Notes

1 Introduction

1 . Tayeb El-Hibri, Parable and Politics in Early Islamic History: The Rashidun Caliphs (New York: Columbia University Press, 2010), 3–25, and Asma Afsaruddin, The First Muslims: History and Memory (Oxford: Oneworld, 2008), 51–78. 2 . A number of scholars have already stressed the weight of this era on in terms of its contribution to the development of Islamic thought and prac- tices. See, generally, Tayeb El-Hibri, Parable and Politics in Early Islamic History . 3 . Recent media and scholars’ interest in Islam have encouraged many authors to write about the founder of the religion. Secondary literature on the sub- ject has multiplied greatly over the last decade. For a sample of these works, see Barnaby Rogerson, The Prophet Muhammad: A Biography (Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 2003), Maxime Rodinson, Muhammad: Prophet of Islam (London: Tauris Parke Paperbacks, 2002), Richard A. Gabriel, Muhammad: Islam’s First Great General (Oklahoma City: University of Oklahoma Press, 2007), M. A. Cook, Muhammad (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983), William Montgomery Watt, Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1964), Martin Lings, Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources (Rochester, VT: Inner Traditions, 2006), and Fred McGraw Donner, Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam (Boston: Harvard University Press, 2010). 4 . Islamic literature documenting this event indicates that this was an extremely traumatic experience. In fact, the Prophet Muhammad was said to have gone into seclusion after this encounter. See, generally, Tafs ī r literature of al-Ṭ abar ī and Ibn Kath ī r related to these verses. 5 . See, generally, Patricia Crone, God’s Rule: Government and Islam (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004); Ann K. S. Lambton, State and Government in Medieval Islam (London: Oxford University Press, 1981); and Wilferd Madelung, The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997). 6 . Ib ā d ī s first secured the southeastern part of the Arabian Peninsula (Oman) as an autonomous state free from the control of the Umayyads. The Abbasids reconquered the region within two years after the rise of the Abbasid dynasty. 176 Notes

7 . The common translation of this phrase is “people who untie and tie.” My reading of the historical record indicates that a more technical rendition of the Arabic phrase is “People who Solve and Contract,” on which I will elaborate in the appropriate section of this work. 8 . Many of these conclusions have been introduced in a number of critical stud- ies including the works of Ignaz Goldziher, Joseph Schacht, N. J. Coulson, John Burton, David Powers, Norman Calder, Micklos Muranyi, John Wansbrough, Patricia Crone, Yasin Dutton, and G. H. A. Juynboll.

2 Governance in Arab and Islamic Societies

1 . Winter, for instance, examined the explosive mix of theology and politi- cal thought in an analysis of the development of ideas about the role and authority of a ruler. See, T. J. Winter, The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008). Two decades ago, Bernard Lewis already made the connection between the clas- sical period and the modern manifestation of political Islam. His account of the ways in which Muslims have conceived of the relations between ruler and ruled, rights and duties, legitimacy and illegitimacy, obedience and rebel- lion, justice and oppression is illuminating and informative. See Bernard Lewis, The Political Language of Islam (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991). Daniel Lav, too, suggested the connections of classical Islamic theologies to contemporary Islamic radicalism and demonstrated the con- tinued relevance of medieval theology to modern debates. See Daniel Lav, Radical Islam and the Revival of Medieval Theology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Feb. 29, 2012). See, also, Gerald R. Hawting, The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate Ad 661–750 (London: Psychology Press, 2000). 2 . See, generally, Patricia Crone, God’s Rule: Government and Islam (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004); Ann K. S. Lambton, State and Government in Medieval Islam (London: Oxford University Press, 1981); and Patricia Crone, Roman, Provincial, and Islamic Law: The Origins of the Islamic Patronate (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987). 3 . See Wilferd Madelung, The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Hamilton A. R. Gibb, “Arab-Byzantine Relations under the Umayyad Caliphate,” Dumbarton Oaks Papers , Vol. 12 (1958), 219–233; Tayeb El-Hibri, Reinterpreting Islamic Historiography: Hā r ū n al-Rashī d and the Narrative of the Abbasid Caliphate (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999); Mahmoud Haddad, “Arab Religious Nationalism in the Colonial Era: Rereading Rash ī d Riḍ ā ’s Ideas on the Caliphate,” Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 117, No. 2 (Apr.–Jun., 1997), 253–277; Peter C. Scales, The Fall of the Caliphate of Có rdoba: Berbers and Andalusis in Conflict (Leiden: Brill, 1994); Janina M. Safran, The Second Umayyad Caliphate: The Articulation of Caliphal Legitimacy in al-Andalus (Boston: Harvard College, 2000); H. Kennedy, Notes 177

“Central Government and Provincial Elites in the Early ‘Abbā sid Caliphate,” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies Vol. 44 (1981), 26–38; Aziz Ahmad, “An Eighteenth-Century Theory of the Caliphate,” Studia Islamica, No. 28 (1968), 135–144; A. S. Tritton, The Caliphs and Their Non- Muslim Subjects: A Critical Study of the Covenant of ‘Umar (London: F. Cass, 1970); Leonard Binder, “al-Ghazali’s Theory of Islamic Government,” The Muslim World , No. 3 (July 1955), 229–241; Ann K. S. Lambton, State and Government in Medieval Islam ; Muhammad Asad, The Principles of State and Government in Islam (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1961); Patricia Crone, God’s Rule: Government and Islam (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004; and Mu ḥ ammad ʿAbdullah As-Sammā n and Sylvia G. Haim, “The Principles of Islamic Government,” Die Welt des Islams , Vol. 5, No. 3/4 (1958), 245–253. 4 . A number of scholars, Muslims and non-Muslims, have already suggested the idea that the “community of the believers” mentioned in the Qur’an included non-Muslims. In other words, by suggesting that Muhammad’s role as a social reformer should be given more weight and his theological teachings de-emphasized, I am not creating something from a vacuum of ideas. For instance, Fred Donner, who has provided a new perspective on the evolution of Islam, argues that the origins of Islam lie in a broad social movement started by the Prophet Muhammad. This movement, he contends, is best character- ized as that of “Believers,” which consisted of righteous Christians and Jews in its early years. For Donner, the Believers’ movement did not initially exclude Christians and Jews because they, too, were monotheists and agreed to live according to their revealed law. For him, the idea that Muslims constituted a separate religious community, distinct from Christians and Jews, developed at least a century later, under the initiative of his heirs, not Muhammad. See, generally, Fred M. Donner, Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam (Boston: Harvard University Press, 2010). 5 . As a caliph, ‘Uthman offered more government positions to his relatives than any of his predecessors. See the list of relatives appointed governors, con- trollers, and judges by the caliph in Muhammad Hassan al-‘Idrus, Dawlat al-khil ā fah al-isl ā miyyah (Cairo: Dar al-Kitab al-Hadith, 2010), 67. 6 . The discussion of the origins and development of the events occurring during the transition from the rule of Muhammad to his successor is wide-ranging. While some of these works simply survey the accounts found in Muslim his- torians’ reports, others provide critical explanations and theories on the sub- ject. See, for example, Wilferd Madelung, The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), James E. Sowerwine, Caliph and Caliphate (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), Patricia Crone and Martin Hinds, God’s Caliph: Religious Authority in the First Centuries of Islam (Cambridge: University of Cambridge Oriental Publications, 2003), R. Stephen Humphreys, The Crisis of the Early Caliphate (Albany: SUNY Press, 1990), and Barnaby Rogerson, The Heirs of Muhammad: Islam’s First Century and the Origins of the Sunni-Shia Split (New York: The Overlook Press, 2007). 178 Notes

7 . Modern scholars have developed increased interest in the study of the ori- gins and evolution of Islamic societies and religious movements, especially since the rise of Islamism. Many works survey the growing influence of the Islamist movements within national states and in their transnational or global dimensions, as well in the context of historical circumstances from the clas- sical era until modern time. See, for example, the works of Jon Armajani, Modern Islamist Movements: History, Religion, and Politics (New Brunswick, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2011), Said Amir Arjomand, From Nationalism to Revolutionary Islam (Albany: SUNY Press, 1984), Mohammed Ayoob, The Many Faces of Political Islam: Religion and Politics in the Muslim World (Singapore: NUS Press, 2009), Olivier Roy, Globalised Islam: The Search for a New Ummah (London: Hurst & Company, 2004), Richard T. Antoun, Understanding Fundamentalism: Christian, Islamic, and Jewish Movements (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2008), Ira Marvin Lapidus, A History of Islamic Societies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), William L. Cleveland and Martin P. Bunton, A History of the Modern Middle East (New York: Seal Press, 2009), Antony Black, The History of Islamic Political Thought: From the Prophet to the Present (London: Psychology Press, 2001), and Malise Ruthven, Islam in the World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006). 8 . Related to the topic of this work, and in order to have an idea about the dif- ferent ideas of Islamist movements, see Mu ḥ ammad ʿ Abdullah As-Samm ā n and Sylvia G. Haim, “The Principles of Islamic Government,” Die Welt des Islams, Vol. 5, No. 3/4 (1958), 245–253, and Mahmoud Haddad, “Arab Religious Nationalism in the Colonial Era: Rereading Rash ī d Riḍ ā ’s Ideas on the Caliphate,” Journal of the American Oriental Society , Vol. 117, No. 2 (Apr. – Jun., 1997), 253–277. 9 . Ira M. Lapidus, “The Separation of the State and Religion in the Development of Early Islamic society,” International Journal of Middle East Studies , Vol. 6, No. 4 (Oct. 1975), 363–385; H. A. R. Gibb, “The Evolution of Government in Early Islam,” Studia Islamica , Vol. 4 (1995), 5–17; and H. A. R. Gibb, “Arab-Byzantine Relations under the Umayyad Caliphate,” Dumbarton Oaks Papers , Vol. 12 (1958), 219–233. 10 . See Muhammad Qasim Zaman, “The Caliphs, the ‘Ulama’, and the Law: Defining the Role and Function of the Caliph in the Early ‘Abbasid Period,” Islamic Law and Society , Vol. 4, No.1 (1997), 1–36. 11 . See Ira Katznelson and Gareth Stedman Jones, Religion and the Political Imagination (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 23, 70, 112, 275, 295, 314, and 336. 12 . Modern scholarship dealing with the development of Islamic sects and juris- prudence is rich with imaginative ideas and unique perspectives. The full range of findings is too complex and sophisticated to be summarized in a reductionist fashion in a brief analysis such as this work. Readers are advised to consult representative works including that of Eric J. Hanne, Putting the Caliph in His Place: Power, Authority, and the Late Abbasid Caliphate (Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2007), Francis E. Notes 179

Peters, A Reader on Classical Islam (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994), Robert Gleave and Eugenia Kermeli, Islamic Law: Theory and Practice (London: I. B.Tauris, Apr 21, 2001), Liyakat N. Takim, The Heirs of the Prophet: Charisma and Religious Authority in Shi’ite Islam (Albany: SUNY Press, 2007), Michael Cooperson, Classical Arabic Biography: The Heirs of the Prophets in the Age of Al-Maʼ m ū n (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), Jonathan Porter Berkey, The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East, 600–1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), Chase F. Robinson, Islamic Historiography (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), John E. Wansbrough, The Sectarian Milieu: Content and Composition of Islamic Salvation History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978), John E. Wansbrough, Quranic Studies: Sources and Methods of Scriptural Interpretation (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977), and Eerik Dickinson, The Development of Early Sunnite Had ī th Criticism: The Taqdima of Ibn Ab ī Ḥ ā tim Al-R ā z ī (240/854– 327/938) (Leiden: Brill, 2001). 13 . Even nonlegal, nonreligious texts contained ample references to the label of the “people of piety” which was then understood to refer the ‘ulama’ . See Muhammad Qasim Zaman, “The Caliphs, the ‘Ulama’, and the law: Defining the Role and Function of the Caliph in the Early ‘Abbasid Period,” Islamic Law and Society , Vol.4, No.1 (1997), 8. 14 . See Ann K. S. Lambton, State and Government in Medieval Islam , 13. 15 . See ibid., 14. 16 . Ibid., 24. 17 . For an English translation of al-M ā ward ī ’s work, see A. Yate (tr.), al-A ḥ k ā m al-sultaniyyah: the Laws of Islamic Governance (London: Ta-Ha Publishers, 1996). 18 . [Q9:V6]. 19 . I call istij ā rah mobile protection since it does not come with any restrictions on the movement and residence of the person receiving it. 20 . Ibn Is ḥ ā q is the first biographer to include the entire document in his S ī rah . Other historians, including Ibn Kathī r, Ibn Hishā m, and Ibn Abī Khaythamah documented parts of the charter. Also, parts of the charter were cited in Abū ‘Ubayd al-Q ā sim Ibn Sall ām’s al-Amw ā l . 21 . Other documents that were excluded from the religious tradition literature are later treaties between the community of Madinah and Quraysh. For instance, several years after drafting the charter, the Prophet Muhammad wanted to make a religious pilgrimage to Mecca. He was refused entry. He camped in the hills overlooking the city and waited for more of his follow- ers to join him. In the meantime, Quraysh sent a delegation to negotiate a compromise, the outcome of which was the short treaty of al- ḥ udaybiyyah. The main points of this agreement were as follows: (1) Muslims would return to Medina that year. (2) They would be permitted to enter Mecca for pilgrimage next year but they would stay only for three days in Mecca. (3) If a person from Quraysh of Mecca joins the Muslims without per- mission of his guardians, he or she would be sent back to Mecca, but if 180 Notes

a Muslim from Madī nah went to Mecca he or she will not be sent back. Some of the Prophet’s Companions were not happy with the terms of the treaty at first. 22 . Reconstructing the first fifty years of the Islamic community is a challeng- ing task given the lack of reliable independent documentation from that era. The task becomes even more difficult when dealing with the political events of that era. Right after the death of the Prophet Muhammad, con- troversy was inescapable. Sunni literature attempted to avoid the discus- sion of the politics of that era. Modern scholars, then, were left with the body of hadith literature. This same literature constituted the backbone of the historical record that emerged no earlier than two and a half cen- turies after the rise of Islam. Together, hadith and historical reports are used today by modern scholars to provide new perspectives on the topic of religion and politics of the formative period of Islam. See, for example, Mahmoud Ayoub, The Crisis of Muslim History: Religion and Politics in Early Islam (London: Oneworld, 2005) and Madelung, The Succession to Mu ḥammad . 23 . See Muhammad Hassan al-‘Idrus, Dawlat al-khil ā fah al-isl ā miyyah (Cairo: Dar al-Kitab al-Hadith, 2010), 50–118. 24 . The battle of the camel (al-jamal ) is chronicled in Ṭ abar ī ’s History, 3:39, 82, and 85; and al-Bid ā yah wa-‘l-nih ā yah by Ibn Kath ī r , 4: 241–299. 25 . The battle of Ṣ iff ī n ended when Mu’āwiyah tricked ‘Ali’s camp into accept- ing a rigged arbitration that led to the breakup of ‘Ali’s camp: some sup- ported the arbitration while others rejected it and ended up fighting against ‘Ali for accepting the arbitration. This dissension brought about the battle of al-Nahraw ān, which pitted ‘Ali against the rejecters of the arbitration, led by Abd All ā h Ibn Wahb al-R ā sib ī . See al-Kashf , 2:239. 26 . A note concerning the form and pronunciation of the words imam, im ā mah, khal ī fah, and khil ā fah: these terms are all related, but they mean different things. The word imam refers to the person (leader) holding the leadership position (im ā mah ). Similarly, the word khal ī fah refers to the person holding the post of the caliphate ( khil ā fah ). 27 . Ibn Khald ū n, al-Muqaddimah , 191. Also see the opinion of the Shafi’ite authority, al-Maw ā rd ī , in al-Aḥ k ā m al-sul ṭ ā niyyah, 5; and A’usht, Dir ā s ā t , 145. 28 . Al-Taft ā zā n ī , Shar ḥ al-‘aq ā ’id , 15. 29 . See al-San’ān ī , al-T ā j al-mudhahhab li-aḥ k ā m al-madhhab , 4: 404. 30 . Al-Zanjanī , ‘Aq ā ’id al-im ā miyyah , 72. 31 . Ṣ aḥ īḥ Muslim, in Sharḥ al-Nawaw ī , 12:223–24, 240. 32 . This is the opinion of al-B ā qill ā n ī , al-Qurṭ ub ī , Ibn Taymiyyah, and al-Kas ā n ī . 33 . Ibn Sa’d, al- Ṭ abaq ā t , 3:183. 34 . Ibid., 3:281. 35 . This position was attributed to Ibn Mas’ūd and Ibn ‘Abbā s. See al- Ṭ abar ī , J ā mi’ al-bay ā n , 1: 157. 36 . Ibn Taymiyyah, Minh ā j al-sunnah , 1:1 38. Notes 181

37 . Al-Shaqs ī , Minh ā j al-Ṭ ā lib ī n wa-bal ā gh al-r ā ghib ī n , 8: 44; al-M ā ward ī , al-Aḥ k ā m , 6; Ab ū Ya’l ā , al-Aḥ k ā m , 23; al-Q āḍ ī Abd al-Jabb ā r, al-Mughn ī , 1: 251; and al-Qurṭ ub ī , al-J ā mi’ , 1271. 38 . The theory of succession based on textual recommendation by the sitting imam was only formalized by Im ā m Ja’far al-Ṣ ā diq. The split of the Shi’i com- munity into at least two other sects (Ismaelis/Seveners and Zaydis/Fifthers) is indicative of the disputes that must have arisen to settle the problem of suc- cession within the Shi’i community. 39 . Some scholars have justified this approach by invoking the principle of sadd al-dhar ā ’i’, which is the inclination to preempt unnecessary harm. In this case the harm being possible anarchy and fragmentation of the community. 40 . Al-M ā wardī , al-A ḥ k ā m , 6. 41 . See al-Kind ī, al-Muṣ annaf , 10:101–104. 42 . The select group of six appointed by ‘Umar consisted of persons anyone of whom could be selected a caliph. This, again, suggests that Islamic political theory is based on precedent more than being based on jurisprudential or religious considerations. 43 . See al-M ā ward ī, al-A ḥ k ā m , 6; and al- Ṣ an’ān ī , al-T ā j al-mudhahhab , 4: 406. 44 . Sunnah can be understood as the precedent.

