors tested whether increasing the content of a ers. Wood does not have anti-electrostatic ability, free mercapto group into the soy protein would have which is desirable for wood products in many uses. a similar effect. Wood adhesion was significantly Five ionic liquids were either brushed on or used increased by introduction of the mercapto group, as a soak for maple and pine veneers. Surface and with wood strength and water resistance depending volume resistivity of the specimens was measured on the level of the mercapto group in the modified in accordance with ASTM standards. All five ionic soy protein isolates. liquids were effective in providing antielectrostatic properties, especially with pine. Cost and long-term Milota, M. 2004. Solid wood processing: Drying, pp. effectiveness may present some problems. 1293–1302 in Encyclopedia of Forest Sciences, J 63 Wood Processing and Products Performance

Burley, ed-in-chief, J Evans and J Youngquist, eds. or depth. Soil contamination by CCA from treated Elsevier, London. wood appears to be minimal, even after 45 years. For wood products manufacturers and builders. Morrell, JJ, SM Kent, W Wang, RJ Leichti, and DV Roso- After reviewing the history of wood drying and the wsky. 2004. Effects of fungal attack on composite reasons for drying wood, the author explains how performance in wood frame structures. pp. n.a., water moves in wood. He then discusses drying with Proceedings, 38th International Wood Compos- respect to lumber, including quality considerations, ites Symposium and Technical Workshop, Vol. 38. air drying, and kiln drying; veneer; and particles. The Washington State University, Pullman. article also treats measurement of moisture content; energy and environmental considerations associated For engineers and wood scientists. The effects of with drying; and other drying technologies, such as decay and moisture were studied with respect to dehumidification, solar, and vacuum kilns. the strength of oriented strand board and plywood. The effect of moisture on the bending strength of Morrell, JJ. 2004. Incidence of treated wood in a wood these panel products was as serious as the effect of recycling stream in western Oregon. Forest Prod- moisture plus decay. ucts Journal 54(2): 1–4. Murphy, G, and R Franich. 2004. Early experience with For wood preservationists and recyclers. Wood recy- aroma tagging and electronic nose technology for cling programs have been becoming more common, log tracking. Forest Products Journal 54(2): 28–35. but little is known about how much preservative- treated wood is entering the waste stream through For logging managers and wood products manu- recycling. At a recycling center in Oregon, treated facturers. More than 5 billion logs move from for- wood was present at 38 of 41 sampling times, est to customer each year worldwide. Many in the contributing 0.98% of the waste stream on aver- forest industry would like to be able to track the age. The most common treatment was chromated movement of logs from stand to mill or even to copper arsenate, which contributed up to 2% of the final product, ideally at the level of individual logs. material at any given time. If the wood sampled The authors describe their early experience in using were used for hog fuel, the levels of arsenic, cop- aroma tagging and electronic nose technology to per, and chromium in the ash would exceed current track logs from time they leave the forest until they State of Oregon limits for land application. Because emerge from the kilns. They conclude that the tech- the waste stream is a small part of the waste being nology in its current state has the greatest prospect burned, however, the overall concentrations in the of success in tracking the chain of custody of logs ash would likely be considerably less. If the propor- from the forest to the mill door. As new technologies tion of treated wood in the recycling stream, and are developed, tracking individual logs may become therefore the proportion of contaminants, increased, possible. disposal of ash could be a problem. Neese, JL, JE Reeb, and JW Funck. 2004. Relating tra- Morrell, JJ, and J Huffman. 2004. Copper, chromium, ditional surface roughness measures to gluebond and arsenic levels in soils surrounding posts quality in plywood. Forest Products Journal 54(1): treated with chromated copper arsenate (CCA). 67–73. Wood and Fiber Science 36: 119–138. For plywood manufacturers and adhesive specialists. For wood preservationists. The authors determined Undesirable surface characteristics, such as rough- the copper, chromium, and arsenic in soil around ness, in veneer can lessen performance of plywood CCA-treated posts and under CCA-treated stakes. glue-bond. Manufacturers typically increase the Metal levels in soil next to the wood were elevated, adhesive spread rate and press pressure with rough but levels decreased with distance from the stake veneer, but it is not known whether this practice is

