BEAR CREEK WATERSHED ASSESSMENT PLACER COUNTY, CALIFORNIA

Prepared for:

Prepared by:

PO Box 8568 Truckee, California 96162

February 16, 2018 And

Dr. Susan Lindstrom, PhD

BEAR CREEK WATERSHED ASSESSMENT – PLACER COUNTY – CALIFORNIA

February 16, 2018

A REPORT PREPARED FOR: Truckee River Watershed Council PO Box 8568 Truckee, California 96161 (530) 550-8760 www.truckeeriverwc.org by

Brian Hastings Balance Hydrologics Geomorphologist

Matt Wacker HT Harvey and Associates Restoration Ecologist

Reviewed by:

David Shaw Balance Hydrologics Principal Hydrologist

© 2018 Balance Hydrologics, Inc. Project Assignment: 217121 800 Bancroft Way, Suite 101 ~ Berkeley, California 94710-2251 ~ (510) 704-1000 ~ [email protected]

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Project Goals and Objectives 1 1.2 Structure of This Report 4 1.3 Acknowledgments 4 1.4 Work Conducted 5

2 BACKGROUND 6 2.1 Truckee River Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) 6 2.2 Water Resource Regulations Specific to Bear Creek 7

3 WATERSHED SETTING 9 3.1 Watershed Geology 13 3.1.1 Bedrock Geology and Structure 17 3.1.2 Glaciation 18 3.2 Hydrologic Soil Groups 19 3.3 Hydrology and Climate 24 3.3.1 Hydrology 24 3.3.2 Climate 24 3.3.3 Climate Variability: Wet and Dry Periods 24 3.3.4 Climate Change 33 3.4 Bear Creek Water Quality 33 3.4.1 Review of Available Water Quality Data 33 3.5 Sediment Transport 39 3.6 Biological Resources 40 3.6.1 Land Cover and Vegetation Communities 40 3.6.2 Invasive Species 53 3.6.3 Wildfire 53 3.6.4 General Wildlife 57 3.6.5 Special-Status Species 59 3.7 Disturbance History 74 3.7.1 Livestock Grazing 74 3.7.2 Logging 74 3.7.3 Roads and Ski Area Development 76

4 WATERSHED CONDITION 81 4.1 Stream, Riparian, and Meadow Corridor Assessment 81

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4.1.1 Hydrologic Analysis 82 4.1.2 Channel Reach Classification 84 4.1.3 Channel Form and Ecological Function 89 4.2 Road Networks, Snow and Stormwater Runoff 109 4.3 Uplands and Ski Area Development 114 4.3.1 Deer Park Ski Area 114 4.3.2 Alpine Meadows Ski Area 116

5 ASSESSMENT CONCLUSIONS 120

6 DISTURBANCE INVENTORY AND RESTORATION OPPORTUNITIES 122

7 LIMITATIONS 125

8 REFERENCES CITED 126

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LIST OF TABLES Table 2-1 Beneficial Uses, Bear Creek, Placer County, California 7 Table 2-2 Water Quality Standards, Bear Creek, Placer County, California 7 Table 3-1 Summary of recent wet and dry climate periods in Truckee River Basin 28 Table 3-2 Annual Peak Flows in Watersheds near Bear Creek, Placer County, California 31 Table 3-3 Land Cover Types in the Bear Creek Watershed 45 Table 4-1 Estimated monthly average and minimum streamflow, Bear Creek, Placer County, California 82 Table 4-2 Estimated Flood Frequency-Magnitude, Bear Creek, Placer County, California 83 Table 4-3 Bear Creek and tributary geomorphology, condition, and general descriptions, Placer County, California 86 Table 6-1 Management actions and restoration opportunities, Bear Creek watershed, Placer County, California 123

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1-1 Bear Creek watershed regional location map showing streamflow gages and other features, Middle Truckee River Basin, California. 2 Figure 3-1 Bear Creek Watershed and study area, Placer County, California. 11 Figure 3-2 Geologic Map, Bear Creek Watershed, Placer County, California. 15 Figure 3-3 West to east geologic cross-section of the Bear Creek watershed, northern ridge, Placer County, California (adapted from Sylvester and others, 2012). 18 Figure 3-4 Hydrologic soil groups, Bear Creek watershed and vicinity, Placer County, California. 21 Figure 3-5 Percent Deviation and Cumulative Percent Deviation from Mean Annual Precipitation, Truckee Ranger Station, Truckee, California, WY1904- WY1919, WY1934-WY2017. 27 Figure 3-6 Instantaneous water temperature in Bear Creek (Reach A), WY2003- WY2016, Placer County, California. 36 Figure 3-7 Instantaneous pH values in Bear Creek (Reach A), WY2003-WY2016, Placer County, California. 37

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Figure 3-8 Instantaneous dissolved oxygen values in Bear Creek (Reach A), WY2003- WY2016, Placer County, California. 38 Figure 3-9 Instantaneous turbidity values in Bear Creek (Reach A), partial WY2003- WY2016, Placer County, California. 39 Figure 3-10 Estimated streamflow and suspended-sediment discharge correlation, Bear Creek, Placer County, California. (adapted from McGraw and others, 2001). 40 Figure 3-11 Vegetation communities, Bear Creek Watershed, Placer County, California. 43 Figure 3-12 Sensitive plant communities and invasive plants, Bear Creek watershed, Placer County, California. 51 Figure 3-13 Historical wildfire perimeters (left) and wildfire threat (right) in the Bear Creek and region, Placer County, California. 55 Figure 3-14 Special-status plant occurrences, Bear Creek watershed, Placer County, California. 61 Figure 3-15 Special status wildlife occurrences, Bear Creek watershed, Placer County, California. 62 Figure 3-16 Areas of historical logging, Bear Creek watershed, Placer County, California (Lindstrom, 2017). 75 Figure 3-17 Map showing stormwater subwatersheds and major stormwater outfalls, Placer County maintained roads, Bear Creek watershed, Placer County, California (Placer County, 2017). 79 Figure 4-1 Map showing geomorphic channel reaches, major tributaries, Bear Creek Watershed, Placer County, California. 85 Figure 4-2 Longitudinal Profile of Bear Creek, Placer County, California. 87 Figure 4-3 Expected channel geomorphology based on slope, Bear Creek watershed reaches, Placer County, California (adapted from Montgomery and Buffington, 1997). 88 Figure 4-4 Reach A showing confluence with Truckee River and wet meadow complex, Bear Creek, Placer County, California. 90 Figure 4-5 Reach B showing boulder-dominated step-pool morphology and steep sideslopes of a channel cutting through a glacial moraine, Bear Creek, Placer County, California. 92 Figure 4-6 Reach C showing a meandering alluvial channel and wet meadow complex, Bear Creek, Placer County, California. 93

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Figure 4-7 Reach C showing an incised channel with active bank erosion, Bear Creek, Placer County, California. 94 Figure 4-8 Incised spring-fed tributary to Reach C, Bear Creek, Placer County, California. 95 Figure 4-9 Historical conditions, Lower Bear Creek Meadow, Placer County, California. 97 Figure 4-10 Reach D showing bedrock channel and mixed willow-conifer riparian, Bear Creek, Placer County, California. 99 Figure 4-11 Reach E, Bear Creek, Placer County, California. 100 Figure 4-12 Sediment plugged culvert inlet, Alpine Meadows Road at Five Lakes Trailhead, Placer County, California. 101 Figure 4-13 Active channel and bank erosion downstream from Five Lakes Trailhead, Tributary to Reach E, Bear Creek, Placer County, California. 102 Figure 4-14 Reach F, Bear Creek, Placer County, California. 103 Figure 4-15 Reach G, Bear Creek, Placer County, California. 104 Figure 4-16 Reach H, Bear Creek, Placer County, California. 105 Figure 4-17 Meadow encroachment and stream enclosure in culverts, Alpine Meadows Ski Area, Placer County, California. 107 Figure 4-18 Riparian mortality from snow storage, Bear Creek (Reach I), Placer County, California. 108 Figure 4-19 Drainage Path Map Bear Creek Watershed, Placer County, California. 111 Figure 4-20 Stream capture from private/USFS road, Road Area #2 (USFS, 2016), Placer County, California. 113 Figure 4-21 Active grading of wide shoulders that drain directly to Bear Creek, Alpine Meadows Road, Placer County, California. 114 Figure 4-22 Aerial view of former Deer Park Ski Area, showing areas lacking vegetation, hillside rilling, and stormwater ditch, Bear Creek watershed, Placer County, California. 116 Figure 4-23 Diverted stream and erosion on Kangaroo Run, Alpine Meadows Ski Area, Tahoe National Forest, Placer County, California. 117 Figure 4-24 Erosion along water lines, adjacent to Meadow Chair, Alpine Meadows Ski Area, Tahoe National Forest, Placer County, California. 118 Figure 6-1 Management actions and restoration opportunity locations, Bear Creek watershed, Placer County, California. 124

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APPENDICES Appendix A Invasive and Sensitive Species

Appendix B History, Culture, and Historical Land-Use (Lindstrom, 2017)

Appendix C Representative Photographs of Bear Creek by Reach with GPS Location Coordinates (Transmitted Separately)

Appendix D Stream Reconnaissance Field Forms

Appendix E Spatial Data in GIS (Transmitted Separately)

Appendix F Project Sheets

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1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Project Goals and Objectives

This assessment describes the geomorphology, hydrology and ecology of the Bear Creek watershed (Figure 1-1), expanding on a U.S. Forest Service sediment source assessment of the Truckee River between Lake Tahoe and the Town of Truckee (USFS, 2016). The USFS assessment concluded that a more detailed investigation was needed to gather additional information pertinent to effective design and monitoring to reduce sediment contributions from Bear Creek to the Truckee River. This assessment has been carried out to provide the science needed to identify management and/or restoration opportunities in the watershed.

This assessment is a technical study to be used by the Truckee River Watershed Council (TRWC) to: 1) identify and protect functioning areas with high ecological value; 2) identify disturbed areas with impaired functions and values, 3) understand the root causes of these disturbances; and 4) present a list of possible management actions and restoration opportunities. TRWC and stakeholders will use our findings described in this assessment to select 1 to 5 projects for design.

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Figure 1-1 Bear Creek watershed regional location map showing streamflow gages and other features, Middle Truckee River Basin, California.

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We seek to address the following questions:

• Which rock types and soils are sensitive to disturbances?

• What is the condition of botanical and vegetative communities in the meadows and to what extent is channel incision or meadow desiccation active?

• Do threatened, endangered or sensitive species occur in the watershed? If so, what are they and what habitats do they occupy?

• How important are the Bear Creek Valley springs to supporting wet meadow habitat, baseflow and aquatic habitat in the Bear Creek and the Truckee River?

• Are there management actions that could be implemented to protect the springs and maintain clean, cold waters in the Truckee River?

• How does the watershed’s high annual precipitation and snowmelt interact with the road network and impact existing water quality or channel conditions?

• Are sediment sources in the watershed attributed to natural factors, legacy impacts, current land-uses or cumulative effects from both?

• What and where are the main historical land uses and to what degree have land management practices introduced or exacerbated sediment sources to Bear Creek and ultimately, the Truckee River?

• Do the watershed’s impervious areas generate measurable excess stormwater runoff and how does this runoff impact Bear Creek and its tributaries?

• How do recreational uses impact watershed resources?

• What restoration and land management strategies should be implemented to protect habitat and improve water quality?

We note that this assessment was carried out within a short time frame which required our team to limit our field work to areas accessible to the public and in areas of concern as identified by other individuals familiar with the watershed, as well as our professional and personal experience in the watershed. This assessment does not attempt to a) evaluate individual landowner’s ‘housekeeping’, b) provide an environmental ‘audit’ of any single land manager, or c) evaluate impacts of proposed development in the watershed. At least three proposed developments in the watershed are in various stages of planning and environmental review under the California Environmental Quality Act (CEQA), separate from this assessment. These include:

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• Base to base Squaw-Alpine Gondola Project

• Alpine Sierra Subdivision

• White Wolf Subdivision and Ski Area

1.2 Structure of This Report

This report provides a comprehensive description of the historic, biologic, ecologic, hydrologic, and geomorphic setting for the Bear Creek watershed. The initial section (Section 2) provides some regulatory context for this assessment with the goal of improving water quality and aquatic habitat in the Truckee River. Section 3 describes the watershed setting including geology, hydrology, and ecology. Section 4 provides an assessment of the watershed condition based on background information collected, multi-day site reconnaissance, and limited analyses. Our assessment was primarily focused on the Bear Creek corridor, but includes limited evaluation of the watershed road network, stormwater concerns, and uplands. We summarize relevant conclusions from our assessment in Section 5 to provide the foundation for a catalogue of disturbance sites and management recommendations or restoration actions (Section 6).

1.3 Acknowledgments

This work and information presented in this report draws on information and efforts kindly provided by a number of individuals, landowners, and agencies. We would like to thank Troy Caldwell, owner of the White Wolf property, for providing our team with a tour of his land, water resources, and an outline of his land management practices. Troy also provided our team with some anecdotal historical information and ideas regarding trail and trailhead management. John Collins provided maps and access to the Alpine Springs Water District facilities and springs. Casey Blan with Squaw Valley Ski Holdings provided us access along roads on Alpine Meadows Ski Area. Katrina Smolen (HydroRestoration) provided Balance with background documents for Alpine Meadows Waste Discharge Requirements. We also thank Sharon Falvey (USFS) for her time to guide us on a tour some of the priority projects identified in the USFS Middle Truckee River Tributaries Sediment Source Assessment (2016). Finally, we thank Tim Boyer (Placer County) for his personal tour of the watershed’s stormwater infrastructure, current operations and maintenance, and existing issues.

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1.4 Work Conducted

The Bear Creek Watershed Assessment was carried out by a multi-disciplinary team of staff from Balance Hydrologics (hydrology and geomorphology), H. T. Harvey & Associates (restoration ecology, botany, and wildlife biology), and Dr. Susan Lindström, Consulting Archaeologist (historical land use). We began this assessment with a review of available background information, drawing on many sources, including: historical maps, photos, aerial photographs, oral histories, land- and water-use histories, cultural resources, spatial (GIS) data, geologic and soil maps, and interviews with long-time residents of the watershed. A reconnaissance-based field assessment of the biological and hydrological resources was completed in September and October 2017.

This assessment has been conducted under contract to the Truckee River Watershed Council, and is funded by donors to the TRWC and the Martis Fund.

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2 BACKGROUND

2.1 Truckee River Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL)

Water resources in California are regulated by the Clean Water Act (CWA) and managed by the California State Water Resources Control Board (SWRCB), separated into nine different regions. Bear Creek is located within the Lahontan Region, regulated by the Lahontan Regional Water Quality Control Board (LRWQCB). The mission of the SWRCB and its regions is: To preserve, enhance, and restore the quality of California’s water resources and drinking water for the protection of the environment, public health, and all beneficial uses, and to ensure proper water resource allocation and efficient use, for the benefit of present and future generations (LRWQCB, 2017).

The CWA requires states to evaluate all surface waters, establish water quality standards sufficient to protect beneficial uses and identify constituents that impair beneficial uses. The CWA requires that the State establish a priority ranking for these impaired waters, also known as the 303(d) list of impaired waters. Furthermore, the CWA requires the state to develop and implement total maximum daily loads (TMDLs) for constituents of concern as necessary to address impairment. A TMDL specifies the maximum amount of a pollutant that a waterbody can receive and still meet water quality standards, and it allocates pollutant loadings to point and non-point sources such that those standards will be met.

The Middle Truckee River, delineated as the reach between Lake Tahoe and the California-Nevada state line, was listed as impaired for suspended sediment concentration in 1992 (Amorfini and Holden, 2008). At higher stream flows, suspended sediment concentrations in the Truckee River are above those recommended for aquatic life protection. In 2008, a TMDL was adopted, and outlined actions to be taken to improve conditions watershed-wide, including reducing sediment from roads, ski areas, erodible landscapes and urban zones. The TMDL is implemented in part through the issuances of discharge permits under the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES), including NPDES permits for ski resorts and Municipal Separate Storm Sewer System (MS4) permits for Placer County, the Town of Truckee, and CalTrans, with assistance from local non-profits. Although sediment concentration and load trends have shown improvement based on monitoring results from WY2011 through WY2015 (CDM Smith and Balance Hydrologics, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, and 2016), biotic indices (numeric analyses of the population and diversity of benthic macroinvertebrates living on the streambed) indicate continued impairment by sediment as the diversity and number of insects has been impacted and decreased. The LRWQCB is currently reviewing the

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appropriateness of the Truckee River TMDL (LRWQCB, 2015). Efforts by land managers and non-profit organizations in the watershed continue to identify sediment sources and develop management strategies to improve water quality and habitat conditions in the Truckee River.

2.2 Water Resource Regulations Specific to Bear Creek

Bear Creek supports many beneficial uses, as identified by the LRWQCB and listed in Table 2-1.

Table 2-1 Beneficial Uses, Bear Creek, Placer County, California

Code Beneficial Use

MUN Municipal and Domestic Water Supply AGR Agricultural Water Supply IND Industrial Service Water Supply GWR Groundwater Recharge REC-1 Water Contact Recreation REC-2 Non-contact Recreation COMM Commercial and Sports Fishing COLD Cold Freshwater Habitat WILD Wildlife Habitat RARE Rare, Threatened, or Endangered Species MIGR Migration of Aquatic Organisms SPWN Spawning, Reproduction and Development

A variety of numeric and narrative water quality standards apply to all surface waters within the Lahontan Region, including Bear Creek, as shown in Table 2-2.

Table 2-2 Water Quality Standards, Bear Creek, Placer County, California

Constituent Concentration*

Total Dissolved Solids 65 mg/L Total Nitrogen 0.15 mg/L Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen 0.10 mg/L Total Phosphorus 0.02 mg/L Chloride 2.0 mg/L Sulfate 2.0 mg/L Turbidity 3 NTU

* Mean of monthly means: arithmetic mean of the 30-day average for the period of record

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Bear Creek was first included on the 303(d) list in 1991 as impaired by sedimentation and siltation, mostly affecting beneficial use as cold freshwater habitat. The data that support this listing are included in a 1976 report, Siltation Evaluation for the Lake Tahoe Basin, (LRWQCB, 1976). The report concluded that street and parking lot runoff from Alpine Meadows Ski Area was carrying silt and nutrients to Bear Creek. Snow storage operations from the parking lot were identified as the most likely source for the pollutants in question. At that time, snow was stored near the stream banks directly in Bear Creek. In addition to Alpine Meadows snow disposal management practices, a snowmaking pond embankment failed on December 6, 1988, discharging approximately one million gallons of sediment laden water directly into Bear Creek (Wilson, 2003).

In response, the LRWQCB required Alpine Meadows Ski Area to adopt Waste Discharge Requirements (WDR) and comply with the Lahontan Basin Plan (1995) water quality standards shown in Table 2-2. Each year, Alpine Meadows implements best management practices on the mountain to address protection of sensitive habitat and water quality. They also conduct their own water quality monitoring program to comply with the WDR (Smolen, K., pers. comm., 2017). Results from this on-going monitoring effort may be useful to our understanding of water quality in the upper watershed; however, annual reports were unavailable for review at the time of this assessment.