3 Origins and Transformation of Ibadism

1 . “One problem plaguing the study of the Ibadiyya and Kharijites is the uncriti- cal reliance on either Sunni or Ibā ḍī sources for historical narratives. Such an approach ignores the fact that these accounts were, to varying degrees, tailored to serve the political and self-serving interests of the sect.” Adam R. Gaiser, Muslims, Scholars, and Soldiers (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 5. 2 . A number of modern Islamicists assume that there are many forms of Ibadism: formative Ibadism, medieval Ibadism, modern Ibadism, North African Ibadism, Omani Ibadism, and east African Ibadism. Some argue that the “North African configuration of the imamate represents a theoretical arrange- ment of the imamate that does not correspond to a temporal North African institution of authority.” Gaiser, Muslims, Scholars, and Soldiers , 10–11. 3 . Gaiser, Muslims, Scholars, and Soldiers , 13. 4 . By ignoring Arabic legal sources and ethnographical evidence, some Islamicists, including Gaiser and Wilkinson, were able to subscribe to the untenable theory about imamate in Ibadism as a fictitious construct created retroactively by the ‘ulama’. See, Gaiser, Muslims, Scholars, and Soldiers , 13. 5 . Definitions are derived from Merriam-Webster dictionary. 6 . Jean Baecheler, Revolution (New York: Harper and Row, 1975), 91. 7 . Sigmund Neumann, “The International Civil War,” World Politics , Vol. 1, No. 3 (1949). 8 . Ellen Kay Trimberger, Revolution from Above: Military Bureaucrats and Development in Japan, Turkey, and Peru (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1978), 12. 182 Notes

9 . Samuel Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1968), 264. 10 . Theda Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1979), 4. 11 . Perez Zagorin, Rebels and Rulers (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 1:17. 12 . Robert Tucker, the author of The Marxian Revolutionary Idea , argued that economic causes and class struggle are behind revolutions. See, Carl Friedrich, Revolution (New York: Atherton, 1966), 228. 13 . Alexis Tocqueville, The Old Regime and the French Revolution (New York: Anchor, 1955), 8. 14 . H. Gerth, From Max Weber (New York: Oxford University Press, 1958), 296. 15 . See al-Maq ā l ā t , 1:170–72. 16 . See al-Maq ā l ā t , 171–72. 17 . Ibid., 186. 18 . See al-Farq , 8. 19 . See ibid., 61. 20 . See al-Fa ṣ l , 144. 21 . We will discuss this particular claim when we deal with Ibā ḍ ī fiqh. See al-Faṣ l , 144. 22 . See al-Milal , 1:212. 23 . See ibid., 10. 24 . See Sunan of al-Tirmidh ī , Ab ū D ā w ū d, Ibn M ā jah; and Ibn Ḥ anbal’s Musnad . 25 . See al- Ṭ abar ī, al-T ār ī kh , 3:116. 26 . See al- Ṭ abar ī, al-T ār ī kh , 3:127. 27 . See Ibn Ab ī al- Ḥ ad ī d, Sharḥ al-nahj , 2:4. 28 . See Ibn F ā ris, Mu’jam Maq ā y ī s al-lughah , 2:178. 29 . See Shar ī f al-Am ī n, Mu’jam al-firaq al-isl ā miyyah , 122; and Khal ī l, Mu’jam al-mu ṣṭ alaḥ āt al-d ī niyyah, 68. 30 . See al-Shahrast ā n ī , al-Milal wa-‘l-niḥ al , 1:114. 31 . See al-Ṭ abar ī, al-T ār ī kh , 3:115. 32 . Yaz ī d faced many military challenges supported by people from the heart- lands, prompting him to place Mecca under siege until he eliminated the threat to his rule. 33 . See al- Ṭ abbar ī , al-T ā r ī kh , 3:352–59. 34 . See al-Ash’ar ī , al-Maq ā l ā t , 1:168. 35 . The word al-Mu ḥ akkimah does not reflect the actual position known by it. Literally, al-Mu ḥ akkimah means the group that arbitrated or that chose the arbitration as a solution for the conflict between Mu’āwiyah and ‘Ali. In real- ity, al-Muḥ akkimah was coined to refer to those who argued that arbitration is not valid because, by resorting to arbitration, the legitimate leader is dele- gitimizing his rule and legitimizing the opposition automatically. 36 . See al-Mubarrad, al-K ā mil , 3:1138. 37 . See al-Ash’ar ī , al-Maq ā l ā t , 1:204; and al-Shahrast ā n ī , al-Milal , 1:116. Notes 183

38 . See al-Khiḍ r ī , T ā r ī kh al-umam , 149. 39 . See al-Khiḍ r ī , T ā r ī kh al-umam , 149. 40 . See al-Bal ā dhir ī , al-Ans ā b , 5:362–372. 41 . See al-Bal ā dhir ī , al-Ans ā b , 5:175–8. 42 . See al-Ash’ar ī , al-Maq ā l ā t , 1:183. 43 . See al-Ṭ abar ī , al-T ā r ī kh , 3:397–8. 44 . See al-Bal ā dhir ī , al-Ans ā b , 5:365. 45 . See al- Ṭ abar ī , al-T ā r ī kh , 3:364–373. 46 . See al-Ash’ar ī , al-Maq ā l ā t, 1:169; Ibn ‘Abd Rabbih, al-‘Iqd al-farī s , 2:98; al-Baghd ā d ī , al-Farq, 84; Ibn Ḥ azm, al-Faṣ l , 5:52; al-Shahrast ā n ī , al-Milal , 1:121; and Ab ū Sufy ān, al-Siyar , 1:298. 47 . See al-Mubarrid, al-K ā mil, 3:1215–6; Ibn ‘Abd Rubbih, al-‘Iqd al-Far ī d , 2:97. 48 . See al- Ṭ abar ī , al-T ā r ī kh , 3:399. 49 . Although the movement is named after Ab ā ḍ , there is strong evidence explain- ing the change in the vocalization from A b āḍ to I b āḍ . 50 . There is no single definition of Companion. While the literal mean- ing suggests that a Companion is anyone who befriended the Prophet Muhammad, the designation is more technical than relational. In that sense, a Companion is any person who has met the Prophet in person even if such a person did not reside in Madī nah. The utility of the des- ignation is that a person who met the Prophet in person could quote the Prophet; hence being able to be part of the chain of transmission of ḥ ad ī th . A Follower on the other hand, refers to individuals who came after the generation of Companions. 51 . ‘Amr al-Nami, Dir ā s ā t ‘an al-Ib āḍ iyyah (Beirut: Dar al-Gharb al-Islami, 2001), 44. 52 . Dir ā s ā t , 48–49. 53 . Ibid., 47. 54 . Ibid., 52. 55 . Ibid., 52. 56 . Ibid., 53. 57 . Ibid., 53. 58 . See Kit ā b al-J ā mi ‘, 1:457. 59 . Ibn Sa’ad, Ṭ abaq ā t , 7:179–80; Al-Dhahb ī 1:62; Ibn Ḥ ajr 2:38 60 . Ib āḍ ī s of North Africa were the first to use the word “Ibā ḍī” at the end of the third century AH . 61 . See al-Ṭ abar ī, 6:108–18; Ibn al-Athī r, al-K ā mil, 208; and al-Ṭ abar ī , al-Bayan wa-‘l-taby ī n , 2:243. 62 . See Ibn Sa’īd, al-Siyar , 119; and al-S ā lim ī , Sharḥ al-J ā mi’ , 1:5. 63 . See Mu’jam al-buld ā n , 3:471. 64 . See al-Bal ādhir ī , Al-Ans ā b , 3:103; al- Ṭ abar ī , al-T ā r ī kh , 3:101–4; Ibn al-Ath ī r, al-K ā mil , 3:316–17; Ibn Kath ī r, al-Bid ā yah wa-‘l-Nih ā yah , 7:273–74 65 . See al-Ṭ ubar ī , al-T ā rikh , 3:104, al-Mas’ūdī , al-Mur ū j , 2:403;Ibn al-Jawz ī , al-Muntaẓ am, 5:123; Ibn al-Athī r, al-K ā mil, 3:321; Ibn Kathī r, al-Bid ā yah wa-‘l-Nih ā yah , 7:278, and al-Barr ā d ī , al-Jaw ā hir , 112. 184 Notes

66 . See Ibn Sa’d, al- Ṭ abaq ā t , 3:32; al-Ṭ abar ī , al-T ā r ī kh ,, 3:107; Ibn al-Ath ī r, al-K ā mil , 3:322, and al-Shamm ā kh ī , al-Siyar , 1:48. 67 . See al-Shamm ā kh ī , Shar ḥ ‘aq ī dat al-tawḥ ī d , 50. 68 . See al-Quṭ b, Sharḥ ‘aq ī dat al-tawḥ ī d , 113–14. 69 . Ab ū ‘Amm ā r ‘Abd al-K ā f ī , al-M ū jaz , 213–14. 70 . al-Shammā kh ī , Sharḥ ‘aq ī dat al-tawḥ ī d , 54 71 . Ahmed Ibn Bakr, Masā ’il al-tawḥ ī d, 25. 72 . Ali M’ammar, Nash’at al-Madhhab al-Ib āḍ ī , 94. 73 . Ibn Sall ā m, Bad’ al-isl ā m , 56–59. 74 . al-Darg ī n ī , Ṭ abaq āt , 12a, Ab ū Zakkariy ā, Siyar , 49, al-Shamm ā kh ī , Siyar , 350. 75 . Ahmed Ibn Bakr, Mas ā ’il al-tawḥ ī d , 25. 76 . al-W ā rijl ā n ī, al-Dal ī l , 99. 77 . al-Quṭ b, Sharḥ ‘Aq ī dat al-taw ḥ ī d , 113–115. 78 . Ahmad Ibn Ḥ anbal, al-Musnad, 1:87; al-Ṭ abar ī , al-Mu’jam al-kab ī r , 1:58; al- Ḥ ā kim, al-Mustadrak , 2:152; al-Bayhaq ī , al-Sunan al-Kubr ā , 8:311; Ab ū Na’īm, al- Ḥ ilyah , 1:320; Ibn Sa’d, al- Ṭ abaq ā t , 3:32, al-Bal ā dhir ī , al-Ans ā b , 3:122–29; al-Ya’qū b ī , al-T ā r ī kh , 2:191; al- Ṭ abar ī , al-T ā r ī kh , 3:110–14; Ibn Ghayl ā n, al-Siyar, 1:107; Ibn al-Athir, al-K ā mil , 3:327; al-Qalh ā t ī , al-Kashf , 2:250; Ibn Kath ī r, al-Bid ā yah wa-‘l-Nihā yah , 7:279; al-Barr ā d ī , al-Jawā hir, 119–22; and al-Shamm ā kh ī , al-Siyar , 1:49. 79 . Qur’ān 4:V35. 80 . See al-Ṭ ahar ī , al-T ā r ī kh , 3:109–10; Ab ū Qaḥṭ ā n, al-Siyar , 1:106–8; al-Qalh ā t ī , al-Kashf , 2:244–45; al-Barr ā dī , al-Jaw ā hir , 120–22; al-Shamm ā kh ī , al-Siyar , 1:49, and al-Bal ā dhir ī , al-Ansab , 3:122. 81 . See al- Ṭ abar ī, al-T ā r ī kh , 3:114; al-Bal ā dhir ī , al-Ans ā b , 3:122, al-Ya’q ū b ī , al-T ā r ī kh , 2:191; Ab ū Qa ḥṭ ā n, al-Siyar , 1:107; and al-Shamm ā kh ī , al-Siyar , 1:49. 82 . Qur’ān, 49:9 83 . Qur’ān, 4:35. 84 . Al-Ṭ ahar ī , al-T ā r ī kh , 43:70–80. 85 . Qur’an: al- Ḥ ujur ā t : V9. 86 . al-M ā ’idah : V45. 87 . al-M ā ’idah : V47. 88 . al-M ā ’idah : V44. 89 . al-A’rā f : V52. 90 . al-Baqarah : V143. 91 . Āl ‘Imr ā n : V140–41. 92 . al-Naḥ l : V91. 93 . al-Ḥ ujur ā t : V13. 94 . See ‘Abd al-Raḥ m ān Ibn Khald ū n, al-Muqaḍ imah (Beirut: Dar al-Kitab, 1967), 821. 95 . See Ab ū al-Q ā sim Ibn Ibr ā him al-Barr ā d ī , Kit ā b al-Jaw ā hir (Cairo: al-Hajri- yyah, 1885), 22; and ‘Umar Ibn Yaḥ y ā ’ Ibn Ab ī Si ṭ ah, al-Majma’ al-Mu’awwal (Jerba: al-Baruniyyah, 17th c.), 62. Notes 185

96 . See al-Rab ī ’ Ibn Ḥ ab ī b, al-J ā mi’ al-ṣ a ḥ īḥ , Tradition 769. 97 . See al-Ṭ abar ī , T ā r ī kh al-umam wa-‘l-mul ūk (Cairo: al-Istiq ā mah , 1939), 7:195. 98 . al-J ī t ā li, al-Qaw ā ’id , p.40; al-S ā limi, al-Mashariq , 337–38. 99 . Aflah Ibn Abd al-Wahh ā b, al-Ajwiba , 2–3. 100 . Ibn Ḥ azm, al-Faṣ l , 4:191. 101 . See al-Maq ā l ā t , 189. 102 . See A ḥ mad Ibn H ā nbal, al-Musnad , 1:131. 103 . See ‘Al ī M’ammar, al-Ib āḍ iyyah bayna al-firaq al-islā miyyah (‘Oman: Maktabat al-Damir, 2003) 258–60. 104 . See al-Ash’ar ī , al-Maq ā l ā t , 171. 105 . See M’ammar, al-Ib ā ḍ iyyah, 266. 106 . SeeIbid., 266. 107 . See al-S ālim ī , Tuḥ fat al-a’y ā n , 1:87.

4 Islamic Law and Jurisprudence Reconsidered

1 . Ignaz Goldziher, Die Zâ hiriten: Ihr Lehrsystem und ihre Geschichte (Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der muhammedanischen Theologie, Leipzig 1884), Joseph Schacht, The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1950), Philippe Rancillac, Des origines du droit musulman à la Ris ā la d’al Šā fic ī, Mé langes de l’Institut Dominicain d’Etudes Orientales (1977), David Forte, Studies in Islamic Law: Classical and Contemporary Application (New York: Lanham, 1999), Gautier H. A. Juynboll, Muslim Tradition: Studies in Chronology, Provenance and Authorship of Early Hadī th (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), David S. Powers, Studies in Qur’an and Had ī th: The Formation of the Islamic Law of Inheritance (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986), Noel J. Coulson, A History of Islamic Law (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1964), Fazlur Rahman, Islamic Methodology in History (Karachi: Central Institute of Islamic Research, 1965), Ahmad Hasan, The Early Development of Islamic Jurisprudence (Islamabad: Islamic Research Institute, 1970), Mohammad Mustafa Azami, Studies in Early Had ī th Literature (Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1978), Yasin Dutton, The Origins of Islamic Law: The Qur’an, the Muwatta’ and the Madinan ‘Amal (Richmond: Curzon, 1999), Abdulaziz Sachedina, The Ideal and Real in Islamic Law , in R. S. Khare (ed.), Perspectives on Islamic Law, Justice, and Society (New York: Lanham, 1999), and Miklos Muranyi, Fiqh , in H. G ä tje (ed.), G rundri ß der Arabischen Philologie , vol. 2, Wiesbaden (1987). 2 . The synergy between political and religious authority and the conflict that it created are well documented in Arabic and English sources. For an idea about the role of the caliphs in defining orthodoxy and heresy, see, Ann K. S. Lambton, State and Government in Medieval Islam (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981), 41. 3 . Lamin al-Naji, al-Qad ī m wa-‘l-jad ī d f ī fiqh al-shafi’ī (Cairo: Dar Ibn ‘Affan, 2007), 1:48, 2:36–7. 186 Notes

4 . The style and content of the book al-Ris ā lah, whose authorship is attributed to al-Shafi’i, for instance, appears to be a very early attempt at establishing himself apart from his predecessors. The author presents one legal case after another while tagging them to the specific legal proof from the Qur’an and/ or Hadith; then he highlights the difference of opinion about the final rul- ing, and then concludes by highlighting his dissent. His other major work, al-Umm , on the other hand, did not include dissenting opinions at all. See Muhammad Ibn Idr ī s al-Sh ā fi’ī, al-Umm (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al_’Ilmiyyah, 1993) and Muhammad Ibn Idr ī s al-Shafi’ī, al-Ris ā lah (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al_’Ilmiyyah, NY). 5 . Lamin al-Naji, al-Qad ī m wa-‘l-jad ī d f ī fiqh al-shafi’ī (Cairo: Dar Ibn ‘Affan, 2007), 1:51. 6 . Ibid., 1:54–55. 7 . See, for example, Yahya Hashim Hassan Farghal, al-Firaq al-Isl ā miyyah fī al-m ī z ā n (Cairo: Dar al-Afaq al-Arabiyyah, 2007), Muhammad Hassan Bakhit, al-Firaq al-qad ī mah wa-l-mu’āṣirah (Cairo: Maktabat Afaq li-l-tiba’ah wa-l-nashr wa-l-tawzi’, 2006), Salah Abū al-Su’ud, al-Marja’ al-k ā mil f ī al- firaq wa-l-jam ā’ā t wa-l-madh ā hib al-isl ā miyyah (Cairo: Maktabat al-nafidhah, 2005), and Muhammad Ibn Abdul Karim al-Shahristani, Muslim Sects and Divisions (London: Kegan Paul International, 1983). 8 . See, for example, As’ad Ibn Muhammad Ibn al-Hasan al-Naysaburi al-Kara- bisi, al-Furuq (Cairo: Dar al-Salam, 2012). 9 . Since al-Mudawwanah is the earliest Ibā ḍī source of law and practices, numer- ous authoritative commentaries were written by later scholars, the last of which is authored by the contemporary North African scholar Muhammad Ibn Y ū suf I ṭ fayyish (also known as al-Quṭ b). 10 . See Ibn Barkah, Ab ū Mu ḥ ammad ‘Abdull ā h Ibn Mu ḥ ammad. Kit ā b al-j ā mi’ (Oman: Wizarat al-Turath, 1971), 22–23. 11 . See Ibid., 24–25. 12 . Abdullah Ibn Hamid l-Salimi, Tal’at al-shams (Oman: Wizarat al-Turath al- Qawmi, 1985), 1:26. 13 . Ibid., 2:129, 135, 137, and 145. 14 . See al-Mudawwanah , 419. 15 . See ibid., 449. 16 . I resisted making the distinction by appropriating the US categories (murder v. manslaughter) to stay as close as possible to the Arabic wording. 17 . See al-Mudawwanah , 458. 18 . See ibid., 458–460. 19 . It is assumed that the reader is familiar with Sunni and Shi’ite law and jurisprudence. Many works, including this author’s, have examined Sunni and Shi’ite literature and such works can be consulted for comparison purposes. 20 . See al-Mudawwanah , 463. 21 . See ibid., 464. 22 . See ibid., 464–65. 23 . See ibid., 500. Notes 187

24 . See ibid., 506. 25 . See ibid., 515. 26 . See ibid., 527. 27 . See ibid., 272. 28 . See ibid., 287. 29 . See ibid., 369–71. 30 . See ibid., 373. 31 . The handwritten manuscript is catalogued under the call number 19831 B, dated 1246 AH and housed in D ā r al-Kutub al-’Arabiyyah (Cairo) and digital copies are available through a number of other Ib āḍ ī libraries. 32 . See Kit ā b al-J ā mi’ , 50–51. 33 . See ibid., 56–57. 34 . See ibid., 2:482–503 . 35 . See ibid., 2:483. 36 . See ibid., 2:483. 37 . See ibid., 2:484. 38 . See ibid., 2:484. 39 . See ibid., 2:484. 40 . See ibid., 484–85. 41 . al-Tawbah : V123. 42 . al-N ū r : V61. 43 . al-Anf ā l : V60. 44 . al-Anf ā l : V16. 45 . al-Baqarah : V195. 46 . al-Nis ā : V29. 47 . See Kit ā b al-J ā mi ’, 487–490. 48 . See ibid., 493–94. 49 . See ibid., 2:508. 50 . See ibid., 2:470. 51 . See ibid., 1:14. 52 . See ibid., 1:16. 53 . Abdullah Ibn Hamid al-Salimi, Sharh al-j ā mi’ al-sahih (Oman: Maktabat al- Imam Nur al-Din al-Salimi, 2004), waw .

