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Chapter 25 1939–1945

Teaching Resources 5. Hitler became chancellor in 1933, assumed dictatorial powers, and, as he made clear in Chapter Instructional Objectives his book Mein Kampf (My Struggle), sought to overturn the territorial settle- After you have taught this chapter, your students ments of the Versailles treaty, to “restore” should be able to answer the following questions: all of the Germans of Central and Eastern Europe to a single German fatherland, and 1. What were the key elements of American foreign to annex large areas of Eastern Europe. policy prior to World War II? 6. Part of Hitler’s vision was that “inferior 2. How and why did America edge closer to war be- races” and other “undesirables” had to tween 1939 and 1941? make way for the “master race”; in 1933 Hitler established the first concentration 3. How did mobilization and war affect American camp at Dachau. society? 7. Wanting to avoid a war with Germany, 4. How did the Allies fight and win World War II? Britain and France were proponents of what became known as “.” 5. How did American war aims affect plans for post- 8. Germany withdrew from the League of war settlement? Nations in 1933, and Hitler’s 1935 an- nouncement of plans to rearm Germany Chapter Annotated Outline —in violation of the Versailles treaty— met with no resistance. I. The Road to War 9. Germany reoccupied the Rhineland in A. The Rise of Fascism 1936, and later that year Hitler and Italy’s 1. The nation’s neutrality was challenged by joined forces in the the aggressive actions of Germany, Italy, -Berlin Axis. and , all determined to expand their 10. When the Spanish Civil War broke out, borders and their influence. Germany and Italy armed the Spanish 2. In 1931 Japan occupied Manchuria; then Fascists. in 1937 it launched a full-scale invasion of 11. Also in 1936, Germany and Japan signed China. The condemned the Anti-Comintern Pact, a precursor to the aggression, and Japan withdrew from the military alliance between Japan and the League. the Axis that was formalized in 1940. 3. In 1935 Italy invaded Ethiopia, and by B. Isolationists vs. Interventionists 1936 the Italian subjugation of Ethiopia 1. During the early years of the , was complete. America limited its involvement in inter- 4. Germany presented the gravest threat to national affairs. the world order in the 1930s. There, huge 2. One of Franklin D. Roosevelt’s few diplo- reparations payments, eco- matic initiatives was the formal recogni- nomic depression, fear of communism, tion of the in 1933. labor unrest, and rising unemployment 3. A second significant initiative was the fueled the rise of and his Na- , under which the tional Socialist (Nazi) party. voluntarily renounced the 375 376 Chapter 25: The World at War, 1939–1945

use of military intervention in the Western 13. In August 1939 Hitler signed the Nonag- Hemisphere and recognized that the gression Pact with the Soviet Union, friendship of Latin American countries which assured Germany it would not have was essential to U.S. security. to wage war on two fronts at once. 4. Although Congress repealed the Platt 14. On September 1, 1939, German troops at- Amendment, which asserted the United tacked Poland; two days later Britain and States’ right to intervene in Cuba’s affairs, France declared war on Germany. World the Good Neighbor Policy had its limits— War II had begun. the U.S. Navy kept a base at Cuba’s Guan- C. Retreat from Isolationism tanamo Bay and continued to meddle in 1. President Roosevelt, with the support of Cuban politics, and it also used economic most Americans, sought to keep the to influence other Latin Ameri- United States neutral. can nations. 2. By mid-1940, Germany had overrun West- 5. Partly owing to disillusionment with ern Europe, leaving Great Britain as the American participation in World War I, only power in Europe fighting Hitler. isolationism built in Congress and the na- 3. In America, the Committee to Defend tion throughout the . America by Aiding the Allies led the inter- 6. Gerald P. Nye, a senator from North ventionists, while the isolationists formed Dakota, headed a congressional investiga- the America First Committee, which had tion into the profits of munitions makers the support of the conservative press, to during World War I; his committee con- keep America out of the war. cluded that war profiteers, whom it called 4. The National Defense Advisory Commis- “merchants of death,” had maneuvered the sion and the Council of National Defense nation into World War I for financial gain. were created in 1940 to put America’s 7. Although most of the committee’s charges economy and government on a defense were dubious or simplistic, they gave mo- footing. mentum to the isolationist movement, 5. Also in 1940, the United States instituted a contributing to the passage of the Neutral- peacetime draft registration and conscrip- ity Act of 1935. tion and made a deal with Britain in which 8. The Neutrality Act imposed an embargo destroyers were traded for the right to on arms trading with countries at war and build military bases on British possessions. declared that American citizens traveled 6. After winning an unprecedented third on the ships of belligerent nations at their term as president in 1940, Roosevelt con- own risk; in 1936 the Neutrality Act was centrated on persuading the American expanded to ban loans to belligerents, people to increase aid to Britain. and in 1937 it adopted a “cash-and-carry” 7. In 1939 Congress amended the Neutrality provision. Act of 1937 to allow the Allies to buy 9. Despite their Loyalist sympathies, the neu- weapons from the United States—but tral stance of the United States, Great only on the cash-and-carry basis. Britain, and France virtually assured a fas- 8. In March 1941, Roosevelt convinced Con- cist victory in the 1936 Spanish Civil War. gress to pass the Lend-Lease Act, to “lease, 10. In 1938 Hitler sent troops to annex Aus- lend, or otherwise dispose of” arms and tria, while simultaneously scheming to other equipment to any country whose seize part of Czechoslovakia. defense was considered vital to the secu- 11. At the Conference in September rity of the United States. 1938, Britain and France capitulated to 9. The “lend-lease” was extended to the So- Germany’s aggression, agreeing to let Ger- viet Union, which became part of the Al- many annex the Sudetenland—the Ger- lied coalition after it was invaded by Ger- man-speaking border areas of Czechoslo- many; the full implementation of vakia—in return for Hitler’s pledge to lend-lease marked the unofficial entrance seek no more territory. of the United States into the European 12. Within six months, Hitler’s forces had war. overrun the rest of Czechoslovakia and 10. The United States and Britain’s Atlantic were threatening to march into Poland. Charter called for economic collaboration Chapter 25: The World at War, 1939–1945 377