Stormwater and winter road sand applications were additional concerns to the LRWQCB, as they related to sedimentation of Bear Creek. In 2003, Placer County was issued a Municipal Separate Storm Sewer System (MS4) permit to discharge stormwater to Bear Creek from county-maintained roads. To comply with the permit, the County developed and implemented a Stormwater Management Plan (Phase II, Middle Truckee River), and helped to develop the Truckee River Water Quality Monitoring Program (TRWQMP, 2ND Nature, 2008). To reduce the amount of road sand applied to the roads, the County has been applying brine solution in recent years as an alternative (Boyer, T., pers. comm., 2017). The Monitoring Program is currently being carried out by CDM-Smith under the direction of Placer County, and includes rapid assessment methods and inventory and evaluation of stormwater outfalls (CDM Smith and Balance Hydrologics, 2017).

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3 WATERSHED SETTING

The Bear Creek watershed is within the Sierra Nevada Range, roughly 11 miles south of Truckee, California. Bear Creek is a tributary to the Middle Truckee River approximately 3.7 miles downstream from Lake Tahoe. The 5.2 square mile watershed ranges in elevation from 6,187 feet at the confluence with the Truckee River to 8,600 feet at Ward Peak along the Sierra Nevada Crest. The watershed includes multiple springs, wet meadows and several alpine lakes, all of which support perennial flow in Bear Creek (Figure 3-1).

The watershed contains evidence that the area was used by the Washoe native peoples and their ancestors prior to and when European exploration and occupation began in 1860. Basque sheep herders seasonally occupied the upper portions of the watershed between 1880 and 1960. Trees were harvested between 1881 and 1963, but logging was limited within the watershed compared to other nearby areas. Perennial springs in the watershed attracted visitors who traveled the Tahoe railway from Truckee to Tahoe City, and recreation in the form of skiing began with development of Powder Bowl (a.k.a. Deer Park Ski Area) in the 1950s, and subsequently Ward Peak Ski Area in the 1960s, today known as Alpine Meadows Ski Area. Additional development followed in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s with the construction of primary and secondary homes. Today, a modern sewer and water district supports over 1,500 residential units in the watershed and recreation in the form of skiing, hiking, mountain biking, and horseback riding continues to be a major attraction.

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Figure 3-1 Bear Creek Watershed and study area, Placer County, California.

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3.1 Watershed Geology

The Bear Creek watershed is located within a transition zone between the Basin and Range and Sierra Nevada geomorphic provinces. The region’s geology is characterized by a dynamic period of Tertiary volcanic activity that occurred between 5 and 24 million years ago, juxtaposed against older Cretaceous granodiorite as the result of intrusion and faulting. Mississippian and Jurassic metasedimentary rocks are exposed in the Alpine Meadows Ski Area near the Sierra Crest, all uplifted and displaced by faulting. Over the past 90,000 years, several periods of glaciation and erosion have given rise to the more visible features and landforms in the valley. Bear Creek continues to rework bedrock and sediment and transport it to the Truckee River. Figure 3-2 is a watershed geologic map showing the distribution of geologic formations in the watershed, as based on Sylvester and others (2012) and discussed in greater detail below.

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Figure 3-2 Geologic Map, Bear Creek Watershed, Placer County, California.

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3.1.1 BEDROCK GEOLOGY AND STRUCTURE

The geology of the Bear Creek watershed is a complex region of the Sierra Nevada with rocks ranging in age between ~340 Ma (Mississippian) to as recent as 3 Ma (Pliocene). To better describe the bedrock geology, we divide our discussion into three distinct periods of geologic time.

The oldest rocks in the watershed are characterized by Mississippian schist (Mls) and Jurassic metasedimentary (Jlb) rocks—both deposited originally as marine sediments before being deformed and metamorphosed by subsequent intrusions of the Sierra Nevada batholith or granitic bodies and subsequent volcanism (Sylvester and others, 2012). These rocks are moderately resistant to erosion and form coarse colluvial slopes, steep cliffs and couloirs.

The Paleozoic and Middle Mesozoic rocks describe above were uplifted and intruded by the Sierra Nevada batholith in the Cretaceous period, including hornblende-biotite- granodiorites, which characterize the Five Lakes area and White Wolf parcel. These rocks are highly resistant to erosion and form areas of exposed granitic outcrops in the watershed.

After erosion of the Jurassic crystalline rocks, the batholith was intruded by Tertiary volcanics including pillow basalts, dikes, and sills. The watershed sideslopes, downstream from Alpine Meadows, show remnants of lava flows and pyroclastic rocks. KT-22 peak is the remnant of a volcanic neck (Tsi) which once supported a stratovolcano, thousands of feet higher than existing elevations. Ward Peak, is composed of andesitic lava flows (Tsha), and Scott Peak’s lower ridgelines include stratified volcaniclastic deposits (Tss, Tsp) that originated from volcanic vents and cones. These features and deposits weather and erode easily and form the couloirs and colluvial slopes seen throughout much of the watershed. A west to east cross section along the watershed’s northern ridgeline is depicted in Figure 3-3 and illustrates the inferred character of the former Pliocene stratovolcanoes which are now extinct and eroded to the current elevations.

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Figure 3-3 West to east geologic cross-section of the Bear Creek watershed, northern ridge, Placer County, California (adapted from Sylvester and others, 2012).

Several north-northwest trending faults dissect the watershed, part of the Tahoe-Sierra Frontal Fault Zone with normal (extensional) faulting. Movement of this fault zone has resulted in downthrow on the east side and upthrow on the west. Fault displacement is estimated between 800 and 4,000 feet (Sylvester and others, 2012) and is responsible for the juxtaposition of different aged rocks. Faults also play a role in stream channel control or planform. Several tributaries follow a north-south alignment parallel to fault traces or form 90-degree bends where they intersect fault traces. The presence of perennial springs in the watershed also appear to be related to the fault traces and provide hydrologic support to meadow systems and baseflow in Bear Creek. Recent fault activity has been documented with potential for moderate to high magnitude earthquakes. A close spatial association of landslides and active faults along other sections of the Tahoe- Sierra Frontal Fault Zone suggests that landslides have been seismically triggered (Howle and others, 2012), and may be a significant episodic source of sediment to the Truckee River.

3.1.2 GLACIATION

The Bear Creek Watershed was subject to several glaciations between 10,000 and 90,000 years ago, leaving behind distinct landforms and soil types. Glacial advance created terminal and lateral moraines-- unconsolidated boulder, gravel, and sand deposits.

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During glacial retreat, streams transported glacial outwash and alluvium, ultimately filling the valley segments. Sediment accumulated behind moraines and bedrock narrows to form the meadows we observe today. The youngest (Tioga) moraines are typically well- preserved with abundant boulder frequency, and tend to control streams rather than be modified by them. Tioga-aged glacial terrace deposits are preserved in a number of locations near an elevation of 6,800 feet (Birkeland, 1964; Sylvester and others. 2012), and are highly susceptible to erosion by modern streams, serving as a source of fine and coarse sediment to downstream areas.

Other glacier landforms are well preserved in the watershed. Lake Estelle and its bowl- shaped perch is a glacial tarn and cirque. Truncated, north-facing drainages on Scott Peak are evidence of smaller tributary glaciers that converged with the mainstem trunk glacier to create hanging valleys.

Areas adjacent to the Truckee River, upstream from the Bear Creek confluence, are underlain by glacial lake clays or varves. These likely formed during the Tahoe glaciation when larger tributary glaciers dammed the Truckee River and Lake Tahoe at Squaw Creek. This low-energy environment caused deposition of glacial silts and clays at the mouth of Bear Creek. These clays are erodible and serve as another source of fine sediment to lower Bear Creek and the Truckee River when exposed.

3.2 Hydrologic Soil Groups

The soils mantling the watershed generally reflect the underlying geologic units from which they have developed. As discussed in Section 3.2, the granitic bedrock is exposed in the northern portions of the watershed with limited to no soil development. Much of the uplands and steeper slopes include soils derived from volcanic rocks. Soils located in the valley bottom are weathered from glacial deposits and alluvium. In total, over 30 different soils are mapped within the watershed (Hanes, 2002). For the purposes of this assessment, we grouped soil types into their hydrologic groups (Figure 3-4) with each group defined below. Hydrologic groups provide information about infiltration, runoff potential and/or saturation:

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Figure 3-4 Hydrologic soil groups, Bear Creek watershed and vicinity, Placer County, California.

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• Group A soils have low runoff potential and high infiltration rates even when thoroughly wetted. They consist chiefly of deep, well- to excessively-drained sands or gravels and have a high rate of water transmission.

• Group B soils have a moderate infiltration rate when thoroughly wetted and consists chiefly or moderately deep to deep, moderately well to well drained soils with moderately fine to moderately coarse textures.

• Group C have low infiltration rates when thoroughly wetted and consist chiefly of soils with a layer that impedes downward movement of water and soils with moderately fine to fine structure.

• Group D soils have the highest runoff potential. They have very low infiltration rates when thoroughly wetted and consist chiefly of clay soils with a high swelling potential, soils. These include soils with a claypan or clay layer at or near the surface and shallow soils over nearly impervious material (i.e., bedrock).

• BR is exposed bedrock.

Many of the soils in the watershed are composed of Group D (41 percent of the watershed) and are soils that are susceptible to high runoff and subsequent erosion. These areas include many of the uplands, including: Alpine Meadows Ski Area, residential areas along the Upper Bench Road and Juniper Mountain Road, and the Five Lakes Tributary.

In contrast, many of the alluvial and glacial derived soils in the watershed are categorized as Group A. While these soils may have high infiltration properties and low rates of runoff, they can easily be eroded if subjected to vegetation removal and excessive runoff or concentrated stormwater. The Lower Bear Creek meadow is one such area we see these soils easily erode from historical land-uses and excess stormwater runoff. However, if these sources of erosion are managed, these areas also provide the greatest opportunities to restore meadow systems or areas that support wetland vegetation and habitats.

Roughly 7 percent of the watershed is composed of exposed bedrock, and 32 percent of the watershed is mapped as belonging to Hydrologic Soil Group B.

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3.3 Hydrology and Climate

3.3.1 HYDROLOGY

Bear Creek is a perennial, snowmelt-dominated stream, with annual peak flows typically occurring between March and June, coincident with snowmelt, but occasional rain-on- snow events result in significant flooding during winter months. Baseflow is supported by spring-fed tributaries. An analysis of monthly flows between WY1973 and WY2015 showed that Bear Creek provided between 10 and 15 percent of the streamflow in the Truckee River (near Truckee) during the months of April and May (Shaw, 2015). As such, springs provide an important source of baseflow and support aquatic habitat in Bear Creek and the Truckee River.

3.3.2 CLIMATE

The Bear Creek watershed experiences cold and snowy/wet winters and warm dry summers. Average daily minimum and maximum temperatures can range between 27 and 58 degrees Fahrenheit (F) with extremes below zero and above 90 degrees F. Precipitation falls mostly as snow between the months of November and April, with rain in the fall months of September and October and occasional afternoon thunderstorms during the summer months. Mean annual precipitation ranges from approximately 50 inches (WRCC, 2017).

3.3.3 CLIMATE VARIABILITY: WET AND DRY PERIODS

Watershed processes are dependent on several factors including climate variability, as marked by periods of greater than average precipitation (‘wet periods’) and periods of below average precipitation or drought. Identification of historical wet and dry periods is an important component of this assessment, and provides context during evaluation and comparison of current and historical conditions. For example, wetland desiccation or meadow conversion to drier conditions may be a relatively temporary phenomenon resulting from successive dry periods (e.g., Water Years[WY] 2007-2015)1 rather than a conversion due to land-use practices, while a series of wet years or a single wet year can recharge local groundwater and support a robust meadow and riparian community (e.g., WY2017) in the short term. Similarly, a single large flood event or succession of floods can generate significant changes to channel patterns or sediment supply—in effect, resetting the riparian community (e.g., January 1, 1997, January 8, 2017), and riparian

1 Unless otherwise noted, all years are referred to as ‘water years’ in this report. A water year begins on October 1 and ends on September 30 of the named year.

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change associated with large floods can be further exacerbated during and shortly after dry periods, when soil stability can be compromised by weakened vegetation and root structure.

Figure 3-5 illustrates year-to-year precipitation variability. It shows the annual percent deviation and cumulative percent deviation from mean annual precipitation for Truckee Ranger Station, Truckee, California (station TKE, NRCS). This station is used for its long period of record (WY1904-current), and along with Table 3-1, provides context for interpretation of historical conditions, aerial photography and field investigations carried out as part of this assessment.

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100 500 Mean annual precipitation 30.2 inches 80 400

60 300

40 200

20 100

0 0 1918 1938 1940 1958 1960 1962 1978 1980 1982 1984 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 1904 1906 1908 1910 1912 1914 1916 1920 1922 1924 1926 1928 1930 1932 1934 1936 1942 1944 1946 1948 1950 1952 1954 1956 1964 1966 1968 1970 1972 1974 1976 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016

-20 -100 Percent Deviation from Mean Annual Precipitation Annual Mean from Deviation Percent

-40 No data for -200 WY1920-WY1932 Precipitation Annual Mean from Deviation Percent Cumulative

-60 -300 Sources: station TKE(Truckee), US Forest Service, 6,020 feet elevation, California Data Exchange Center (CDEC)

Figure 3-5 Percent Deviation and Cumulative Percent Deviation from Mean Annual Precipitation, Truckee Ranger Station, Truckee, California, WY1904 -WY1919, WY1934 -WY2017.

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Table 3-1 Summary of recent wet and dry climate periods in Truckee River Basin

Date Annual precipitation characteristics Documented conditions Source

Dry Periods Tahoe City registered annual precipitation below long- Western Regional Climate Center, station #048758; 1928-1935 term mean annual precipitation for each year within Lake Tahoe ceased to spill to the Truckee River Canyon National Weather Service station ID: TAC; Lindstrom, this period. 2011 1976-1977 Significant below average precipitation for both years Lake Tahoe lake levels reached lowest recorded 1994 and 1987 were the first and second driest elevation in 1992; massive timber mortality due to insect 1987-1994 USFS, 2009; Lindstrom, 2017, CDEC, 2017 years on record, respectively. investations; low snowfall amounts 1990-1992 for Webber Lake Annual precipitation was below average in all four Martis wildfire, 2001; other significant wildfires in the 2000-2004 USFS, 2009 years greater Tahoe area; Annual precipitation was below average in all years observed meadow dessication; conifer encroachment; 2007-2015 Balance Hydrologics observations except 2011 Lake Tahoe ceased to spill to the Truckee River in 2015

Wet Periods

Longest period in the documented record in which 1875-1915 unavailable Truckee River flows were above average; era of historic Lindstrom, 2011 logging and fluming activies; water rights first evaluated.

Cumulative precipitation deviated +79 percent above Most significant flooding on record for the Tahoe-Reno 1950-1952, 1956 Kattleman, 1992, USFS, 2009 long-term mean annual precipitation in 1952 area (1955) Cumulative precipitation deviated +166 percent above 1962-1971 Major floods in 1963 and 1964 USFS, 2017 long-term mean annual precipitation by 1971

Average annual snowpack of up to 200 percent; 1983 became the standard "High Water Year" for Significant flooding along the Truckee River (March 1982-1983, 1986 comparison to all other years; cumulative Lindstrom, 2011; Kattleman, 1992, CDEC, 2017 1983) precipitation deviation +177 percent above long-term mean annual precipitation by 1986 Cumulative precipitation deviated +120 percent above New Years flood, 1997 recurrence: ~50-year flood, 1995-1999 USGS, 2017; USFS, 2017 long-term mean annual precipitation by 1999 Truckee River at Farad Greatest total seasonal snowfall depth since 1971; 5th highest snowfall depth on record; 120.6 inches Central Sierra Snow Laboratory, Soda Springs, CA, 2010-2011 April 1, 2011: 178 percent of normal snowpack (water-equivient) of snow in April-May, 2011 at CDEC, 2017 Webber Lake. April 1, 2017: 194 percent of normal snowpack; Rain-on- Heavy snow and multiple rain-on-snow events: Dec Middle Truckee River Basin, average of SNOTEL 2016-2017 snow event January 8, 2017: 2nd largest flood for 10, 15, Jan 8, and Feb 9. (CDEC, 2017); Ward Creek gaging station, period of record

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Wetter-than-average years occurred at several times over the period of recorded precipitation (see Table 3-1), most recently in WY2011 and WY2017. In many of these years the annual peak flow resulted from spring snowmelt runoff, but more recently rain- on-snow events have become more frequent, resulting in higher magnitude floods than snowmelt runoff and occur mid-winter instead of spring.

Periods of drought, particularly prolonged drought, can stress or kill wetland and riparian vegetation and cause grazing animals to become increasingly concentrated in meadows and riparian areas, both of which can cause channel banks to become more susceptible to erosion during floods. Between WY2000 and WY2015, a dramatic decline in precipitation or cumulative percent deviation from mean annual precipitation is evident (see Figure 3-5). This period was followed by one of the largest flood of record (January 8, 2017). It should therefore be noted that conditions observed during this assessment may potentially reflect post-flood conditions following a period of extensive drought. As such, recent mortality in riparian trees and bankside vegetation, followed by a significant flood event, likely encouraged bank erosion and resulted in high sediment and wood loading to the stream this year.

A flood history of the region is particularly useful to evaluate geomorphic changes in the watershed as the result of floods. We show annual floods for nearby Ward Creek (USGS 10336676) and Blackwood Creek (USGS 10336660) (Table 3-2); both watersheds share similar elevations, drainage areas, and geology to Bear Creek, and drain to the east of the Sierra crest. We also note that the highest six annual peak flows recorded in Ward Creek and highest seven annual peak flows recorded in Blackwood Creek resulted from rain-on-snow events, including January 8, 2017.

Even though WY2017 was a wet year, the trend over the past two decades continues towards drier conditions relative to the long-term average. Given the abundance of moisture this past year, we might expect to see scoured channels and verdant meadow conditions compared to those viewed in previous years or on historical aerial photographs.