5 Statelessness and Leaderlessness

1 . Tradition 375 in al-J ā mi` al-sahih . 2 . Tradition 383 in al-J ā mi` al-sahih . 3 . I am aware that one’s observation can only be one possible interpretation out of many. For this reason, for this study, I have recorded some of the events and I will make the recorded documents available so that other interested researchers, especially those from different disciplines, may examine them and provide their own interpretation. 4 . Not being familiar with this protocol, I ended up drinking more coffee than I was inclined or wanted to drink because I kept saying thank you or placing my left hand on top of the cup, none of which worked as efficiently as the 188 Notes

gentle twist of the cup right and left, which I learned to do at a very late stage of my stay in Oman. 5 . After the ouster of Ben Ali, Ghannouchi returned to Tunisia and guided the movement as it contested the elections. The result of these elections and the transformation brought about by the so-called Arab Spring are dealt with in another work. 6 . The leadership and well as the rank and file of Q ā `idah contained many of the former members of the Muslim Brethren. In fact, Ayman al-Zawahiri, who is considered as the second-in-command of the Q ā `idah, is a former member of al-Jamā `ah al-Islā miyyah, which was founded in Egypt. Many scholars who study the Islamic movements think that al-Jam ā `ah al-Isl ā miyyah was cre- ated as a direct response to the Muslim Brethren strategy, which was seen as flawed. 7 . The rulers of the early Islamic community first attempted to persuade, then, categorize dissenters. Finally, they waged a war of annihilation against them. In modern times, some Muslim governments categorize dissenters as being outside the mainstream, then, they jail their leaders. If support for the movement persists, then, the rulers will use the religious institutions and the judicial branch of government to execute the symbols of the movement. In Tunisia, for instance, Bourguiba applied all these steps to eradicate the Islamic Trend Movement. When the courts issued a prison sentence against al-Ghan- nouchi instead of the death penalty, Bourguiba wanted him and his colleagues retried. Consequently, Bourguiba was overthrown by his prime minister to prevent an uprising.

6 Conclusions

1 . Wael Hallah, for instance, contends that the doors of ijtih ā d never closed. 2 . See Kit ā b al-J ā mi `, 1:623. 3 . Shi`i new position, in theory and practice, converged to this new default position due to the doctrine of Occultation and to the theoretical revision introduced by Imam Khomeini, namely Wil ā yat al-faq ī h (the regency of the jurist).

Bibliography

Primary Works

‘Abb ā s, Iḥ s ā n. D ī wā n shi’r al-khaw ā rij. Cairo: Dar al-Kitab, 1982. a-Bayy ā s ī , Y ū suf Ibn Mu ḥammad Ibn Mu ḥ ammad Ibn Ibr ā h ī m al-An ṣ ā r ī . al-I’l ā m bi-‘l- ḥ ur ū b al-w ā qi’ah f ī ṣ adr al-isl ā m. Amman: Dar al-Kitab, 1987. Ab ū ‘Amm ā r, ‘Abd al-K āf ī . al-M ū jaz. Algiers: al-Sharikah al-Wataniyyah li-‘l-Nashr wa-‘l-Tawzi’, 1987. Ab ū ‘Ubaydah, al-Q ā s ī Ibn Sallā m al-Harw ī . al-Amw ā l . Beirut: Mu’assasat Nasir, 1981. Ab ū al-‘Arab, Muḥ ammad Ibn A ḥ mad Ibn Tam ī m al-Tam ī mī . Kit ā b al-mi ḥ an. Beirut: Dar al-Gharb al-Islam ī , 1983. Ab ū Gh ā nim, al-Khur ās ā n ī . al-Mudawwanah . Oman: al-Jil al-W ā ed, 2006. Ab ū Na’īm, Aḥ mad Ibn ‘Abdull āh al-Aṣ fah ā n ī . Hilyat al-awliy ā ’ wa-ṭ abaq ā t al-aṣ fiy ā ’ . Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyyah, 1988. Ab ū Zakkariy ā , Ya ḥ y ā Ibn Ab ī Bakr. Kit āb al-siyar wa-akhbar al-ayimmah . Tunis: al-Dar al-Tunusiyyah li-‘l-Nashr, 1985. al-‘Ijl ī , A ḥ mad Ibn ‘Abdull ā h Ibn Ṣ ā li ḥ . Ma’rifat al-thiq ā t . ¿??? al-Alb ān ī , Mu ḥ ammad N ā ṣ ir al-D ī n. Irw ā ’ al-ghal ī l f ī takhr ī j a ḥ ā dith man ā r al-sab ī l . Beirut: al-Maktab al-Islami, 1985. al-Amin, Sharif. Mu’jam al-firaq al-isl ā miyyah. Beirut: Dar al-Adwa’, 1986. al-A ṣ fah ān ī , Ab ū Na’īm. Ḥ ilyat al-awliy ā ’ wa-ṭ abaq āt al-aṣ fiy ā ’. Beirut: Dar al-Kitab al-Arabi, 1985. al-Ash’ar ī , Ab ū al- Ḥ assan ‘Al ī Ibn Ism ā’ī l. Kit ā b al-luma’ f ī al-ra ḍ ‘al ā ahl al-bida’ . Cairo: al-Maktabah al-Azhariyyah li-l-Turath, 1993. ———. Maq ā l ā t al-isl ā miyy ī n . Beirut: al-Maktabah al-‘Asriyyah, 1990. al-Baghd ā d ī , ‘Abd al-Q ā hir Ibn Ṭ ā hir Ibn Muḥ ammad. al-Farq bayna al-firaq. Beirut: al-Maktabah al-‘Asriyyah, 1990. al-Bal ā dhir ī , Aḥ mad Ibn Yaḥ y ā ’ Ibn J ā bir. Ans ā b al-ashr ā f. Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, 1996. al-Barr ā d ī , Ab ū al-Qā sim Ibn Ibr ā h ī m. al-Jaw ā hir al-muntaq ā t f ī itmā m m ā akhalla min kit ā b al-ṭ abaq ā t. Cairo: Tab’ah al-Ḥ ajriyyah, 1884. ———. Ris ā lah f ī taqy ī d kutub aṣḥ ā bin ā . Cairo: Dar al-Fadilah, 1984. al-Dhahb ī , Shams al-D ī n. al-‘Ibar f ī khabar man ghabar. Beirut: Dar al-kutub al- ‘Ilmiyyah, 1985. ———. T ā r ī kh al-isl ā m . Beirut: Dar al-Kitab, 1999. 190 Bibliography

al-Fayyash, Muḥ ammad Ibn Y ū suf. Haym ā n al-z ā d il ā d ā r al-mi’ād. Oman: Wizarat al-Turath, ‘1980. ———. Tays ī r al-tafs ī r . Oman: Wizarat al-Turath al-Qawmi wa-‘l-Thaqafah, 1981. al-Ghur ā b ī , ‘Al ī Muṣṭ af ā . T ā r ī kh al-firaq al-isl ā miyyah wa-nash’at ‘ilm al-kal ā m ‘inda al-muslim ī n. Cairo: Matba’at al-Anglu al-Masriyyah, 1985. al-Ḥ ajr ī , ‘Al ī Ibn Muḥ ammad. al-Ib ā ḍiyyah wa-manhajiyyat al-ba ḥ th ‘inda al-mu’arrikh ī n wa-aṣḥ ā b al-maq ā l ā t . Oman: Matabi’ al-Nahdah, 2000. al- Ḥ ar ī r ī , Muḥ ammad ‘Īs ā . al-Dawlah al-rustumiyyah bi-‘l-maghrib. Egypt: Dar al- Qalam, 1987. al-Khaṭ ī b, A ḥ mad Ibn ‘Al ī Ibn Th ā bit. T ā r ī kh baghd ā d. Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, 1987. al-Kind ī , Ab ū Bakr Aḥ mad Ibn ‘Abdull ā h Ibn Mū s ā . al-Jawhar al-muqtasar . Oman: Wizarat al-Turath, 1985. ——— . al-Mu ṣ annaf . Oman: Wizarat al-Turath, 1984. al-Mas’ūd ī , ‘Al ī Ibn al-Ḥ ussayn Ibn ‘Al ī . Mur ūj al-dhahab. Beirut: al-Maktabah al- ‘Asriyyah, 1988. al-Munqir ī , Naṣ r Ibn Muz āḥ im. Waq’at ṣ iff ī n. Beirut: Dar al-Jil, 1990. al-Qalh ā t ī , Muḥ ammad Ibn Sa’īd al-Azdī . al-Kashf wa-‘l- bay ā n. Oman: Wizarat al- Turath, 1980. al-Qarn ī , ‘Abdullā h Ibn Muḥ ammad. Ḍ aw ā bit al-takf ī r ‘inda ahl al-sunah wa-‘l- jam ā ’ah. Beirut: Mu’assasat al-Ris ā lah, 1992. al-Rab ī ’, Ibn Ḥ ab ī b. al-J ā mi’ al-ṣ a ḥ ī h . Beirut: Dar al-Fatḥ , 1995. al-Sa’d ī , Jam ī l Ibn Khamī s. Q ā m ū s al-shar ī ’ah . Oman: Wizarat al-Turath, 1983. al-S ā lim ī , Mu ḥ ammad Ibn ‘Abdull ā h. Sharḥ al-j ā m ī ’ al-ṣ a ḥ īḥ . Oman: Maktabat al-Istiq ā mah, 1996. al-S ā lim ī , ‘Abdull ā h Ibn Ham ī d. Jawhar al-ni ẓ ā m. Oman: al-Matba’ah al-Dhahabiyyah, 1993. al-Ṣ an’ān ī , ‘Abd al-Razzaq Ibn Hum ā m. al-Muṣ annaf. Beirut: al-Maktab al-Islami, 1983. al-Shahrast ā n ī , Ab ū al-Fat ḥ Mu ḥ ammad Ibn ‘Abd al-Kar ī m. al-Milal wa-‘l-niḥ al . Beirut: Dar Sa’b, 1986. al-Shamm ā kh ī , Ab ū al-‘Abb ā s Aḥ mad Ibn Sa’īd. Kit ā b al- ī ḍ ā ḥ . Oman: Dar al-Fath, 1981. ———. Um ā n: Wizarat al-Turath, 1992. ———. Muqaḍ imat al-tawḥ ī d . Oman: Wizarat al-Turath, 1992. al- Ṭ abar ā n ī , Sulaym ā n Ibn Aḥ mad. Musnad al-sh ā miyy ī n. Beirut: Mu’assasat al-Ris ā lah, 1989. al-Ṭ abar ī, Ab ū Ja’far Mu ḥ ammad Ibn Jar ī r. Tafs ī r j ā mi’ al-bay ā n. Beirut: Dar al-Kutub, 1992. ———. T ā r ī kh al-umam wa-‘l-mulū k. Beirut: Dar al-Kutub, 1988. al-Jā ḥ iẓ , ‘Amr Ibn Baḥ r. al-bay ā n wa’-‘l-taby ī n . Beirut: Dar al-Jil, 1991. al-Ṭ ayyalis ī, Sulaymā n Ibn D ā w ūd Ibn al-J ā r ū d. al-Musnad. Beirut: Dar al-Ma’rifah, 1993. al-Ṭ ū s ī , Muḥ ammad Ibn al- Ḥ assan. Tahdh ī b al-aḥ k ā m. Beirut: Dar Sa’b, 1981. al-Ya’q ū b ī , Aḥ mad Ibn Ab ī Ya’q ūb Ibn Ja’far Ibn Wahb Ibn W ā ḍ ih. al-T ā r ī kh . Beirut: Dar sadir, 1992. al-Y ū sf ī , al-Ḥ assan Ibn Mas’ūd. Ras ā ’il al-Y ū sf ī . al-Dar al-Bayda: Dar al-Thaqafah, 1981. Bibliography 191

Ibn ‘Abd Rabbuh, Aḥ mad Ibn Muḥ ammad. al-‘Iqd al-far ī d. Beirut: Dar al-Hilal, 1990. Ibn ‘Abd al-Barr, Y ū suf. al-Isti’āb f ī ma’rifat al-aṣḥ ā b . Beirut: Dar al-Jil, 1992. Ibn ‘Adiyy, ‘Abdullā h al-Jarj ā n ī . al-K ā mil f ī du’af ā ’ al-rij ā l. Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, 1988. Ibn ‘Āsh ū r, al- Ṭ ā hir. al-Taḥ r ī r wa-‘l-tanw ī r . Tunis: al-Dar al-Tunusiyyah li-‘l-Nashr, 1984. Ibn A’tham, Aḥ mad al-K ū f ī . Kit ā b al-fut ūḥ . Beirut: Dar al-Adwa’, 1991. Ibn Ab ī ‘Āṣim, ‘Amr al-Shayb ā nī . al- Ā ḥ ā d wa-‘l-math ā n ī. Riad: Dar al-Riwayah, 1991. Ibn Ab ī al-Ḥ ad ī d, ‘Abd al-Ḥ am īd Ibn Hibatu-All ā h. Sharḥ nahj al-bal ā ghah. Beirut: Dar al-Jil, 1987. Ibn Ab ī al- Ḥ ad ī d, ‘Izz al-D ī n . Shar ḥ nahj al-bal ā ghah. Beirut: Dar I ḥ y ā al-Tur ā th al-‘Arab ī , 1965. Ibn Ab ī Ḥ ā tim, ‘Abd al-Raḥ m ān al-R ā z ī . Kit ā b al-jarḥ wa-‘l-ta’d ī l. Beirut: Dar Ihya’ al-Turath al-‘Arabi, 1952. Ibn al-Ath ī r, ‘Al ī. al-K ā mil . Beirut: Dar Sadir, 1989. ———, ‘Ali. Asad al-gh ā bah f ī ma’rifat al-ṣ aḥ ā bah. Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, 1989. Ibn al-Jawz ī , ‘Abd al-Ra ḥ m ā n Ibn ‘Al ī Ibn Mu ḥ ammad. Kit ā b al- ḍ u’af ā ’ wa-‘l-matr ū k ī n . Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyyah, 1986. Ibn al-Jawz ī , ‘Abd al-Raḥ m ān. al-Munta ẓ am f ī t ā r ī kh al-umam wa-‘l-mul ū k. Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyyah, 1992. Ibn al-Mundhir, Muḥ ammad Ibn Ibr ā h ī m. al-Iqn ā ’ . Cairo: Dar al-Ḥ ad ī th, 1994. Ibn Barkah, Ab ū Muḥ ammad ‘Abdull ā h Ibn Mu ḥ ammad. Kit ā b al-j ā mi’ . Oman: Wizarat al-Turath, 1971. Ibn F ā ris, Ab ū al-Ḥ assan A ḥ mad. Mu’jam maq ā y ī s al-lughah. Beirut: Dar al-Jil, 1991. Ibn Ḥ ajr, Ahmad Ibn ‘Al ī al-‘Asqal ān ī . al-Iṣ ā bah f ī tamy ī z al-ṣ aḥ ā bah. Beirut: Dar al-Jil, 1992. ———. Tahdh ī b al-tahdh ī b . Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyyah, 1994. ———. Taqr ī b al-tahdh ī b . Cairo: Dar al-Salam, 1992. Ibn Ḥ ajr, Ahmad Ibn ‘Al ī . al-Dir ā yah f ī takhr ī j a ḥ ā d ī th al-hid ā yah. Beirut: Dar al- Ma’rifah, 1989. Ibn Ḥ ajr, al-‘Asqal ā n ī al-Ḥ ā fi ẓ Aḥ mad Ibn ‘Al ī . Fat ḥ al-b ā ri’. Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, 1993. Ibn Ḥ azm, Ab ū Mu ḥ ammad ‘Al ī Ibn A ḥ mad al-Ẓ ā hir ī . al-Fa ṣ l f ī al-milal wa-‘l-ahw ā ’ wa-‘l-niḥ al. Beirut: Dar al-Jil, 1992. Ibn Ḥ azm, Ab ū Mu ḥ ammad ‘Al ī Ibn A ḥ mad al- Ẓ ā hir ī . al-Muḥ all ā . Beirut: Dar al-Jil, 1980. ———. Jamharat ans ā b al-‘arab. Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyyah, 1983. Ibn Ḥ ibb ā n, Muḥ ammad. Mash ā h ī r ‘ulam ā ’ al-amṣ ā r . Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al- ‘Ilmiyyah, 1959. Ibn Hish ā m, Ab ū Mu ḥ ammad ‘Abd al-M ā lik. al-S ī rah al-nabawiyyah . Beirut: Dar al-Jil, 1991. Ibn Ja’far, Ab ū Jā bir Muḥ ammad al-Azkaw ī. Kit ā b al-j ā mi’ . Oman: Wizarat al-Turath, 1973. Ibn Kath ī r, Ism ā’ī l. al-Bid ā yah wa-‘l-nih ā yah. Beirut: Maktabat al-Ma’arif, 1990. ———. Tafs ī r al-qur’ān al-‘az ī m. Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, 2000. 192 Bibliography

Ibn Khald ū n, ‘Abd al-Raḥ m ā n. al-Muqaddimah . Beirut: Mu’assat al-A’lami, 1974. Ibn Khayy ā ḍ , Khal ī fah. al-T ā r ī kh . Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyyah, 1995. Ibn Ma’īn, Ya ḥ y ā ’. al-T ā r ī kh . Mecca: Jami’at al-Malik ‘Abd al-Aziz, 1979. Ibn Man ẓ ū r, Ab ū al-Faḍ l Jam ā l al-D ī n. Lis ā n al-‘arab . Beirut: Dar Sadir, 1990. Ibn Qutaybah, ‘Abdull ā h Ibn Muslim. al-Im ā mah wa-‘l-siy ā sah. Beirut: Dar al- Ma’rifah, 1992. Ibn Sa’d, Mu ḥ ammad. al- Ṭ abaq ā t al-kubr ā . Beirut: Dar Sadir, 1986.