between the two countries and for guar- 2. Defense mobilization definitively ended antees of political stability after the end of the . In 1940 the Gross the war and also supported free trade, na- National Product stood at $99.7 billion; in tional self-determination, and the princi- 1945 it reached $211 billion. The national ple of collective security. debt grew steadily, topping out at $258.6 11. By September 1941, Nazi and billion in 1945. American vessels were fighting an unde- 3. The Revenue Act of 1942 taxed not only clared naval war in the Atlantic, unknown the wealthy and corporations but also, for to the American public; without a dra- the first time, average citizens. Tax collec- matic enemy attack, Roosevelt hesitated to tions rose to $35.1 billion and the system ask Congress for a declaration of war. was sold to the taxpayers as a way to ex- D. The press their patriotism. 1. The final provocation came not from Ger- 4. The number of civilians employed by the many but from Japan. government increased almost fourfold; 2. Throughout the 1930s, Japanese military leadership of federal agencies was turned advances in China had upset the balance over to volunteer business executives, so- of political and economic power in the called “dollar-a-year men,” such as Henry Pacific; Roosevelt suggested that aggres- J. Kaiser, a contractor who had built the sors such as Japan be “quarantined” by monumental Hoover Dam. peace-loving nations, but the United 5. Many wartime agencies extended the States avoided taking a strong stand. power of the federal government, one of 3. During the sack of Nanking in 1937, the the most important of which was the War Japanese sunk the American gunboat Production Board (WPB), which awarded Panay; the United States accepted Japan’s defense contracts, evaluated military and apology and more than $2 million in civilian requests for scarce resources, and damages. oversaw the conversion of industry to mil- 4. Japan craved the conquest of more terri- itary production. tory and signed the Tri-Partite Act with 6. The WPB preferred to deal with major Germany and Italy in 1940. corporations; these very large businesses 5. After Japan occupied part of French Indo- would later form the core of the military- china, Roosevelt retaliated with trade re- industrial complex of the postwar years. strictions and embargoes on aviation fuel 7. Working together, American business and and scrap metal. government turned out a prodigious sup- 6. When Japanese troops occupied the rest of ply of military hardware: 86,000 tanks, Indochina, Roosevelt froze Japanese assets 296,000 airplanes, 15 million rifles and in the United States and instituted an em- machine guns, 64,000 landing craft, and bargo on trade with Japan, including oil 6,500 cargo ships and naval vessels. shipments. B. Mobilizing the American Fighting Force 7. The United States knew that Japan was 1. An expanded state presence was also evi- planning an attack but did not know dent in the government’s mobilization of when or where; on December 7, 1941, a fighting force; by the end of World War Japanese bombers attacked Pearl Harbor. II, the armed forces of the United States 8. On December 8, Congress voted to declare numbered 15 million. war on Japan; three days later, Germany 2. More than half of the 31 million men reg- and Italy declared war on the United istered failed to meet military physical States, and the United States in turn de- standards, due primarily to defective teeth clared war on them. or poor vision. II. Organizing for Victory 3. The military also tried to screen out ho- A. Financing the War mosexuals, but its attempts were ineffec- 1. Presidential power expanded dramatically tual; in the service homosexuals could when Congress passed the War Powers Act participate in a gay subculture more ex- of December 18, 1941. The act gave tensive than that in civilian life. Roosevelt unprecedented authority over 4. The military segregated the 700,000 Afri- all aspects of the war. can Americans who fought in all branches 378 Chapter 25: The World at War, 1939–1945

of the armed forces and assigned them the 10. African American leaders pointed out par- most menial jobs; Mexican Americans and allels between anti-Semitism in Germany Native Americans were never officially and racial discrimination in America; they segregated. pledged themselves to a “Double V” cam- 5. 350,000 American women enlisted in the paign: victory over abroad and armed services and achieved a permanent victory over racism and inequality at status in the military. The armed forces home. limited the types of duty assigned to 11. In response to the threat of a black women; they were barred from combat, “March on ,” Roosevelt issued and most were assigned to jobs reflecting 8802, declaring “that stereotypes of women’s roles in civilian there shall be no discrimination in the life. employment of workers in defense indus- C. Workers and the War Effort tries or government because of race, creed, 1. Government and corporate recruiters color, or national origin,” and established sought to remedy the war-induced labor the Fair Employment Practices Commis- shortage and drew on patriotism to urge sion (FEPC). women into the workforce. 12. The FEPC did not affect segregation in the 2. Women made up 36 percent of the labor armed forces, and the committee only re- force in 1945, compared with 24 percent solved about a third of the complaints it at the beginning of the war, though they received. faced much discrimination, sexual harass- 13. The League of United Latin American Cit- ment, and inequitable pay. izens (LULAC) built on their communi- 3. Women’s participation in the labor force ties’ patriotic contributions to the defense dropped temporarily when the war ended, industry and the armed services to chal- but it rebounded steadily for the rest of lenge discrimination and exclusion. the 1940s. 14. African American groups flourished; the 4. Organized labor responded to the war NAACP grew to 450,000 by 1945, and the with an initial burst of patriotic unity; on Congress of Racial Equality was founded December 23, 1941, representatives of the and became known nationwide for its major unions made a nonbinding “no- demonstrations and sit-ins. strike” pledge for the duration of the war. D. Politics in Wartime 5. In January 1942, Roosevelt set up the Na- 1. Roosevelt began to drop New Deal pro- tional War Labor Board (NWLB), which grams once mobilization began to bring established wages, hours, and working . conditions and had the authority to seize 2. Later into the war, Roosevelt called for a plants that did not comply; forty plants , yet his commitment were seized during the war. to it remained largely rhetorical since it 6. Although incomes jumped 70 percent for received no congressional support. workers during the war because workers 3. The Servicemen’s Readjustment Act earned overtime pay, they felt cheated as (1944), known as the GI Bill, provided they watched corporate profits soar in re- education, job training, medical care, pen- lation to wages. sions, and mortgage loans for those who 7. Dissatisfaction peaked in 1943, a year in had served during the war. which a nationwide railroad strike was 4. Roosevelt’s call for social legislation was narrowly averted and John L. Lewis led part of a plan to woo Democratic voters; the United Mine Workers on a strike; the 1942 elections saw Republicans gain Lewis won wage concessions, but he alien- seats in both houses and increase their ated Congress and the public. share of governorships. 8. Congress passed the anti-union Smith- 5. In 1944 Roosevelt sought a fourth term Connally Labor Act over Roosevelt’s veto, because of the war; Democrats dropped and strikes were entirely prohibited in de- Henry Wallace as vice president, as his fense industries. views were seen as too extreme, and 9. Just as labor sought to benefit from the teamed Roosevelt with Harry S. Truman war, African Americans manifested a new to run against Governor Thomas E. mood of militancy. Dewey of New York. Chapter 25: The World at War, 1939–1945 379