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30 Balance Hydrologics, Inc. BEAR CREEK WATERSHED ASSESSMENT – PLACER COUNTY – CALIFORNIA Type Flood Event Event Flood Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Rain-on-snow Snowmelt Rain-on-snow Rain-on-snow Snowmelt Rain-on-snow Rain-on-snow Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Rain-on-snow Rain-on-snow Rain-on-snow Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Rain-on-snow Rain-on-snow Rain-on-snow Snowmelt Rain-on-snow Snowmelt Rain-on-snow Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Rain-on-snow Rain-on-snow Snowmelt

(ft) stage 14.42 -- (cfs) (cfs) Flow , Placer County, California County, , Placer USGS 10336660 5/9/2007 178 2.57 6/6/20105/5/2009 462 599 3.09 3.48 5/8/1962 238 6.13 6/1/1977 886/6/1975 449 1.42 2.87 5/7/1989 291 2.87 5/2/1985 202 2.36 1/8/2017 2/8/20152/9/2014 577 120 11.13 1.74 1/1/1997 29405/1/1995 9.82 636 3.85 3/8/1986 1640 6.14 6/7/1998 432 3.2 5/8/2000 435 3.31 5/4/2004 242 2.62 5/1/1981 208 2.46 5/17/2008 343 3.01 6/22/2011 571 3.25 5/13/19735/13/1972 3936/26/1971 2871/21/1970 585 2.78 5/24/1969 1910 2.41 2/20/1968 605 3.38 3/16/1967 8.48 3345/10/1966 1670 6.35 198 6.11 7.84 1/31/1963 5.21 20005/10/1961 8.9 200 5.98 4/26/2012 483 3.2 5/21/19795/14/1978 336 301 2.51 2.39 1/30/2016 53412/2/2012 11.02 1230 3.53 1/13/1980 1100 8.65 4/27/1987 170 2.26 5/15/1988 87 1.74 4/28/1990 125 1.98 5/25/1991 177 2.37 4/17/1992 159 2.26 5/31/1993 534 3.59 5/16/1996 9635/11/1994 143 4.74 2.12 5/29/1983 687 3.79 5/26/1999 429 3.24 5/15/2001 163 2.2 4/14/2002 249 3.01 5/28/2003 372 3.01 5/19/2005 765 4.17 12/22/196411/15/1963 2100 322 4.27 Rain 10/26/1975 27411/12/1973 704 2.28 Rain 3.64 Rain 11/17/1983 548 3.45 Rain 12/31/2005 2260 7.43 12/20/1981 1840 8.02 Date Blackwood Creek near Tahoe City, CA City, Tahoe near Creek Blackwood Type Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Snowmelt Flood Event Event Flood Rain-on-snow Rain-on-snow Rain-on-snow Rain-on-snow Rain-on-snow Rain-on-snow Rain-on-snow Rain-on-snow Rain-on-snow Rain-on-snow Rain-on-snow (ft) 8.57 Stage AnnualPeak FlowsWatersheds in near BearCreek

2 - (cfs) (cfs) Flow 2000 3 Table Table USGS 10336676 6/6/20105/5/2009 363 425 6.25 6.36 6/6/1975 492 6.22 6/7/19786/1/1977 271 51 5.81 4.85 2/8/2015 341 6.2 3/8/1986 860 7.03 5/7/1989 213 5.8 3/9/1995 513 6.59 2/9/2014 105 5/2/1985 164 5.29 3/6/2016 321 6.15 6/7/19981/1/1997 370 2530 6.11 9.36 5/8/2000 429 6.15 5/4/2004 198 5.58 5/1/1981 148 5.57 1/8/2017 5/10/2007 88 5.28 5/18/2008 196 5.73 6/22/2011 493 6.72 5/16/1973 298 5.85 4/26/2012 595 6.44 5/21/1979 283 5.85 4/28/1987 113 5.13 5/17/1988 48 4.76 4/15/1990 87 5.19 5/25/1991 119 5.38 4/17/1992 110 5.33 5/31/1993 461 6.48 12/2/2012 1190 7.61 5/16/1996 10205/11/1994 91 7.47 5.17 6/10/1983 637 6.38 5/26/1999 396 6.09 5/15/2001 202 5.72 4/14/2002 218 5.73 5/29/2003 357 6.04 5/19/2005 945 7.21 1/13/1980 1450 7.76 Date 12/31/2005 1660 8.44 10/26/1975 17811/12/1973 800 5.51 6.65 Rain Rain 12/19/1981 1800 8.05 11/11/1983 351 5.66 Rain Ward Creek at HWY89 near Tahoe CreekWard HWY89 at Pines, CA Notes: time over change datum can in creek; flow of to depth not datum equate does and is relative a Stage Flood event type is estimated from direct observations, time of year and/or review of general precipitation patterns in the record.

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3.3.4 CLIMATE CHANGE

Under modeled scenarios, summers in the Sierra Nevada are expected to become drier and hotter while winters become warmer and wetter. Extreme precipitation events may happen more frequently, while meadow and riparian vegetation may be more stressed (Furniss and others, 2010). The Bear Creek watershed is in a particularly sensitive elevation range, such that rainfall may become more common during the winter months, resulting in a reduced snowpack and more frequent rain-on-snow events. The timing and volume of runoff is therefore expected to be altered in future years, such that summer baseflow would likely be reduced, with peak snowmelt occurring earlier in the spring, and more frequent flooding and/or extreme events. Hastings and others (in preparation) identified increased fine sediment loading in tributaries to the Truckee River during rain-on-snow events over the past 7 to 8 years; in fact, we found that a single rain-on-snow event can transport more fine sediment than the entire snowmelt runoff season in most years.

The Truckee River has seen nearly a century of conflict over water rights and water supply, and the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation has identified the Truckee River basin as having a high likelihood of experiencing water-supply conflicts in the future (USBOR, 2015). With projected earlier spring runoff and reductions in snowpack, along with increased frequency and magnitude of flooding events, proposed land management and watershed restoration strategies that can effectively retain and recharge groundwater supplies, moderate floods, and maintain or extend low flows into the summer are likely to provide benefits to a wide range of water users, and should therefore be prioritized.

3.4 Bear Creek Water Quality

3.4.1 REVIEW OF AVAILABLE WATER QUALITY DATA

As mentioned earlier, Bear Creek was first included on the 303(d) list in 1991 as impaired by sedimentation and siltation. Water quality in Bear Creek has been collected by multiple entities since 1986. LRWQCB collected water quality data, including turbidity, from the upper reaches of Bear Creek between 1986 and 2001. During this period, water quality standards for turbidity were met (Wilson, 2003); however, concerns about bed conditions and aquatic life remained given the listing in 1991. Subsequently, McGraw and others (2001) examined watersheds within the larger Middle Truckee River Basin and found that Bear Creek was within the top three sediment contributing sub-basins. However, this conclusion was based on historical data and modeling.

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In an effort to examine Bear Creek in greater detail, Dr. Herbst carried out bioassessments in the lower portion of Bear Creek above the confluence with the Truckee River and downstream of the Alpine Meadows ski area parking lot (Herbst, 2001). The biologic data were assessed using an Index of Biologic Integrity (IBI) developed specifically for streams in the Truckee River watershed. Bear Creek's IBI score indicated that the biologic health in the creek below the ski was well within the desired conditions exhibited by regional reference streams (Herbst, 2001). In a similar study, Chan (2001) also sampled the upper, middle and lower reaches of Bear Creek evaluating the benthic macroinvertebrate communities. Field sampling was conducted in July 2001 according to the California Department of Fish and Game's California Stream Bioassessment Procedure (CSBP). The sampling results showed that a robust benthic community existed in Bear Creek at that time, and no evidence of acute impairment was detectable (Chan, 2001). Based on the findings from Chan (2001) and Herbst (2001), the RWQCB delisted Bear Creek in 2006 from the CWA 303(d) list.

In 2010, Herbst (2011) evaluated benthic macroinvertebrates in the Middle Truckee River including reaches at and downstream of the confluence with Bear Creek. He concluded that sites surveyed were in poor-to-fair condition, and usually inferior to reference rivers of the region of similar size or catchment area. Since, efforts to identify, evaluate, and reduce sediment sources in tributary watersheds have been on-going, prioritizing watersheds ranked as high or medium within the Truckee River Monitoring Plan (2nd Nature, 2008). In this document, Bear Creek is ranked as a moderate sediment source. Questions remained on the sources of sediment within the Bear Creek Watershed.

Homeowner reports to Placer County of erosion and flooding issues have increased over the past decade (T. Boyer, pers. comm., 2017), especially in more urban zones of the watershed. Reports of eroding banks, flooded infrastructure, and property loss suggested that Bear Creek may be incurring changes from historic and current land-use practices; notably, stormwater management. As a result, the County--one of several entities permitted to discharge stormwater to Bear Creek, carried out monitoring using Rapid Assessment Methods (RAM) as part of the Truckee River Water Quality Monitoring Program in WY2010, WY2012, and WY2014. RAM included physical measurements of channel substrate grain size and embeddedness as indirect methods used to evaluate channel and aquatic habitat conditions. Results suggested that fines comprised between 4 and 22 percent of the bed (CDM Smith, 2015). While these values were similar to other watersheds, they did not provide sufficient information to detect impairment. As such, the RAM approach was suspended in WY2014 on Bear Creek and replaced with GIS analysis of stormwater outfalls to better evaluate Bear Creek and its stormwater

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quality. The analysis was used to establish catchment land-use types and degree of imperviousness and develop a ranking or prioritization of possible sediment sources from stormwater outfalls. Results in WY2016 suggested that subwatersheds and associated outfalls in the middle watershed are high priorities for maintenance or stormwater BMP improvements (CDM Smith, 2017) focused on reducing stormwater and winter-applied road sand to Bear Creek.

Trained volunteers with the Truckee River Watershed Council have conducted water- quality monitoring in Bear Creek, immediately above its confluence with the Truckee River four times a year between May and October since 2001—the longest dataset available to understand water quality trends in Bear Creek. Samples are collected as grab samples and submitted for analysis of basic physical parameters, turbidity, nutrients, and bacteria. Data from 2003 to 2016 were available for review in this assessment. In general, physical parameters suggested adequate water quality with few exceptions as illustrated below in Figure 3-6, Figure 3-7, Figure 3-8, and Figure 3-9. Because volunteer collected data are grab samples, representing single values, it may be difficult to compare some results to the water quality standards established by the Basin Plan (1995), since these standards represent arithmetic mean of 30-day averages.

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Bear Creek Water Quality 16.0

14.0

12.0

10.0

8.0

6.0

4.0 Water Temperature (degreesWater C)

2.0

0.0 1/1/2003 5/6/2003 9/8/2003 6/4/2006 2/9/2007 7/3/2009 8/1/2012 4/8/2013 1/3/2016 5/7/2016 9/9/2016 1/11/2004 5/15/2004 9/17/2004 1/20/2005 5/25/2005 9/27/2005 1/30/2006 10/7/2006 6/14/2007 2/19/2008 6/23/2008 2/28/2009 11/5/2009 3/10/2010 7/13/2010 3/20/2011 7/23/2011 3/29/2012 12/4/2012 8/11/2013 4/18/2014 8/21/2014 4/28/2015 8/31/2015 1/12/2017 5/17/2017 9/19/2017 10/17/2007 10/26/2008 11/15/2010 11/25/2011 12/14/2013 12/24/2014

Figure 3-6 Instantaneous water temperature in Bear Creek (Reach A), WY2003- WY2016, Placer County, California.

Water temperatures fluctuate depending on time of year and time of day and were measured to be between 2.5 and 14.9 degrees Celsius (C). While there are no numeric water quality standards for temperature, the Lahontan Basin Plan (LRWQCB, 1995) suggests temperatures shall not be altered from their natural conditions for cold freshwater habitat. Moyle (2002) reports that lethal conditions for native fish are temperatures that exceed 22 or 23 degrees C. Volunteer measurements were collected during daylight and summer months, periods when lethal conditions are likely to exist. pH was measured within the acceptable range of 6.5 to 8.5 (LRWQCB, 1995) with few exceptions (i.e., 6.4 in 2004, 5.5 in 2005, and 8.6 in 2007).

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Bear Creek Water Quality 14.0 13.0 12.0 11.0 10.0 9.0 Acceptable Range: 6.5 - 8.5 (Basin Plan, 1995) 8.0

pH 7.0 6.0 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.0 1/1/2003 5/6/2003 9/8/2003 6/4/2006 2/9/2007 7/3/2009 8/1/2012 4/8/2013 1/3/2016 5/7/2016 9/9/2016 1/11/2004 5/15/2004 9/17/2004 1/20/2005 5/25/2005 9/27/2005 1/30/2006 10/7/2006 6/14/2007 2/19/2008 6/23/2008 2/28/2009 11/5/2009 3/10/2010 7/13/2010 3/20/2011 7/23/2011 3/29/2012 12/4/2012 8/11/2013 4/18/2014 8/21/2014 4/28/2015 8/31/2015 10/17/2007 10/26/2008 11/15/2010 11/25/2011 12/14/2013 12/24/2014

Figure 3-7 Instantaneous pH values in Bear Creek (Reach A), WY2003-WY2016, Placer County, California.

Dissolved oxygen (DO) has been measured periodically to fall below the 1-day minimum limit for supporting the beneficial use of cold freshwater habitat (8.0 mg/L; LRWQCB, 1995). Most measurements of DO have ranged above 8.0 mg/L; however, a handful of measurements over the years have recorded DO values less than this standard.

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Figure 3-8 Instantaneous dissolved oxygen values in Bear Creek (Reach A), WY2003- WY2016, Placer County, California.

Turbidity values have ranged between 0 and 5.1 Nephelometric Units (NTU), representing generally clear water conditions. However, most samples were collected during non-rain events or after the peak snowmelt runoff period.

Samples were also analyzed for nutrients, but since these data are from infrequent grab samples, isolated to low-flow and non-storm conditions, they do not characterize the full range of possible conditions.

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Bear Creek Water Quality 6.0

5.0

4.0

3.0

Turbidity (NTU) Turbidity 2.0

1.0

0.0 1/1/2003 5/6/2003 9/8/2003 6/4/2006 2/9/2007 7/3/2009 8/1/2012 4/8/2013 1/3/2016 5/7/2016 9/9/2016 1/11/2004 5/15/2004 9/17/2004 1/20/2005 5/25/2005 9/27/2005 1/30/2006 10/7/2006 6/14/2007 2/19/2008 6/23/2008 2/28/2009 11/5/2009 3/10/2010 7/13/2010 3/20/2011 7/23/2011 3/29/2012 12/4/2012 8/11/2013 4/18/2014 8/21/2014 4/28/2015 8/31/2015 1/12/2017 5/17/2017 9/19/2017 10/17/2007 10/26/2008 11/15/2010 11/25/2011 12/14/2013 12/24/2014

Figure 3-9 Instantaneous turbidity values in Bear Creek (Reach A), partial WY2003- WY2016, Placer County, California.

Overall, these monitoring results may illustrate a generally healthy Bear Creek. In the absence of continuous measurements or more detailed previous studies, the status of Bear Creek channel, water, and habitat quality is uncertain.

3.5 Sediment Transport

Because earlier studies suggest that fine sediment may be the source of impairment to the Truckee River, we revisited studies focused on sediment transport in Bear Creek. McGraw and others (2001) estimated suspended sediment discharge from Bear Creek using a modeled approach with samples collected by different entities in WY1997 and WY2000 and a record of flow correlated with nearby streams. The correlation between streamflow and suspended-sediment discharge is shown in Figure 3-10 and found to vary by two orders of magnitude. When compared to other watersheds in the Middle Truckee River Basin, Bear Creek predicted annual suspended-sediment loads were higher than others, but lower than Squaw Creek, Donner Creek, Prosser Creek, and Gray Creek. In

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the absence of recent data, current loads cannot be assessed. However, given observations by watershed residents and reports to Placer County over the last decade, suspended sediment monitoring may be a priority to compare to these historical estimated data or if watershed-wide restoration activities are proposed.

Figure 3-10 Estimated streamflow and suspended-sediment discharge correlation, Bear Creek, Placer County, California. (adapted from McGraw and others, 2001).

Overall, a review of previous Bear Creek water quality studies is inconclusive. As such, this assessment qualitatively assesses current conditions based on further review and observations using acceptable physical and biological methods.

3.6 Biological Resources

3.6.1 LAND COVER AND VEGETATION COMMUNITIES

The Tahoe National Forest mapped fourteen land cover types (i.e., vegetation communities and other land covers that do not include significant cover of native vegetation, such as urban and developed land or barren land) within the Bear Creek Watershed (TNF, 2014) and classified according to the California Wildlife Habitat Relationships System (CDFG, 1988).2 The distribution of land cover types in the watershed is shown in Figure 4-1. The acreage of each land cover in the watershed is summarized in Table 4-1, and the primary characteristics of each land cover type are described in the subsections below. Descriptions of land covers in the watershed were developed

2 A small portion of the watershed near the Five Lakes Basin was mapped by H. T. Harvey & Associates using high-resolution color aerial imagery. This area was not mapped by TNF nor included in the land cover dataset provided to assist in preparation of the watershed assessment.

40 Balance Hydrologics, Inc. BEAR CREEK WATERSHED ASSESSMENT – PLACER COUNTY – CALIFORNIA based on professional experience with similar habitat types in the central Sierra Nevada and Lake Tahoe region. Field surveys of the watershed for the purpose of describing land covers were not included in the scope of the watershed assessment; however, a site visit by H. T. Harvey & Associates in September 2017 helped refine coarse-level descriptions of land covers occurring in the Bear Creek Watershed.

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Figure 3-11 Vegetation communities, Bear Creek Watershed, Placer County, California.

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Table 3-3 Land Cover Types in the Bear Creek Watershed

Land Cover Type Acres Alpine-Dwarf Shrub 71.5 Aspen 14.8 Barren 68.0 Bitterbrush 36.8 Jeffrey Pine 224.5 Lacustrine 8.1 Montane Chaparral 259.7 Montane Riparian 25.5 Perennial Grassland 40.7 Subalpine Conifer 87.8 Red Fir 16.6 White Fir 2,441.4 Wet Meadow 0.1 Urban 41.9 Total 3,337.5 Source: TNF (2014).

Alpine-Dwarf Shrub – Alpine-dwarf shrub is characterized by low stature graminoids (i.e., grasses and grass-like plants such as sedges and rushes) and small shrubs on rocky, well- drained ridgelines and slopes. Plants in this community generally grow slowly and do not reach great heights because of the harsh environmental conditions (CDFG 1988). Common species occurring in this community include ocean spray (Holodiscus discolor), Greene’s goldenbush (Ericameria greenei), rose meadowsweet (Spirea splendens), and white mountain-heather (Cassiope mertensiana). Forbs and grasses that commonly occur in alpine-dwarf shrub communities include crimson columbine (Aquilegia formosa), heart willowweed (Epilobium obcordatum), Jacobs-ladder (Polemonium pulcherrimum), prickly phlox (Linanthus pungens), squirreltail (Elymus elymoides), bluegrass (Poa spp.), buckwheat (Eriogonum spp.), rock-cress (Arabis spp. and Boechera spp.), Eschscholtz buttercup (Ranunculus eschscholtzii), and alpine mountain sorrel (Oxyria digyna) (Parker and Matyas 1981, Cheatham and Haller 1975). Alpine-dwarf shrub is found in a large rocky area in the northwest corner of the watershed, as well as

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several small, scattered patches elsewhere in the watershed, which collectively total approximately 71 acres (Figure 3-11, Table 3-3).