Secondary Works (Islamic Studies)

Abbas, Shemeem Burney. The Female Voice in Sufi Ritual: Devotional Practices of Pakistan and India . Austin: University of Texas Press, 2003. Abbott, Nabia. Aishah: The Beloved of Mohammad . London: Al-Saqi, 1998. Abdel-Kader, Ali Hassan. The Life, Personality and Writings of al-Junayd: A Study of a Third/Ninth Century Mystic with an Edition and Translation of His Writings . London: Luzac & Co., 1976. Abdo, Geneive. No God but God: Egypt and the Triumph of Islam . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. Abed, Shukri. Aristotelian Logic and the Arabic Language in Alfarabi . Albany: State University of New York Press, 1991. Abou El Fadl, Khaled. Rebellion and Violence in Islamic Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. Abrahamian, Ervand. Khomeinism: Essays on the Islamic Republic. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993. Abrahamov, Binyamin. Islamic Theology: Traditionalism and Rationalism . Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1998. Abu-Lughod, Ibrahim. The Transformation of Palestine: Essays on the Origin and Development of the Arab-Israeli Conflict. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 2nd ed., 1987. Abu-Lughod, Lila. Remaking Women: Feminism and Modernity in the Middle East . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998. Abun-Nasr, Jamil M. The Tijaniyya: A Sufi Order in the Modern World . London: Oxford University Press, 1965. Addas, Claude. Quest for the Red Sulphur: The Life of Ibn ‘Arabi . Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society, 1993. Affifi, Abu al-A‘la. The Mystical Philosophy of Muhyid’Din Ibnul-‘Arabi . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1936. Afsaruddin, Asma. Excellence and Precedence: Medieval Islamic Discourse on Legitimate Leadership . Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2002. ———, ed. Hermeneutics and Honor: Negotiating Female “Public” Space in Islamic/ate Societies . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000. Ahmad, Barakat. Muhammad and the Jews: A Re-examination . Delhi: Vikas, 1979. Ahmed, Akbar. Discovering Islam: Making Sense of Muslim History and Society . New York: Routledge, revised ed., 2002. ———. Islam Today: A Short Introduction to the Muslim World. London: I. B. Tauris, 1999. Bibliography 193

Ahmed, Leila. Women and Gender in Islam: Historical Roots of a Modern Debate . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1993. Al-Azmeh, Aziz. Arabic Thought and Islamic Societies. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986. Algar, Hamid. The Islamic Revolution in Iran . London: Open Press, 1980. Allen, Roger. The Arabic Literary Heritage: The Development of Its Genres and Criticism . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998. al-Rasheed, Madawi. A History of Saudi Arabia . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. Al-Tabari (trans.). The History of al-Tabari, 40 Vols . Albany: State University of New York Press, 1987–1999. Andrae, Tor. Mohammed: The Man and His Faith. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1936. An-Na’im, Abdullahi Ahmed. Toward an Islamic Reformation: Civil Liberties, Human Rights, and International Law . Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1996. Arberry, Arthur John. Aspects of Islamic Civilization . London: Allen & Unwin, 1964. ———. Discourses of Rumi . London: John Murray, 1961. ———. Mystical Poems of Rumi . Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1979. ———. A Sufi Martyr: The Apologia of ‘Ain al-Qudat al-Hamadhani. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1969. Arjomand, Said Amir, ed. Authority and Political Culture in Shi‘ism . Albany: State University of New York Press, 1988. ———. The Shadow of God and the Hidden Imam. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1984. ———. The Turban for the Crown: The Islamic Revolution in Iran. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988. Armstrong, Karen. Muhammad: A Biography of the Prophet . San Francisco, CA: HarperSanFrancisco, 1993. Asad, Mohammad. The Road to Mecca . Louisville, KY: Fons Vitae, 2001. Asad, Muhammad. Principles of State and Government in Islam. London: Islamic Book Trust, 1980. ———. The Message of the Qur’an . Gibraltar: Dar al-Andalus, 1980. Asad, Talal. Formations of the Secular: Christianity, Islam, Modernity. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2003. ———. Genealogies of Religion: Discipline and Reasons of Power in Christianity and Islam . Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993. Asani, Ali, et al. Celebrating Muhammad: Images of the Prophet in Popular Muslim Poetry . Columbia, Austin: University of Texas Press, 2002. Averroes (Erwin Rosenthal, ed.). Commentary on Plato’s ‘Republic’ . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1956. Averroes (George F. Hourani, trans.). Averroes: On the Harmony of Religion and Philosophy . London: Luzac & Co., 1961. Averroes (Ibrahim Najjar, trans.). Faith and Reason in Islam: Averroes’ Exposition of Religious Arguments . Oxford: Oneworld, 2001. Awde, Nicholas, ed. Women in Islam: An Anthology from the Qur’an and Hadiths . New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000. 194 Bibliography

Ayoub, Mahmoud. The Qur’an and Its Interpreters. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1984. ———. Redemptive Suffering in Islam . The Hague: Mouton, 1978. Ayoub, Mohammed. The Politics of Islamic Reassertion . London: Croom Helm, 1981. Badran, Margot. Feminists, Islam, and Nation: Gender and the Making of Modern Egypt . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994. Bakar, Osman. The History and Philosophy of Islamic Science . Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society, 1999. Baljon, Jon M. S. Modern Muslim Koran Interpretation (1880–1960) . Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1961. Barlas, Asma. “Believing Women” in Islam: Unreading Patriarchal Interpretations of the Qur’an . Austin: University of Texas Press, 2002. Barnes, John Robert. An Introduction to Religious Foundations in the Ottoman Empire . Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1986. Bashir, Shahzad. Messianic Hopes and Mystical Visions: The Nurbakhshiya between Medieval and Modern Islam. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2003. Bates, Michael and Elizabeth Savage. Dinars and Dirhams, Coins of the Islamic Lands: The Early Period . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003. Bell, Joseph N. Love Theory in Later Hanbalite Islam . Albany: State University of New York Press, 1978. Bell, Richard. Introduction to the Qur’an. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1963. ———. The Qur’an Translated . Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1960. Bennigsen, Alexandre, et al. Mystics and Commissars: Sufism in the Soviet Union . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986. Berkey, Jonathan P. The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East, 600–1800 . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. ———. Popular Preaching and Religious Authority in the Medieval Islamic Near East . Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2001. Bill, James A. The Eagle and the Lion: The Tragedy of American-Iranian Relations . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1988. Binder, Leonard, ed. Ethnic Conflict and International Politics in the Middle East . Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1999. Black, Antony. The History of Islamic Political Thought: From the Prophet to the Present . New York: Routledge, 2001. Blichfeldt, Jan-Olaf. Early Mahdism: Politics and Religion in the Formative Period of Islam . Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1985. Bloom, Jonathan and Sheila Blair. Islam: A Thousand Years of Faith and Power . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2002. Bosworth, Clifford E. The Arabs, Byzantium and Iran: Studies in Early Islamic History and Culture . Aldershot: Variorum/Ashgate, 1996. ———. The Islamic Dynasties . Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1967. Bowker, John. What Muslims Believe . Oxford: Oneworld, 1999. Bozdogan, Sibel and Resat Kasaba, eds. Rethinking Modernity and National Identity in Turkey . Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1997. Bibliography 195

Brann, Ross. Power in the Portrayal: Representations of Jews and Muslims in Eleventh- and Twelfth Century Islamic Spain . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002. Brockopp, Jonathan E. Early Maliki Law: Ibn ‘Abd al-Hakam and His Major Compendium Jurisprudence . Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2000. Brown, Daniel. Rethinking Tradition in Modern Islamic Thought . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Browne, Edward G. The Persian Revolution of 1905–1909. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1910. Brunner, Ranier and Werner Ende, eds. The Twelver Shia in Modern Times: Religious Culture and Political History . Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2001. Buehler, Arthur F. Sufi Heirs of the Prophet: The Indian Naqshbandiyya and the Rise of the Mediating Sufi Shaykh . Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1998. Burgat, Franç ois and William Dowell. The Islamic Movement in North Africa . Austin: Center for Middle Eastern Studies, University of Texas, 1997. Burke, Edmund and Ira M. Lapidus, eds. Islam, Politics, and Social Movements . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988. Burrell, David B. Freedom and Creation in Three Traditions. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1993. ———. Knowing the Unknowable God: Ibn-Sina, Maimonides, Aquinas. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1986. Burton, John. The Collection of the Quran. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977. ———. An Introduction to the Hadith . Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1994. ———. The Sources of Islamic Law: Islamic Theories of Abrogation . Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1990. Burton, Richard. Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to El Medinah and Meccah . New York: G. P. Putnam and Co., 1853. Butterworth, Charles E., ed. The Political Aspects of Islamic Philosophy: Essays in Honor of Muhsin Mahdi . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992. ———. Alfarabi—The Political Writings: “Selected Aphorisms” and Other Texts . Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2001. Butterworth, Charles E. and I. William Zartman, eds. Between the State and Islam . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. Calder, Norman. Studies in Early Muslim Jurisprudence. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993. Cardini, Franco. Europe and Islam . Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001. Chamberlain, Michael. Knowledge and Social Practice in Medieval Damascus, 1190– 1350 . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. Charrad, Mounira M. States and Women’s Rights: The Making of Postcolonial Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco . Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001. Chelkowski, Peter J. Ta‘ziyah: Ritual and Drama in Iran. Washington Square: New York University Press, 1979. Chelkowski, Peter and Hamid Dabashi. Staging a Revolution: The Art of Persuasion in the Islamic Republic of Iran. Washington Square: New York University Press, 1999. 196 Bibliography

Chew, Samuel C. The Crescent and the Rose: Islam and England during the Renaissance . New York: Oxford University Press, 1937. Chittick, William C. The Heart of Islamic Philosophy: The Quest for Self-Knowledge in the Teachings of Afdal al-Din Kashani. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2001. ———. Imaginal Worlds: Ibn al-‘Arabi and the Problem of Religious Diversity . Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995. ———. The Self-Disclosure of God: Principles of Ibn al-‘Arabi’s Cosmology . Albany: State University of New York Press, 1997. Chomsky, Noam. The Fateful Triangle: The United States, Israel and the Palestinians . Boston, MA: South End Press, 2nd ed., 1999. ———. Middle East Illusions . Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2003. Christelow, Alan. Muslim Law Courts and the French Colonial State in Algeria . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985. Clancy-Smith, Julia A. Rebel and Saint: Muslim Notables, Populist Protest, Colonial Encounters (Algeria and Tunisia, 1800–1904). Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994. Cole, Juan R. I. Sacred Space and Holy War: The Politics, Culture and History of Shi‘ite Islam . London: I. B. Tauris, 2002. Cole, Juan R. I. and Nikki R. Keddie. Shi‘ism and Social Protest . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1986. Commins, David Dean. Islamic Reform: Politics and Social Change in Late Ottoman Syria . New York: Oxford University Press, 1990. Conrad, Lawrence I. History of Historiography in Early Islamic Times: Studies and Perspectives . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003. ———. Reflections on Islamic History and Civilization: The Complete Collected Essays of Sir Hamilton Gibb . Princeton, NJ: Darwin Press, 2004. Cook, Michael. Early Muslim Dogma. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981. ———. The Koran: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. ———. Muhammad . New York: Oxford University Press, 1983. Corbin, Henry (Joseph H. Rowe). The Voyage and the Messenger: Iran and Philosophy . Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books, 1998. Corbin, Henry (W. R. Trask). Avicenna and the Visionary Recital . New York: Pantheon Books, 1960. ———. Creative Imagination in the Sufism of Ibn ‘Arabi. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998. ———. Cyclical Time and Ismaili Gnosis . London: The Institute of Ismaili Studies Ltd/Kegan Paul Int’l. with Islamic Publications, 1985. ———. Spiritual Body and Celestial Earth: From Mazdean Iran to Shi‘ite Iran . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1977. ———. Temple and Contemplation (Islamic Texts and Contexts) . New York: Columbia University Press, 1986. Cornell, Vincent J. Realm of the Saint: Power and Authority in Moroccan Sufism . Austin: University of Texas Press, 1998. Bibliography 197

Cornell, Vincent J. The Way of Abu Madyan. Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society, 1996. Cotran, Eugene and Adel Omar Sherif. Democracy, the Rule of Law and Islam . London: Kluwer Law International, 1999. Coulson, Noel J. Conflicts and Tensions in Islamic Jurisprudence . Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1969. ———. A History of Islamic Law . Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1964. ———. Succession in the Muslim Family . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971. Cragg, Kenneth. The Call of the Minaret . New York: Oxford University Press, 1956. ———. The Event of the Quran: Islam in Its Scripture . London: George Allen & Unwin, 1971. ———. The Mind of the Quran: Chapters in Reflection. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1973. ———. The Wisdom of the Sufis . New York: W. W. Norton, 1976. Craig, William L. The Kalam Cosmological Argument . New York: Harper and Row, 1979. Crone, Patricia. Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987. ———. Roman, Provincial and Islamic Law: The Origins of the Islamic Patronate . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2002. ———. Slaves on Horses: The Evolution of the Islamic Polity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980. Crone, Patricia and Martin Hinds. God’s Caliph: Religious Authority in the First Centuries of Islam . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. Crone, Patricia and Michael Cook. Hagarism: The Making of the Islamic World . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977. Curtis, Edward E., IV. Islam in Black America: Identity, Liberation, and Difference in African-American Islamic Thought . Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002. Curtis, Michael. Religion and Politics in the Middle East. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1981. Dabashi, Hamid. Authority in Islam: From the Rise of Muhammad to the Establishment of the Umayyads . New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publ., 1989. Daftary, Farhad. The Assassin Legends: Myth of the Isma‘ilis. London: I. B. Tauris, 1994. ———. The Isma‘ilis: Their History and Doctrines . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. ———. Mediaeval Isma‘ili History and Thought . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Daiber, Hans. Bibliography of Islamic Philosophy : Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1999. Daniel, Norman. Islam and the West: The Making of an Image . Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1958. ———. Islam and the West: The Making of an Image . Oxford: Oneworld, 2000. Dannin, Robert. Black Pilgrimage to Islam. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002. 198 Bibliography

Denny, Frederick Mathewson. An Introduction to Islam. New York: Macmillan, 1994. Donaldson, William J. and Mashary Abdullā h Naim. Sharecropping in the Yemen: A Study in Islamic Theory, Custom and Pragmatism . Leiden: Brill Academic Publ., 2000. Dunn, Ross E. The Adventures of Ibn Battuta: A Muslim Traveler of the Fourteenth Century . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990. Dutton, Yasin. The Origins of Islamic Law: The Qur’an, the Muwatta’ and Medinan ‘Amal . Richmond, Surrey: Curzon, 1999. Eaton, Richard Maxwell. Essays on Islam and Indian History . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001. Echevarria, Ana. The Fortress of Faith: The Attitude toward Muslims in Fifteenth Century Spain . Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1999. Ehrenkreutz, Andrew S. Monetary Change and Economic History in the Medieval Islamic World . Aldershot: Ashgate/Variorum, 1992. Eickelman, Dale. Knowledge and Power in Morocco: The Education of a Twentieth Century Notable . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985. ———. Moroccan Islam . Austin: University of Texas Press, 1976. El-Ghonemy, M. Riad. Affluence and Poverty in the Middle East. London: Routledge, 1998. El-Hibri, Tayeb. Reinterpreting Islamic Historiography: Harun al-Rashid and the Narrative of the ‘Abbasid Caliphate. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. Endress, Gerhard. Islam: An Historical Introduction. New York: Columbia University Press, 2002. Ephrat, Daphna. A Learned Society in Transition: The Sunni ‘Ulama’ of Eleventh- Century Baghdad . Albany: State University of New York Press, 2000. Ernst, Carl W. Eternal Garden: Mysticism, History, and Politics at a South Asian Sufi Center . Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992. ———. Ruzbihan Baqli: Mystical Experience and the Rhetoric of Sainthood in Persian Sufism . London: Curzon Press, 1996. ———. The Shambhala Guide to Sufism . Boston, MA: Shambhala, 1997. ———. Words of Ecstasy in Sufism . Albany: State University of New York Press, 1984. Esack, Farid. On Being a Muslim . Oxford: Oneworld, 1999. ———. Qur’an, Liberation and Pluralism . Oxford: Oneworld, 1997. ———. The Qur’an: A Short Introduction . Oxford: Oneworld, 2002. Esposito, John L. Islam: The Straight Path. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. ———. The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995. Esposito, John L. and John Obert Voll. Makers of Contemporary Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001. Fakhry, Majid. Ethical Theories in Islam . Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1991. ———. A History of Islamic Philosophy . London: Longman, 1983. Firestone, Reuven. Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. Bibliography 199