6. In the closest election since 1916, Roose- suits”; blacks and some working-class velt received only 53.5 percent of the pop- white teenagers also wore zoot suits as a ular vote; the party’s margin of victory symbol of alienation and self-assertion, came from the cities, and a significant seg- but to adults and Anglos, the attire sym- ment of this urban support came from or- bolized wartime juvenile delinquency. ganized labor. 5. In Los Angeles zoot-suiters became the III. Life on the Home Front target of white hostility toward Mexican A. “For the Duration” Americans; in July 1943 rumors that a 1. People on the home front worked on civil- pachuco gang had beaten a white sailor set ian defense committees, collected old off a four-day riot. newspapers and scrap material, served on C. Civil Rights during Wartime local rationing and draft boards, and 1. Despite some racial tension, the home planted “victory gardens” that produced front was generally calm in the 1940s; 40 percent of the nation’s vegetables. German and usually did 2. The Office of War Information (OWI) not experience intense prejudice, and left- strove to disseminate information and ists and Communists faced little repres- promote patriotism; the OWI urged ad- sion after the Soviet Union became an ally. vertising agencies to link their clients’ 2. The internment of Japanese Americans on products to the “.” the West Coast was a glaring exception to 3. Popular culture reflected America’s new racial tolerance, a reminder of the fragility international involvement and built of in wartime. morale on the home front; many movies 3. In early 1942 Roosevelt issued Executive had patriotic themes, demonstrated hero- Order 9066, which gave the War Depart- ism of ordinary citizens, or warned of the ment the authority it needed for its plan dangers of fascism, while newsreels and to evacuate Japanese Americans from the on-the-spot radio broadcasts kept the West Coast and intern them in relocation public up-to-date on the war. camps for the rest of the war. 4. Perhaps the major source of Americans’ 4. Despite the lack of any evidence of Nissei high morale was wartime prosperity as or disloyalty or sedition, few public federal defense spending had ended the figures opposed the plan. depression: unemployment had disap- 5. The rounded up peared, and per capita income had risen 112,000 Japanese Americans, two-thirds of from $595 in 1939 to $1,237 in 1945. whom were citizens, and sent them to in- 5. The major inconveniences of the war were ternment camps in , , the limitations placed on consumption: al- Utah, Colorado, Wyoming, Idaho, and most everything Americans ate, wore, or Arkansas. used during the war was subjected to ra- 6. The Japanese Americans who made up tioning or regulation by the Office of one-third of the population of Hawaii Price Administration. were not interned; the Hawaiian economy B. Migration and Social Conflict could not function without them. 1. The war affected where people lived; fami- 7. Furloughs for seasonal workers, atten- lies followed service members to training dance at a college, and enlistment in the bases or points of debarkation, and the armed services were some routes out of lure of high-paying defense jobs encour- the internment camps. aged others to move. 8. was among the 2. As a center of defense production, Califor- few Japanese Americans who actively re- nia was affected by the wartime migration sisted incarceration. A student at the Uni- more than any other state, experiencing a versity of Washington, Hirabayashi was a 53 percent growth in population. religious pacifist who had registered with 3. As more than a million African Americans his draft board as a conscientious objec- migrated to defense centers in California, tor. He challenged internment by refusing Illinois, Michigan, Ohio, and Pennsylva- to register for evacuation; instead, he nia, racial conflicts arose over jobs and turned himself in to the FBI. housing. 9. Tried and convicted in 1942, he appealed 4. In Los Angeles male Latinos who belonged his case to Supreme Court in Hirabayashi to pachuco (youth) gangs dressed in “zoot v. United States (1943). In that case, and 380 Chapter 25: The World at War, 1939–1945

also in Korematsu v. United States (1944), 5. The Allied forces finally entered Rome in the court allowed the removal of Japanese June 1944, although the last German Americans from the West Coast on the forces in Italy did not surrender until May basis of “military necessity” but avoided 1945. ruling on the constitutionality of the in- 6. The invasion of France came on D-Day, ternment program. June 6, 1944; under General Eisenhower’s 10. But in (1944), the court command, more than 1.5 million Ameri- held that American citizens of undoubted can, British, and Canadian troops crossed loyalty could not be confined by govern- the English Channel. ment authorities. 7. In August 1944, Allied troops helped to IV. Fighting and Winning the War liberate Paris; by September, they had A. Wartime Aims and Tensions driven the Germans out of most of France 1. The Allied coalition was composed mainly and Belgium. of Great Britain, the United States, and the 8. In December 1944, after ten days of fight- Soviet Union, and its leaders (Winston ing, the Allies pushed the Germans back Churchill, Roosevelt, and ) across the River in the Battle of the set overall strategy. Bulge, the final German offensive. 2. Churchill and Roosevelt’s 9. As American, British, and Soviet troops formed the basis of the Allies’ vision of the advanced toward Berlin, Hitler committed postwar international order, but Stalin had suicide in his bunker on April 30; Ger- not been part of that agreement, a fact many surrendered on May 8, 1945. that would later cause disagreements over 10. As Allied troops advanced into Germany, its goals. they came upon the extermination camps 3. The Russians argued for opening a second where 6 million Jews, along with 6 million front in Europe—preferably in France— other people, were put to death. because it would draw German troops 11. The Roosevelt administration had infor- away from Russian soil. mation about the camps as early as 1942, 4. In November 1943, Roosevelt and but so few Jews escaped the Holocaust be- Churchill agreed to open a second front in cause the United States and the rest of the return for Stalin’s promise to fight against world would not take in the Jews. Japan when the war in Europe ended. 12. The War Refugee Board, established in 5. The delay in creating the second front 1944, eventually helped to save about meant that the Soviet Union bore the brunt 200,000 Jews who were placed in refugee of the land battle against Germany; Stalin’s camps in various countries. mistrust of the United States and Great 13. Factors combining to inhibit U.S. action Britain carried over into the . were anti-Semitism, fears of economic B. The War in Europe competition from a flood of immigrant 1. During the first seven months of the war, refugees to a country just recovering from the Allies suffered severe defeats on land the depression, failure of the media to and sea in both Europe and Asia. grasp the magnitude of the story and to 2. The turning point in the war came when publicize it accordingly, and the failure of the Soviets halted the German advance in religious and political leaders to speak out. the ; by 1944, Stalin’s C. The War in the Pacific forces had driven the Germans out of the 1. After Pearl Harbor, Japan continued its Soviet Union. conquests in the Far East and began to 3. In North , Allied troops, under the threaten Australia and India. leadership of General Dwight D. Eisen- 2. In May 1942, in the Battle of the Coral hower and General George S. Patton, Sea, American naval forces halted the defeated Germany’s led by Japanese offensive against Australia, and General Erwin Rommel. in June, Americans inflicted crucial dam- 4. The Allied command moved to attack the age on the Japanese fleet at Midway. Axis through Sicily and the Italian penin- 3. Over the next eighteen months, General sula; in July 1943, Mussolini’s fascist Douglas MacArthur and Admiral Chester regime fell, and Italy’s new government W. Nimitz led the offensive in the Pacific, joined the Allies. advancing from one island to the next. Chapter 25: The World at War, 1939–1945 381