Aspen – Aspen (Populus tremuloides) may be found in monocultures or in mixed stands with other deciduous trees (e.g., black cottonwood [Populus trichocarpa]) and conifers. Aspen stands are characterized by a relatively open canopy that supports an herbaceous understory; however, mature stands may also support a tall shrub layer. Regionally, aspen stands occur at relatively high elevations (6,000–10,000 feet) near reliable sources of relatively shallow groundwater, such as in wet meadows, seeps, and streams. Associated plant communities can include Jeffrey pine (Pinus jeffreyi), red fir (Abies magnifica), white fir (Abies concolor), montane riparian, and subalpine conifer as well as montane chaparral (CNPS 2017, Thorne 1977, Parker and Matyas 1981). Stands of aspen totaling approximately 15 acres are found scattered along Bear Creek and just east of the Alpine Meadows parking lot (Figure 3-11, Table 3-3). Although not mapped, aspen stands also occur in other locations in the watershed, particularly in association with hillslope seeps along the southern side of the watershed where groundwater is available.

Barren – Barren land is characterized by rock, gravel, sand, silt, clay, or other earthen material with less than 15 percent vegetation cover. Vegetation, if present, is more widely spaced and scrubby. Generally, these are areas of bedrock, talus, slides, volcanic material, glacial debris, and other accumulations of earthen material. Barren areas in the watershed total approximately 68 acres and are primarily located on the south- and east- facing slopes of KT-22 and the Granite Chief Wilderness/Five Lakes area in the northwest corner of the watershed (Figure 3-11, Table 3-3).

Bitterbrush – Bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata) communities are primarily located on the eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevada at elevations of approximately 3,500–11,000 feet, often in areas with deep and well-drained soil. Stands of bitterbrush are often composed of shrub codominants, including big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata), buck brush (Ceanothus cuneatus), curl leaf mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus ledifolius), and green rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus) (CNPS 2017). Tree species commonly associated with bitterbrush stands include Jeffrey pine and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta ssp. murrayana) (CDFG 1988). Bitterbrush is scattered in a few locations throughout the watershed, totaling approximately 37 acres (Figure 3-11, Table 3-3).

Jeffrey Pine – Jeffrey pine is widely distributed throughout the Sierra Nevada at elevations ranging from approximately 5,000–9,500 feet. Generally, Jeffrey pine occurs as the

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dominant tree species in a stand; however, associates can include a variety of other conifers such as ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), lodgepole pine, white fir, red fir, and incense-cedar (Calocedrus decurrens) (CDFG 1988). On the eastern slope of the Sierra Nevada, dominant shrub associates of Jeffrey pine include mountain whitethorn (Ceanothus cordulatus), wax currant (Ribes cereum), and green leaf manzanita (Arctostaphylos patula) at higher elevations (CDFG 1988). Jeffrey pine forest is primarily found in the northeast portion of the watershed on approximately 225 acres (Figure 3-11, Table 3-3).

Lacustrine – Although not typically considered a plant community, lacustrine habitat was mapped in the Bear Creek Watershed. This is typically a deep to shallow, open-water habitat. Floating aquatic plants such as pondweed (Potamogeton spp.) may be present in some areas, and shallow areas (e.g., areas less than 3 feet deep) at lake margins can support growth of various species of moderate-stature, herbaceous graminoids such as sedge (Carex spp.), rush (Juncus spp.), and bulrush (Scirpus spp.) that are tolerant of prolonged, shallow inundation. These marshy habitats are found at Lake Estelle in the southwestern portion of the watershed and along the northeastern border of the watershed in the Five Lakes area (Figure 3-11). The extent of this habitat fluctuates in response to snowmelt and runoff, but is mapped at approximately 8 acres (Table 3-3).

Montane Chaparral – Montane chaparral is associated with mountainous terrain from mid- to high elevation (between 3,000 and 10,000 feet) and often occurs as either an edaphic climax community (e.g., in areas with shallow, poor soils or south-facing slopes) or as an early successional community following disturbance (e.g., fire, timber harvest) (CDFG 1988). Species composition varies with elevation, geography, soil type, aspect, and successional stage; however, one or more of the following species typically characterize montane chaparral in the central Sierra Nevada and Lake Tahoe regions: mountain whitethorn, tobacco brush (Ceanothus velutinus), green leaf manzanita, bitter cherry (Prunus emarginata), huckleberry oak (Quercus vacciniifolia), bush chinquapin (Chrysolepis sempervirens), or serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia). Montane chaparral stands occur as large patches scattered throughout the watershed, covering nearly 260 acres (Figure 3-11, Table 3-3).

Montane Riparian – Montane riparian habitat is found below 8,000 feet associated with permanent or ephemeral drainages and other wet areas (e.g., lakes, ponds, seeps, bogs, wet meadows, rivers, streams, springs) (CDFG 1988). Vegetation composition and structure is variable, and may occur as dense stands of broadleaf trees or as only a shrub layer. Common species include black cottonwood, mountain alder (Alnus incana ssp.

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tenuifolia), white alder (A. rhombifolia), aspen, creek dogwood (Cornus sericea), and various species of willows (Salix spp.). Montane riparian habitat in the watershed occurs along Bear Creek and as scattered patches associated with hillslope seeps and springs (Figure 3-11), covering approximately 26 acres (Table 4-1).

Perennial Grassland – Perennial grasslands in the Sierra Nevada are characterized by a rich flora of grasses and forbs, often occurring at the drier margins of meadows, in the understory of open conifer and aspen stands, and in previously disturbed areas. Common species can include mat muhly (Muhlenbergia richardsonis), Kentucky blue grass (Poa pratensis ssp. pratensis), western needle grass (Stipa occidentalis), timothy (Phleum pratense), orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata), California oat grass (Danthonia californica), California brome (Bromus carinatus), various species of wheatgrasses and wild rye (Elymus spp.), squirreltail, slender hairgrass (Deschampsia elongata), spike false oat (Trisetum spicatum), various annual forbs (e.g., Navarretia spp., Lupinus spp., Leptosiphon ssp., Polygonum sawatchense), and upland perennial forbs such as corn lily (Veratrum californicum), Parish’s yampah (Perideridia parishii ssp. parishii), yarrow (Achillea millefolium), and potentilla (Potentilla spp.). Approximately 41 acres of perennial grassland (Table 3-3) occur in Alpine Meadows Ski Area and along the southern slopes of the watershed (Figure 3-11), and scattered, unmapped areas of perennial grassland occur elsewhere (e.g., at the drier margins of meadows along Bear Creek below Alpine Meadows Road).

Subalpine Conifer – Subalpine conifer forests are found at high elevations growing in thin, low-quality soils where there is heavy snow cover in the winter and spring, cool summer temperatures, and a short (i.e., 7 to 9 weeks) growing season (CDFG 1988). In the central Sierra Nevada and Lake Tahoe region, whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis), western white pine (Pinus monticola), and lodgepole pine can all occur in subalpine conifer stands. On exposed sites and windy ridges, trees may be stunted and shrubs and herbs are generally sparse or lacking. Where there is an understory, it may include wax currant, purple mountain heather (Phyllodoce breweri), ocean spray, and big sagebrush in the shrub layer along with California brome, lupine (Lupinus spp.), and a variety of flowering annuals in the herb layer. Subalpine conifer occurs at the northern and northwestern edge of the watershed, covering nearly 88 acres (Figure 3-11, Table 3-3).

Red Fir – Red fir forests occur on frigid soils at high elevations (6,000 to 9,000 feet) where there is a deep snow pack in the winter and spring and dry conditions in the summer (CDFG 1988). Red fir may form monotypic stands or intergrade with white fir dominated stands; inclusions of aspen along riparian zones and mountain meadows, sometimes

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associated with small lakes, can be found in red fir habitats. Heavy shade and a thick duff layer tends to inhibit understory vegetation, with the understory of mature stands limited to less than 5 percent cover of shade tolerant species (e.g., little prince’s pine [Chimaphila menziesii], white-veined wintergreen [Pyrola picta]). In the watershed, red fir forests exist in just a few locations scattered along the perimeter of the watershed, totaling approximately 17 acres (Figure 3-11, Table 3-3).

White Fir – White fir forests are found throughout mountainous areas of California, at elevations between roughly 5,000 and 7,000 feet in the central Sierra Nevada, usually on cooler north- and east-facing slopes (CDFG 1988). These forests are characterized by nearly monotypic even-aged overstory, usually with overlapping crowns that cast deep shade, although open stands may occur as well. The understory may consist of sparsely scattered grasses, forbs, and shrubs, or white fir seedlings and saplings; however, shade and downed woody material tend to inhibit understory species (Parker and Matyas 1981). Depending on elevation, various other conifers (e.g., incense cedar, Ponderosa pine, Jeffrey pine, red fir) may be associated with white fir stands along with species like green leaf manzanita and gooseberry/currant (Ribes spp.) in the understory. White fir is the dominant land cover in the watershed, covering 2,441 acres (Figure 3-11, Table 3-3).

Wet Meadow – Wet meadows occur on poorly drained soils where water is at or near the ground surface for most of the growing season (CDFG 1988), along active and abandoned stream channels, lake margins, groundwater seeps, and similar wet areas. This community is dominated by perennial graminoids and forbs with little bare ground. Low-statured willows (e.g., Salix orestera) and huckleberry (Vaccinium spp.) may be intermixed with graminoids and forbs in some locations, but trees are typically absent. In wetter settings, dominant species include sedges, principally Nebraska sedge (Carex nebraskensis), beaked sedge (Carex utriculata), short-beaked sedge (Carex simulata), and species of rushes (e.g., Juncus nevadensis), wood-rush (Luzula comosa), and bulrush (Scirpus microcarpus). Forbs found in wet meadows can include columbine (Aquilegia formosa), lupine, corn lily, clover (e.g., Trifolium longipes), aster (e.g., Aster occidentalis), primrose monkeyflower (Mimulus primuloides), larkspur (Delphinium spp.), and Sierra tiger lily (Lilium parvum), among many others. Wet meadows are found scattered in one area at the south end of the watershed, covering less than 0.1 acre (Figure 3-11, Table 3-3). Although not mapped, small areas of wet meadows also occur along the margins of Bear Creek, below Alpine Meadows Road, and in the far upper reaches of the watershed along drainages within Alpine Bowl, Wolverine Bowl, Estelle Bowl, and Beaver Bowl.

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Urban – Developed areas are characterized by a high percentage (30 percent or greater) of structures (e.g. asphalt, concrete, buildings) and include large-lot single- family housing units, parks, golf courses, and vegetation planted in developed settings for recreation, erosion control, or aesthetic purposes. Within the Bear Creek Watershed, developed areas include roadways and developed recreational areas (i.e., Alpine Meadows ski resort, cabins, parking lots) that collectively cover nearly 42 acres (Figure 3-11, Table 3-3).

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Figure 3-12 Sensitive plant communities and invasive plants, Bear Creek watershed, Placer County, California.

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3.6.2 INVASIVE SPECIES

Invasive species are plants, vertebrates, and invertebrates that, by nature of their reproductive capacities, growth habits, or other ecological characteristics, are capable of causing adverse economic or ecological effects such as altering nutrient cycles, affecting primary or secondary productivity, and increasing wildfire frequency and intensity, among many other impacts (TRPA 2014, Bossard et al. 2000).

The Lake Tahoe Region Aquatic Invasive Species Management Plan (TRPA 2014) lists aquatic invasive species that are either known to occur or that have the potential to occur in Lake Tahoe and the surrounding region. Although none of these species are known to occur in the Bear Creek watershed, Asian clams (Corbicula fluminea) have been recorded in the lower Truckee River (TRPA 2014), and New Zealand mudsnails (Potamopyrgus antipodarum) occur in the mainstem Truckee River, well downstream of the watershed in Nevada. Suitable habitat for both species exists in the watershed.

Additionally, 10 invasive plants have been recorded in the Bear Creek watershed (CalWeed Mapper 2017, TNF 2017) with the major species mapped in the watershed shown in Figure 3-12. These species are listed in Appendix A along with priority ratings assigned by the California Invasive Plant Council (Cal-IPC) and California Department of Food and Agriculture (CDFA). Appendix A also indicates whether the species is considered a top priority for management in the Lake Tahoe Basin (LTBWCG 2017) or a weed species of interest to the Truckee River Watershed Council (USFS 2013a).

3.6.3 WILDFIRE

Wildfire has historically played an important role in Sierra Nevadan forests, and was likely a frequent occurrence in the region prior to the arrival of emigrants. Since the early 1900s, wildfire has been actively suppressed as a policy to prevent loss of resources, property, and provide public safety. Wildfire suppression has drastically changed forest composition and structure and steadily increased the threat of wildfire over the past 100 years. When wildfires do occur in today’s mixed conifer forests they can result in high intensity, high severity fire (MacDonald and Larsen, 2008). The effects of high-severity fires on watershed processes are well documented in the literature (Carroll and others, 2007, Ice and others, 2004, MacDonald and Larsen, 2008). These studies suggest that erosion resulting from wildfire can generate considerably more erosion, enlarge channel networks, and degrade water quality when compared to chronic sources of sediment (e.g., roads).

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Geospatial Multi-Agency Coordination (GeoMAC, 2017) mapped recent and historical fire perimeters. These data indicate that wildfire has been absent in the Bear Creek Watershed and adjacent areas since 1880 or earlier (Figure 3-16). Based on limited field observations, forested uplands in the Truckee-Tahoe region exhibit very dense growth, with even-aged forest stands and show the absence of wildfire.

California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection (2008) has identified Bear Creek watershed with a low to moderate threat for wildfire with small pockets of high threat, mostly along the ridge separating Bear Creek from Squaw Creek watershed (Figure 3-16). The map indicates a higher threat along the watershed’s southern boundary and further south (i.e., Ward Creek, Blackwood Creek). If a wildfire were to ignite in these areas, the threat of wildland fire in Bear Creek watershed may increase due to wind direction and fuel availability. We note that these data were relevant through 2008 and precede a drought period through 2016. While no current data are available, we suspect wildfire threat in the region has increased.

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Figure 3-13 Historical wildfire perimeters (left) and wildfire threat (right) in the Bear Creek and region, Placer County, California. [Sources: Geospatial Multi-Agency Coordination (GeoMAC), Wildland Fire Support, and California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection.]

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3.6.4 GENERAL WILDLIFE

The Bear Creek watershed is comprised of a diverse mosaic of connected plant communities including conifer forests; aspen stands; riparian woodland and scrub; streams, wetlands, and small lakes; montane chaparral; grasslands; and montane meadows. These habitats provide breeding and foraging habitat for a wide variety of wildlife commonly found in the central Sierra Nevada and Lake Tahoe regions. Representative mammals that occur regionally include American black bear (Ursus americanus), introduced North American beaver (Castor canadensis), bobcat (Lynx rufus), coyote (Canis latrans), long-tailed weasel (Mustela frenata), mountain lion (Puma concolor), Columbian black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus), raccoon (Procyon lotor), striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis), western spotted skunk (Spilogale gracilis), ground squirrels (Otospermophilus spp.), chipmunks (Neotamias spp.), voles (Arborimus spp.), and yellow-bellied marmot (Marmota flaviventris). Common amphibians and reptiles include Pacific chorus frog (Pseudacris sierra), western toad (Anaxyrus boreas), mountain gartersnake (Thamnophis elegans elegans), and Sierra alligator lizard (Elgaria coerulea palmeri).

The matrix of meadows, wetlands and other waterbodies, conifer forests, riparian areas, and aspen in the watershed also meets the ecological needs of many birds, particularly seasonal migrants through the Sierra Nevada. Examples of common bird species known to occur in the watershed (based on observations reported to eBird, an online repository of bird observations), or that are expected to occur in the watershed, include red- breasted sapsucker (Sphyrapicus ruber), hairy woodpecker (Leuconotopicus villosus), northern flicker (Colaptes auratus), western wood pewee (Contopus sordidulus), warbling vireo (Vireo gilvus), Steller’s jay (Cyanocitta stelleri), common raven (Corvus corax), mountain chickadee (Poecile gambeli), red-breasted nuthatch (Sitta canadensis), American robin (Turdus migratorius), yellow-rumped warbler (Setophaga coronata), dark-eyed junco (Junco hyemalis), song sparrow (Melospiza melodia), Brewer’s blackbird (Euphagus cyanocephalus), American dipper (Cinclus mexicanus), Cassin’s finch (Haemorhous cassinii), turkey vulture (Cathartes aura), green-tailed towhee (Pipilo chlorurus), mallard (Anas platyrhynchos), red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis), sharp- shinned hawk (Accipter striatus), and western tanager (Piranga ludoviciana) (Beedy and Pandolfino 2013).

3.6.4.1 Fishes

Moyle et al. (1996) identified four zoogeographic regions (drainages) in the Sierra Nevada, each defined by distinctive native fish communities that share few species in

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common. The Lahontan drainage, consisting of the Susan, Truckee, Carson, and Walker River drainages on the east slope of the central and northern Sierra Nevada, is characterized by 10 native fish species that are distributed widely from lowlands to elevations above 6,600 feet. These 10 native species are mountain whitefish (Prosopium williamsoni), Lahontan cutthroat (Oncorhynchus clarki henshawi), Paiute cutthroat (Oncorhynchus clarki seleniris), Lahontan lake tui chub (Gila bicolor pectinifer), Lahontan creek tui chub (Gila bicolor obesa), Lahontan redside (Richardsonius egregious), Lahontan speckled dace (Rhinichthys osculus robustus), Tahoe sucker (Catastomus tahoensis), mountain sucker (Catostomus platyrhynchus), and Paiute sculpin (Cottus beldingi). Although the numbers and distributions of these native species has been reduced, Paiute sculpin, Lahontan speckled dace, Lahontan redside, Tahoe sucker, mountain sucker, and mountain whitefish may still occur in Bear Creek because these fishes are present in the mainstem Truckee River or other tributaries to the Truckee River (e.g., Squaw Creek, Sagehen Creek, Martis Creek) (Moyle 2002) and potentially suitable habitat for these species exists in Bear Creek.

Nonnative fish were widely introduced to the Sierra Nevada through private and government-sponsored programs beginning in the mid-1800s and continuing far into the 1900s (Knapp et al. 2001). Many of these introduced species were gamefish, such as rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), eastern brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis), brown trout (Salmo trutta), landlocked sockeye salmon, or “kokanee” (Oncorhynchus nerka), and lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush); competition among these fishes and native species, along with predation and hybridization (particularly between Lahontan cutthroat and rainbow trout), are primary reasons for the decline in native fishes regionally and throughout the Sierra Nevada.

Although gamefish stocking programs for the Truckee River have largely ended in California, rainbow trout continue to be stocked in many lakes and reservoirs regionally (e.g., Donner, Prosser, Boca, Stampede), and a self-sustaining population of rainbow and brown trout now represents the primary target for anglers in the Truckee River and its tributaries. Numerous rainbow trout were observed in Bear Creek during a September 2017 field visit, with more fish concentrated in the reach between Alpine Meadows Road and Alpine Meadows Ski Resort. No other fish species were observed during the field visit, and far fewer rainbow trout were observed in Bear Creek downstream of Alpine Meadows Road.