———. Journeys in Holy Lands: The Evolution of the Abraham-Ishmael Legends in Islamic Exegesis . Albany: State University of New York Press, 1990. Fletcher, Richard. Moorish Spain . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993. Fluehr-Lobban, Carolyn. Islamic Law and Society in the Sudan. London: Frank Cass & Co., 1987. Fortna, Benjamin C. Imperial Classroom: Islam, the State, and Education in the Late Ottoman Empire . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. Frank, Allen J. Muslim Religious Institutions in Imperial Russia: The Islamic World of Novouzensk District and the Kazakh Inner Horde, 1780–1910 . Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2001. Frank, Richard M. Al-Ghazali and the Ash‘arite School . Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1994. Fuchs, Barbara. Mimesis and Empire: The New World, Islam, and European Identities . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. Fuller, Graham E. and Rend Rahim Francke. The Arab Shi‘a: The Forgotten Muslims. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001. Gabrieli, Francesco. Arab Historians of the Crusades . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969. Gallagher, Nancy Elizabeth. Medicine and Power in Tunisia, 1780–1900 . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. G ä tje, Helmut (w/Alford T. Welch). The Quran and Its Exegesis . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976. Geertz, Clifford. Islam Observed: Religious Development in Morocco and Indonesia . Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1971. Gelvin, James. Divided Loyalties: Nationalism and Mass Politics in Syria at the Close of Empire . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998. Gershoni, Israel, Hakan Erdem, and Ursula Wokö ck. Histories of the Modern Middle East: New Directions . Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2002. Gianotti, Timothy J. Al-Ghazali’s Unspeakable Doctrine of the Soul: Unveiling the Esoteric Psychology and Eschatology of the Ihya ’. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2001. Gibb, Hamilton A. R. Modern Trends in Islam . New York: Octagon Books, 1972. ———. Whither Islam? London: Gollancz, 1932. Gibb, H. A. R. and Harold Bowe. Islamic Society and the West: A Study of the Impact of Western Civilization on Moslem Culture in the Near East. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1957. Gibb, Hamilton A. R. and J. H. Kramers. Shorter Encyclopedia of Islam. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1997 (reprint ed.). Gilsenan, Michael. Recognising Islam: An anthropologist’s Introduction. London: Croom Helm, 1982. Gleave, Robert. Inevitable Doubt: Two Theories of Shi‘i Jurisprudence . Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2000. Goitein, S. D. Studies in Islamic History and Institutions . Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1966. Goldziher, Ignaz. Introduction to Islamic Theology and Law . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981. Goodman, Lenn E. Islamic Humanism . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003. 200 Bibliography

Goodwin, Jason. Lords of the Horizons: A History of the Ottoman Empire . New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1999. Graham, William A. Divine Word and Prophetic Word in Early Islam . The Hague: Mouton, 1977. Gregorian, Vartan. The Emergence of Modern Afghanistan: Politics of Religion and Modernization, 1880–1946 . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1969. Guillaume, Alfred. The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ibn Ishaq’s Sirat Rasul Allah . London: Oxford University Press, 1955. ———. The Traditions of Islam: An Introduction to the Study of Hadith Literature . Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1924. Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck. The Muslims of America. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck and John L. Esposito. Islam, Gender, and Social Change . New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. Halm, Heinz. Shiism . Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1992. Hardy, Peter. The Muslims of British India . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972. Harrison, Christopher. France and Islam in West Africa, 1860–1960 . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. Hasse, Dag Nikolaus. Avicenna’s De Anima in the Latin West . London: The Warburg Institute, 2000. Hathaway, Jane. The Politics of Households in Ottoman Egypt: The Rise of the Qazdaglis . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. Hawting, G. R. The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate, AD 661–750 . London: Routledge, 2nd ed., 2000. ———. The Idea of Idolatry and the Emergence of Islam: From Polemic to History . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. Hawting, G. R. et al. Approaches to the Quran . London: Routledge, 1993. Heer, Nicholas L. Islamic Law and Jurisprudence: Studies in Honor of Farhat J. Ziadeh . Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1990. Hillenbrand, Carole. The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives . New York: Routledge, 2000. Hillenbrand, Robert. Islamic Art and Architecture . London: Thames & Hudson, 1998. Hinds, Martin, et al. Studies in Early Islamic History . Princeton, NJ: Darwin Press, 1997. Hitti, Philip K. History of the Arabs: From Earliest Times to the Present . London: Macmillan, 2002. ———. An Arab-Syrian Gentleman and Warrior in the Period of the Crusades: Memoirs of Usamah ibn-Munqidh . New York: Columbia University Press, 2000. Hodgson, Marshall G. S. (w/ Edmund Burke III). Rethinking World History: Essays on Europe, Islam, and World History . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993. ———. The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization . Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1974. Hoffman, Valerie. Sufism, Mystics, and Saints in Modern Egypt. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1995. Hoodbhoy, Perez. Islam and Science: Religious Orthodoxy and the Battle for Rationality . London: Zed Books, 1991. Bibliography 201

Horne, Alistair. A Savage War of Peace: Algeria, 1954–1962 . London: Macmillan, 1977. Hourani, Albert. Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age: 1798–1939 . Cambridge: Cambridge Cambridge University Press, 1993. ———. A History of the Arab Peoples . London: Faber and Faber, 1991. ———. Islam in European Thought . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. Hovannisian, Richard G. and Georges Sabagh. Religion and Culture in Medieval Islam . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. Hudson, Michael E. Arab Politics: The Search for Legitimacy . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1977. Huff, Toby E. The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Humphreys, R. Stephen. Islamic History: A Framework for Inquiry. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, revised ed., 1991. ———. From Saladin to the Mongols: The Ayyubids of Damascus, 1193–1260 . Albany: State University of New York Press, 1977. Hunter, Shireen T. The Future of Islam and the West: Clash of Civilizations or Peaceful Coexistence? Westport, CT: Praeger, 1998. Hutt, Antony. North Africa: Islamic Architecture . Northampton, MA: Interlink Publishing Group, 1998. Ibn Khaldun (trans. Franz Rosenthal). The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1969. Ibn Rushd (Imran Ahsan Khan Nyazee, trans.). The Distinguished Jurist’s Primer . New York: Ithaca Press, 2000. Ibrahim, Ezzedin and Denys Johnson-Davies. Forty Hadith Qudsi . Cambridge: Cambridge Univeriversity Press, 2003. Ibrahim, Saad Eddin. Egypt, Islam, and Democracy: Twelve Critical Essays in Modern Islam . London: Frank Cass & Co., 1966. Inalcik, Halil, et al. An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300– 1914 . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. Issawi, Charles. An Economic History of the Middle East and North Africa . New York: Columbia University Press, 1982. Itzkowitz, Norman. Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1972. Izutsu, Toshihiko. Concept of Belief in Islamic Theology . Salem, NH: Ayer Co. Publ., 1980. ———. Ethico-Religious Concepts in the Quran . Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, 2002. ———. God and Man in the Koran . Salem, NH: Ayer Co. Publ., 1980. Jaber, Hala. Hezbollah: Born with a Vengeance . New York: Columbia University Press, 1997. Jafri, S. Husain M. The Origins and Early Development of Shi‘a Islam . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. Jankowski, James. Nasser’s Egypt, Arab Nationalism, and the United Arab Republic . Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2002. Jankowski, James and Israel Gershoni. Rethinking Nationalism in the Arab Middle East . New York: Columbia University Press, 1997. 202 Bibliography

Jansen, J. J. G. The Interpretation of the Koran in Modern Egypt . Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1974. Jayyusi, Salma Khadra. The Legacy of Muslim Spain . Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1994. ———. Modern Arabic Poetry: An Anthology. New York: Columbia University Press, 1987. Jayyusi, Salma Khadra and Roger Allen. Modern Arabic Drama: An Anthology . Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995. Johansen, Baber. Contingency in a Sacred Law: Legal and Ethical Norms in Muslim Fiqh . Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1999. ———. The Islamic Law on Land Tax and Rent: The Peasants’ Loss of Property Rights as Interpreted in the Ḥ anaf ī te Legal Literature of the Mamluk and Ottoman Periods . London: Croom Helm, 1988. Juynboll, G. H. A. Muslim Tradition: Studies in Chronology, Provenance and Authorship of Early Hadith . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. ———. Studies on the First Century of Islamic Society. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1982. Kaegi, Walter E. Byzantium and the Early Islamic Conquests . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. Kahn, Muhammad Zafrulla. Muhammad, Seal of the Prophets. New York: Viking Press, 1981. Karawan, Ibrahim A. The Islamist Impasse . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998. Kasaba, Resat. The Ottoman Empire and the World Economy: The Nineteenth Century . Albany: State University of New York Press, 1988. Kassis, Hanna E. A Concordance of the Qur’an . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998. Kawar, Amal. Daughters of Palestine: Leading Women in the Palestinian National Movement . Albany: State University of New York Press, 1997. Kazemi, Farhad. Poverty and Revolution in Iran: The Migrant Poor, Urban Marginality, and Politics . Washington Square: New York University Press, 1981. Keddie, Nikki R. Iran: Religion, Politics and Society . London: Frank Cass, 1980. ———. Iran and the Muslim World: Resistance and Revolution . Washington Square: New York University Press, 1995. ———. An Islamic Response to Imperialism: Political and Religious Writings of Sayyid Jamal ad-Din “al-Afghani.” Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983 ed. ———. Modern Iran: Roots and Results of Revolution. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2003. ———. Religion and Rebellion in Iran: The Tobacco Protest of 1891–1892 . London: Frank Cass & Co., 1966. ———. Sayyid Jamal ad-Din “al-Afghani”: A Political Biography. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972. Kedourie, Elie. Democracy and Arab Culture . London: Frank Cass & Co., 1994. ———. Politics in the Middle East . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992. Keller, Nuh Ha Mim. Al-Nawawi’s Manual of Islam . Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society, 1996. Keller, Shoshana. To Moscow, Not Mecca: The Soviet Campaign against Islam in Central Asia, 1917–1941 . Westport, CT: Praeger, 2001. Bibliography 203

Kennedy, Edward S. Astronomy and Astrology in the Medieval Islamic World . Aldershot: Ashgate/Variorum, 1998. Kennedy, Hugh. The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State . London: Routledge, 2001. ———. The Early Abbasid Caliphate: A Political History. London: Croom Helm, 1981. ———. An Historical Atlas of Islam . Leiden: Brill Academic Publ., 2002. ———. The Historiography of Islamic Egypt (c. 950–1800) . Leiden: Brill Academic Publ., 2001. ———. Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of al-Andalus . Boston, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1997. Kepel, Gilles. Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002. Kerr, Malcolm. Islamic Reform: The Political and Legal Theories of Muhammad ‘Abduh and Rashid Rida . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966. Keshavarz, Fatemeh (w/ Frederick M. Denny). Reading Mystical Lyric: The Case of Jalal al-Din Rumi . Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1998. Khadduri, Majid. Al-Shafi‘i’s Risala: Treatise on the Foundations of Islamic Jurisprudence . Cambridge: Islamic Texts Society, 1999. Khalaf, Samir. Civil and Uncivil Violence: The Internationalization of Communal Conflict in Lebanon . New York: Columbia University Press, 2002. Khalidi, Rashid. British Policy towards Syria and Palestine, 1906–1914. London: Ithaca Press, 1980. ———. Palestinian Identity: The Construction of Modern Consciousness . New York: Columbia University Press, 1998. Khalidi, Rashid, et al. The Origins of Arab Nationalism . New York: Columbia University Press, 1993. Khalidi, Tarif. Arab Historical Thought in the Classical Period. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. Kholberg, Etan. Belief and Law in Imami Shi’ism . Aldershot: Variorum/Ashgate, 1991. ———. Shi’ism . Aldershot: Ashgate, 2003. King, David A. Astronomy in the Service of Islam . Aldershot: Ashgate/Variorum, 1993. ———. World Maps for Finding the Direction and Distance to Mecca: Innovation and Tradition in Islamic Science . Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1999. Kister, M. J. Concepts and Ideas at the Dawn of Islam . Aldershot: Ashgate/Variorum, 1997. Knysh, Alexander D. Ibn ‘Arabi and the Later Islamic Tradition: The Making of a Polemical Image in Medieval Islam . Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998. ———. Islamic Mysticism: A Short History . Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2000. Koch, Ebba. Mughal Art and Imperial Ideology: Collected Essays . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001. Kraemer, Joel L. Humanism in the Renaissance of Islam: The Cultural Revival during the Buyid Age . Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1992. 204 Bibliography

Kraemer, Joel L. Philosophy in the Renaissance of Islam: Abu Sulayman al-Sijistani and His Circle . Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1986. Kramer, Martin. Islam Assembled: The Advent of the Muslim Congresses . New York: Columbia University Press, 1986. Kramer, Martin S. Shi‘ism, Resistance, and Revolution. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1987. Lapidus, Ira M. A History of Islamic Societies . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. ———. Muslim Cities in the Later Middle Ages. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1967. Laremont, Ricardo Rene. Islam and the Politics of Resistance in Algeria, 1783–1992 . Lawrenceville, NJ: Africa World Press, 1999. Laroui, Abdull ā h. The Crisis of the Arab Intellectual. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977. Lassner, Jacob. Islamic Revolution and Historical Memory: An Inquiry into the Art of Abbasid Apologetics . New Haven, CT: American Oriental Society, 1986. ———. The Shaping of Abbasid Rule. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1980. Lawrence, Bruce B. Shattering the Myth: Islam beyond Violence . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998. Lecker, Michael. Jews and Arabs in Pre- and Early Islamic Arabia. Aldershot: Ashgate/ Variorum, 1998. Lee, Robert D. Overcoming Tradition and Modernity: The Search for Islamic Authenticity . Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1997. Levtzion, Nehemia. Islam in West Africa: Religion, Society and Politics to 1800 . Aldershot: Ashgate/Variorum, 1994. Lewis, Bernard. The Assassins: A Radical Sect in Islam. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1967. ———. Islam from the Prophet Muhammad to the Capture of Constantinople: Politics and War . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987. ———. The Jews of Islam . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987. ———. Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Inquiry . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990. ———. The World of Islam: Faith, People, Culture. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1992. Lings, Martin. Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources. New York: Inner Traditions International, 1983. Litvak, Meir. Shi‘i Scholars of Nineteenth-Century Iraq. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. Madelung, Wilferd. Religious and Ethnic Movements in Medieval Islam . Aldershot: Ashgate/Variorum, 1992. ———. Religious Schools and Sects in Medieval Islam . London: Variorum, 1985. ———. The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1997. ———. Religious Trends in Early Islamic Iran . Albany: State University of New York Press, 1988. Bibliography 205

Mahdi, Muhsin. Alfarabi and the Foundation of Islamic Political Philosophy . Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2001. Makdisi, George. The Rise of Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West . Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1989. Mallat, Chibli. The Renewal of Islamic Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. ———. Shi’i Thought from the South of Lebanon. Oxford: Centre for Lebanese Studies, 1988. Malti-Douglas, Fedwa. Power, Marginality, and the Body in Medieval Islam . Aldershot: Ashgate/ Varorum, 2001. Martin, Richard C. Approaches to Islam in Religious Studies . Oxford: Oneworld, 2001. ———. Islam, a Cultural Perspective . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1982. Martin, Vanessa. Creating an Islamic State: Khomeini and the Making of a New Iran . London: I. B. Tauris, 2000. Masri, Al-Hafiz Basheer Ahmad. Animals in Islam. Petersfield, England: Athene Trust, 1989. Masud, Muhammad Khalid, Brinkley Messick, and David S. Powers. Islamic Legal Interpretation: Muftis and Their Fatwas . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996. Mayer, Ann Elizabeth. Islam and Human Rights: Tradition and Politics . Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 3rd ed., 1999. Mazzaoui, Michel. The Origin of the Safawids: Shi‘ism, Sufism, and the Gulat . Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner, 1972. McCloud, Aminah Beverly. African American Islam . London: Routledge, 1995. Meri, Josef W. The Cult of Saints among Muslims and Jews in Medieval Syria . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003. Mernissi, Fatima. The Forgotten Queens of Islam. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993. Metcalf, Barbara Daly. Moral Conduct and Authority: The Place of Adab in South Asian Islam . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984. Momen, Moojan. An Introduction to Shi’i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi’ism . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1985. Motzki, Harald. The Biography of Muhammad: The Issue of the Sources. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2000. Moussalli, Ahmad S. Moderate and Radical Islamic Fundamentalism: The Quest for Modernity, Legitimacy and the Islamic State. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1999. Moynihan, Elizabeth B. Paradise as a Garden: In Persia and Mughal India . New York: George Braziller, 1980. Munson, Henry, Jr. Islam and Revolution in the Middle East. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989. Murata, Sachiko. The Tao of Islam: A Sourcebook on Gender Relationships in Islamic Thought . Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992. Murata, Sachiko and William C. Chittick. The Vision of Islam. New York: Paragon House, 1994. 206 Bibliography

Murphy, Caryle. Passion for Islam — Shaping the Modern Middle East: The Egyptian Experience . New York: Scribner, 2002. Nakash, Yitzhak. The Shi’is of Iraq . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003. Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. The Heart of Islam: Enduring Values for Humanity. San Francisco, CA: Harper SanFrancisco, 2002. ———. Ideals and Realities of Islam . London: Allen & Unwin, 1966. ———. Islam: Religion, History, and Civilization. San Francisco, CA: Harper SanFrancisco, 2002. ———. Islamic Art and Spirituality . Albany: State University of New York Press, 1987. ———. Islamic Life and Thought . Albany: State University of New York Press, 1981. ———. Islamic Spirituality . New York: Crossroad, 1987. ———. Islamic Spirituality II: Manifestations . New York: Crossroad, 1991. ———. Muhammad: Man of God . Chicago, IL: Kazi Publ., 1995. Nelson, Kristina. The Art of Reciting the Qur’an. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1986. Netton, Ian. A Popular Dictionary of Islam . London: Curzon Press, 1992. Newby, Gordon D. A Concise Encyclopedia of Islam . Oxford: Oneworld, 2002. ———. The Making of the Last Prophet: A Reconstruction of the Earliest Biography of Muhammad . Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1989. Nicolle, David. Warriors and Their Weapons around the Time of the Crusades: Relationships between Byzantium, the West, and the Islamic World . Aldershot: Ashgate/Variorum, 2003. Norris, Harry T. Islam in the Balkans: Religion and Society between Europe and the Arab World . Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1994. Nurbakhsh, Javad. Traditions of the Prophet: Ahadith. New York: Khaniqahi Nimatullahi Publ., 1981. Nyang, Sulayman S. Islam in the United States of America . Chicago, IL: ABC Int’l. Group/Kazi Publ., 1999. Ouyang, Wen-Chin. Literary Criticism in Medieval Arabic-Islamic Culture: The Making of a Tradition . Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1997. Owen, Roger. State, Power and Politics in the Making of the Modern Middle East . New York: Routledge, 2000. Ozdalga, Elisabeth. The Veiling Issue, Official Secularism and Popular Islam in Modern Turkey . Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press, 1998. Peters, F. E. A Reader on Classical Islam . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994. Peters, Francis E. The Hajj: The Muslim Pilgrimage to Mecca and the Holy Places . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994. ———. Muhammad and the Origins of Islam . Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994. Powers, David S. Studies in Qur’an and Hadith: The Formation of the Law of Inheritance . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986. Rahman, Fazlur. Islam . Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1979. ———. Major Themes of the Qur’an . Minneapolis, MN: Bibliotheca Islamica, 1980. Bibliography 207

