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1 Introduction Notes 1 Introduction 1 . Tayeb El-Hibri, Parable and Politics in Early Islamic History: The Rashidun Caliphs (New York: Columbia University Press, 2010), 3–25, and Asma Afsaruddin, The First Muslims: History and Memory (Oxford: Oneworld, 2008), 51–78. 2. A number of scholars have already stressed the weight of this era on in terms of its contribution to the development of Islamic thought and prac- tices. See, generally, Tayeb El-Hibri, Parable and Politics in Early Islamic History . 3 . Recent media and scholars’ interest in Islam have encouraged many authors to write about the founder of the religion. Secondary literature on the sub- ject has multiplied greatly over the last decade. For a sample of these works, see Barnaby Rogerson, The Prophet Muhammad: A Biography (Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 2003), Maxime Rodinson, Muhammad: Prophet of Islam (London: Tauris Parke Paperbacks, 2002), Richard A. Gabriel, Muhammad: Islam’s First Great General (Oklahoma City: University of Oklahoma Press, 2007), M. A. Cook, Muhammad (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983), William Montgomery Watt, Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1964), Martin Lings, Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources (Rochester, VT: Inner Traditions, 2006), and Fred McGraw Donner, Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam (Boston: Harvard University Press, 2010). 4 . Islamic literature documenting this event indicates that this was an extremely traumatic experience. In fact, the Prophet Muhammad was said to have gone into seclusion after this encounter. See, generally, Tafs ī r literature of al-Ṭ abar ī and Ibn Kath ī r related to these verses. 5 . See, generally, Patricia Crone, God’s Rule: Government and Islam (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004); Ann K. S. Lambton, State and Government in Medieval Islam (London: Oxford University Press, 1981); and Wilferd Madelung, The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997). 6 . Ib ā d ī s first secured the southeastern part of the Arabian Peninsula (Oman) as an autonomous state free from the control of the Umayyads. The Abbasids reconquered the region within two years after the rise of the Abbasid dynasty. 176 Notes 7 . The common translation of this phrase is “people who untie and tie.” My reading of the historical record indicates that a more technical rendition of the Arabic phrase is “People who Solve and Contract,” on which I will elaborate in the appropriate section of this work. 8. Many of these conclusions have been introduced in a number of critical stud- ies including the works of Ignaz Goldziher, Joseph Schacht, N. J. Coulson, John Burton, David Powers, Norman Calder, Micklos Muranyi, John Wansbrough, Patricia Crone, Yasin Dutton, and G. H. A. Juynboll. 2 Governance in Arab and Islamic Societies 1. Winter, for instance, examined the explosive mix of theology and politi- cal thought in an analysis of the development of ideas about the role and authority of a ruler. See, T. J. Winter, The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008). Two decades ago, Bernard Lewis already made the connection between the clas- sical period and the modern manifestation of political Islam. His account of the ways in which Muslims have conceived of the relations between ruler and ruled, rights and duties, legitimacy and illegitimacy, obedience and rebel- lion, justice and oppression is illuminating and informative. See Bernard Lewis, The Political Language of Islam (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991). Daniel Lav, too, suggested the connections of classical Islamic theologies to contemporary Islamic radicalism and demonstrated the con- tinued relevance of medieval theology to modern debates. See Daniel Lav, Radical Islam and the Revival of Medieval Theology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Feb. 29, 2012). See, also, Gerald R. Hawting, The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate Ad 661–750 (London: Psychology Press, 2000). 2 . See, generally, Patricia Crone, God’s Rule: Government and Islam (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004); Ann K. S. Lambton, State and Government in Medieval Islam (London: Oxford University Press, 1981); and Patricia Crone, Roman, Provincial, and Islamic Law: The Origins of the Islamic Patronate (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987). 3 . See Wilferd Madelung, The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Hamilton A. R. Gibb, “Arab-Byzantine Relations under the Umayyad Caliphate,” Dumbarton Oaks Papers , Vol. 12 (1958), 219–233; Tayeb El-Hibri, Reinterpreting Islamic Historiography: H ā r ū n al-Rash ī d and the Narrative of the Abbasid Caliphate (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999); Mahmoud Haddad, “Arab Religious Nationalism in the Colonial Era: Rereading Rash ī d Riḍ ā ’s Ideas on the Caliphate,” Journal of the American Oriental Society , Vol. 117, No. 2 (Apr.