4. The reconquest of the began the atomic bomb. It cost more than $2 bil- with a victory in the Battle of Leyte Gulf, lion and employed 120,000 people. in which the Japanese lost practically their 8. Truman ordered the dropping of atomic entire fleet; by early 1945, triumph over bombs on the Japanese cities of Japan was in sight, with costly American Hiroshima, on August 6, and Nagasaki, on victories at Iwo Jima and Okinawa. August 9. 5. The use of kamikaze missions, combined 9. At the time, the belief that Japan’s military with the Japanese refusal to surrender, leaders would never surrender unless their suggested to American military strategists country was utterly devastated convinced that Japan would continue to fight despite policymakers that they had to deploy the overwhelming losses. atomic bomb. 6. Based on the fighting at Okinawa and Iwo 10. One hundred thousand people died at Jima, American military commanders pre- Hiroshima and sixty thousand at Naga- dicted millions of casualties in an invasion saki; tens of thousands more died slowly of Japan. of radiation poisoning. D. Planning the Postwar World 11. Japan offered to surrender on August 10 1. When Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin met and signed a formal treaty of surrender on at Yalta in February 1945, victory in September 2, 1945. Europe and the Pacific was in sight, but 12. Fascism had been defeated, thanks to a no agreement had been reached on the strange alliance between the capitalist peace to come. nations of the West and the Communist 2. One source of conflict was Stalin’s desire government of the Soviet Union. The for a band of Soviet-controlled satellite coming of peace would strain, and then states to protect the Soviet Union’s west- destroy, the victorious coalition. ern border. 3. Roosevelt and Churchill agreed in princi- ple on the idea of a Soviet sphere of influ- Key Term ence in Eastern Europe. Roosevelt pressed national debt The financial obligations of the U.S. for an agreement that guaranteed self- government for money borrowed from its citizens determination and democratic elections in and foreign investors. Alexander Hamilton wanted Poland and neighboring countries but, wealthy Americans to invest in the national debt given the presence there of Soviet troops, so that they would support the new national gov- had to accept a pledge from Stalin to hold ernment. In recent decades, that same thinking “free and unfettered elections” at a future has led the United States to encourage individuals time. and institutions in crucial foreign nations—Saudi 4. Germany was to be divided into four Arabia and Japan, for example—to invest billions zones to be controlled by the United of dollars in the American national debt. (774) States, Great Britain, France, and the Soviet Union; Berlin would be partitioned among the four. Lecture Strategies 5. The Big Four made toward the 1. Write a lecture tracing the evolution of American establishment of the United Nations; its foreign policy from 1939 to 1941. This focus pro- Security Council would include the five vides an interesting case study of American poli- major Allied powers, plus six other na- tics: President Roosevelt used every tool at his dis- tions participating on a rotating basis, posal—all within his constitutional powers—to and permanent members of the Security move the country in a direction decidedly differ- Council would have veto power over ent from what the people and Congress seemed to decisions of the General Assembly. want. The United States evolved from neutral to 6. The United Nations was to convene in San nonbelligerent to belligerent in only two years, Francisco on April 25, 1945; Roosevelt after a decade or more of isolationism. How did suffered a cerebral hemorrhage and died Roosevelt pull this off? on April 12, 1945. 7. When Harry Truman took over the presi- 2. Over the past half century, historians have dis- dency, he learned of the top-secret Man- cussed and debated this intriguing question: Did hattan Project, charged with developing Roosevelt take the “back door” to war—that is, get 382 Chapter 25: The World at War, 1939–1945