Rashid, Ahmed. Jihad: The Rise of Militant Islam in Central Asia. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2002. ———. Taliban: Militant Islam, Oil and Fundamentalism in Central Asia . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000. Reinhart, A. Kevin. Before Revelation: The Boundaries of Muslim Moral Thought . Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995. Rejwan, Nissim. The Many Faces of Islam: Perspectives on a Resurgent Civilization . Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2000. Renard, John. In the Footsteps of Muhammad: Understanding the Islamic Experience . New York: Paulist Press, 1992. ———. Seven Doors to Islam: Spirituality and the Religious Life of Muslims . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996. ———. Windows on the House of Islam: Muslim Sources on Spirituality . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998. Rippin, Andrew. Approaches to the History of the Interpretation of the Qur’an . Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988. ———. Muslims: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices . London: Routledge, 2nd ed., 2001. ———. The Qur’an: Formative Interpretation . Aldershot: Ashgate/Variorum, 2000. ———. The Qur’an: Style and Contents . Aldershot: Ashgate, 2001. ———. The Qur’an and Its Interpretive Tradition . Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2002. Rippin, Andrew and Jan Knappert. Textual Sources for the Study of Islam. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1986. Robinson, Chase F. Islamic Historiography. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. ———. A Medieval Islamic City Reconsidered: An Interdisciplinary Approach to Samarra . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. Robinson, David. Paths of Accommodation: Muslim Societies and French Colonial Authorities in Senegal and Mauritania, 1890–1920 . Athens: Ohio University Press, 2000. Robinson, Francis. Atlas of the Islamic World since 1500 . New York: Facts on File, 1982. Robinson, Neal. Christ in Islam and Christianity . Albany: State University of New York Press, 1991. ———. Islam: A Concise Introduction . Richmond, Surrey: Curzon, 1999. ———. Discovering the Qur’an: A Contemporary Approach to a Veiled Text . London: SCM Press, 1996. ———. The Sayings of Muhammad . London: Duckworth, 1991. Rodinson, Maxime. Muhammad . New York: Pantheon Books, 1980 ed. Rosen, Lawrence. The Anthropology of Justice: Law as Culture in Islamic Society . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989. ———. Bargaining for Reality: The Construction of Social Relations in a Muslim Community . Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1984. ———. The Culture of Islam: Changing Aspects of Contemporary Muslim Life . Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2003. 208 Bibliography

Rosen, Lawrence. The Justice of Islam: Comparative Perspectives on Islamic Law and Society . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. Rosenthal, Franz. The Classical Heritage in Islam . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975. ———. Greek Philosophy in the Arab World: A Collection of Essays. Aldershot: Ashgate/ Variorum, 1990. ———. Humour in Early Islam . Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1956. ———. Muslim Intellectual and Social History: A Collection of Essays . Aldershot: Ashgate/Variorum, 1990. ———. Science and Medicine in Islam: A Collection of Essays . Aldershot: Ashgate/ Variorum, 1991. ———. Sweeter Than Hope: Complaint and Hope in Medieval Islam . Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1997. Roy, Olivier. Afghanistan: From Holy War to Civil War . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995. ———. The Failure of Political Islam. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994. ———. Islam and Resistance in Afghanistan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2nd ed., 1990. Rubin, Uri. The Eye of the Beholder: The Life of Muhammad as Viewed by the Early Muslims . Princeton, NJ: Darwin Press, 1995. ———. The Life of Muhammad . Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998. Ruedy, John. Islamism and Secularism in North Africa . New York/Washington, DC: St. Martin’s Press/Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, 1994. Ruthven, Malise. Islam: A Very Short Introduction . New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. ———. Islam in the World . New York: Oxford University Press, 2nd ed., 2000. Sachedina, Abdulaziz A. Islamic Messianism: The Idea of the Mahdi in Twelver Shi’ism . Albany: State University of New York Press, 1981. Sachedina, Abdulaziz Abdulhussein. The Just Ruler in Shi’ite Islam: The Comprehensive Authority of the Jurist in Imamite Jurisprudence. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998. Saeed, Abdull ā h. Islamic Banking and Interest: A Study of the Prohibition of Riba and Its Contemporary Interpretation . Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2nd ed., 1997. Said, Edward W. Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How We See the Rest of the World . New York: Vintage, revised ed., 1997. ———. The End of the Peace Process: Oslo and After. New York: Pantheon Books, 2000. ———. Peace and Its Discontents: Essays on Palestine in the Middle East Peace Process . New York: Vintage, 1995. ———. The Politics of Dispossession: The Struggle for Palestinian Self-Determination, 1969–1994 . New York: Pantheon Books, 1994. Said, Edward W. and Christopher Hitchens. Blaming the Victims: Spurious Scholarship and the Palestinian Question . London: Verso, 1988. Savory, R. M. Introduction to Islamic Civilization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976. Bibliography 209

Schacht, Joseph. An Introduction to Islamic Law . Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984. ———. The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1950. Schimmel, Annemarie. Calligraphy and Islamic Culture . Washington Square, NY: New York University Press, 1984. ———. I Am Wind, You Are Fire: The Life and Work of Rumi . Boston, MA: Shambhala, 1992. ———. Islam: An Introduction. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1992. ———. And Muhammad Is His Messenger: The Veneration of the Prophet in Islamic Piety . Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985. ———. Mystical Dimensions of Islam. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1975. ———. As Through a Veil: Mystical Poetry in Islam. New York: Columbia University Press, 1982. ———. A Two-Colored Brocade: The Imagery of Persian Poetry . Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992. Schulze, Reinhard. A Modern History of the Islamic World. Washington Square, NY: New York University Press, 2000. Schuon, Frithjof. Islam and the Perennial Philosophy . London: World of Islam Festival Publ. Co., 1976. ———. (w/ D. M. Matheson). Understanding Islam. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1963. Seale, Patrick. The Struggle for Syria: A Study of Post-War Arab Politics , 1945–1958. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1987. Sells, Michael. Approaching the Qur’an: The Early Revelations. Ashland, OR: White Cloud Press, 1999. ———. The Bridge Betrayed: Religion and Genocide in Bosnia. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996. Shariati, Ali (trans. Laleh Bakhtiar). Hajj: Reflections on Its Rituals. Chicago, IL: Kazi Publ., 1993. ———. (trans. Hamid Algar). On the Sociology of Islam: Lectures by Ali Shari’ati . Berkeley, CA: Mizan Press, 1979. Simons, Thomas W. Jr. Islam in a Globalizing World. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, Singerman, Diane and Homa Hoodfar. Development, Change, and Gender in Cairo: A View from the Household . Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996. Sivan, Emmanuel. Radical Islam: Medieval Theology and Modern Politics . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990. Smith, Jane I. and Yvonne Haddad. The Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection . Albany: State University of New York Press, 1981. Smith, Wilfred Cantwell. Islam in Modern History . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1957. ———. On Understanding Islam: Selected Studies . The Hague: Mouton, 1981. Sonbol, Amira El-Azhary. Women, the Family, and Divorce Laws in Islamic History . Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1996. 210 Bibliography

Sonbol, Amira El-Azhary. Women of Jordan: Islam, Labor and the Law . Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2003. Sonn, Tamara. Interpreting Islam: Bandali Jawzi’s Islamic Intellectual History . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. ———. Islam and the Question of Minorities. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1996. Spellberg, Denise A. Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past: The Legacy of ‘A’isha bint Abi Bakr . New York: Columbia University Press, 1996. Stowasser, Barbara Freyer. The Islamic Impulse. Washington, DC: Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, 1989. Stowasser, Barbara Freyer. Women in the Qur’an: Traditions and Interpretations . New York: Oxford University Press, 1994. Tabataba’i, ‘Allamah Sayyid Muhammad Husain (w/ Seyyed Hoseyn Nasr). Shi’ite Islam . London: George Allen & Unwin, 1975. Tamimi, Azzam S. Rachid Ghannouchi: A Democrat within Islamism . New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. Tayob, Abdulkader. Islam: A Short Introduction . Oxford: Oneworld, 1999. Tayob, Abdulkader I. Islam in South Africa: Mosques, Imams, and Sermons . Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1999. Telhami, Shibley and Michael Barnett. Identity and Foreign Policy in the Middle East . Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2002. Tucker, Judith E. In the House of the Law: Gender and Islamic Law in Ottoman Syria and Palestine . Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000. Turner, Colin, trans. (Mohammad Baqir Behbudi, textual exegesis). The Quran: A New Interpretation . Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press, 1998. Vogel, Frank E. Islamic Law and Legal Systems: Studies of Saudi Arabia . Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2000. Wadud-Muhsin, Amina. Qur’an and Woman: Reading the Sacred Text from a Woman’s Perspective . New York, Oxford University Press, 1999. Waines, David. An Introduction to Islam. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2nd ed., 2003. Walbridge, John. The Leaven of the Ancients: Suhrawardi and the Heritage of the Greeks . Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999. Walker, Paul E. Early Philosophical Shiism: The Isma’ili Neoplatonism of Abu Ya’qub al-Sijistani . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993. ———. Exploring an Islamic Empire: Fatimid History and Its Sources . London: I. B. Tauris, 2002. ———. Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani: Ismaiili Thought in the Age of al-Hakim . London: I. B. Tauris, 1999. Wasserstrom, Steven M. Between Muslim and Jew: The Problem of Symbiosis under Early Islam . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995. Watt, William Montgomery. Early Islam: Collected Articles . Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1991. ———. The Formative Period of Islamic Thought . Oxford: Oneworld, 1998. ———. The Influence of Islam on Medieval Europe. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1972. Bibliography 211

———. The Majesty That Was Islam: The Islamic World, 661–1100 . London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1974. ———. Muhammad at Mecca . Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1953. ———. Muhammad at Medina . Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1956. ———. Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman . London: Oxford University Press, 1961. ———. What Is Islam? . London: Longman, 1970. Weiss, Bernard G. The Spirit of Islamic Law. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1998. Wheeler, Brannon M. Applying the Canon in Islam: The Authorization and Maintenance of Interpretive Reasoning in Ḥ anaf ī Scholarship. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996. Wiley, Joyce N. The Islamic Movement of Iraqi Shi’as . Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1992. Wilkinson, John Craven. The Imamate Tradition of Oman. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. Williams, John Alden. The Word of Islam . Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994 Willis, Michael. The Islamist Challenge in Algeria: A Political History . Washington Square: New York University Press, 1999. Wing, Adrien K. Democracy, Constitutionalism and the Future of Palestine . Jerusalem: Palestinian Academic Society for the Study of International Affairs, 1994. Wisnovsky, Robert. Avicenna’s Metaphysics in Context . Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2003. Wolfe, Michael. One Thousand Roads to Mecca: Ten Centuries of Travelers Writing about the Muslim Pilgrimage . New York: Grove Press, 1997. X, Malcolm. The Autobiography of Malcolm X (as told to Alex Haley) . New York: Ballantine, 1992. Yamani, Mai. Feminism and Islam: Legal and Literary Perspectives . Washington Square: New York University Press, 1996. Zaman, Muhammad Qasim. Religion and Politics under the Early ‘Abbasids: The Emergence of the Proto-Sunni Elite . Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1997. ———. The Ulama in Contemporary Islam: Custodians of Change. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002. Zebiri, Kate. Mahmud Shaltut and Islamic Modernism . Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993. Zeghal, Malika, Gardiens de l’Islam: Les oulemas d’Al Azhar dans l’Egypte contempo- raine . Paris: Presses de la Fondation nationale des sciences politiques, 1996. ———, Islamism in Morocco: Religion, Authoritarianism, and Electoral Politics. Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener Publishers, 2008. Zubaida, Sami. Islam, the People and the State: Essays on Political Ideas and Movements in the Middle East . London: I. B. Tauris, 1993. Zubaida, Sami. Law and Power in the Islamic World . London: I. B. Tauris, 2003.

General Works

Allison, J. W. F. A Continental Distinction in the Common Law . Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996. 212 Bibliography

Allison, J. W. F. A Continental Distinction in the Common Law: A Historical and Comparative Perspective on English Public Law . England: Clarendon Press, 1996. Austin, John. The Philosophy of Positive Law . London: J. Murray, 1913. Bannon, Cynthia Jordan. The Brothers of Romulus: Fraternal Pietas in Roman Law, Literature, and Society . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997. Beard, Charles Austin. An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution of the United States. New York: The Free Press, 1986. Beiner, Ronald. Theorizing Citizenship. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995. ———. What’s the Matter with Liberalism? Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. Bentley, Arthur. The Process of Government. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1967. Berlin, Isaiah. Four Concepts of Liberty. Oxford: Oxford University, 1969. Bloch, Maurice. Ritual, History and Power: Selected Papers in Anthropology . London: The Athlone Press, 1989. Bookchin, Murray. The Philosophy of Social Ecology. Montreal: Black Rose Books, 1990. Buchanan, James M. The Limits of Liberty: Between Anarchy and Leviathan. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975. Buckland, W. W. Roman Law and Common Law . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1952. Bull, Hedley. The Anarchical Society: A Study of Order in World Politics. New York: Columbia University Press, 1995. Chelhod, Joseph. Le sacrifice chez les arabes. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1955. Cohen, Arnold J. Jewish Civil Law . Jerusalem: Feldheim Publishers, 1991. Coleman, James S. Foundations of Social Theory. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990. Copp, David, Hampton, Jean, and Roemer, John E. The Idea of Democracy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993. Cunningham, Frank. Democratic Theory and Socialism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. Dahl, Robert A A Preface to Democratic Theory. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1956. Dallmayr, Fred. Margins of Political Discourse. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1989. Derrida, Jacques. Writing and Difference. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1978. Duncan, Graeme. Democratic Theory and Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. Dunn, John. Western Political Theory in the Face of the Future. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979. Durkheim, Emile. Les Formes Elementaires De La Vie Religieuse . Paris: Librairie Felix Alcan, 1912. Bibliography 213

Ely, John Hart. Democracy and Distrust. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980. Evans-Pritchard, E. E. Theories of Primitive Religion. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1965. Fontenrose, Joseph. The Ritual Theory of Myth . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971. Foucault, Michel. Archeology of Knowledge. New York: Harper and Row, 1972. Fraser, Nancy. Unruly Practices: Power, Discourse and Gender in Contemporary Social Theory, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1989. Frazer, J. G. The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion . New York: The Macmillan Co., 1927. Freud, Sigmund. Totem and Taboo: Some Points of Agreement between the Mental Lives of the Savages and Neurotics . New York: Norton, 1950. Friedman, Milton. Capitalism and Freedom. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1962. Fukuyama, Francis. The End of History and the Last Man. New York: The Free Press, 1992. Goodheart, Arthur L. English Law and the Moral Law . London: Stevens, 1953. Griffiths, Paul J. Religious Reading . New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. Hallifax, Samuel. An Analysis of the Roman Civil Law. Cambridge: J. Archdeacon, 1779. Hart, H. L. A. (Herbert Lionel Adolphus). The Concept of Law. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994. Hoeflich, Michael H. Roman and Civil Law and the Development of Anglo-American Jurisprudence in the Nineteenth Century . Athens: University of Georgia Press, ca.1997. Holmgren, Jennifer. Marriage, Kinship, and Power in Northern China Aldershot: Variorum, 1995. Hubert, Henri. Sacrifice: Its Nature and Function. London: University of Chicago Press, 1964. Hume, David. Philosophical Essays Concerning Human Understanding. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Educational Pub., 1955. Kahn-Freund, Otto. Comparative Law as an Academic Subject. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965. Kelly, P. J. Utilitarianism and Distributive Justice: Jeremy Bentham and the Civil Law . Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990. Kirk, G. S. et al. Le Sacrifice dans L’antiquite . Geneve: Vandeuvres, 1980. Knudten, Richard D. The Sociology of Religion, an Anthology . New York: Appleton- Century-Crofts, 1967. Lapin, Hayim. Early Rabbinic Civil Law and the Social History of Roman Galilee: a Study of Mishnah . Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 1995. Larmore, Charles E. Patterns of Moral Complexity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. Lenski, Gerhard Emmanuel. The Religious Factor: A Sociological Study of Religion’s Impact on Politics, Economics, and Family Life . Westport: Greenwood Press, 1977. 214 Bibliography