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3.6.5 SPECIAL-STATUS SPECIES

Special-status species generally include species listed as either threatened or endangered under the California or federal Endangered Species Acts (ESA), California Species of Special Concern, state Fully Protected Species, and Tahoe National Forest Sensitive Species. For plants, special-status species also include species listed in the California Native Plant Society’s (CNPS) Inventory of Rare, Threatened, or Endangered Plants of California (CNPS 2017). For the purpose of this watershed assessment, special- status species also include species that are of special management concern (i.e., tracked in the CNDDB) even though they do not have any formal state or federal protection. These include species whose numbers appear to be declining regionally or across the range of the species, species experiencing range restriction, and species whose habitat may be threatened because of climate change or recreational, industrial, or commercial development or land uses.

To identify special-status species potentially occurring in the Bear Creek Watershed, the California Natural Diversity Database (CNDDB) (2017) was queried for all species observations reported within 5 miles of the watershed boundary. The CNDDB is a comprehensive database of species observations maintained by the California Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW). It is important to note that the CNDDB contains only records of species observations that are voluntarily submitted to CDFW; thus, the lack of species observations in a particular region may indicate only a lack of previous survey efforts and not necessarily a lack of special-status species occurrences.

To supplement CNDDB data, records of special-status species occurrences also were obtained from the U.S. Forest Service (USFS) Natural Resources Inventory, provided by the Tahoe National Forest (TNF 2017). In addition, a query of the CNPS Online Inventory, 8th edition (CNPS 2017) was completed to identify special-status plants occurring on the Tahoe City 7.5-minute U.S. Geological Survey topographic quadrangle and the surrounding eight quadrangles (i.e., Kings Beach, Meeks Bay, Homewood, Wentworth Springs, Granite Chief, Norden, Truckee, and Martis Peak).

Finally, special-status species were identified as potentially occurring in the Bear Creek watershed based on the professional experiences and opinions of H. T. Harvey & Associates biologists, even if these species was not otherwise documented as occurring in or near the watershed by any of the sources described above.

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The known locations of special-status wildlife and plant species in the watershed and the surrounding region, based on occurrence information contained in the CNDDB and TNF records, are shown in Figure 3-17 and Figure 3-15, respectively. The distribution, ecology and life history, and potential for occurrence within the Bear Creek watershed are summarized for each species at the end of this section, in Appendix A for wildlife and plants.

The assessment of potential for occurrence was based on queries of existing occurrence records and professional experience and opinion. Potential is rated as follows:

• Known to occur: Species documented as occurring in the watershed

• May occur: Species not documented on the watershed, but the species is known from within 5 miles of the watershed, and habitats within the watershed are suitable for the species

• Potential to occur: Species is not known to occur on or within 5 miles of the watershed, but the species does occur regionally and/or habitats found within the watershed are marginally suitable for the species

• Unlikely to occur: Species is only rarely found regionally, restricted to particular habitat types that are unlikely to occur on the watershed (e.g., particular soil types), and/or habitats found within the watershed are unsuitable for the species

All special-status species either known to occur or that may occur within the watershed are described in more detail below.

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Figure 3-14 Special-status plant occurrences, Bear Creek watershed, Placer County, California.

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Figure 3-15 Special status wildlife occurrences, Bear Creek watershed, Placer County, California.

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3.6.5.1 Special-Status Wildlife

Sierra Nevada Yellow-Legged Frog (Rana sierrae) – The Sierra Nevada yellow-legged frog was listed as a California threatened species in 2012 and as a federal endangered species in 2014; additionally, the TNF considers Sierra Nevada yellow-legged frog to be a sensitive species (USFS 2013b). This species occurs in the Sierra Nevada from Plumas County to Fresno County where it is associated with streams, lakes, and ponds in montane riparian, lodgepole pine, subalpine conifer, and wet meadow habitats. This aquatic species is always encountered within a few feet of water. Reproduction does not take place until lakes and streams are free of ice. Tadpoles may require up to two over- wintering periods to complete their aquatic development (Cory 1962). During winter, adults hibernate beneath ice covered streams, lakes, and ponds. Terrestrial hibernation has not been documented. They feed primarily on aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates and favor terrestrial insects. Adults and tadpoles are commonly preyed upon by garter snakes and introduced trout (Cory 1963, Zweifel 1968).

This species is known to occur in the watershed. Populations occur in Lake Estelle and its associated drainage (CNDDB 2017, TNF 2017), and designated critical habitat for the species is found within a large portion of the watershed (USFWS 2017). Stream reaches with significant trout populations (e.g., Bear Creek) do not provide suitable habitat for this species.

Southern Long-Toed Salamander (Ambystoma macrodactylum sigillatum) – The Southern long-toed salamander is a California Species of Special Concern. It is found in the northern Sierra Nevada south to Spicer Reservoir in Tuolumne County, and it also occurs in the Trinity Alps in Trinity and Siskiyou Counties. The species inhabits flooded alpine meadows and high mountain ponds and lakes. During the non-breeding season, this species finds refuge in moist areas in burrows, under fallen logs, rocks, bark and other objects near ponds and similar breeding sites. In spring or early summer, Southern long- toed salamanders migrate overland to breeding sites. Females typically remain at a breeding site for 1–2 days, while males have been documented to remain at breeding sites for the duration of the breeding season.

This species is known to occur in the watershed. Individual salamanders have been observed in the Five Lakes area and in a pond northeast of Lake Estelle (CNDDB 2017).

Northern Goshawk (Accipiter gentilis) – The northern goshawk is a California Species of Special Concern and a TNF sensitive species (USFS 2013b). This species nests and forages

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primarily in mature montane coniferous forest with large diameter trees and high canopy closure. It sometimes nests and forages in mature aspen stands and will frequently forage along meadow edges or in aspen/willow shrub communities (Keane 2008). Primary prey species vary regionally but include songbirds and small mammals (e.g., squirrels, chipmunks).

This species is known to occur in the watershed. A northern goshawk alarm call was heard along Bear Creek in a mixed aspen and white fir stand along Bear Creek below Alpine Meadows Road during a September 2017 field visit, and an occurrence of northern goshawk along Alpine Meadows Road near Deer Park Drive was reported to eBird in 2016 (potentially the same bird heard in September 2017). Additionally, northern goshawks are known to nest in multiple forested locations in the watershed and within 5 miles of the watershed based on CNDDB (2017) and TNF (2017) records.

Willow Flycatcher (Empidonax traillii) – Two subspecies of the willow flycatcher occur in northern California — E. t. adastus (generally breeds in Cascade Range and Great Basin) and E. t. brewsteri (generally breeds on the west slope of the Sierra Nevada) (Sedgewick 2000, USFWS 2002). Both subspecies are state listed as endangered. While E. t. adastus could occur in the watershed during migration, only the little willow flycatcher subspecies (E. t. brewsteri) is known to breed in the vicinity of the watershed. The species occurs in wet, montane meadows associated with creeks and streams or in discharge slope meadows fed by groundwater (Bombay et al. 2003a, 2003b; Green et al. 2003, Mathewson 2010). Most meadows occupied by willow flycatchers have at least some surface water that persists throughout the summer and have a vegetation community dominated by dense willows and similar species (e.g., alder) that thrive in saturated and/or flooded conditions. Willow flycatcher habitat does not necessarily include tall trees, but snags and branches are used as foraging and singing perches if available (Serena 1982, Sanders and Flett 1989).

This species may occur in the watershed. Willow flycatchers have been documented to nest within 5 miles of the watershed (CNDDB 2017), and potentially suitable habitat is present on the watershed.

Yellow Warbler (Setophaga petechia) – The yellow warbler is a California Species of Special Concern that breeds in riparian woodlands and shrublands across much of California, excepting the Central Valley, deserts, and higher elevations of the west slope of the Sierra Nevada. The species reaches some of its greatest abundances in willow-

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Yellow warblers may occur in the watershed. This species has been observed within 5 miles of the watershed (CNDDB 2017), and suitable breeding habitat is present on the watershed.

American Pika (Ocnotona princeps schisticeps) –There are five currently recognized subspecies of American pika with one, Ocnotona princeps schisticeps, occurring in California and into the Great Basin ranges outside of California (Hafner and Smith 2010). Approximately 64% of the schisticeps geographic range exists in the Sierra Nevada south to Tulare and Inyo Counties, with the remainder in the southern Cascades and mountain ranges of the Great Basin (Hafner and Smith 2010). Although it has no official protective status, the American pika was petitioned for endangered species status under federal and California laws in 2007. Pikas are generalist herbivores that occur in alpine and sub- alpine environments, rarely below 8,200 feet elevation in California (Smith and Weston 1990, Ray and Beever 2007). Preferred habitats are talus slopes or lava formations with adjacent herbaceous or shrub vegetation (Beever 2002, Rodhouse et al. 2010).

American pikas are known to occur near Ward Peak in the Bear Creek watershed based on reported CNDDB (2017) records.

Fringed Myotis (Myotis thysanodes) – The fringed myotis is found throughout California, except in the Central Valley and Colorado and Mojave deserts; this bat also occurs in much of western North America from southern British Columbia to southern Mexico (Jones and Choate 1978, O’Farrell and Studier 1980, Hall 1981, Rasheed et al. 1995, Zeiner et al. 1990). It is a proposed California Species of Special Concern and a TNF sensitive species (USFS 2013b). Optimal habitats are open areas interspersed with pinyon-juniper, valley foothill hardwood and hardwood-conifer, generally at 4,300–7,200 feet in elevation, although the species ranges from sea level to 9,350 feet (Barbour and Davis 1969, Keinath 2004, Zeiner et al. 1990). Fringed myotis are most active for the first 1 to 2 hours after sunset and forage for insects in flight over water, forest edges, over forest canopies, in interior forests, and likely glean from vegetation near the top of the forest canopy (O’Farrell and Studier 1980, Black 1974, Banfield 1975, Keinath 2004). Ideal habitat contains a mosaic of foraging habitat, still water sources, and proximate roost structures (Pierson and Rainey 1998). Fringed myotis use caves, mines, and buildings as maternity colonies, solitary day and night roosts, and hibernacula (Musser and Durrant 1960, Davis 1966, Easterla 1966, Judd 1967, O’Farrell and Studier 1980, Perkins et al. 1990, Ellison et al. 2003). They also use

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bridges, rock crevices (Davis 1966, Miner et al. 1996, Brown and Berry 1998, Herder 1998, as cited in Keinath 2004), underneath bark and inside hollows of tree snags, particularly ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) as day and night roosts (Kurtzman 1994, Morell et al. 1994, Murphy 1994, Rasheed et al. 1995, Chung- MacCoubrey 2001).

Fringed myotis may occur in the Bear Creek watershed based on a reported CNDDB (2017) observation within the 5 miles of the watershed and the presence of suitable roosting and foraging habitat on the watershed.

North American Porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum) –The North American porcupine is one of the largest rodents in North America. The species occurs throughout the Sierra Nevada and Cascades from Kern County north to the Oregon Border, south in the Coast Ranges to Sonoma County, and from San Mateo County south to Los Angeles County. Scattered populations also occur in wooded habitats in the eastern Central Valley (Laurendine et al. 1996), as well as Los Angeles and San Bernardino Counties (Johnson and Harris 1990). Due to declines in porcupine observations (the species was historically considered to be a pest and frequently poisoned to control populations in conifer forests and conifer plantations), CDFW is actively tracking porcupine sightings, and the species is under consideration by CDFW to be added as California Species of Special Concern. The North American porcupine is most common in montane conifer, Douglas-fir, alpine dwarf- shrub, and wet meadow habitats (Johnson and Harris 1990). It requires forest with a good understory of herbs, grasses, and shrubs, and prefers open stands of conifers (Taylor 1935, Woods 1973, Johnson and Harris 1990). In spring and summer, porcupines use meadows, brushy, and riparian habitats for feeding. In winter, it is restricted to forests (Johnson and Harris 1990). In spring and summer, it feeds on aquatic and terrestrial herbs, shrubs, fruits, leaves, and buds. Winter diet consists of twigs, bark, and cambium of trees, particularly conifers, and evergreen leaves (Johnson and Harris 1990). Porcupines den in caves, crevices in rocks, cliffs, hollow logs, snags, burrows of other animals and will use dense foliage in trees if other sites are unavailable (Taylor 1935, Woods 1973, Thomas 1979). Predators include mountain lions, bobcats, wolverines, and fishers (Taylor 1935, Woods 1973). Fishers, in particular, are effective predators of porcupines, and control porcupine density in some areas (Powell and Brander 1977); the decline in porcupines is thought to be one factor related to the observed decline of fishers across the Sierra Nevada.

This species is known to occur in the Bear Creek watershed based on reported CNDDB (2017) observations near KT-22 and below Ward Peak (some of which are many years old), with other observations reported in close proximity to the watershed.

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Sierra Marten (Martes caurina sierrae) – The Sierra marten is a subspecies of American marten with an elevational range from 3,400 to 10,400 feet (Freel and Stewart 1991). It is a TNF sensitive species (USFS 2013b) found throughout much of its historical range from Trinity and Siskiyou Counties east to Mount Shasta, south through the Cascades and Sierra Nevada to Tulare County (Zielinski et al. 2001, Grinnel et al. 1937, Kucera et al. 1996). Mesocarnivore surveys conducted on the forests of the Sierra Nevada from 1996 to 2002 reported Sierra martens in Amador, Calaveras, El Dorado, Fresno, Lassen, Madera, Mariposa, Placer, Plumas, Shasta, Sierra, Tehama, Tulare, and Tuolumne counties (Zielinksi et al. 2005). In the Sierra Nevada, martens prefer old growth fir forests and high elevation riparian-lodgepole pine associations (Spencer et al. 1983). Despite their widespread distribution throughout the Sierra Nevada, martens are considered to be locally uncommon and are known to occur in very low densities (Buskirk and Ruggiero 1994). Martens are omnivores that eat a variety of different food types including small mammals, vegetation (fruits, berries, nuts, fungi, lichens, grass, conifer needles, leaves, twigs and bark), birds, fish, insects, and carrion (Martin 1994).

This species is known to occur within the Bear Creek watershed based on multiple reports from the TNF (2017) and from CNDDB (2017) records.

Sierra Mountain Beaver (Aplodontia rufa californica) – The Sierra mountain beaver, a California Species of Special Concern, is one of 6 subspecies of mountain beaver occurring in California (Hall 1981). It is uncommon throughout its range and appears to have a scattered distribution in montane riparian habitats in the Sierra Nevada. This species frequents open habitats and habitats with intermediate-canopy cover in riparian-deciduous vegetation with a dense understory near water. They feed on a variety of plants, including lupines, willows, grasses, thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus) (Zeiner et al. 1990), conifers, and deciduous trees (Voth 1968). Mountain beavers breed from December through March, producing one litter of two or three young per year, using deep, friable soils in dense thickets near a stream for burrowing. Predators include bobcats, long-tailed weasels, minks, coyotes, and owls (Zeiner et al. 1990).

This species is known to occur in the watershed based on a reported observation in the northeastern part of the watershed; numerous additional records occur within 5 miles of the watershed (CNDDB 2017).

Sierra Nevada Snowshoe Hare (Lepus americanus tahoensis) – Both subspecies of snowshoe hare that are found in California are California Species of Special Concern (Williams 1986). The Sierra Nevada snowshoe hare is primarily found in montane riparian

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habitats with thickets of alders and willows and in stands of young conifers interspersed with chaparral (Zeiner et al. 1990). The early seral stages of mixed conifer, subalpine conifer, red fir, Jeffrey pine, lodgepole pine, and aspen are also likely habitats, primarily along edges and especially near meadows (Orr 1940, Ingles 1965). In the summer, the diet of snowshoe hares consists of grasses, forbs, sedges, and low shrubs (Zeiner et al. 1990). Needles and bark of conifers and leaves and green twigs of willow and alder are eaten in the winter (Wolff 1980). Bobcat, weasel, fox, coyote, and great-horned owl are the main predators of snowshoe hare.

Sierra Nevada snowshoe hares may occur in the watershed. Suitable habitat for the species is present on the watershed, and an individual was observed within 5 miles of the watershed in 2013 (CNDDB 2017).

Townsend’s Big-Eared Bat (Corynorhinus townsendii) – Townsend’s big-eared bat is a California Species of Special Concern. In California, its geographic range is generally patchy and considered to encompass the entire state from sea level to 10,800 feet. The species is a colonial species that requires cavity habitat for roosting, typically caves, mines, tunnels, buildings, or other human-made structures (Zeiner et al. 1990), as well as large hollow trees (Fellers and Pierson 2002) and possibly bridges (Keeley and Tuttle 1999). Historic records suggest that populations are concentrated in areas with abundant caves (especially lava flows in northeastern part of state, Sierra Nevada, and Trinity Alps) or abandoned mines (Pierson and Fellers 1998). Habitat associations for Townsend’s big‐ eared bat in California include inland deserts (i.e., Colorado, Mojave, and Great Basin); cool, moist coastal redwood forests; oak woodlands of the Sierra Nevada foothills and coastal mountains; and lower to mid‐elevation mixed coniferous‐deciduous forest (CDFW 2016). This species prefers mesic habitats, and forages for insects (principally moths) in edge habitats along streams and areas adjacent to and within wooded habitats (Zeiner et al. 1990, CDFW 2016).

This species may occur in the watershed. Although there are no reports of the species occurring within 5 miles of the watershed, Townsend’s big-eared bats commonly occur in the central Sierra Nevada, and the watershed provides suitable habitat for the species.

3.6.5.2 Special-Status Plants

Alder Buckthorn (Rhamnus alnifolia) – Alder buckthorn is a perennial deciduous shrub in the buckthorn family (Rhamnaceae) that grows to less than 6.5 feet in height (Sawyer 2017). It is found in wet meadow edges, seeps, and stream sides in montane coniferous

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forest and riparian scrub from approximately 4,500 to 7,000 feet in elevation in the northern Sierra Nevada (Sawyer 2017, CNPS 2017). The California Rare Plant Rank (CRPR) for this species is 2B.2, meaning it is fairly endangered in California, but more common elsewhere (CNPS 2017). It is known from fewer than 30 occurrences in California, several of which are old (1996 or earlier) or have inexact location information (CNDDB 2017).

Alder buckthorn is known to occur in the Bear Creek watershed, and has been recorded along Bear Creek, although not observed recently (CNDDB 2017, CCH 2017).

American Manna Grass (Glyceria grandis) – American manna grass is a perennial rhizomatous grass that grows between 3 and 6.5 feet tall (Leppig 2017). It is found in bogs and fens, meadows and seeps, and along stream and lake margins at elevations less than 6,900 feet in the North Coast, North Coast Ranges, and Sierra Nevada (Leppig 2017, CNPS 2017). The CRPR for this species is 2B.3, which means that it is not very endangered in California, and is more common elsewhere (CNPS 2017). It is known from 10 occurrences in California, most of which area old (1949 or earlier) and have inexact location information, and only two of which are in Placer County (CNDDB 2017).