into the war in Europe through the Pacific “door”? with the lack of communication on the Axis side. On one side, proponents of the “warmonger” the- Tell students about the superior industrial capac- sis suggest that Roosevelt wanted to join Great ity of the United States and the fact that American Britain in fighting Germany early on but could not factories never suffered the destruction from provoke Hitler into declaring war. The president’s bombing that weakened the other belligerents. defenders counter that Roosevelt was too wise to The commitment of the American people to a risk the loss of American possessions in the Pacific total war—rationing of goods, popular culture fo- in the opening moments of a war and that he could cusing on the war, and so forth—is another part of not depend on Hitler to join his Axis partner, this story. Japan, in a war against the United States. Present 7. A nation’s successes and failures are often bound both sides of this issue and then ask students to up with the personalities and characteristics of its choose one side or the other in a class discussion, a leaders. Write a lecture comparing and contrasting small-group activity, or a writing assignment. Franklin Roosevelt in the United States and Adolf 3. Write a lecture focusing on the contributions of Hitler in Germany. These were two of the great minorities to the war effort. World War II pro- players of World War II, who dominated their own vided opportunities for women and African countries’ and the Western world’s fate. Although Americans that might not have been available in they came from quite different backgrounds, both peacetime. The Great Depression had forced began to rise to power in the 1920s and then took women out of the workplace and shut the door of command of their countries in 1933; both wres- opportunity to all people of color. Mobilization tled with troubles caused by economic turmoil but for war reversed that trend. Developing this topic chose different paths to solve the problems of the not only allows you to explore issues of gender and depression; both commanded great military ma- race during the war but also can provide a spring- chines; and both died in April 1945, within days of board into discussions of the widespread support each other. for the war among the American people. 8. The story of the offers a great 4. Life on the home front in World War II offers a mixture of high drama—science and technology at good contrast to discussions of the military con- the cutting edge, intrigue and secrecy, and decision duct of the war. Write a lecture examining how making in a high-stakes setting. This lecture can be American society at home changed to support structured in various ways. You can run through wartime demands. You might present World War the story from Albert Einstein’s famous letter to II recruiting posters, ration books, war bonds, and Roosevelt to the bomb runs over Hiroshima and other artifacts. Time spent showing World War II Nagasaki. Or you can focus on personalities such as films, or snippets of several films, will explain bet- President Roosevelt, J. Robert Oppenheimer, and ter than lectures alone how Hollywood con- General Leslie Groves. Or you can compare the tributed to the war effort at home. race between the United States and Germany to build the bomb first. This topic also has the advan- 5. Write a lecture exploring the contradictions be- tage of providing a bridge between World War II tween the fight for freedom abroad and the intern- and the cold war—the atomic bomb ended one era ment of Japanese Americans within the United and opened another. Be sure to comment on how States. Students may find a discussion of the sup- the bombing affected the Japanese people. pression of civil liberties during wartime particu- larly relevant. Emphasize the personal experiences of Japanese Americans through autobiography. Reviewing the Text Memoirs and oral histories are readily available as primary sources. These questions are from the textbook and follow each main section of the narrative. They are provided in the 6. The outcome of World War II—an Allied vic- Computerized Test Bank with suggested responses, for tory—is a firm part of most students’ knowledge your convenience. of the war. They might assume that the Allied vic- tory was inevitable, but of course it was not. Write The Road to War (pp. 768–773) a lecture discussing how the American armed forces rapidly changed their training and doctrine 1. Compare the impact of the depression on the pol- to defeat the . Describe the close work- itics and political institutions of the United States, ing relationship among Allied leaders, especially Italy, and Germany. What are the similarities and between Roosevelt and Churchill. Contrast this differences? Chapter 25: The World at War, 1939–1945 383

• United States: Depression encouraged expansion Organizing for Victory (pp. 774–781) of presidential powers under Roosevelt, who in- 1. In what ways did World War II contribute to the creased size of government and its control over growth of the federal government? How did it industry and economy, but not to the extent of foster what historians now call the “military- Germany and Italy due to the tradition of indi- industrial complex”? vidualism and unfettered in U.S. his- tory.In response to the increasing scope of gov- •The war enabled the federal government to in- ernment, the American people increased calls crease powers exponentially in terms of control for democratic rights in labor disputes, the court over the nation’s resources, economy, industry, system, and race relations. and civil liberties. • Italy: Depression in Italy led to fascism, which •Federal laws, rules, and practices created during produced Benito Mussolini, who also hated the the war remained in place after the war. Other Versailles treaty for not awarding Italy any of new developments remained in place, such as Germany’s colonies. universal taxation of incomes, nationwide anti- • Germany: from World War I discrimination employment standards, a huge made Depression worse in Germany, leading to military establishment, and multibillion dollar rise of unemployment, fascism as mode of gov- budgets. ernment, lessening of democratic rights, en- •Partnership of industry and government in- abling a Hitler-style dictator to rise to power. creased during the war, creating a dangerous balance of power in which future presidential 2. As the world edged toward war in the late 1930s, administrations utilized corporate managers many Americans were committed to political iso- and sought new wars to enrich corporations that lationism. What were the sources of this isolation- made the weapons to fight the war. ism, and how was it manifest? 2. What impact did war mobilization have on •Sources of isolation included the need to restore women, racial minorities, and organized labor? the American economy, anti-immigrant senti- What legislation or government rules affected ment, the need to consolidate American influ- their lives as workers, and what effect did it have ence in the , and disillu- on their political ? sionment in American participation in World War I. •All three groups felt more greatly empowered by •Isolation was manifested by U.S. policies, such as the idea that fighting and working for the war ef- the Good Neighbor policy with Latin America, fort. Many felt that sacrificing men, labor, and the repeal of the Platt amendment, legislation children for the war effort meant that govern- passed to place the economy on a more sound ment owed women, labor, and racial minorities footing, the use of Congress to investigate the equality and fair play in U.S. society. Many war profiteering industry of World War I, and viewed discrimination in government employ- passage of the Neutrality act of 1935. ment as no longer tolerable in a nation fighting for democracy abroad. 3. Why did the United States join the fight in World •The National Labor Relations Board established War II? What are the key events leading to Amer- uniform wages, hours, and working conditions ica’s involvement? during the war, the Smith-Connally Labor Act of 1943 prohibited strikes in defense industries, the •The United States joined the war effort because Fair Employment Practices Commission and of several factors and key events, including the of 1941 ensured equality Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, German bomb- in war-related employment. ing of British people, the efforts of writers, intel- •These actions strengthened the patriotism of lectual, and progressive social activists who American women, workers, and racial minori- wanted to reform Europe by intervening in the ties, though government attempts to limit war, U.S. cultural and economic connections to strikes alienated many labor groups. Great Britain, a bi-partisan defense effort known as “Lend-Lease” with the British as a key to American security, the historical tradition of na- tional values of democracy and freedom for all Life on the Home Front (pp. 782–787) nations, and the creation of the Atlantic Charter 1. What impact did World War II have on everyday with in 1941. life for the majority of Americans? 384 Chapter 25: The World at War, 1939–1945