Lentz, Tony M. Orality and Literacy in Hellenic Greece. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, ca. 1989. Levine, Andrew. Liberal Democracy: A Critic of Its Theory. New York: Columbia University Press, 1981. L é vi-Strauss, Claude. The Savage Mind. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1966. Levy, Reuben. An Introduction to the Sociology of Islam. London: Williams and Norgate, 1931. Locke, John. An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1924. Ludwikowski, Rett. The Beginning of the Constitutional Era: A Bicentennial Comparative Analysis of the First Modern Constitutions . Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1993. Lynn, Monty and David Moberg (eds). Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion . Greenwich: JAI Press, 1989. Machiavelli, Niccolo. The Prince, in The Portable Machiavelli. New York: Viking Penguin, 1979. MacIntyre, Alisdair. After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory. South Bend, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1981. Mackenzie, D. A. Myths of Babylonia and Assyria. London: The Gresham Publishing Co., YA. Mansbridge, Jane J. Beyond Adversary Democracy. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1983. McKenna, Marian C. The Canadian and American Constitutions in Comparative Perspective . Canada: University of Calgary Press, 1993. Merryman, John Henry. The Civil Law Tradition: An Introduction to the Legal Systems of Western Europe and Latin America. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1985. Michaud, Francine. Un signe des temps: Accroissement des crises familiales autour du patrimoine à Marseille à la fin du XIIIe siè cle . Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1994. Mill, John Stuart. Nature , in Essays on Ethics, Religion and Society, Collected Works of John Stuart Mill. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1969. Miller, Robert K. Jr. and McNamee, Stephen J. (eds). Inheritance and Wealth in America . New York: Plenum Press, 1998. Misak, Cheryl. Truth, Politics, Morality: Pragmatism and Deliberation. London: Routledge, 2000. Mol, Hans. Identity and the Sacred: A Sketch for a New Social-Scientific Theory of Religion . New York: Free Press, 1977. Money-Kyrle, R. The Meaning of Sacrifice. London: Johnson Reprint Co. Ltd.: 1965. Moors, Annelies. Women, Property, and Islam: Palestinian Experiences, 1920–1990. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Mukhopadhyay, Maitrayee. Legally Dispossessed: Gender, Identity, and the Process of Law. Calcutta: Bhatkal Books International, ca. 1998. Bibliography 215

Nadin, Mihai. The Civilization of Illiteracy. Dresden: Dresden University Press, 1997. Nagendra, S. P. The Concept of Ritual in Modern Sociological Theory . New Delhi: The Academic Journal of India, 1971. Newman, Edwin S. The Law of Civil Rights and Civil Liberties . New York: Oceana Publications, 1957. Newman, William M. The Social Meanings of Religion: An Integrated Anthology . Chicago, IL: Rand McNally, 1974. Ordeshook, Peter. A Political Theory Primer. London: Routledge, 1992. Pals, Daniel L. Seven Theories of Religion . New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. Pateman, Carole. Participation and Democratic Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970. Peffer, Rodney G. Marxism, Morality and Social Justice. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990. Peletz, Michael G. A Share of the Harvest: Kinship, Property, and Social History among the Malays of Rembau . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988. Pennock, J. Roland. Democratic Political Theory. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1979. Peterson, Mark A. Korean Adoption and Inheritance: Case Studies in the Creation of a Classic Confucian Society. Ithaca, NY: East Asia Program, Cornell University, 1996. Pettit, Philip. Republicanism: A Theory of Freedom and Government. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. Phillips, Anne. Engendering Democracy. University Park: Pennsylvania University Press, 1991. Pickering, W. S. F. Durkheim’s Sociology of Religion: Themes and Theories. London Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1984. Preus, J. Samuel. Explaining Religion . London: Yale University Press, 1987. Putnam, Robert. Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993. Quaegebeur, J. Ritual and Sacrifice in the Ancient Near East . Leuven, 1993. Raz, Joseph. The Morality of Freedom. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986. Riley, Johnathan. Liberal Utilitarianism: Social Choice Theory and J. S. Mill’s Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. Roby, Henry John. Roman Private Law in the Times of Cicero and of the Antonines. Cambridge: University Press, 1902. Rosenfeld, Jeffrey P. The Legacy of Aging: Inheritance and Disinheritance in Social Perspective . Norwood, NJ: Ablex Pub. Corp., 1979. Rumsey, Almaric. Moohummudan Law of Inheritance and Rights and Relations Affecting It: Sunni Doctrine . Lahore: Sang-e-Meel Publications, 1981. Saller, Richard P. Patriarchy, Property, and Death in the Roman Family. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. Sarkar, Golapchandra. Hindu Law: With an Appendix of Mahomedan Law of Inheritance . Calcutta: Banerjee, 1903. 216 Bibliography

Schiffman, Lawrence H. Reclaiming the Dead Sea Scrolls. Philadelphia, PA: Jewish Publication Society, 1994. Schlesinger, Rudolf B. Comparative Law: Cases, Text, Materials . London: Stevens, 1960. Schumpeter, Joseph. Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy. New York: Harper and Row, 1962. Sedgwick, John. Rich Kids . New York: Morrow, c1985. Segal, R. A. Ritual and Myth . New York: Garland Publishing, 1996. Sharpe, E. J. Comparative Religion: A History . Evanston, IL: Open Court, 1986. Shaw, Arthur. Readings in the Philosophy of Law . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1993. Shaw, Malcolm N. International Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. Shifman, Pinhas. Dine ha-mishpahah bi-Yisrael . Jerusalem: Ha-Universitah ha-Ivrit bi-Yerushalayim, 1984. Smith, W. C. The Meaning and End of Religion . New York: The Macmillan Company, 1962. Smith, W. R. Lectures of William Robertson Smith . London: A. and C. Black, YA. Strom, Gerald S. The Logic of Lawmaking: A Spatial Theory Approach. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990. Sundberg, Jacob W. F. Civil Law, Common Law and the Scandinavians. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1969. Taylor, John. Elements of the Civil Law. London: printed for T. Payne, 1772. Tellegen, J. W. The Roman Law Of Succession in the Letters of Pliny the Younger, Zutphen. Holland: Terra, 1982. Thomas, Aquinas Saint. Aquinas ethicus . London: Burns and Oates, 1896. Tocqueville, Alexis. Democracy in America. New York: Harper and Row, 1969. Tully, James. Strange Multiplicity: Constitutionalism in an Age of Diversity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Turner, V. The Forest of Symbols . New York: Cornell University Press, 1967. Tushnet, Mark V. Making Civil Rights Law: Thurgood Marshall and the Supreme Court . New York: Oxford University Press, 1994. Tylor, Edward B. Primitive Culture; Research into the Development Of Mythology, Philosophy, Religion, Language, Art And Customs. 3rd American from 2nd English . New York: H. Holt & Co., 1883. Wagner, William G. Marriage, Property, and Law in Late Imperial Russia. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994. Waltz, Kenneth. Man, the State and War: A Theoretical Analysis. New York: Columbia University Press, 1959. Wansbrough, John E. Quranic Studies. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977. Watson, Alan. The Making of the Civil Law. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981. Weiss, Bernard G. The Search for God’s Law . Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1992. Wensinck, J. Some Semitic Rites of Mourning and Religion: Studies on Their Origin and Mutual Relation . Amsterdam: 1917. Bibliography 217

Westrup, Carl Wium. Introduction to Early Roman Law. London: Oxford University Press, 1934. Widengren, Geo. Mani and Manichaeism. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1961. ———. Mesopotamian Elements in Manichaeism. Uppsala: Uppsala Universitets, 1946. Wilson, John. Social Theory . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1983. Wolff, Hans Julius. Roman Law . Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1951.

Index

‘Ā’ishah, 35, 66, 68, 69, 71, 79, 101 Abd al-Rahman Ibn Khaldun, 37 ‘Abd al-Qādir Ibn Ṭāhir Ibn Abdullāh Ibn Yaḥyā al-Kindī, 66, 68, Muḥammad al-Baghdādī, 55 136, 144 ‘Abd al-Rahman Ibn ‘Awf, 34, 45 abrogation, 28, 118, 136 ‘Abd al-Wahhāb, 69, 75, 76, 77, 123 Abū ‘Ubaydah, 55, 66, 68, 71, 72, 73, ‘Abdullāh Ibn Abāḍ, 55, 56, 89 74, 84, 115, 116, 117, 118, 120, ‘Abdullāh Ibn al-Zubayr, 62, 63 121, 122, 123, 125, 126, 131, ‘Abdullāh Ibn Yazīd, 54, 76 132, 143, 144 ‘adāwat a’dā’ allāh, 92 Abū al-Ḥassan al-Ash’arī, 53 ‘ajam, 53 Abū al-Khaṭṭāb, 68, 82 ‘alāqat al-lafẓ bi-‘l-ma’nā, 98 Abū Bakr, 6, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 42, 44, ‘Alī, 32, 34, 35, 43, 45, 55, 58, 59, 60, 49, 62, 68, 79, 90, 92, 121, 131, 61, 62, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 79, 132, 153, 170 80, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 91, 94, Abū Ḥanīfah, 108, 109, 110, 118, 140, 100, 101, 102, 104, 121 142, 168 ‘āmmat al-muslimīn, 70 Abū Mūsā, 80, 86 ‘Amr Ibn al-’Āṣ, 66, 69, 72, 80, 86, 92 Abu Muslim, 36 ‘aqd, 43, 44 Abū Qudāmah, 75, 76 `Azzābah, 11, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152 adaptive governments, 36 ‘illah, 57, 122, 142 afḍal, 75, 76 ‘ilm al-tawḥīd, 96 Afghanistan, 38 ‘Ubaydah, 66, 72, 73, 74, 115, 117, aḥkām, 116, 136 118 ahl al-ḥall wa-`l-`aqd, 44, 171, 172 ‘ulama, 36 ahl al-istiqāmah, 70 ‘ulamā’, 19, 20, 124, 134, 135 ahl al-kitāb, 6, 54, 69. See also people ‘Umar, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 42, 43, 44. of the book See also caliph ahl al-nahrawān, 59, 61, 87 ‘uqūbah, 127 ahl al-ra’y, 108 ‘Uthman, 34, 35, 43, 45 ahl al-ṣalāh, 54 ‘Uthmān, 19, 20, 35, 48, 49, 58, 59, ahl al-shura, 44 66, 67, 68, 69, 71, 79, 81, 89, 90, ahl-al-wa’īd, 98 91, 97 Ahmad Ibn Ḥanbal, 53, 108, 118, 143 akhbār, 142, 143 Abāḍ al-Murrī al-Tamīmī, 65 akhlāq, 128 Abbasid, 36, 37, 39 al-’adillah al-sam’iyyah, 96 220 Index al-’aṣabiyyah al-qabaliyyah, 73 110, 111, 115, 117, 119, 120, al-Andalus, 36 121, 123, 124, 125, 127, 142, al-Ash’arī, 53, 54, 55, 63, 72, 80, 102 155, 156, 157, 164, 168, 169, al-aṣwāt al-mufīdah, 98 170, 171, 172 Alawite, 38 autonomous, 39, 52, 133, 159 al-dawlah al-rustumiyyah, 75 awqāf, 150 al-Faruq, 32 ayimat al-jūr, 74 alfāẓ, 98 Ayrawān, 149 Algeria, 38 Azd, 61 al-Ḥafṣiyyah, 53, 55, 56 Azdī, 69 al-Hassan, 35 Azraq, 63, 64, 66, 92 al-ḥukm al-’ādil, 102 al-ḥukm al-jā’ir, 102 Bāghāy, 84 al-ikhwān al-muslimūn, 162 Baghdādī, 55, 56 al-Ka’bah, 23 Banū Umayyah, 93 al-khawarij, 35 barā’ah, 56, 95, 99, 100, 101, 151, 152 al-khawārij, 8, 53, 54, 57, 58, 59, 60, Barā’ah, 86, 100 61, 72, 73, 87, 88, 91 barī’ mina al-shirk, 53 allegiance, 32 Baṣrah, 63, 71, 72, 73, 80, 90, 115, 154 al-muhajirun, 31 Baṣrī, 61, 117, 119 al-Mukhtār Ibn ‘Awf, 66 battle of the camel, 88 al-Saffah, 36 bay’ah, 32 al-shura, 42 Berber, 72, 84, 149 al-Siddiq, 32 bid’ah, 70, 76 al-yazīdiyyah, 53, 55 bipolar world, 38 al-Zubayr, 34, 35 book of god, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 92, 93 amīr, 82, 103, 104, 171 Bourguiba, 161, 163 amīr al-mu’minīn, 40, 41, 85, 86 Britain, 37 Anas Ibn Mālik, 71, 132 bureaucracy, 33 Andalus, 55 bureaucratic network, 36 Andalusī, 75 anṣār, 31, 32, 42, 62, 91 caliph, 3, 7, 8, 19, 20, 21, 22, 32, 35, apostasy, 32, 79 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 50, 58, 59, 62, Arab, 22, 34, 36, 38, 42 63, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 71, 73, 79, Arabian peninsula, 68 84, 85, 98, 101, 104, 110, 114, arbitration, 57, 61, 64, 65, 66, 80, 123, 125, 132, 134, 135, 170, 84, 85, 86, 87, 101, 104, 150, 171, 172 160, 170 caliphate, 8, 18, 19, 22, 31, 36, 37, arbitrators, 85, 86, 89, 160 41, 43, 44, 45, 67, 79, 81, 97, Aristotle, 50, 51 100, 102, 109, 112, 114, 124, aṣḥābī, 94 147, 154 assassination, 43, 168 Caliphs authoritarianism, 42 Abbasid, 4, 17, 19, 68, 71, 98, 170 authority, 2, 3, 7, 9, 18, 19, 20, 22, 29, Umayyad, 3, 17, 19, 20, 22, 35, 36, 31, 35, 38, 41, 47, 48, 52, 59, 66, 66, 68, 71, 73, 84, 134, 135, 154, 67, 68, 71, 78, 83, 85, 94, 104, 165, 170 Index 221 camel, 35, 58, 61, 68, 79, 85, 88. deliberation, 42 See also battle of the deputy of God, 41 caucus process, 42 designation, 39, 41, 42, 75 change, 29, 49, 50, 51, 70, 74, 86, 89, dhahaba, 111, 113 95, 100, 108, 113, 161, 162, 164 dhimmi, 111 charisma, 52, 78 dictatorship, 42 charter, 24 difā’, 82 checks-and-balances, 36 dignity, 1, 6, 13, 17, 48, 52, 161 China, 8, 37 disobedient Muslim, 62, 65 Christian, 34 dissent, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 12, 15, 16, civil society, 37, 165 17, 18, 29, 30, 41, 45, 47, 51, 52, civil strife, 63, 68, 94, 111, 168 67, 68, 69, 73, 74, 78, 79, 81, 84, civil wars, 2, 8, 9, 15, 16, 24, 29, 35, 88, 94, 97, 98, 99, 101, 102, 104, 45, 48, 50, 68, 69, 84, 94, 96, 97, 105, 108, 109, 111, 113, 124, 165, 168 133, 136, 144, 148, 152, 153, class struggle, 52 158, 159, 163, 165, 168, 170, 172 class struggles, 51 dissenter, 75 classical Islamic thought, 45 ijtihadic dissent, 69 coercion, 42 legal dissent, 4, 108, 111, 133, 168 colonialism, 38 military dissent, 79 commander of the faithful, 41, 61, 87 political dissent, 4, 78, 144 community representatives, 44 dissenters, 58, 64, 67, 74, 91, 98, 99, companion, 34, 65, 88, 117, 121, 142 112, 162, 168, 170 al-Zubayr Ibn al-’Awwām, 65 dissenting opinions, 109, 141 concealment, 8, 53, 66, 68, 70, 82, 83, divine law, 41 84, 151, 152 divine mercy, 41 consensus, 3, 7, 10, 23, 40, 115, 118, diwan, 33 120, 121, 122, 133, 138, 140, diyah, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 141 142, 158, 159, 163, 167, 169, Durkheim, 51 171, 172 consent, 4, 27, 37, 150, 155, 165. Eastern European, 38 See also dissent elections, 17, 42, 161, 162 constitutional, 3, 50. See also change emotional reaction, 52 consultation, 27, 31, 42, 43, 44, endorsement, 32, 33, 42, 43, 45 62, 169 Ethiopia, 62 contest, 37, 48 ethnic, 10, 16, 35, 50, 58, 111, 152, 154 da’wah, 70, 73 European occupation, 37 Dahhān, 72, 117 dalīl, 120, 122, 142 fallible, 30, 169 Damascus, 35, 73, 114 faqātilū allatī tabghī, 87 dār, 54, 102, 103 farā’id, 137 dār kufr, 54, 102 farḍ ‘ayn, 40 dār tawḥīd, 54 farḍ kifāyah, 40 dawlah, 75, 76 farthiyyah, 74 defense leader, 82 Farwah Ibn Nawfal, 66 222 Index fāsiqūn, 89 Ḥuṣayniyyah, 74 faṣliḥū baynahumā, 87 Huwwārah, 72 Fatimids, 82, 84, 149 fīmā wa’ada, 92 i`tiṣām, 149 firaq, 53, 55, 111 Ibadi, 41, 44 followers, 65, 73, 94, 117, 119, Ibāḍī, 45 124, 143 Ibāḍī jurisprudence, 30, 115, 118, form of government, 38, 39, 51, 52, 128, 133 169, 171 Ibadism, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 29, 39, France, 1, 37 47, 48, 49, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, function of the caliph, 21, 41, 135 58, 65, 70, 72, 74, 81, 87, 101, fuqahā’, 62 102, 104, 105, 115, 119, 124, fusq, 70 147, 160, 161, 164, 167, 169, 170, 172 Germany, 37 Ibn ‘Abbās, 59, 71, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, Ghifārī, 90 94, 121, 131, 143 governing powers, 52, 171 Ibn ‘Abd al-’Azīz, 72, 74, 76, 115, 116, Governor of Egypt 120, 121, 122, 123, 125, 126, ‘Abdullāh Ibn Sa’d Ibn Abī Sarḥ, 67 128, 129, 131, 132 guardianship, 22, 27, 99, 100 Ibn ‘Aṭiyyah, 56 Ibn ‘Umar, 69, 71, 119, 121, 143 ḥaddathanī, 122, 132 Ibn ‘Uqbah, 90 ḥadīth, 97, 120, 121, 132, 142, 143, Ibn Aflaḥ, 69, 78 144, 153 Ibn al-Aghlab, 149 Ḥafṣ Ibn Abī al-Muqdām, 53 Ibn al-Azraq, 64 ḥajj, 136 Ibn al-Khaḍramī, 90 ḥalqah, 149, 151, 152 Ibn al-Khaṭṭāb, 121 HAMAS, 1 Ibn Bakr, 149 Hamdānī, 90 Ibn Barakah, 136, 137 Ḥanafī, 40, 63, 64, 109, 110, 112, 114, Ibn Duwayj, 90 127, 135 Ibn Findīn, 75 ḥaram, 23 Ibn Ḥabīb, 71, 74, 75, 76, 115, 116, Ḥarawrā’, 86 120, 123, 128, 130, 143 ḥasanah, 131 Ibn Ḥazm, 55, 72, 167 Hashimite, 24, 37, 38 Ibn Karīmah, 84 Hashimites, 67 Ibn Khubāb, 80 Ḥayyān al-A’raj, 71 Ibn Ma’rūf, 74, 75 ḥikmat al-taklīf, 57 Ibn Manṣūr, 115, 116, 132 Hishām, 93 Ibn Marwān, 56, 62, 89, 90 house of justice, 99 Ibn Mas’ūd, 69, 71, 121, 143 household of the Prophet, 38, 67 Ibn Ṣufrah, 71 ḥudaybiyyah, 24 Ibn Wahb, 61, 66, 69, 80, 82 ḥudaybiyyah treaty, 86 Ibn Zaltāf, 82 ḥudūd, 89, 116, 121, 125, 132, 151 identity, 10, 52, 122, 147, 148, 154, Ḥulūliyyah, 57 158, 159, 160, 163, 172 human rights, 38, 127 ijmā’, 117, 118, 121, 122 Index 223 ijtihād, 118, 120, 123, 124, 168, 169 Islamic world, 38 legal reasoning, 73 Islamicists, 1, 4, 15, 17, 18, 49, 85, 94, Ijtihād 107, 108, 113, 114, 134, 142 Ijmā’, 77 islāmiyyūn, 162 Qiyās, 77 isnād, 116, 119, 120, 143, 145 illegitimate, 62, 82, 103, 163 istiḥsān, 121 illiteracy, 38 istijarah, 23 imam, 39, 41, 43 Istiqāmah, 73 imām, 21, 39, 40, 49, 59, 60, 61, 75, Italy, 37 76, 77, 80, 82, 84, 98, 100, 104, 140, 149, 151, 168, 169, 171 Ja’fari, 39 imām al- difā’, 82 Jābir Ibn Zayd, 55, 65, 66, 67, 68, 71, imāmah, 9, 39, 40, 41, 44, 45, 49, 57, 72, 84, 97, 117, 118, 119, 123, 143 61, 67, 75, 76, 81, 95, 170 jabriyyah, 90, 97 imamiyyah, 39 jald, 121, 132 īmān, 20, 53, 70, 95, 97, 98 jamā’at al-muslimīn, 70 imperial rule, 31 janā ‘alā nafsih, 141 indigenous governance, 31 Jibrīl, 97 inequality, 51, 52 jihād, 60, 137, 138, 139, 140, 168 inequity, 52 jinn, 99 infallible, 7, 30, 99, 100, 169. See also Jordan, 38 fallible juḥūd, 70 inquisition, 19, 98, 135, 159 junub, 78 institution, 8, 10, 11, 12, 18, 19, 21, jurisdiction, 40, 152 22, 23, 33, 39, 43, 67, 84, 124, just leader, 41, 100 134, 147, 148, 149, 150, 152, 171, 172 kāfir, 53, 56, 63, 65, 69, 92 insurrection, 50 kāfir al-millah, 63, 65 Iraq, 2, 11, 37, 71, 73, 75, 108, 109, kāfirah, 103 110, 116, 120, 161 kalām, 96, 97, 98 irtadda wa-kafar, 92 kalāmu allāh, 98 islām, 91, 97, 103 Khalf, 77 Islamic civilization, 3, 4, 10, 11, 12, khālī, 154 15, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 29, 31, Khalīfah, 39, 104 35, 36, 42, 44, 45, 47, 48, 51, khalīfat al-muslimīn, 104 52, 96, 97, 101, 104, 107, 111, khalīfat rasūl allāh, 41, 79 114, 134, 154, 158, 162, 163, khamr, 92, 132 170, 172 kharaja, 59, 62, 69 Islamic governance, 31, 39, 42 kharajat ‘alayh, 88 Islamic governance system, 31. See also Kharajites. See kharaja caliphate Ṣaffār, 64 Islamic jurisprudence, 39 kharijism, 1, 11, 12, 48, 53, 57, 58, Islamic societies, 2, 4, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 161, 164 22, 45, 99, 113, 147, 153, 158, khawārij, 48, 57, 58, 59, 60, 65, 69, 72, 164, 172 92, 99, 170 Islamic treaties, 29 khārijī, 72 224 Index khilafah, 39 99, 148, 158, 160, 170, Khomeini, 161 171, 172 khums, 91 legitimate, 9, 39, 42, 50, 58, 59, 60, 62, Khurāsānī, 11, 74, 115, 116, 117, 123 66, 79, 99, 101, 103, 142, 159, khurūj, 59, 60, 61, 62, 81, 98, 102, 167, 168, 169, 170, 172 137, 168, 169 Libya, 3, 8, 38, 69, 72, 76, 77, 149, 161 khuṭbat al-wadā’, 62 licentious, 89 kifāyah, 139 linguistic definitions, 50 kitāb, 11, 108, 116, 122, 123, 131, 133, lutf, 41 136, 142, 168 kitāb al-jāmi’, 133, 136, 142 mā dhahab ilayhi aṣḥābunah, 111 kitmān, 8, 66, 68, 70, 82, 84, 149 ma’ṣiyah, 98, 141 knowledgeable, 20, 41, 44, 150 madhāhib, 110, 114, 126, 135, 167, Kūfah, 60, 73, 80, 86, 90, 115 168, 170 kuffār, 54, 70 madhhab, 109, 110, 111, 113, 119, kūfī, 74 124, 171 kufr, 20, 70, 95, 103 madhāhib, 110 kufr al-millah, 65 Madīnah, 5, 6, 16, 22, 23, 24, 25, 29, 31, 32, 33, 62, 65, 67, 90, 91, 93, lā ḥukma illā lillāh, 66, 69, 80 94, 108, 114, 115, 141 lā ṭā’ah li-makhlūq fī ma’ṣiyat mafḍūl, 75, 76 al-khāliq, 102 Maghāfirī, 68, 77, 82 lā yushrik man ankara siwā allāh, 77 Maḥbūb, 115, 123, 125, 129 latif, 43 Mahdiyyah, 76 leader, 1, 5, 6, 16, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, majority, 2, 6, 12, 21, 38, 44, 45, 48, 29, 30, 31, 34, 35, 39, 40, 41, 54, 58, 60, 61, 75, 81, 101, 102, 42, 43, 44, 45, 52, 60, 62, 64, 104, 107, 112, 117, 127, 140, 65, 66, 68, 70, 76, 79, 81, 82, 141, 154, 155, 159, 161, 164, 83, 87, 88, 90, 91, 98, 103, 169, 171 104, 116, 136, 140, 148, 149, Mālik, 59, 62, 110, 118, 132, 134, 135, 150, 151, 159, 162, 164, 169, 137, 138, 143, 168 171, 172 Malzūzī, 82 leader-select, 21, 44 manslaughter, 28 leadership, 2, 8, 9, 35, 37, 39, 40, 43, mansūkh, 142 44, 45, 47, 48, 49, 51, 65, 66, 67, Maqālāt al-Islāmiyyīn, 53 68, 70, 72, 73, 79, 82, 91, 95, marāji`, 9, 171 119, 147, 148, 154, 159, 164, marāsīl, 142 167, 170, 171, 172 Marwān Ibn al-Ḥakam, 67 legal differentials, 108 mas’alah, 121, 136, 144 legal diversity, 108 masalik al-din, 49 legal reasoning, 73, 115, 124, 144, 145 masālik al-dīn, 49 ijtihād, 98 matn, 120, 142 legal rules, 111, 112, 135, 144 mawali, 111 legislator, 39 Māwardī, 22, 110 legitimacy, 4, 8, 12, 15, 20, 21, 22, mawqūfah, 142 36, 39, 48, 59, 68, 73, 75, 97, Mecca, 23, 24, 31 Index 225