American manna grass may occur in the Bear Creek watershed because it has been recorded in close proximity (CNDDB 2017) and suitable habitat exists in wet meadows and along Bear Creek, other drainages, and lake margins in the watershed.

Amethyst Stickseed (Hackelia amethystina) – Amethyst stickseed is a spreading perennial herb in the borage family (Boraginaceae) that grows to between 1 and 3 feet tall (Kelley and Carr 2017). It is found in disturbed areas, meadows, forest clearings, roadsides, and occasionally along streambanks in montane coniferous forest from approximately 4,500 to 7,600 feet in elevation in the high North Coast Ranges and northern high Sierra Nevada (in Plumas and Placer Counties) (Kelley and Carr 2017, CNPS 2017). The CRPR for this species is 4.3, meaning it has limited distribution in California and is not very endangered in the state (CNPS 2017).

Amethyst stickseed is known to occur in the Bear Creek watershed; it was collected in 1912 in Deer Park (CCH 2017). As a CNPS List 4 species, it is not recorded in the CNDDB.

Austin’s Astragalus (Astragalus austiniae) – Austin’s astragalus is a dwarf, clumped perennial herb in the legume family (Fabaceae) that grows less than 1 foot tall (Wojciechowski and Spellenberg 2017a). It is known only from the Lake Tahoe Basin in rocky soils above the timberline (between approximately 7,800 and 9,700 feet), on

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exposed ridges, in alpine boulder and rock fields, in subalpine coniferous forest, and in meadows (Wojciechowski and Spellenberg 2017a, CNPS 2017). The CRPR for this species is 1B.3, meaning it is rare or endangered in California and elsewhere, but not very endangered in California (CNPS 2017). Austin’s astragalus is known from just nine occurrences in California, most of which are old (1986 or earlier) (CNDDB 2017).

This species may occur in the Bear Creek watershed because there are two recent records within 5 miles (CNDDB 2017), and suitable habitat exists in rocky places at the higher elevations in the watershed.

Davy’s Sedge (Carex davyi) – Davy’s sedge is an erect, clumped, perennial sedge in the sedge family (Cyperaceae) that grows to approximately 10 to 15 inches in height (Zika et al. 2017). It is found in dry and sparsely vegetated meadows and slopes in upper montane and subalpine conifer forests from roughly 4,500 to over 10,800 feet in elevation from the central and northern high Sierra Nevada north through the Cascades into Washington (Zika et al 2017, CNPS 2017). The CRPR for this species is 1B.3, meaning it is rare or endangered in California and elsewhere, but not very rare in California. It is known from 19 occurrences in California, and many of these are old (1969 or earlier) or have inexact location information (CNDDB 2017).

Davy’s sedge may occur within the Bear Creek watershed because it has been recorded adjacent to the watershed (CNDDB 2017), and suitable habitat exists in the forests, meadows, and seeps throughout the watershed.

Donner Pass Buckwheat (Eriogonum umbellatum var. torreyanum) – Donner Pass buckwheat (also known as Torrey’s buckwheat) is a named variety of the ubiquitous sulphur buckwheat (Eriogonum umbellatum). It is a perennial herb in the buckwheat family (Polygonaceae) that forms large, low mats roughly 4 to 8 inches high and up to 2.6 feet across (Reveal and Rosatti 2017). Donner Pass buckwheat is found growing from roughly 5,900 to 8,600 feet in alpine and subalpine areas within coniferous forests, meadows, and seeps on the east side of the Sierra Crest near Donner Pass, growing in volcanic sand or gravel (Reveal and Rosatti 2017, CNPS 2017). It is known only from Nevada, Placer, and Sierra Counties from 25 occurrences (CNDDB 2017). The CRPR for this species is 1B.2, meaning it is rare or endangered in California and elsewhere, and fairly endangered in California (CNPS 2017). It is also considered a sensitive species by the TNF (USFS 2013c).

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Donner Pass buckwheat may occur in the Bear Creek watershed because there are several recent records within 5 miles of the watershed (CNDDB 2017), and suitable habitat exists in forests, meadows, and seeps throughout the watershed.

Galena Creek Rockcress (Arabis rigidissima var. demota) – Galena Creek rockcress is a perennial herb in the mustard family (Brassicaceae) that grows as a basal rosette on the ground surface or an elevated woody base; flowering stems may be between 7 and 24 inches tall (Windham and Al-Shehbaz 2017). It grows in rocky, open areas in montane coniferous and broadleaf upland forests from approximately 5,900 to 8,400 feet in elevation in the northern high Sierra Nevada (Windham and Al-Shehbaz 2017, CNPS 2017). Galena Creek rockcress is known from just seven occurrences in El Dorado and Placer Counties (CNPS 2017, CNDDB 2017). The species is included with Trinity Mountain rockcress (Boechera rigidissima) in the current Jepson Manual (Jepson Flora Project 2017), which also occurs in the Klamath Ranges, but CNPS recognizes Galena Creek rockcress as a unique variety and it is tracked as such in the CNDDB. The CRPR for this variety is 1B.2, meaning it is rare or endangered in California and elsewhere, and fairly endangered in California (CNPS 2017).

Galena Creek rockcress may occur in the Bear Creek watershed because there are two recent occurrences of the species recorded within 5 miles of the watershed (CNDDB 2017), and suitable habitat exists in forests at the higher elevations in the watershed.

Long Petaled Lewisia (Lewisia longipetala) – Long petaled lewisia is a perennial, clumped herb in the miner’s lettuce family (Montiaceae) that grows just 1 to 2 inches tall (Miller and Dempster 2017). It grows in granitic rocky boulder and rock fields and mesic openings in subalpine coniferous forest at elevations from 8,200 to 9,600 feet in northern and central high Sierra Nevada (Miller and Dempster 2017, CNPS 2017). Long petaled lewisia is known from 14 occurrences in Nevada, Placer, and El Dorado Counties (CNDDB 2017). The CRPR for this species is 1B.3, meaning it is rare or endangered in California and elsewhere, but not very endangered in California (CNPS 2017). It is also listed by the TNF as a sensitive species (USFS 2013c).

Long petaled lewisia may occur in the Bear Creek watershed because there are two recent records within 5 miles of the watershed (CNDDB 2017), and suitable habitat exists in the rocky habitats and subalpine forests in the watershed.

Munro’s Desert Mallow (Sphaeralcea munroana) – Munro’s desert mallow is a perennial subshrub in the mallow family (Malvaceae) that grows up to 2.5 feet tall (La Duke 2017).

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It grows in Great Basin scrub at approximately 6,500 feet in elevation, and is known in California from just 1 location, although it is more common in other western states (La Duke 2017, CNPS 2017, CNDDB 2017). The CRPR for this species is 2B.2, meaning it is rare or endangered in California but more common elsewhere, and fairly endangered in California (CNPS 2017).

Munro’s desert mallow may occur in the Bear Creek watershed because the known location is from Squaw Creek (CNDDB 2017), which is within 5 miles of the watershed, and suitable habitat exists in the alpine dwarf shrub habitat in the watershed.

Nuttall’s Ribbon-Leaved Pondweed (Potamogeton epihydrus) – Nuttal’s ribbon-leaved pondweed is an aquatic perennial rhizomatous herb in the pondweed family (Potamogetonaceae) that grows up to 5.5 feet long (Hellquist et al. 2017). It grows in shallow water in ponds, lakes, streams, and freshwater marshes and swamps from approximately 1,200 to 7,100 feet in elevation in the outer North Coast Ranges, high Sierra Nevada, Warner Mountains, and Modoc Plateau (Hellquist et al. 2017, CNPS 2017). The CRPR for this species is 2B.2, meaning it is rare or endangered in California but more common elsewhere, and fairly endangered in California (CNPS 2017). It is known from 25 occurrences in California, although many records are old (1994 or earlier) or have inexact location information (CNDDB 2017).

Nuttal’s ribbon-leaved pondweed may occur in the Bear Creek watershed because there is one record of the species within 5 miles of the watershed (CNDDB 2017), and suitable habitat exists in lakes, ponds, and streams throughout the watershed.

Scalloped Moonwort (Botrychium crenulatum) – Scalloped moonwort is a perennial rhizomatous fern in the adder’s-tongue family (Ophioglossaceae) that grows up to 2.4 inches tall (Farrar 2017a). It grows in seeps and stream margins, bogs and fens, montane coniferous forest, meadows, and freshwater marshes and swamps in the high North Coast Ranges, high Cascade Range, high Sierra Nevada, San Gabriel Mountains, San Bernardino Mountains, Warner Mountains, White and Inyo Mountains, and east of the Sierra Nevada in California at elevations from approximately 4,160 to 11,800 feet (Farrar 2017a, CNPS 2017). Scalloped moonwort is known from 125 occurrences in California, many of which are recent (i.e., 2000 or later) (CNDDB 2017). The CRPR for this species is 2B.2, meaning it is rare or endangered in California but more common elsewhere, and fairly endangered in California (CNPS 2017).

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Scalloped moonwort may occur in the Bear Creek watershed because there are two records within 5 miles of the watershed (CNDDB 2017), and suitable habitat exists in seeps, stream edges, forests, and meadows throughout the watershed.

Threetip Sagebrush (Artemesia tripartita ssp. tripartita) – Threetip sagebrush is a mounded perennial shrub in the sunflower family (Asteraceae) that grows up to 1 foot tall (Shultz 1993). It is found in northern and central high Sierra Nevada at elevations between 7,200 and 8,530 feet in openings in upper montane coniferous forest in rocky, volcanic soils (Shultz 1993, CNPS 2017). Although the current Jepson Manual states that threetip sagebrush does not occur in California (Jepson Flora Project 2017), it is known from four locations in Nevada, Placer, and Plumas Counties according to the CNDDB (2017). The CRPR for this species is 2B.3, meaning it is rare or endangered in California but more common elsewhere, and not very endangered in California (CNPS 2017).

This species may occur in the Bear Creek watershed because there is a record adjacent to the watershed on the southeast slope of Ward Peak, just outside the watershed boundary (CNDDB 2017), and suitable habitat exists in forest openings at higher elevations in the watershed.

Woolly-Leaved Milk-Vetch (Astragalus whitneyi var. lenophyllus) – Woolly-leaved milk- vetch is a perennial herb that grows to between 2 and 16 inches tall (Wojciechowski and Spellenberg 2017b). It is found in open, rocky places in subalpine coniferous forest and alpine boulder and rock fields at elevations between 4,900 and 10,000 feet in the Klamath Ranges and northern high Sierra Nevada (Wojciechowski and Spellenberg 2017b, CNPS 2017). The CRPR for this species is 4.3, meaning it has a limited distribution in California and is not very endangered in California (CNPS 2017).

Woolly-leaved milk-vetch is known to occur in the Bear Creek watershed; it was collected in 1915 in the “summit of the Craggs” above Deer Park (CCH 2017). As a CNPS List 4 species, it is not recorded in the CNDDB.

Upswept Moonwort (Botrychium ascendens) – Upswept moonwort is a perennial rhizomatous fern in the adder’s-tongue family (Ophioglossaceae) that grows up to 2.4 inches tall (Farrar 2017b). It is found in moist meadows and open woodland near streams or seeps at approximately 3,600 to 10,500 feet in elevation in the high Cascade Range, central high Sierra Nevada, White and Inyo Mountains, and east of the Sierra Nevada in California (Farrar 2017b, CNPS 2017). The CRPR for this species is 2B.3, meaning it is rare or endangered in California but more common elsewhere, and not very endangered in

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California (CNPS 2017). There are 44 occurrences recorded in California, and most of them are recent and have specific location information (CNDDB 2017).

Upswept moonwort may occur in the Bear Creek watershed because there is one record within 5 miles of the watershed (CNDDB 2017), and suitable habitat exists in forests, wet meadows, and seeps throughout the watershed.

3.7 Disturbance History

A number of historical events and land-use themes in the watershed appear to play an important role in the current status of natural resources health and integrity, including: road building, residential development, ski area development, and to a lesser extent, livestock grazing and logging. We briefly describe the history of these activities below. Dr. Susan Lindström has provided a full account of cultural and historical land uses in Appendix B.

3.7.1 LIVESTOCK GRAZING

Seasonal, transitory sheep grazing in Bear Creek watershed has been documented back to 1911 (Lindstrom, 2017), but limited to the Five Lakes area and likely areas along Bear Creek in the lower meadow area. The USFS continued to restrict grazing after the passage of the Taylor Grazing Act (1934) in an effort to restore or improve range conditions. By 1970, grazing was excluded from most of the Bear Creek watershed.

Grazing impacts to the stream environment are well documented. High concentrations of suspended solids or other sediment loads, and fecal coliform or fecal streptococci may be associated with grazing, and can alter an existing stream ecosystem or even create an entirely new ecosystem (cited in Kauffman and Krueger,1984). At the time of this assessment, no livestock grazing was known to occur and the limited historical grazing does not appear to impact existing conditions.

3.7.2 LOGGING

Historical records suggest that timber harvesting in the watershed has been limited, as compared to nearby areas. Lindstrom (2017) documented a few accounts of logging in the Bear Creek watershed as early as 1881, with more intensive period of railroad logging occurring 1900 – 1909. Additional timber harvest occurred in limited areas in 1948 and again in 1968 (Figure 3-16).

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Logging after the 1970s was largely focused on selected areas for thinning, fire management, forest health and ski area development. Logging practices included railroad logging, yarding, tractor logging, with documentation of clear cuts. Tractor logging was reportedly the most destructive with respect to erosion and sedimentation of Bear Creek (Lindstrom, 2017).

Figure 3-16 Areas of historical logging, Bear Creek watershed, Placer County, California (Lindstrom, 2017).

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3.7.3 ROADS AND SKI AREA DEVELOPMENT

This assessment’s review of roads was limited to those managed by Placer County, USFS, and Alpine Meadows Ski Area.

Roads can be a major watershed disturbance depending on their construction, stream crossing design, drainage patterns, road density (miles of road per square mile), and maintenance. In the northern Sierra Nevada, unpaved roads have shown 12- to 25-fold increases in sediment yield to nearby streams (Coe, 2002). Improper or undersized culverts can lead to channel scour and eventually fish passage barriers, as well as stream diversion (Furniss and others, 1997). Roadcuts along unstable hillslopes can promote excessive sediment to inboard ditches, and eventually the stream. Roadcuts may also trigger landslides or debris flows. Roads can increase hydrologic connectivity with streams—when runoff can accumulate and discharge to the stream more quickly. Increases in volume of runoff entering the streams can, in turn, increase flood magnitude and frequency, and results in channel scour and bank erosion. Maintenance, grading or use of existing dirt roads during wet weather can quickly double the amount of sediment available for delivery to nearby streams (Coe, 2002). Finally, roads can modify channels and sediment supply through the process of stream capture. Stream capture occurs when a culvert at a stream crossing becomes overwhelmed or plugged with sediment resulting in redirection of streamflow. If the road is graded such that it can provide a flow path, the road becomes the active channel. In the Bear Creek watershed, stream capture often occurs at stream crossings when a culvert becomes plugged or at locations where roads intersect first order tributaries.

Road development within the Bear Creek watershed began near the turn of the 20th century, when Scott’s Springs Resort (a.k.a., Deer Park Springs) was established as a recreational/tourist destination (see Appendix B; Lindstrom, 2017). A USGS topographic map (Truckee Sheet) from 1889 shows the first road along Bear Creek to Scott’s Springs. Logging in the early 1900s used mechanical logging practices that generated multiple skid roads, and even a railroad grade that extended along Bear Creek up through the lower meadow (Lindstrom, 2017).

Sometime in the early 1950s, the lower Bear Creek Valley was developed to support the Powder Bowl Ski Area (a.k.a., Deer Park Ski Resort), with graded trails and paved parking. The 1960 Winter Olympics at Squaw Valley brought additional interest and development in the Bear Creek watershed, including Alpine Meadows Ski Area (formerly known as

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Ward Peak Ski Resort) in 1961 with extension of a paved road up the valley and a parking lot for approximately 500 vehicles (Lindstrom, 2017).

By the mid-1960s, additional roads were constructed for housing developments within the valley, as indicated from a 1966 historical aerial photograph. To service the growing community, the Alpine Springs County Water District (ASCWD) was formed to provide water, sewage, garbage, fire, and recreational parks. These services required additional roads for water and sewer line installations and maintenance.

Stormwater management from roads is a challenge in the watershed. The County and others inherited outdated infrastructure and poor road drainage construction built in the 20th century. Snow removal and winter management to maintain access to residential communities and Alpine Meadows Ski resort pose additional responsibilities.

Today, Placer County maintains most paved roads in the Bear Creek Valley, including Alpine Meadows Road and many of the residential streets. Under a recent monitoring program, Placer County mapped most major culverts or stormwater outfalls within their jurisdiction in the watershed (Figure 3-17). Many of these culverts discharge stormwater directly to Bear Creek or confine surface runoff to limited crossings under streets and roads.

Squaw Valley/Alpine Meadows maintains and provides snow removal for the parking lots at the old Deer Park Ski Area and Alpine Meadows Ski Area. These impervious surfaces discharge runoff and road sand to Bear Creek directly or via the existing stormwater system. Squaw/Alpine also maintains the unimproved roads and trails within the Alpine Meadows Ski Area boundary under a Special Use Permit. These roads typically require constant maintenance to maintain access to the upper mountain. Maintenance includes grading, unplugging culverts, culvert replacement, and filling of gullies.

The USFS manages most of the uplands and existing unimproved roads/trails in the watershed. In 2016, the USFS completed the Middle Truckee River Tributaries Sediment Source Assessment (USFS, 2016) to identify and prioritize erosion hot-spots and develop a plan prescribing sediment control treatment. In Bear Creek watershed, the USFS identified the former Deer Park Ski Area, Alpine Meadows Ski Area, and road segments along the south side of the middle watershed as high-priority areas or roads with ‘at-risk’ or ‘impaired’ ratings.

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Other roads that were not assessment as part of this assessment are privately owned and maintained, including those managed by the Bear Creek Association (HOA), Juniper Mountain Association, Alpine Meadows Estates Association and White Wolf.

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Figure 3-17 Map showing stormwater subwatersheds and major stormwater outfalls, Placer County maintained roads, Bear Creek watershed, Placer County, California (Placer County, 2017).

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4 WATERSHED CONDITION

This section of the report documents watershed conditions, as evaluated using a combination of background research, existing data, and field reconnaissance. This allows for identification of disturbed and impaired areas and associated watershed management strategies, as summarized in Chapter 6. Watershed conditions, including ecosystem functions and values, were evaluated using a reconnaissance of the creek, meadows, spring sources, and uplands, the most recent scientific principles available, professional experience, local knowledge, maps and aerial photographs, and GIS analysis. Our work augmented the USFS assessment of sediment sources within the Bear Creek watershed.

The stream and riparian corridor was evaluated in September and October 2017 following a winter with well-above average precipitation and multiple floods. The uplands were evaluated in August and September 2017, including Alpine Meadows Ski Area, White Wolf, USFS lands, and the former Deer Park Ski Area. Roads and stormwater infrastructure were evaluated in September 2017 with Placer County Public Works staff.