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actually effective. The authors determined how well Rhatigan, R, C Freitag, S El-Kasmi, and JJ Morrell. seven traditional measures of surface roughness 2004. Preservative treatment of Scots pine and and lathe check information were related to load at Norway spruce. Forest Products Journal 54(10): failure and percent wood failure of plywood made 91–94. from Douglas-fir veneer. Regressing all loose-side For wood preservationists and researchers in wood roughness measures against percent wood failure composites. The authors assessed the treatability provided the only statistically significant relation- of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestrus) and Norway spruce ship. Samples primarily failed on the loose side of (Picea abies) with oil-borne copper-8-quinolinolate the veneer across all roughness categories. or with water-borne chromated copper arsenate, ammoniacal copper zinc arsenate, or ammoniacal Oberdorfer, G, RJ Leichti, and JJ Morrell. 2004. Defor- copper quaternary in commercial treatment facilities. mation of wood-based material during supercriti- Both species required incising in order for treatment cal carbon dioxide treatment. Wood and Fiber to meet the standards of the American Wood-Pre- Science 36: 511–519. servers’ Association for dimension lumber. Ammonia For wood scientists, wood preservationists, and improved treatment. Determining suitable schedules wood products manufacturers. Deformation of sever- for treating Norway spruce successfully with oil- al wood-based composites treated with supercritical borne copper-8-quinolinolate will require further carbon dioxide was examined at a range of pres- research. surization and venting rates. Oriented strandboard, medium-density fiberboard, and solid Douglas-fir Rogers, J, X Geng, and K Li. 2004. Soy-based adhesives heartwood showed minimal deformation, which with 1,3-dichloro-2-propanol as a curing agent. disappeared after pressure was released. The greater Wood and Fiber Science 36: 186–194. deformation of laminated veneer lumber with Doug- For wood adhesive chemists. Because formaldehyde las-fir veneers resulted in permanent veneer separa- can adversely affect human health, formaldehyde- tions. There appears to be little risk of damage to free wood adhesives are in demand. The authors some engineered wood products during supercritical investigated formaldehyde-free wood adhesives treatment with carbon dioxide. made of soy protein (SP) and a crosslinking agent, 1, 3-dichloro-2-propanol (DCP). The shear strength Punches, J. 2004. Tree growth, forest management, of wood composites glued with such adhesives and their implications for wood quality. Publica- depended on the ratio of SP/DCP (w:w) and the tion PNW 576, Extension and Experiment Station reaction conditions under which the adhesive was Communications, Oregon State University, Corval- prepared. Pressing time affected shear strength lis. Available at eesc.orst.edu/agcomwebfile/ed- of the composite little or not at all. The adhesive mat/pnw576.pdf. could be stored at room temperature for 1 or 2 days For silviculturists, forest managers, and small wood- without affecting shear strength, but shear strength lot owners. This publication explains the biological decreased significantly after similar storage for 5 process of tree growth and crown effects on rate days. Wood composites bonded with a SP-DCP ad- and type of wood production. It discusses defini- hesive did not delaminate after soaking with water tions and predictors of wood quality, suggests ways and drying or after treatment with boiling water. The in which foresters can influence wood quality, and authors discuss the crosslinking reactions between outlines impacts of common silvicultural activities. SP and DCP in detail. Given this information, foresters can consider wood quality as a management objective, and manufactur- Rosowsky, DV, and JH Kim. 2004. Incorporating non- ers can understand the challenges faced by foresters structural finish effects and construction quality and limitations of their wood raw materials. issues into a performance-based framework for

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wood shearwall selection, pp. n.a. in Building Saputra, H, J Simonsen, and K Li. 2004. Effect of ex- on the Past: Securing the Future, Proceedings of tractive on the flexural properties of wood/plastic the 2004 Structures Congress, May 22–26, 2004, composites. Composite Interfaces 11: 515-524. Nashville TN, GE Blandford (ed). American Society For wood composite manufacturers and research- of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA. [CD-ROM] ers. Extractives were removed from pine and For structural wood products engineers and re- Douglas-fir wood flour with acetone/water, diox- searchers. Shearwall performance was assessed ane/water, or benzene/ethanol. Extraction changed through analysis of peak displacements under the surface composition of the wood flour but seismic loading. The authors examine construction affected neither the percent crystallinity of the quality issues and the contributions of nonstructural wood-polypropylene(PP) composites nor PP spheru- finish materials to the seismic performance of wood lite size or shape. Removing extractive from pine frame shearwalls and describe possible procedures flour greatly increased the strength of pine flour-PP for incorporating such information into a perfor- composites. Composites made of Douglas-fir flour mance-based shearwall selection. and PP also were stronger when extractives were removed, except for the dioxane/water treatment. Rosowsky, DV, and KH Lee. 2004. Reliability of wood Stiffness also differed between extracted and unex- members designed using current standards, pp. tracted wood-PP composites, except for the dioxane/ n.a. in Building on the Past: Securing the Future, water-extracted Douglas-fir. Proceedings of the 2004 Structures Congress, May 22–26, 2004, Nashville TN, GE Blandford (ed). Ameri- Simonsen, J, CM Freitag, A Silva, and JJ Morrell. 