•Draft of young men meant many female-headed ing campaign over the cities of Japan and Ger- households, decrease in birthrate, increase in man, and received a lucky break when Hitler male death rate, war rationing, increase in gov- opened a two-front war against the Soviets and ernment police powers and surveillance over cit- the U.S., the Allies achieved victory. izenry, increase of union and labor activity, in- crease of racial conflict in urban America, 2. Explain why the United States used atomic increase of geographical mobility, increase of weapons in Japan. Why was the Americans’ use of equality for women and minorities, and an ex- these weapons controversial? pansion in the size of government and the •The atomic bomb was dropped on Japan for a economy. variety of reasons, including racism against a perceived inhuman and treacherous foe, to in- 2. What distinguished the internal migration of crease U.S. power over the Soviet Union in the Americans during World War II from that of the postwar race for control of Europe and Asia, World War I era? Who moved and why? prevent Soviet takeover of Japan, ensure Japa- •During World War I, many blacks moved to the nese surrender, save American lives in an inva- western United States, whereas most went to the sion of Japan, and test the workability and tech- northeastern states during World War I. Families nology of a nuclear bomb on human beings for followed soldier husbands to military bases in the first time in world history. different states, Japanese Americans were forced •The controversial part of the bombing stems to move from the West Coast to the greater West from the idea that Japan wanted to surrender be- and Midwest. Rural Native Americans, Appa- fore the war was over and hundreds of thou- lachian whites, and farmers living on margin sands of Japanese were poisoned and killed with land also moved to work in defense industries. radiation that continues to impact survivors to In all, 15 million Americans changed residences this very day. during the war, half of them moving to another state. •California was a major source of new workers Chapter Writing Assignments due to its location near the Pacific and its in- These questions appear at the end of Chapter 25 in the crease of defense industries, attracting thousands textbook. They are provided in the Computerized Test of new residents, in particular to the San Fran- Bank with suggested responses, for your convenience. cisco Bay Area, Los Angeles, and San Diego. 1. According to the oral historian Studs Terkel, 3. How do you explain the decision to intern Ameri- World War II was a “good war.” Do you agree with cans of Japanese birth or ancestry? this assessment? •Several reasons, including racism, xenophobia, •Terkel argues that the war was a “good war” be- war hysteria, and incompetent political leader- cause the nation was united behind a patriotic ship. effort to defeat the Axis powers with little inter- nal dissension as compared to the later Vietnam Fighting and Winning the War conflict. (pp. 787–796) •Terkel is accurate in the larger sense of a united nation, but racial conflicts, war resistance, labor 1. Describe the course of the war in Europe and the agitation, and war profiteering took place on a Pacific. What factors led to the Allied victory in widespread scale during the war. World War II? 2. Overall, what sort of impact—positive or nega- •The war began with Germany and Japan achiev- tive— did World War II have on women and mi- ing strong victories and advancing rapidly toward nority groups in the United States? national war goals with the British and Soviets suffering massive casualties in bombing raids. •The war had a very positive impact on women •But after the United States increased its domes- and minority groups: higher paid employment, tic output of a wide array of war materials to un- better geographical mobility, increasing equality precedented levels, cracked the Japanese military with men/whites, and increasing experience secret code, expanded a ruthless military bomb- with labor unions made life better after the war. Chapter 25: The World at War, 1939–1945 385

3. Why was there tension among the Allies during 2. What steps did the United States take between the war, and what long-term impact did it have? March and December of 1941 to mark out a path toward war? •Tensions grew as the war came to an end, giving rise to a postwar world of Cold War nuclear ag- Possible answers gression between the United States and the So- a. Approval of the Lend-Lease Act in March. viet Union. •Tensions grew over the shape of the postwar po- b. Extension of lend-lease to the Soviet Union in litical configuration and ownership of former June, after the Germans invaded. colonies, the independence movement in Indian c. Roosevelt froze Japanese assets in the United led by Gandhi, the treatment of Jews during the States and initiated a trade embargo against war, the growing power of the Soviet Union and Japanese goods in July. its influence in Europe, and the dropping of the atomic bomb on Japan. d. Roosevelt and Churchill announced the At- lantic Charter in August. Class Discussion Starters e. The U.S. Navy began fighting an undeclared 1. In a climate of isolationism, President Roosevelt war against Nazi naval forces in September. provided a strong voice for internationalism. How did the president show his preference for Ameri- 3. What sorts of roles did American women play can involvement abroad before Pearl Harbor? during World War II to support the nation’s war Possible answers effort? a. American recognition of the Soviet Union in Possible answers 1933 was a sign that under Roosevelt the coun- a. Although their numbers were relatively low, try would have a wider world vision than it had some women volunteered for military duty during the Republican presidencies of the 1920s. during the war. Under law, women could not be b. The Good Neighbor Policy ensured that the involved in combat. Still, some were near the United States would pursue an activist ap- front lines as nurses, and others played active proach in the Western Hemisphere but was roles as WACS, WAVES, SPARS (of the Coast willing to moderate the gunboat diplomacy Guard Women’s Reserve), and WASPS. practiced earlier. b. Women played a critical role in war industries, c. In 1937, in the face of Japanese expansionism in and their work proved indispensable in provid- Asia, Roosevelt proposed that the United States ing arms, munitions, aircraft, and other com- join with other nations to “quarantine” aggres- modities that were vital in the war. sor states. The public forced him to back down, c. Seeing their husbands off to war, many women but the speech gave evidence of his attitude. became, in effect, single parents. They stayed d. From the start of the war in Asia in 1937 and in home to raise children and continued in rela- Europe in 1939, Roosevelt showed determina- tively domestic roles, but they were imbued tion to assist friendly countries—especially with a sense of contributing to the larger cause. Great Britain—in their wars against aggressors that threatened American interests. 4. What roles did minority group members play in e. Roosevelt used his personal popularity to set up the conduct of World War II? How did the war justification for war by making his sympathies change the lives of American minorities? known, denouncing Japan as “the present reign Possible answers of terror and international lawlessness” and saying that he could not ask Americans to re- a. Although the war did little to bring lasting main neutral in their thoughts about Hitler’s change for Mexican Americans, economic ex- aggression. His four freedoms of speech de- pansion in western states, especially California, fined America’s ideological difference from its provided job opportunities in the defense in- future enemies. dustry. 386 Chapter 25: The World at War, 1939–1945