Our field team consisted of ecologists with H. T. Harvey & Associates, and Balance Hydrologics hydrologists, geologists, and geomorphologists. Field activities consisted of stream walks within the meadows and portions of the uplands, and quantitative assessment of channel morphology, aquatic habitat, and hydrology. Where feasible, our team hiked within or along Bear Creek from the confluence with the Truckee River upstream to the Alpine Meadows Ski Area. We also visited all existing road/trail creek crossings. Owner Troy Caldwell provided our team with a tour of the White Wolf property, and we conducted a self-guided tour of Alpine Meadows via its road network. We also documented habitat conditions within the meadow and stream system by traversing the meadows along meandering transects, recording the presence of wildlife and the condition and composition of plant communities.

4.1 Stream, Riparian, and Meadow Corridor Assessment

A stream corridor assessment was carried out in order to make comparisons between intact and impaired channel reaches, document in-channel or near-channel sediment sources, characterize hydrology and channel conditions, riparian and meadow conditions, and evaluate physical and biological aquatic habitat.

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4.1.1 HYDROLOGIC ANALYSIS

To better understand fluvial conditions, channel function, and habitat value, we completed several hydrologic analyses. Annual variation in streamflow, baseflow, and peak flows were estimated from adjacent or nearby gaged watersheds and using standard hydrologic methods and regional relationships (McGraw and others, 2001, Gotvald and others, 2006). The USGS manages a streamflow gage on Ward Creek, since WY1973 (USGS 10336676, Ward Creek at HWY 89 near Tahoe Pines, California) and Blackwood Creek since WY1961 (USGS 10336660, Blackwood Creek near Tahoe City, CA).

McGraw and others (2001) developed a regression using these two USGS gages to estimate streamflow in Bear Creek. This regression equation was used in this assessment to estimate average and minimum flows in Bear Creek (Table 4-1). We observed approximately 5 cubic feet per second (cfs) in the channel during this assessment, a significantly higher value than estimated using McGraw and others (2001), suggesting a wetter than average year.

Table 4-1 Estimated monthly average and minimum streamflow, Bear Creek, Placer County, California

Month Average Flow Minimum Flow cfs cfs

October 1.1 0 November 4.6 0 December 8.5 0 January 10.2 0 February 9.9 0 March 15.6 0.7 April 33.5 6.9 May 67.5 12.1 June 51.4 1.8 July 14.7 0 August 1.8 0 September 0.4 0

Period of Record: WY1973 - WY2014

Separately, based on unit-discharge from Ward Creek, we applied a standard flood- frequency analysis (Bulletin 17B) to estimate peak flows for common return periods (i.e., 1-year to 100-year flood) for Bear Creek. Ward Creek is a similar sized watershed (9.7

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square miles), includes similar elevations and is located south and adjacent to Bear Creek. A secondary method (Gotvald and others, 2006) was also used to arrive at similar return periods and provide a possible range in expected flows (Table 4-2).

Table 4-2 Estimated Flood Frequency-Magnitude, Bear Creek, Placer County, California

Methods Bulletin 17B 1 Gotvald and others (2006) 2 Return Period Probability Streamflow Streamflow (years) (%) (cfs) (cfs) 100 1 1,708 1,210 50 2 1,290 981 20 5 852 -- 10 10 592 500 5 20 383 336 2 50 170 167 1.5 65 120 -- 1 99 20 --

Notes: 1. U.S. Interagency Advisory Committee on Water Data, 1982, Guidelines for determining flood flow frequency, Bulletin 17-B of the Hydrology Subcommittee: Reston, Virginia, U.S. Geological Survey, Office of Water Data Coordination, 183 p. 2. Gotvald, A.J., Barth, N.A., Veilleux, A.G., and Parrett, C., 2012, Methods for determining magnitude and frequency of floods in California, based on data through water year 2006: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2012-5113, 38 p., 1 pl.

From Table 4-2, we estimate the annual flood to be roughly 20 cfs, while a ‘bankfull’ event (1.5-year return period) to be approximately 120 cfs, also the approximate flow that naturally inundates floodplains and some wet meadows. We estimate a 100-year flood to be roughly between 1,200 cfs and 1,700 cfs.

For context, the Bear Creek peak flow in WY2017 (January 8, 2017) was estimated to be between 800 cfs and 1,000 cfs, or between a 20- and 25-year flood using Bulletin 17B (USGS, 1981). Additional analysis of regional gages in the Truckee River Basin also indicates that 2017 peak flows were generally between 15-year and 25-year flood events. In fact, the annual peak flow (January 8, 2017) was the 2nd largest flood on record for Ward Creek; and possibly the flood of record for Blackwood Creek (gage lost power during storm). This event and its relationship to the channel condition is revisited below in relevant reaches.

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4.1.2 CHANNEL REACH CLASSIFICATION

For the purposes of this assessment, a stream reach classification was completed and channel conditions were assessed by reach through interpretation of historical aerial photographs and stream reconnaissance. Each reach was classified based on several characteristics including: a) approximate channel slope, b) channel planform, c) channel morphology, d) dominant bed material size or influence of bedrock controls, e) dominant sediment transport processes and, f) influence of land-uses or modification of channels or hydrology. Nine distinct reaches were identified (Reaches A through I) in Bear Creek while eight additional tributary reaches were noted and evaluated (Figure 4-1).

We summarize each reach with our observations and key characteristics in Table 4-3. A single photo depicting each reach is included in this section and additional photos from our assessment are provided in Appendix C. Stream reconnaissance field forms are included as Appendix D.

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Figure 4-1 Map showing geomorphic channel reaches, major tributaries, Bear Creek Watershed, Placer County, California.

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Table 4-3 Bear Creek and tributary geomorphology, condition, and general descriptions, Placer County, California

Reach Reach Channel Channel Planform Length Slope Geomorphic Setting Bed Material Source Condition Description Reach Type (approx.) (approx.) (ft) (%) Bear Creek Stormwater We include this separate catchment within the Bear Creek Assessement because it drains the Deer Park Ski Area and stormwater associated with its Deer Park ditch and not Glacial, urban constructed n/a Urban Eroding parking lot and a portion of Alpine Meadows Road. Discharges to Truckee River roughly 850 feet upstream from the Bear Creek mouth. Drainage Drainage single-thread measured materials also receives runoff from the ASCD pond and recreational fields. channel Transitional reach between a bedrock/moraine controlled or confined valley and the confluence with Truckee River. Historically, supported a Alluvial Fan, Confluence, Volcanics, Granitics, A Pool-Riffle 325 0.5 Eroding distributary channel system on an alluvial fan. Currently, channel is incised into fan and fixed in place by older growth pines. Abundant algae on distributary Baselevel change glacial moraine bed. Step-Pool, Moraine, bedrock Volcanics, Granitics, Confined valley, channel cutting through glacial moriane to bedrock. Steep side slopes and channel slope, absence of floodplain. Cascades may B Single-Thread 1,600 5.0-15.0 Stable Cascade controls glacial moraine present natural fish passage barriers; abundant algae in pools

The moraine of Reach B provides grade control for an alluvial valley fill, and the lower gradient system. This reach is an active braided channel, Single-Thread Former Lucustrine, Volcanics, granitics, floodplain and meadow with instream wood recruitment. Reach may be bound by faults at either end providing a geologic control on meadow and C (formerly Pool-Riffle 3,500 1.5-2.0 outwash; fault Transitional glacial outwash channel slopes. Channel is incised in segments with eroding banks and sediment sources to downstream habitat and Truckee River. Reach also Braided) controlled receives perennial flow from multiple spring-fed channels along south side of meadow. Abundant fines and algae in pools.

Bedrock controls, Volcanics, granitics, Defined by a valley-confined segment, bedrock controlled. Private property prevented a detailed reconnaissance of this reach. Some sections D Single-Thread Step-Pool 3,300 2.0-3.0 bounded upstream Stable glacial outwash viewed from road appear to have incurred a period of incision; but willow roots and boulders provide channel stability. by fault Reach receives several smaller tributaries, including 5-Lakes Trailhead drainage. Channel has healthy riparian vegetation, but shows evidence of Pool-Riffle, Glacial outwash, Volcanics, granitics, E Single-Thread 3,600 2.0-2.5 Eroding incision likely associated with stormwater inflows. Road traction sand is visible on bars, floodplain, in pools. Includes Lower John Scott Trail step-pool residential glacial outwash crossing. Placer County reports multiple stormwater issues in this reach. Bedrock control, Bedrock controlled, valley confined and characterized by cascade and step-pool morphology. Private property prevents a more detailed F Single-Thread Step-Pool 1,400 5.0-7.0 Granitics Uncertain fault bounded reconnaissance Volcanics, granitics, Boulder controlled, supports a willow riparian, flows are diverted to a recreational pond; algae covered bed. Includes Park Drive crossing; G Single-Thread 1,500 3.0-4.0 glacial moraine Stable glacial outwash downstream end of reach may be bounded by fault. Reach stable and resilient due to boulder substrate. Step-Pool, H Single-Thread 2,000 7.5-15.0 Bedrock control Stable Steep, bedrock controlled reach; includes Upper John Scott Trail crossing; private property prevents a more detailed reconnaissance. Cascade Eroding in Reach defined between Ginzton Access Road crossing upstream to Alpine Meadows Ski Area Base Lodge. Lower gradient slope once supported Pool-Riffle, glacial moraine, Volcanics, granitics, segments, willow riparian and meadow; Reach receives stormwater runoff from Alpine Meadows Parking lots. Snow removal and storage directly in channel. I Single-Thread 1,500 3.0-7.0 step-pool urban glacial outwash aggrading in Receives overflow from snowmaking pond which captures flow from Estelle Lake tributary, wells, and springs. Abundant green filamentous algae others reach-wide. Volcanics, granitics, -- CULVERT -- 600 5.0-6.0 glacial moraine -- Headwater tributaries converge at the base of Alpine Meadows Ski Area and are enclosed in a culvert which discharges to Reach I glacial outwash Headwater Tributaries (White Wolf) Step-Pool, Spring-fed tributary, drains a 0.4 square mile subwatershed, also known as White Wolf. Landowner diverts spring flow for domestic use and Catch Basin Single-Thread -- >8 Bedrock control granitics Stable Cascade maintains a small man-made pond. Waters are used for snow making at Alpine Meadows Ski Area. Headwater Tributaries (Alpine Meadows Ski Area) This tributary drains a 0.2 square mile subwatershed and supports a tarn lake (Estelle Lake). Area is managed by USFS and Alpine Meadows Ski Area. Lower segment of this tributary has been modified and relocated to accommodate a ski run (Kangaroo Run). The segment was straightened and Distributary/ Step-Pool, Bedrock control, Stable/modified Estelle -- >8 granitics confined to a ditch but seeps water across ski run. Some waters are diverted to fill a snow making pond. Streamflow under Alpine Meadows Ski Single-Thread Cascade moraine in lower reach Area parking lot is contained in a culvert and discharges to a second snow making pond. Pond overflow is discharged back to Bear Creek within Reach I. Beaver Bowl -- >8 Not evaluated

This tributary drains a 0.4 square mile subwatershed and includes many ski runs at Alpine Meadows Ski Area. Steep slopes are subject to natural Wolverine Step-Pool, Bedrock control, Metasedimentary/ gullying and rilling from intense rainfall events. Maintenance roads cross the subwatershed and require constant maintenance due to erosion. Single-Thread -- >8 Eroding Bowl Cascade colluvial, moraine Volcanics Flows are also focused along mainteance roads. Tributary supports a small alpine/willow and alder dominated meadow. Tributary also receives streamflow from Beaver Bowl and Warner's Schuss (ski run/drainage). Flows are confined to a culvert at the base lodge and discharges to Reach I.

This tributary drains a 0.6 square mile subwatershed that drains the highest elevations in the Bear Creek watershed. Upper segments support steep Step-Pool, Bedrock control, Metasedimentary/ alpine/willow-dominated meadows that are spring-fed and generally in stable condition. Maintenance roads and snowmaking water-supply lines Alpine Bowl Single-Thread -- >8 Eroding Cascade colluvial, moraine Volcanics cross the subwatershed and exacerbate the natural erosion under intense rainfall events. Lower tributary segment is also known as "Hot Wheels Gully" on ski maps. Drains a 0.2 square mile subwatershed on the northwest aspect of Scott Peak. Supported by multiple perennial springs which create a discharge Scott Peak Distributary/ Step-Pool, -- 3- >8 Colluvial, moraine Volcanics Stable slope meadow complex adjacent to Subway Ski Lift and Parking lot at Alpine Meadows Ski Area. Discharges to Bear Creek via culverts within Reach Springs Single-Thread Pool-Riffle I.

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Channel processes can be framed in terms of spatial patterns of sediment production, transport, and deposition. Figure 4-2 is a longitudinal profile of Bear Creek and shows a somewhat typical concave shape, with steeper gradients (>20 percent) in the upper watershed, and lower gradients (<5 percent) in the lower half of the watershed. Bedrock exposure within the watershed present distinct slope breaks between reaches and function to control sediment transport and deposition in adjoining reaches. Finally, Bear Creek has developed its own distinct characteristics in areas where it has cut through glacial moraines.

Smaller, steeper tributaries (not shown) in the upper zone of a watershed function to erode and transport sediment, while the larger, shallower mainstem channel in the lower zone of a watershed tends to accumulate or deposit sediment. Watershed management strategies should differ where sediment transport processes differ. It is also important to recognize that these zones are not static, and sediment transport processes may change in a particular location following large floods, wildfires, or during extreme droughts.

8800 8700 8600 Bear Creek 8500 8400 8300 Lower Meadow 8200 8100 Alpine Meadows Road Crossing 8000 7900 7800 Alpine Meadows Lodge and 7700 Parking Lot 7600 7500 Scott Ski Lift and Chalet 7400 7300 Alpine Bowl Ski Lift 7200 7100 7000 Glacial moraine

Elevation (feet above sea level) 6900 6800 6700 6600 6500 6400 6300 6200 6100 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Distance Upstream from the Truckee River (miles)

Figure 4-2 Longitudinal Profile of Bear Creek, Placer County, California.

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In Figure 4-3, we plot Bear Creek by reach based on slopes measured from topographic maps and as compared to the general distribution of alluvial channel types presented by Montgomery and Buffington (1997). Processes such as scour, deposition, and function of large woody debris can be inferred from the graph and applied toward channel restoration planning in specific areas. Alluvial reaches exhibit pool-riffle type morphology, whereas, bedrock controlled reaches typically express cascade and/or step-pool morphology. The predicted channel morphology generally conforms to our observations in the field. Their classifications also help to define future design concepts to maintain geomorphic form and function.

initiation scour G Bear Creek Reach Segments hollow or deposition see Figure 5-1 for Reach Locations hillslope, colluvial

Large Woody Debris

largely immobile: largely mobile: traps sediment acts as sediment Headwater Tributaries (e.g., Five Lakes Tributary, cascade Alpine Bowl)*

H B >6.5% F step-pool

plane-bed G D I 3% to 6.5% pool-riffle dune-ripple E C A 1.5% to 3% <1.5% 0 diffusion debris-flow dominated dominated fluvial

* Headwater stream slopes vary and support intermittent, lower-gradient, meadow systems

Figure 4-3 Expected channel geomorphology based on slope, Bear Creek watershed reaches, Placer County, California (adapted from Montgomery and Buffington, 1997).

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4.1.3 CHANNEL FORM AND ECOLOGICAL FUNCTION

Some reaches of Bear Creek and its tributaries are functioning relatively well with stable banks, some degree of floodplain connectivity, extensive vegetation cover, and riparian scrub vegetation. Existing riparian zones support a diversity of terrestrial wildlife and provide instream wood, shading, and organic debris that support fish habitat and macroinvertebrate production. Other reaches show evidence of channel degradation, a lack of floodplain connectivity, limited fish habitat, and lack a well-developed riparian corridor.

The following section provides brief assessments of the geomorphology, wildlife and aquatic habitat conditions provided by each identified reach of Bear Creek (see Figure 4-1). Where appropriate, observed examples of lower and higher ecological functions are highlighted for each reach. We evaluated channel condition and function using measured channel geometry and high-water marks (e.g., sedimentation and debris lines) from recent floods. Where alluvial reaches and floodplain meadows are present, we set out to understand the relative extent and frequency at which flood waters access or inundate floodplain or meadow surfaces. Typically, streamflow in a pool-riffle channel crossing a meadow system can be expected to overtop its banks or engage its floodplain at least 5 or 6 times in a decade—sometimes referred to as the 1.5-year or 2-year flow or ‘bankfull discharge’. Inundation of a meadow surface at these frequencies serves many eco-hydrologic functions, such as depositing fine sediment and nutrients to meadow soils and plants while recharging local groundwater and attenuating peak discharge in downstream areas.

4.1.3.1 Reach A

Reach A forms a deltaic type landform, where Bear Creek encounters a fluctuating base level of the regulated Truckee River. The change in base level and energy forms a depositional zone with dynamic distributary channels, similar to a delta (Figure 4-19). Sediment deposition, transported by the steeper Bear Creek, changes location relative to the stage of the Truckee River. For example, during times of reduced Truckee River flow releases from the Tahoe City dam, sediment from Bear Creek actively deposits in the active channel of the Truckee River. In contrast, higher flows in the Truckee River promote overbank deposits and bar development within Bear Creek within this reach.

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Figure 4-4 Reach A showing confluence with Truckee River and wet meadow complex, Bear Creek, Placer County, California.

The overbank areas in Reach A are primarily dominated by a wet meadow complex. This meadow, although relatively small, is in excellent ecological condition and dominated by grasses, sedges, and rushes indicative of wetlands and montane meadows with high surface and shallow groundwater availability. Other portions of the meadow are considerably drier and upland plants (e.g., conifers) are more common except along small distributary channels where willows occur. These channels appear to possibly convey higher flows (e.g., during winter floods or snowmelt runoff), down into the wetter portions of the meadow bordering the Truckee River, but these channels are disconnected from the creek at lower flows (e.g., during base flow conditions).

At the time of this assessment, Reach A was characterized by a long, slow glide with some fine sediment deposition and relatively little in-stream habitat diversity or shade to support fish or invertebrate production. Limited areas of bank erosion occur in this reach. Mixed conifer forest occurs along the left bank and provides a source for instream wood as channel patterns migrate and undercut their root mass.

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Factors limiting the ecological functions of this reach are the lack of in-stream habitat diversity, shade for fish and benthic macroinvertebrates, and presence of fine sediment and algae on the channel bed. Sources of fine sediment may originate from stormwater, active erosion of upstream reaches, and/or low-flow disturbances in the channel (i.e., upstream horse crossings). The wet meadow complex at the Truckee River confluence, although small, provides high wildlife habitat values within this reach.

Identified Opportunity: Habitat enhancements may include addition of instream wood to encourage sedimentation and more frequent overbank flooding of wet meadow complex.