2004. can Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA. [CD-ROM] Wood/plastic ratio: Effect on performance of borate biocides against a brown rot fungus. Holz- For structural wood products engineers and research- forschung 58: 205–208. ers. As part of a larger study assessing the reliability of wood members designed according to current LFRD For wood preservationists and wood-plastic com- design procedures, the authors examined the range posite researchers. Biodegradation of wood plastic of computed reliability indices from simple flexural composites (WPCs) by the brown rot fungus Gloeo- members. Only the flexural limit state was considered. phyllum trabeum was studied as a function of wood: Regional variation in load statistics significantly influ- plastic ratio and the presence of borate biocides. enced the range of computed reliability indices. WPCs generally lost less weight than solid wood, even when only the wood component was taken Rosowsky, DV, and G Yu. 2004. Partial factor approach into account. Weight loss was greater in WPCs with to repetitive-member system factors. Journal of greater wood content. Borates reduced weight loss Structural Engineering 130: 1829–1841. greatly at all wood:plastic ratios; sodium/calcium For structural wood products engineers and re- borate was slightly more effective than zinc borate searchers. Although design specifications now used in preventing weight loss. Mechanical properties for wood allow using a repetitive-member factor were not well correlated with weight losses; mois- to account for load-sharing or redistribution, the ture sorption may have masked any changes. factors are based on a simple, rather than a rigorous Taylor, AM, CM Freitag, and JJ Morrell. 2004. Ability of or comprehensive, model. This study investigated bleach and other biocide treatments to remove load sharing and system effects in light-frame wall and prevent mold growth on Douglas-fir lumber. systems with an objective of developing system fac- Forest Products Journal 54(4): 45–49. tors useful in designing individual wall members. The new framework presented in this paper accounts for For wood preservationists. Washing with bleach is system effects in parallel-member wood systems on commonly recommended for removing mold and the basis of partial system factors. mold-caused discoloration from wood and other

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building materials. Data on the effectiveness of this Wagner, ER, and EN Hansen. 2004. Environmental at- method, however, are limited. In this study, sapwood tributes of wood products: Context and relevance Douglas-fir boards that were heavily colonized with for U.S. architects. Forest Products Journal 54(1): mold and sapstain fungi were wiped with either 19–25. bleach solution or water; unwiped boards were a For architects, construction planners, and wood no-wash control. Replicates from the wash treat- products manufacturers. Architects often are in- ments were treated with three biocides. The treat- volved in specifying construction materials. Twelve ments tested did not sterilize the wood or improve hundred owners of architectural offices were sur- its visual appearance after 1 month. Increasing veyed about their environmental concerns, their bleach concentrations to as high as 20% did not af- design criteria with respect to wood products, and fect wood appearance or completely eliminate fungi. the effectiveness of certain environmental practices van de Lindt, JW, JN Huart, and DV Rosowsky. 2004. of wood products manufacturers. The study defined Wood shearwall reliability inherent in AF&PA/ three product groups: structural, appearance, and ASCE 10, pp. n.a. in Building on the Past: Securing engineered wood products. Environmental sustain- the Future, Proceedings of the 2004 Structures ability was of medium importance as a design Congress, May 22–26, 2004, Nashville TN, GE attribute in all product groups. The most effective Blandford (ed). American Society of Civil Engi- environmental action was third-party environmental neers, Reston, VA. certification, and additional environmentally oriented advertising might be beneficial. Such advertising For structural wood products engineers and re- should stress both an environmental feature and a searchers. Light-frame wood structures resist lateral quality or appearance feature (which changes with loads primary through their wood shearwalls, the product group). design standard for which is AF&PA.ASCE 16. The paper presents preliminary results of an assess- Wang, W, and JJ Morrell. 