b. African Americans played an important role in c. In late 1942, American forces cooperated with defense industries during the war. Many blacks British troops in advances across North Africa migrated from the South and from rural areas that exposed the “soft underbelly” of Europe. into industrial cities in the North and West to The American army gained valuable lessons work in war industries. The results were mixed: that they applied successfully during their inva- economic opportunities were often countered sion of Italy in 1943 and France in 1944. by racial violence. Although the armed forces were segregated, some African Americans vol- Classroom Activities unteered for military service and served with distinction. The war years also inspired a new 1. World War II was the most-filmed event in U.S. mood of militancy among black Americans; history up to that time. The federal government membership in the NAACP increased dramati- utilized films made by Hollywood to showcase the cally, and new organizations such as CORE U.S. war effort. Show selected segments from a joined in efforts to promote civil rights. World War II–era film such as Wake Island (see below). Ask students to identify stereotypes that c. Although their native countries were engaged in are used in the film to characterize American war against the United States, German and Ital- fighting men as well as the Japanese enemy. Ask ian Americans did not come under extensive them why stereotyping an enemy can make a war suspicion during the war. Japanese Americans, easier to define and an enemy easier to kill. on the other hand, were subjected to abuse, dis- crimination, and internment because they were 2. Compare Hollywood’s portrayal of World War II perceived as threats to public safety and national with the way the war was really fought. Select a security. More than 100,000 Japanese and film about World War II to show to the class. Se- Americans of Japanese ancestry were relocated lections include Wake Island (1942), Guadalcanal from their homes along the Pacific coast to in- Diary (1943), So Proudly We Hail (1943), Lifeboat ternment camps in the interior. In the late 1980s (1944), Thirty Seconds over Tokyo (1945), and Keep the U.S. Congress approved the payment of in- Your Powder Dry (1945). Frank Capra’s Why We demnities to the survivors of internment but Fight series and John Huston’s Battle of San Pietro could not erase the memory of this shameful (1944) are powerful documentaries. The best episode. home-front film is probably Since You Went Away (1943). After showing the film in class, have stu- 5. Why do historians consider 1942 to be a pivotal dents discuss how its images relate to the text- year for the outcome of the war? book’s description of U.S. propaganda efforts dur- ing the war. Possible answers a. In the Pacific war, the Allies—led by the United States—reclaimed the initiative from Japan. Oral History Exercise Victory in the Coral Sea guaranteed that Aus- •Create an oral history assignment (to be done in tralia would remain free of Japanese control. or out of class) based on the stories left by Amer- The , sometimes called “the icans who experienced World War II. If your turning point in the Pacific war,” cost Japan classroom is equipped with Internet access, pull naval control of the Pacific (with the loss of up the Web site from the Rutgers Oral History four aircraft carriers). In late summer, Ameri- Archive of World War II at http://oralhistory can marines began the arduous task of moving .rutgers.edu.This site offers multiple oral histo- the Japanese out of the Pacific island groups be- ries of the war and of civilian life in New Jersey. tween Hawaii and the mainland of Asia. If your classroom cannot accommodate the In- b. At the Battle of Stalingrad in the fall of 1942, ternet, print out a selection of stories before class Russian forces turned back Hitler’s advance and bring them for the students to read and an- into the Soviet Union. After Stalingrad, Ger- alyze. Other sources of oral history are the fifty- man armies were in retreat back toward their three personal stories of war that appear in War homeland, with Russian forces in pursuit from Stories: Remembering World War II,edited by the East. Elizabeth Mullener (2002). Or you can select Chapter 25: The World at War, 1939–1945 387

oral stories from Sherna B. Gluck, Rosie the Riv- V OICES FROM ABROAD eter Revisited (1988), a compelling series of ac- counts by women war workers. Another source Monica Itoi Sone: Japanese Relocation to consider is Studs Terkel’s The Good War: An (p. 786) Oral History of World War II.Ask students to compare and contrast the stories with the idea of 1. What was the difference between Sone’s legal sta- creating a complex portrait of the impact of tus and that of her parents? Why were they treated World War II on the United States. This assign- the same, given their different legal statuses? ment also works well as a research paper. One • She had U.S. citizenship because she was born in question to start a class discussion might be: America, but her parents were alien residents How do oral history accounts add to the infor- considered by government authorities to be mation provided in the textbook and lecture? Japanese nationals with more loyalty to Japan than the United States. Working with Documents •They were treated the same due to racism, war hysteria, and the federal exclusion order guide- COMPARING AMERICAN VOICES lines to remove all persons of Japanese ancestry.

Women in the Wartime Workplace 2. Based on the information in the text, what answer (p. 778) would the Supreme Court have given to Sone’s claim that she deserved a “fair trial” before being 1. What common themes appear in the working lives imprisoned “like a criminal”? of these three women? For example, how do labor unions affect their conditions of employment? •Based on actual court cases, the Supreme Court would have ruled that military necessity justified •Common themes include working new male her arrest and removal. She may have been given jobs at long hours, experiencing ethnic diversity a trial as other Japanese Americans successfully in the workplace, speaking out for working con- achieved, but not until the Ex Parte Endo case of ditions, utilizing unions to assist themselves and 1944 did the court rule that American citizens of other workers, feeling exploited by private in- undoubted loyalty could not be confined by dustry, and earning higher income while hus- government authorities. bands fought in the war effort. • Labor unions protected defense workers in re- ceiving higher wages, safer working conditions, Reading American Pictures and jobs that met personal needs. U.S. Political Propaganda on the Home 2. How did the war change the lives of these women? Front during World War II (p. 776) •The war changed their lives by providing more 1. What kind of message does each image convey? income after years of depression, more exposure Are these messages consistent with each other? to traditional male roles of employment, more Can you combine the messages into a larger state- experience with union activity, increased geo- ment explaining the U.S. perspective on fighting graphical mobility, increased exposure to ethnic the war? diversity, more equality with whites in the case •“This is the Enemy” portrays the image of the of black women, and giving the women the op- German enemy, a Nazi whose monocle reflects portunity to join the patriotic war effort. the genocidal and ruthless nature of German people. 3. These interviews occurred long after the events •“Is your trip necessary?” focuses on the domes- they describe. How might that long interval have tic population of the United States in the form of affected the women’s account of those years? a bus of people whose travel needs work against •The passage of time and the aging process may the united effort necessary to conserve resources have led these women to forget or remember in- and win the war. accurately events of the past. Present-day prob- •Together, these images convey a use of domestic lems and other issues may shape their interpre- propaganda to unite the American people in a tation of those experiences during the interview common and negative view of the German session. enemy and the need to pull together and put 388 Chapter 25: The World at War, 1939–1945