Memluk, 37 najdāt, 63, 64. See also kharajite minarets, 35, 85 subgroups minority, 48 najis, 78 Morocco, 38 Nakkār, 75, 76 mu’āmalāt, 123 Nakkāth, 76 mu’askar al-baghy, 104 nāsikh, 142 Mu’āwiyah, 35, 43, 58, 59, 60, 66, 68, nationalist movements, 37 69, 73, 79, 80, 84, 85, 86, 87, 89, nation-states, 38, 134 91, 101, 104 NATO, 1 Mu’awiyyah, 35, 36, 37, 43 Nfusah, 72, 76, 77, 136, 151 mu’min, 70, 97 ni’mah, 63, 65, 70 Mu’tazilah, 97, 98 nifāq, 90, 95 Mu’tazilism, 53, 98, 109, 112 nikāḥ, 72, 116, 136 Mu’tazilite, 45 noncombatants, 63, 83, 138, 168 mudawwanah, 74, 108, 115, 116, 117, normative declarations, 61 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, Nukhaylah, 68, 69, 73 133, 167, 168 mufīdah, 98 occultation, 9, 172 muhājirīn, 62, 91 Oman, 9, 11, 71, 91, 102, 104, 105, muhājirūn, 42, 62 116, 136, 147, 148, 154, 155, muḥakkimah, 54, 58, 61, 62, 63, 65, 158, 159, 160, 161, 164, 165, 171 69, 80 orthodoxy, 19, 42, 96, 98, 111, 163, Muhammad Ibn Ḥarb, 54 164, 172. See also political mukhālifīhim, 54 Ottoman Empire, 8, 37, 112, 135 mukhālifīnā min ahl al-qiblah, 56 munāfiqūn, 69 Pakistan, 38 munāsabah, 122 political leadership, 9, 39, 45, 66, 68, mushabbihah, 57 109, 125, 161, 169 muṣḥaf, 6, 80, 136 political power, 9, 15, 18, 19, 20, 43, mushrik, 64, 69, 77 51, 159, 164, 165, 171. See also mushrikīn, 54 power mushrikūn, 74 Portugal, 37 mushrikūn, 69 poverty, 38, 165 muslim, 69, 96, 97 power, 23, 31, 35, 36, 37, 40, 41, Muslim Ibn Abī Karīmah, 66, 71 42, 43 Muslim world, 37, 38 primary materials, 12, 47, 125 musnad, 71, 143 probity, 19, 21, 41, 44, 50, 86, 100, mustajir, 23 117, 145 muta’āriḍah, 143 prominence, 81, 82, 84, 109, 114, 136 muwaṭṭa’, 109, 134, 143 Prophet Muhammad, 23, 24, 31, 32 public trust, 48 Naffāth, 76 publicly endorsed, 43 Nāfi’, 61, 63, 64, 66, 90, 143 Nahrawān, 59, 60, 66, 68, 69, 73, qabla al-sā’ah, 93 80, 82 qadar, 54, 74, 97 Najāshī, 62 qadariyyah, 57, 97 226 Index qādiyan, 144 Ribā, 116, 122, 123 qalladū, 94 righteously guided caliphs, 37, 43 Qayrawān, 76 righteously guided caliphate, 37 Qays, 80, 90, 92 righteousness, 6, 67, 83, 88 qiblah, 138 risālah, 110, 118 qiṣāṣ, 126, 127, 129 Roman, 32, 33 qiyās, 115, 118, 121, 122, 169 Roman Empire, 32, 33 qur’ān, 6, 7, 8, 23, 24, 41, 45, 60, 62, rule of law, 40, 165 66, 68, 69, 70, 71, 75, 77, 78, 79, Rustum, 69, 75, 123 80, 81, 82, 86, 89, 90, 92, 93, 94, 97, 98, 99, 100, 117, 118, 120, Sa’d Ibn Abi Waqqas, 34 123, 124, 129, 131, 133, 134, Sa’īd Ibn Nimrān, 59 136, 137, 139, 140, 143, 144, ṣadaqt, 97 149, 150, 151, 155, 157, 159, Ṣafar, 79 167, 169, 171 Ṣaffār, 64 Quraysh, 6, 7, 9, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 31, ṣaḥābī, 65 32, 34, 36, 37, 43, 45, 48, 61, 62, ṣāḥibukum, 88 65, 67 Ṣaḥwān, 90 sakkākiyyah, 74, 77 Rabī’, 71, 74, 75, 76, 115, 116, 117, sanctuaries, 23 120, 122, 125, 128, 129, 130, 143 Saudi Arabia, 3, 38, 49, 95, 161, Rāched al-Ghannouchi, 30, 162. See 164, 165 also Rachid Ghannouchi, 30 schools of thought, 22, 30, 31, 40, 67, radical, 10, 16, 45, 49, 50, 57, 73, 79. 78, 96, 109, 110, 112, 115, 119, See also Change 135, 143, 152, 167, 168, 170, radical changes, 45 172, 173 radicalized, 67, 73 secessionists, 7, 37 Ramadan, 80, 97 secondary literature, 12, 47, 109 Rāsibī, 61, 66, 69, 82 sectarian affiliations, 48 rational choice, 40 sectarian division, 111 Rawāfiḍ, 57 sectarian dogma, 164 rebellion, 4, 7, 8, 10, 12, 15, 47, 48, sectarianism, 4, 8, 16, 53, 56, 58, 70, 49, 50, 51, 52, 62, 63, 68, 79, 99, 73, 75, 104, 111, 154, 160, 162, 101, 102, 104, 105, 138 163, 167, 172 rebellious movements, 33, 45, 73 secularization, 39 rebels, 1, 3, 8, 16, 23, 30, 37, 48, 59, select a leader, 31, 44 60, 66, 69, 79, 97 selection, 31, 32, 40, 42, 43, 44, 45, 58, religious authority, 9, 15, 18, 19, 20, 113, 125 29, 39, 104, 135, 155, 159, 161, Seljuq, 37 163, 164, 165, 169, 170, 171 separatists, 37 religious ethics, 48 shabāb, 94 religious imperative, 40 Shāfi’ī, 94, 108, 109, 110, 112, 115, retribution, 26, 29, 129, 130 118, 135, 142 revolt, 21, 35, 60, 68, 76 Shaghbiyyah, 76 revolution, 4, 12, 16, 36, 47, 50, 51, Shah, 38, 39 52, 67, 96, 99 Shahrastānī, 56, 60, 72 Index 227

Shām, 79, 91 tafsīr, 120 shar’iyyah, 142 taḥkīm, 57, 61, 65, 66, 84 sharī’ah, 20, 21, 41, 45, 113, 122, 135 taḥkīm al-rijāl, 57 Shī’ah, 58, 79, 93 taḥqīq al-manāṭ, 122 shī’at ‘Alī, 79 takfīr, 61, 65 Shi’i, 39, 53, 57, 61, 76, 79, 99, 100, takhṣīṣ, 62 103, 116, 118, 119, 123, 124, ṭalāq, 116, 136 126, 127, 139, 140, 144 Ṭalḥah, 34, 35, 66, 68, 69, 79, 88, 91 Shi’ite, 39, 40, 41, 43, 45 Tamīmī, 73, 80 shirā’, 82, 83, 168 tanāsukhiyyah, 57 shirk, 53, 70, 95 tanqīḥ al-manāṭ, 122 shura, 31, 43, 44, 45 tansib, 43 shūrā council, 43, 44, 45, 149, 152, tashrīk, 61 169, 171 tawḥīd, 102 shurāh, 83 Tehirt, 69 Ṣiffīn, 58, 59, 79, 88, 89. See also term limits, 45 Islamic civil wars textual interpretation, 153 Ṣiyām, 136 the first four caliphs, 39, 40, 171 ṣiyāṭ, 132 theocracy, 18, 42 social history, 10, 49 third world, 38 social stages, 50 torture, 29 state of anarchy, 40 Ṭrābulsī, 77 state of sustained enlightenment, 41 transferability, 29 succession of the Prophet, 40, 41 transgressions, 48 successor, 32 transition, 52, 105 Sudan, 38 Tripoli, 72 Sudūsī, 74, 119 ṭughāt, 70 sulṭān, 37, 38, 39, 102, 103, 104, 138 Tunisia, 3, 8, 38, 69, 76, 149, 162, 163 Sunnah, 7, 28, 29, 30, 42, 45, 58, 66, Turkey, 37, 38 68, 70, 75, 77, 78, 79, 81, 82, 86, Turkish Republic, 163 90, 92, 93, 94, 99, 100, 115, 118, twelver shi’ites, 39 120, 123, 124, 133, 134, 136, 139, 140, 143, 144, 157, 167, 169, 171 Umayyad caliph, 35 Sunni, 2, 4, 8, 9, 11, 22, 39, 40, 41, 44, Umayyads, 36, 41 45, 53, 57, 61, 66, 79, 84, 85, 96, ummah, 9, 17, 20, 21, 25, 29, 33, 34, 99, 100, 103, 104, 105, 107, 108, 35, 37, 39, 40, 41, 45, 55, 56, 58, 109, 111, 116, 117, 118, 119, 70, 78, 82, 84, 102, 103, 117, 122, 123, 124, 126, 127, 133, 118, 171, 172 134, 139, 140, 143, 144, 161, unjust rulers, 65, 73, 84, 104 168, 169, 170, 171, 172 uprightness, 20, 24, 28, 29, 159 Syria, 38 uprisings, 45, 51, 52, 62, 79, 97 Usama, 33 Ṭā’ī, 71 uṣūl al-dīn, 96 tabarru’, 74 tabghiya, 86 violence, 4, 23, 25, 43, 50, 51, 52, Tābi`ī, 65 96, 158 228 Index wa’d wa-‘l-wa’īd, 92 yarjūn, 98 Wadā’ Abū ‘Ubaydah Muslim, 66 Yazīd, 53, 54, 61, 62, 63, 75, 76, 90, Wahhabism, 95, 161, 164 135. See also Umayyad caliph wahhābiyyah, 95 Yazīd Ibn Mu’āwiyah, 61, 62 waḥy, 6, 30 Yazīd Ibn Unaysah, 53 Weber, 51 Yemen, 2, 38, 59, 68, 92, 109, 115, 137 Western countries, 37 yūqifā, 143 Western modernization, 38 Western thought, 47 ẓāhir, 90 wilāyah, 99 zakāh, 16, 32, 33, 34, 76, 78, 79, 91, wilāyat ahl wilāyat allāh, 92 97, 116, 131 will of the ummah, 41 Zayd Ibn Unaysah, 55 wuqūf, 101 Zaydis, 40 wuqūf, 95 Zenatah, 72 Zubayr, 62, 65, 66, 68, 69, 79, 88, 91, Yaḥyā Ibn Kāmil, 54 101 Yamāmah, 63, 64 ẓuhūr, 81, 82, 84, 149