2004. Water sorption charac- ment of the reliability of wood shearwalls subjected teristics of two wood-plastic composites. Forest to wind and earthquake forces. Performance of 12 Products Journal 54(12): 209–212. different shearwalls, each designed to this standard, was examined. The results should provide informa- For wood products manufacturers and researchers. tion as to how reliable shearwalls are when de- In order to determine the rates of moisture uptake signed according to the current standard. in Trex and Strandex, deck sections made of these wood-plastic composites were immersed in water Wagner, ER, and EN Hansen. 2004. A method for iden- for up to 215 days. The moisture content of sections tifying and assessing key customer group needs. cut at various distances from the ends and surfaces Industrial Marketing Management 33: 643–655. indicated that moisture increases overall were relatively slow, especially in Strandex. Nevertheless, the For forest products marketers and manufacturers. outer 5 mm of the products were sufficiently moist The authors introduce a new concept, competition to allow fungal attack. The findings are consistent factors, in the methodology described in this paper with previous studies of decay patterns. for identifying the product attributes used by key customer groups and weighing their importance. Wang, X, RJ Ross, BK Brashaw, J Punches, JR Erickson, Competition factors consider how substitute prod- JW Forsman, and RF Pellerin. 2004. Diameter ucts influence specific product attributes considered effect on stress-wave evaluation of modulus of by a customer group, allowing detection of previ- elasticity of logs. Wood and Fiber Science 36: ously hidden customer needs. This technique is a 368–377. valuable tool for market-oriented businesses. The technique is illustrated with examples from the For wood products researchers and engineers. The wood products industry and architects. authors investigated how log diameter affected 67 Wood Processing and Products Performance

stress-wave evaluation of modulus of elasticity microbial interactions between biocontrol agents and (MOE) of logs and related stress-wave MOE to log their targets is needed. Certain genetic transformations diameter for static MOE prediction to develop a new of test fungi would facilitate such research, but they stress-wave model. Small-diameter logs of jack pine require the generation of fungal protoplasts or other (Pinus banksiana Lamb.), red pine (Pinus resinosa methods for eliminating the fungal cell wall. The au- Ait.), Douglas-fir Pseudotsuga( menziesii), and thors describe a method to produce viable protoplasts ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa Dougl. ex Laws) from germinating conidia (germlings) of Ophiostoma were evaluated nondestructively. The longitudinal picea. Using germlings 20 hours old and osmotic sta-

stress-wave technique appeared sensitive to size bilizers based on MgSO4 significantly improved release and geometrical imperfections of logs. The deviation of protoplasts. Higher concentrations of lytic enzymes between stress-wave MOE and static MOE increased and longer incubation times increased protoplast with increasing log diameter. Log diameter con- release rates but also had adverse effects. tributed significantly to MOE prediction when used with the fundamental wave equation. The newly Zhang, C, K Li, and J Simonsen. 2004. Improvement developed model relating static MOE to stress-wave of interfacial adhesion between wood and poly- speed, log density, and log diameter predicted MOE propylene in wood-polypropylene composites. during stress-wave evaluation of logs better than did Journal of Adhesion Science and Technology 18: the fundamental wave equation. This could allow 1603–1612. levels of accuracy previously considered unattain- For wood composites researchers and manufactur- able for predicting static bending properties of logs ers. A free radical grafting reaction was used to with the longitudinal stress-wave technique. synthesize N-vinylformamide-grafted polypropylene (VFPP). VFPP and polymeric methylene diphenyl Xiao, Y, and JJ Morrell. 2004. Production of protoplasts diisocyanate (PMDI), singly or in combination, were from cultures of Ophiostoma picea. Journal of effective compatibilizers and increased the strength Wood Science 50: 445–449. and stiffness of wood-polypropylene(PP) composites. For mycologists and researchers in wood decay. Spe- The effect was greater when they were used to- cies of Ophiostoma are among the most important gether, and the combination improved the adhesion fungi causing discoloration of lumber, estimated between wood and PP greatly while reducing the conservatively to cost ~$10 million dollars annually. water absorption of the composites. It is proposed Biocontrol offers an alternative to lumber drying or that PMDI is a wood-binding domain and VFPP is a chemical treatment, but more fundamental research on PP-binding domain.