aside personal needs for the collective necessity Films of wining the war. • (1998, 170 min) 2. How might these images affect a viewer? What Directed by Steven Spielberg, this engross- visual cues or elements do the imagemakers em- ing Hollywood take on the D-Day invasion ploy to create an impact? List some of the items makes a great comparison to the actual event. and compare them across the two images. Is one • The Thin Red Line (1998, Twentieth Century Fox image more convincing than the other? Why? Film Corporation, 170 min) •“This is the Enemy” frightens the viewer into Directed by Terrence Malick, this Holly- thinking that the Germans are ruthless and bent wood film portrays the Japanese theater of oper- on the annihilation of their foes. The Nazi ations in an emotional and passionate rendition swastika and hanging images, as well as the dis- of a 1964 film of the same title. tortion of the German face, contribute to the • Band of Brothers (2001, HBO miniseries) image’s persuasive power. Directed by David Frankel, this award- •“Is your trip necessary?” utilizes a typical bus winning HBO dramatic series provides the most scene, a cross section of the American people to realistic portrayal of the European theater of provide an image that many Americans can eas- fighting ever produced on film. ily identify with, and therefore comply with gov- ernment calls to conserve national resources. • The Good War and Those Who Refused to Fight It •“This is the Enemy” is more powerful owing to (1991, Independent Television Service, 57 min) the use of fear to motivate Americans to form a Directed by David Tejada-Flores, this docu- common feeling about the German enemy. mentary traces the unique experiences of con- scientious objectors during World War II. Electronic Media Literature Web Sites •Studs Terkel, The Good War: An Oral History of • Women Come to the Front: Journalists, Photogra- World War II (New York: The New Press, 1997) phers, and Broadcasters during World War II Perhaps the best oral history collection of http://lcweb.loc.gov/exhibits/wcf/wcf0001.html Americans who experienced World War II in a This Library of Congress site focuses on variety of ways. media makers during the conflict. •Monica Itoi Sone, Nisei Daughter (Seattle: Uni- • Rosie Pictures: Select Images Relating to American versity of Washington Press, 1979) Women Workers An emotional biography that tells the story http://www.loc.gov/rr/print/list/126_rosi.html of the relocation and internment of Japanese This fascinating Library of Congress site Americans during World War II. records the contributions of American women during World War II. • Suffering Under a Great Injustice Additional Bedford/St. Martin’s http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/aam.html Resources for Chapter 25 This site presents a haunting exhibit of FOR INSTRUCTORS Ansel Adams’s photographs of the in- ternment camp. See also The Japanese American Transparencies Internment, a documentary film site at http:// www.children-of-the-camps.org,with extensive The following maps and images from Chapter 25 are links to other resources. available as full-color acetates: • The Enola Gay Controversy: How Do We Remem- • One City (and Island) at a Time ber a War That We Won? •Map 25.1 World War II in the North Atlantic, www.lehigh.edu/~ineng/enola 1939–1943 This site examines the controversial issue of •Why We Fight the U.S. atomic bombing of Japan and the • Please Stay Home morality of commemorating the end of the war •Map 25.2 Japanese Relocation Camps in modern times. •Map 25.3 World War II in Europe, 1941–1943 Chapter 25: The World at War, 1939–1945 389

•Map 25.4 World War II in Europe, 1944–1945 FOR STUDENTS •Map 25.5 World War II in the Pacific, 1941–1943 •Map 25.6 World War II in the Pacific, 1943–1945 Documents to Accompany America’s History The following documents and illustrations are avail- Instructor’s Resource CD-ROM able in Chapter 25 of the companion reader by Kevin J. Fernlund, University of Missouri–St. Louis: The following maps, figures, and images from Chapter 25, as well as a chapter outline, are available on disc in 1. Gerald P. Nye, The Profits of War and Prepared- both PowerPoint and jpeg formats: ness (1934) 2. C. D. Batchelor, The Reluctance to Go to War •Map 25.1 World War II in the North Atlantic, (1936) 1939–1943 3. Franklin D. Roosevelt, Fireside Chat on the Great •Map 25.2 Japanese Relocation Camps (1940) •Map 25.3 World War II in Europe, 1941–1943 4. Franklin D. Roosevelt, Four Freedoms Speech •Map 25.4 World War II in Europe, 1944–1945 (1941) •Map 25.5 World War II in the Pacific, 1941–1943 5. Billion-Dollar Watch Dog (1943) •Map 25.6 World War II in the Pacific, 1943–1945 6. Norma Yerger Queen, Women Working at the • Figure 25.1 Government Military and Civilian Home Front (1944) Spending as a Percentage of GDP, 1920–1980 7. Mother, When Will You Stay Home Again? (1944) • One City (and Island) at a Time 8. Wartime Posters: The Japanese and Venereal Dis- •Pearl Harbor, December 7, 1941 ease as Enemies (c. 1944) •Why We Fight 9. Remembering the War Years on the Home Front • Please Stay Home (1984) •A “Real” Rosie at Work 10. to Prescribe Military Areas • Fighting for Freedom at Home and Abroad, 1941 (1942) •Zoot Suit Youth in Los Angeles 11. Ernie Pyle, Street Fighting (1944) •Hitting the Beach in Normandy 12. William McConahey and Dorothy Wahlstrom, Re- •The Living Dead membering the Holocaust (1945) •The Big Three at Yalta 13. Albert Einstein, Letter to Roosevelt (1939) •Hiroshima 14. Henry L. Stimson, The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb (1945) Using the Bedford Series with America’s History,Sixth Edition Online Study Guide at Available online at bedfordstmartins.com/usingseries, bedfordstmartins.com/henretta this guide offers practical suggestions for incorporat- ing volumes from the Bedford Series in History and The Online Study Guide helps students synthesize the Culture into the U.S. History Survey. Relevant titles for material from the text as well as practice the skills his- Chapter 25 include: torians use to make sense of the past. The following map, visual, and documents activities are available for • America Views the Holocaust, 1933–1945: A Brief Chapter 25: Documentary History,by Robert H. Abzug, Uni- versity of Texas at Austin • Pearl Harbor and the Coming of the Pacific War: A Map Activity Brief History with Documents and Essays,by Akira Iriye, Harvard University •Map 25.3 World War II in Europe, 1941–1943 • The Nuremberg War Crimes Trial, 1945–1946: A •Map 25.4 World War II in Europe, 1944–1945 Documentary History,by Michael R. Marrus, Uni- versity of Toronto Visual Activity • The Era of Franklin D. Roosevelt, 1933–1945: A Brief History with Documents,by Richard Polen- •Reading American Pictures: U.S. Political Propa- berg, Cornell University ganda on the Home Front during World War II 390 Chapter 25: The World at War, 1939–1945

Reading Historical Documents Activities Critical Thinking Modules at bedfordstmartins.com/historymodules •Comparing American Voices: Women in the Wartime Workplace These online modules invite students to interpret •Voices from Abroad: Monica Itoi Sone: Japanese maps and audio, visual, and textual sources centered Relocation on events covered in the U.S. History Survey. The rele- vant module for Chapter 25 is: •Visual Persuasion: Mobilization Via Government Posters during World War II