–Jun., 1997), 253–277; Peter C. Scales, The Fall of the Caliphate of Có rdoba: Berbers and Andalusis in Conflict (Leiden: Brill, 1994); Janina M. Safran, The Second Umayyad Caliphate: The Articulation of Caliphal Legitimacy in al-Andalus (Boston: Harvard College, 2000); H. Kennedy, Notes 177 “Central Government and Provincial Elites in the Early ‘Abb ā sid Caliphate,” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies Vol. 44 (1981), 26–38; Aziz Ahmad, “An Eighteenth-Century Theory of the Caliphate,” Studia Islamica , No. 28 (1968), 135–144; A. S. Tritton, The Caliphs and Their Non- Muslim Subjects: A Critical Study of the Covenant of ‘Umar (London: F. Cass, 1970); Leonard Binder, “al-Ghazali’s Theory of Islamic Government,” The Muslim World , No. 3 (July 1955), 229–241; Ann K. S. Lambton, State and Government in Medieval Islam ; Muhammad Asad, The Principles of State and Government in Islam (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1961); Patricia Crone, God’s Rule: Government and Islam (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004; and Mu ḥ ammad ʿ Abdullah As-Samm ā n and Sylvia G. Haim, “The Principles of Islamic Government,” Die Welt des Islams , Vol. 5, No. 3/4 (1958), 245–253. 4 . A number of scholars, Muslims and non-Muslims, have already suggested the idea that the “community of the believers” mentioned in the Qur’an included non-Muslims. In other words, by suggesting that Muhammad’s role as a social reformer should be given more weight and his theological teachings de-emphasized, I am not creating something from a vacuum of ideas. For instance, Fred Donner, who has provided a new perspective on the evolution of Islam, argues that the origins of Islam lie in a broad social movement started by the Prophet Muhammad. This movement, he contends, is best character- ized as that of “Believers,” which consisted of righteous Christians and Jews in its early years. For Donner, the Believers’ movement did not initially exclude Christians and Jews because they, too, were monotheists and agreed to live according to their revealed law. For him, the idea that Muslims constituted a separate religious community, distinct from Christians and Jews, developed at least a century later, under the initiative of his heirs, not Muhammad. See, generally, Fred M. Donner, Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam (Boston: Harvard University Press, 2010). 5 . As a caliph, ‘Uthman offered more government positions to his relatives than any of his predecessors. See the list of relatives appointed governors, con- trollers, and judges by the caliph in Muhammad Hassan al-‘Idrus, Dawlat al-khil ā fah al-isl ā miyyah (Cairo: Dar al-Kitab al-Hadith, 2010), 67. 6 . The discussion of the origins and development of the events occurring during the transition from the rule of Muhammad to his successor is wide-ranging. While some of these works simply survey the accounts found in Muslim his- torians’ reports, others provide critical explanations and theories on the sub- ject. See, for example, Wilferd Madelung, The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), James E. Sowerwine, Caliph and Caliphate (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), Patricia Crone and Martin Hinds, God’s Caliph: Religious Authority in the First Centuries of Islam (Cambridge: University of Cambridge Oriental Publications, 2003), R. Stephen Humphreys, The Crisis of the Early Caliphate (Albany: SUNY Press, 1990), and Barnaby Rogerson, The Heirs of Muhammad: Islam’s First Century and the Origins of the Sunni-Shia Split (New York: The Overlook Press, 2007). 178 Notes 7 . Modern scholars have developed increased interest in the study of the ori- gins and evolution of Islamic societies and religious movements, especially since the rise of Islamism. Many works survey the growing influence of the Islamist movements within national states and in their transnational or global dimensions, as well in the context of historical circumstances from the clas- sical era until modern time. See, for example, the works of Jon Armajani, Modern Islamist Movements: History, Religion, and Politics (New Brunswick, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2011), Said Amir Arjomand, From Nationalism to Revolutionary Islam (Albany: SUNY Press, 1984), Mohammed Ayoob, The Many Faces of Political Islam: Religion and Politics in the Muslim World (Singapore: NUS Press, 2009), Olivier Roy, Globalised Islam: The Search for a New Ummah (London: Hurst & Company, 2004), Richard T. Antoun, Understanding Fundamentalism: Christian, Islamic, and Jewish Movements (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2008), Ira Marvin Lapidus, A History of Islamic Societies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), William L. Cleveland and Martin P. Bunton, A History of the Modern Middle East (New York: Seal Press, 2009), Antony Black, The History of Islamic Political Thought: From the Prophet to the Present (London: Psychology Press, 2001), and Malise Ruthven, Islam in the World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006). 8. Related to the topic of this work, and in order to have an idea about the dif- ferent ideas of Islamist movements, see Mu ḥ ammad ʿ Abdullah As-Samm ā n and Sylvia G.
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