4.1.3.2. Reach B

In Reach B, Bear Creek cuts through a glacial moraine-dominated landform, where channel slope and morphology is controlled by both bedrock and glacial till. Channel features include cascades and step-pools with alternating plunge pools and small pool- riffle-run complexes (Figure 4-5). Steep side-slopes are composed by highly erodible unconsolidated sands, gravels, cobbles and boulders, typical of a moraine. The reach is primarily occupied by mixed conifer forests. Limited willow and alder border segments of the stream channel. In some locations, stands of aspen intermix with conifers. Large numbers of downed trees and other sources of wood appear to be generated within this reach.

Larger boulders provide refuge for fish from higher velocity flows, overhanging conifers provide shade, and some streamside riparian vegetation provide in-stream habitat complexity, resulting in good-quality fish habitat in this reach, although largely for the benefit of nonnative species. Stands of aspen increase structural diversity for terrestrial wildlife and increase foraging opportunities for some species of birds (i.e., foliage gleaning species) for which conifer forests provide lower-quality habitat. Additionally, the juxtaposition of larger aspen, mature conifer forest, and Bear Creek provides suitable habitat for special-status species like the northern goshawk and Sierra marten. Small numbers of fish, largely nonnative rainbow trout, were observed in this reach during a September 2017 reconnaissance survey of the creek.

No restoration actions are recommended for this reach.

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Figure 4-5 Reach B showing boulder-dominated step-pool morphology and steep sideslopes of a channel cutting through a glacial moraine, Bear Creek, Placer County, California.

4.1.3.3. Reach C

Reach C is defined by alluvial valley fill, a lower gradient system influenced by the downstream moraine and possibly structural geology (fault trace). Bear Creek in this reach is a dynamic, meandering channel with active bank erosion and in-channel bar formation with pool-riffle morphology (Figure 4-6).

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Figure 4-6 Reach C showing a meandering alluvial channel and wet meadow complex, Bear Creek, Placer County, California.

The creek in Reach C is characterized by a series of pools and riffles with long, slow glides. Fine sediment deposition among stream gravels is common in this reach and in-channel structures, such as large wood, beaver dams, boulders and similar features that add habitat complexity, are limited (Figure 4-7).

Habitats along Reach C are dominated by meadows, some larger areas of riparian (i.e., willow-dominated) scrub, and aspen and cottonwood intermixed with conifers. The channel corridor exhibits large gravel bars that typically lack vegetation, suggesting that either high velocity flows periodically scour out new vegetation as it recruits (e.g., willow seedlings) or that soil and hydrological conditions are not conducive to the recruitment of new riparian vegetation.

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Figure 4-7 Reach C showing an incised channel with active bank erosion, Bear Creek, Placer County, California.

The character of the meadow along Bear Creek through Reach C is markedly different on either side of the creek. On the left bank, the meadow is considerably drier. Old, abandoned meander bends and historic stream channels occur throughout this area. In these topographically lower spots, shrubby willow thickets occur. In higher spots, above these abandoned channel features on the floodplain, annual herbaceous plants and other plants generally indicative of dry meadows (Weixelman et al. 2011) are found. Scattered conifers, mostly lodgepole pine, and a couple of very large black cottonwood trees also occur in these drier meadows. Much of this drier meadow appears to be hydrologically disconnected from the stream due to channel incision.

Conversely, the meadows along the right bank of Bear Creek, in between the creek and Alpine Meadows Road, are considerably wetter and dominated by grasses, sedges, and other deep-rooted plants indicative of mesic and wet meadows, where either

94 Balance Hydrologics, Inc. BEAR CREEK WATERSHED ASSESSMENT – PLACER COUNTY – CALIFORNIA groundwater or surface water are more reliably available to support growth of hydrophytic plants. These areas are wetter, in large part, due to supplemental flows provided by hillslope springs that occur along the south side of the watershed. Much of the flow from these springs discharge into Bear Creek via a series of small spring channels that traverse the meadow before reaching the creek. Within the meadow, some of these spring channels are slightly incised, roughly 1 to 3 feet below the meadow surface (Figure 4-8), likely the result of concentration of stormwater from Alpine Meadows Road and other neighborhood streets.

Figure 4-8 Incised spring-fed tributary to Reach C, Bear Creek, Placer County, California.

Aside from hydrophytic grasses and similar herbaceous plants, both aspen and cottonwood, some of which show signs of historic beaver damage, occur throughout the meadow, as do scattered lodgepole pine. Signs of aspen recruitment are present in this

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area (i.e., a diversity of aspen age classes), but shading from encroaching conifers may be limiting additional aspen regeneration.

Beaver dam remnants are apparent along the stream, and suggest beavers are active within this reach. Floods in 2017 likely removed all beaver dams that once existed. Shade from streamside riparian vegetation likely moderates water temperatures and provide an additional source of habitat complexity is similarly limited in this reach. A small number of rainbow trout were observed in this reach during a September 2017 reconnaissance survey of the creek.

Comparison of historical aerial photographs suggests that this reach of Bear Creek has been altered from a once vegetated anastomosing or multi-channel, wet-meadow system into a single-threaded, incised channel system (Figure 4-9). In the 1939 photograph, multiple channels with abundant willow or alder thickets are evident. In subsequent years, a single channel becomes more apparent and willow/alder thickets are replaced with areas of exposed sediment absent of vegetation (e.g., bank erosion, point bars, etc.).

Flooding of meadow surfaces naturally occurs with floods with more frequency (1 to 5- year floods). High-water marks identified along the channel in Reach C suggest that the 2017 peak flow, a roughly 20- to 25-year recurrence flood, was primarily contained within the active channel, likely the symptom of an incised channel system. Incision may be related to the effects of hydromodification —excess runoff from impervious areas. Additional flow provides additional energy acting on the channel bed and banks. The channel responds by widening and deepening to accommodate the modified hydrology. This process results in meadow desiccation, conifer encroachment, and provides a chronic source of fine sediment to the channel from in-channel erosion. Reach C is located downstream from most of the urbanized areas within the watershed and the alluvial characteristics of this reach are more conducive to the impacts of stormwater or hydromodification.

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Figure 4-9 Historical conditions, Lower Bear Creek Meadow, Placer County, California.

The ecological functions of this reach are limited by a lack of floodplain connectivity between the creek and its adjacent meadows, caused primarily by incision of Bear Creek. The incision of Bear Creek has also lowered the groundwater table, causing the adjacent meadow to become drier and dominated by conifers and other plants not typically found in wet meadows. Areas of willow scrub, that provide high wildlife habitat values for some species, persist along remnant stream channels in the otherwise drier meadow, but the extent of these habitats is limited and unlikely to persist long-term because current hydrologic conditions do not support recruitment of new willow scrub vegetation to the replace existing vegetation as it gradually dies.

Spring flows that influence the meadows along the right bank of Bear Creek offer resilience against the negative effects of channel incision along this reach. These spring flows provide a reliable source of cold, clean water, and support establishment of higher- functioning mesic and wet meadows in between the creek and Alpine Meadows Road.

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This wetter meadow, with its spring channels and matrix of herbaceous plants, aspen, and conifers, provides higher quality habitat for many species of terrestrial wildlife. However, even in these relatively higher-functioning areas, long-term habitat sustainability may be threatened by the incision of spring channels that has resulted from confinement of flows to few culverts under Alpine Meadows Road and addition of stormwater runoff to these channels. A lack of aspen regeneration and increasing conifer encroachment may also impact the ecological functions of this area longer-term.

We observed fine sediment and algae along the wetted bed in Reach C. Reach C receives stormwater runoff and sediment directly from Alpine Meadows Road, and Alpine Meadows Stables which operates adjacent to the meadow with a trail network and several stream crossings. Horse manure was also visible within the wetted channel in this reach, a possible source of nutrients for algae growth.

Identified Opportunity: We identified Reach C for multiple management actions and restoration opportunities to improve channel and meadow functions in these areas, reduce sediment to the Truckee River, and enhance aquatic and meadow habitats. Restoration opportunities in Reach C include augmenting instream wood to encourage sediment deposition and overbank flows, conifer eradication from the meadow, bioengineered check dams to aggrade incised spring tributary channels, and possible beaver dam analogs to encourage in-channel beaver activity. Any restoration actions in Reach C will require coordination with Placer County to improve stormwater management and discourage concentration of flows to a few culverts under Alpine Meadows Road which currently exacerbate incision of spring-fed channels.

4.1.3.4. Reach D

Reach D begins upstream from the Alpine Meadows Road crossing where bedrock constriction forms a narrow canyon reach. Bedrock controls in this reach control channel morphology. The reach is characterized by step-pools and small cascades (Figure 4-10). Private property prevented a detailed reconnaissance of this reach. Some sections viewed from Alpine Meadows Road appear to have incurred a period of incision, but appears to be relatively stable today as evidence of a near-continuous riparian corridor along its banks.

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Figure 4-10 Reach D showing bedrock channel and mixed willow-conifer riparian, Bear Creek, Placer County, California.

Habitats are very similar in reaches D through H. Montane riparian scrub and woodland are relatively well-developed in these reaches. These plant communities, which are variously composed of willow, aspen, alder, cottonwood, and dogwood, along with intermixed conifers, provide abundant refugia and breeding substrate for bird prey (i.e., invertebrates), and they provide nesting, foraging, and thermal cover for the birds themselves as well as other species of wildlife. Abundant in-stream habitat structural diversity is provided by boulders, large wood, root wads, and similar features.

Nonnative rainbow trout were more abundant in this reach and reaches E, F, G, and H, suggesting that these reaches likely provide greater aquatic habitat ecological functions than other reaches of Bear Creek. Similarly, the juxtaposition of the stream with riparian scrub, cottonwood, aspen, and conifer forest provides high habitat values for wildlife,

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which are only reduced by the presence of developed areas (i.e., roads, residences, and vacation cabins).

-Restoration recommendations were not identified within this reach.

4.1.3.5. Reach E

Reach E includes the Lower John Scott Trail crossing at Bear Creek and a confluence with several tributaries including the Five Lakes trailhead tributary. This reach is confined within a narrow canyon, but includes segments of alluvial fill where channel and floodplain features are present. Channel characteristics include pool-riffle morphology with gravels and cobbles dominant (Figure 4-11). The channel exhibits active widening and some incision. The coarse texture of the bed provides some resilience to these instabilities. Road traction sand observed in pools and along floodplains is evidence of stormwater runoff and source of possible hydromodification effects. A review of Placer County stormwater culvert locations and flow paths suggest that this reach receives runoff from a significant portion of Alpine Meadows Road and neighborhood streets.

Figure 4-11 Reach E, Bear Creek, Placer County, California.

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Stormwater impacts in this reach can be traced up the Five Lakes tributary. This tributary funnels a significant portion of runoff from Alpine Meadows Road. Furthermore, tributaries along this portion of the watershed drain highly erosive geology and in some events, can trigger significant sediment transport to Bear Creek. Frequent culvert plugging from sediment was reported by Placer County under Alpine Meadows Road at the Five Lakes Trailhead. These occurrences have forced stormwater and sediment onto the road and onto private property (Boyer, T., pers. comm., 2017) Figure 4-12.

Figure 4-12 Sediment plugged culvert inlet, Alpine Meadows Road at Five Lakes Trailhead, Placer County, California.

Two undersized culverts at the Five Lakes Trailhead conveys runoff from multiple drainages and an inboard ditch under Alpine Meadows Road and discharge to a steep tributary and Bear Creek. The excess stormwater runoff results in channel scour and bank erosion and is a likely sediment source to Bear Creek (Figure 4-13).

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Figure 4-13 Active channel and bank erosion downstream from Five Lakes Trailhead, Tributary to Reach E, Bear Creek, Placer County, California.

Identified Opportunity: Restoration of channel processes should begin with improved stormwater management or BMPs along Alpine Meadows Road and at the Lower John Scott Trail bridge. Construction of Alpine Meadows Road and John Scott Trail required steep road cuts into native soils and geology. These exposed surfaces provide a chronic source of sediment to in-board ditches and eventually Bear Creek. Slope stability or erosion control measures can be implemented strategically to minimize these sediment sources. Other management actions may include construction of runoff and sediment retention basins, additional culverts to reduce concentration of flow to a single channel, and check dams in the actively eroding channel between Alpine Meadows Road downstream to its confluence with Bear Creek to encourage in-channel sediment storage.

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4.1.3.6. Reach F

Reach F was not evaluated in detail due to private property and access; however, a review of aerial photographs, geologic maps, and LiDAR imagery suggests this reach is confined to a narrow canyon with bedrock and boulder controls on channel processes (Figure 4-14). Similar to reach E, habitats in these reaches are dominated by montane riparian habitat along the stream channel and by adjacent conifer forests and private residences above the channel.

-No restoration opportunities were identified in this reach.

Figure 4-14 Reach F, Bear Creek, Placer County, California.

4.1.3.7. Reach G

Reach G defines the confluence of several large tributaries including Catch Basin and KT-22 South. This reach is also characterized by bedrock and boulder controls on stream processes and a dense willow/alder riparian (Figure 4-15).

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Figure 4-15 Reach G, Bear Creek, Placer County, California.

In this reach, a small diversion dam exists to convey water to a man-made pond used by Bear Creek Valley HOA for recreation. The pond also receives runoff from a small tributary. Dam operations were not evaluated but are believed to function only during the summer season to fill the 0.7-acre pond. The pond discharges back to Bear Creek roughly 400 feet downstream.

-No restoration opportunities were identified for this reach.

4.1.3.8. Reach H

Reach H is delineated from Upper Deer Park Drive bridge, through the Upper John Scott Trail bridge, to the Ginzton Access Road bridge. Similar to reaches below, this reach is bedrock and boulder controlled, but much steeper with cascade-type channel morphology (Figure 4-16) Private property prevented a more detailed assessment of this reach. Habitats in these reaches are dominated by montane riparian habitat along the stream channel and by adjacent conifer forests and private residences above the channel. In particular, montane riparian scrub and woodland are relatively well- developed in this reach.

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-No restoration opportunities were identified for this reach.

Figure 4-16 Reach H, Bear Creek, Placer County, California.

4.1.3.9. Reach I

Bear Creek, between Alpine Meadows Ski Area base lodge and Ginzton Access Road is identified as Reach I. This reach has a lower gradient than reaches upstream and downstream and is characterized as a single-threaded channel, with pool-riffle and step- pool morphology, and segments with a functioning floodplain. Reach I is also a confluence of many upland tributaries (i.e., Alpine Bowl, Wolverine Bowl, Lake Estelle, Warners Schuss) which discharge to Reach I through culverts and engineered water works.

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A review of historical aerial photographs shows conditions in 1939 that supported a wetland meadow complex and continuous stream riparian corridor in reach I (Figure 4-17). Reach I was likely impacted from the historic development of Alpine Meadows Ski Area. By 1966, Alpine Meadows Road and a parking lot that accommodated 500 vehicles replaced roughly 4 acres of the original meadow. Bear Creek and several tributaries were enclosed underground in culverts with a loss to stream and floodplain functions for roughly 1,200 feet of channel. Historical aerials from the 1970s show expansion of the parking lot, further encroaching on wet meadow habitat. Within the same decade, ponds were constructed for snowmaking and displaced additional meadow and riparian scrub habitats.

The large contiguous and impervious surfaces modified stormwater runoff and delivery rates to Bear Creek via a stormwater system. Manhole covers suggest underground stormwater chambers exist for stormwater and sediment retention, but we have yet to determine their capacity, functionality, and annual maintenance. Meadow habitat adjacent to the parking lot shows evidence of vegetation buried by road traction sands accumulations deposited from direct parking lot runoff, snowplowing or snow blowing, or discharge from stormwater outfalls from years of parking lot operations.

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Figure 4-17 Meadow encroachment and stream enclosure in culverts, Alpine Meadows Ski Area, Placer County, California.

Willow and alder riparian adjacent to the parking lot show significantly more denuding and mortality relative to areas distant from the parking lot suggesting affects from snow storage (Figure 4-18). Bear Creek is confined between the parking areas with limited buffer width to accommodate floodplain processes and snow storage. In this reach there is limited in-stream habitat complexity. Filamentous algae was observed in the water column across the wetted channel and through most of the reach suggesting excess nutrients.

Relative to other reaches of Bear Creek, this is a very low functioning reach, primarily due to impacts from historic and ongoing operations of Alpine Meadows Ski Area that have altered the hydrology and water quality of the creek, increased sediment inputs to the creek, impacted riparian vegetation, and reduced the extent and quality of meadow

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habitats. The annual operation of Alpine Meadows Ski Area, including the parking lot and all stormwater discharge, runoff, and snow management, has been under approval and review of the US Forest Service since the 1960s.

Figure 4-18 Riparian mortality from snow storage, Bear Creek (Reach I), Placer County, California.

Identified Opportunities: Restoration and protection opportunities within Reach I include efforts at various levels of complexity and cost. Water quality improvements could involve improving stormwater BMPs and snow storage practices to reduce stormwater runoff and sediment to the channel and meadows. This could be accomplished by Alpine Meadows and the US Forest Service upgrading the current Erosion Control and Stormwater Management Plan. A higher level of effort would entail parking lot modifications, subject to US Forest Service approval, to provide a larger buffer to allow for floodplain processes and snow storage. Reducing impervious surfaces and restoring historical meadow areas would provide the greatest ecological and water quality benefits for meadow and creek restoration. Ski area management could consider relocating skier parking, constructing a multi-story parking structure, or other solutions to achieve these benefits.

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4.2 Road Networks, Snow and Stormwater Runoff

Many of the disturbed reaches described in the previous section are impacted by stormwater runoff. In this section, we describe in more detail the urban components of the watershed and how stormwater improvements could greatly improve channel and habitat conditions, and water quality.

Unimproved/dirt maintenance roads, used for Alpine Meadows Ski Area, can be subject to extreme runoff events, debris flows, rock fall, and erosion. While these roads are necessary to maintain mountain operations, additional mitigation measures are proposed to minimize sedimentation of meadow habitat. Road drainage can be improved using more frequent water bars or dips, and some roads can be relocated to avoid wet soils or sensitive habitat.

Most of the paved roads and known stream crossings (culverts) within the Bear Creek watershed are maintained by Placer County (see Figure 3-10). We toured the main roads with Placer County staff to confirm their existence, locate problem spots, and discuss maintenance routines. Other unimproved roads, private roads, culverts, outfalls, and stormwater drainage ditches were identified using: a) observations in the field, b) USFS existing information collected as part of the Tributaries Assessment (USFS, 2016), and c) high-resolution aerial photographs. When feasible, these locations were also visited in the field.

Based on our work, the length of roads (paved and unimproved) within the study area is equivalent to 23.5 miles, with a road density of 4.5 miles of road per square mile of watershed, and includes at least 35 stream crossings. Imperviousness (i.e., asphalt roads, concrete, roofs) was estimated to be roughly 3 percent of the watershed (USGS Streamstats, 2017). Most of the estimated imperviousness is located within the valley and adjacent to Bear Creek, while other dirt or unimproved roads are located in the uplands.

While road density and percent imperviousness are important factors, hydrologic connectivity of these features to the channel is a better measure of their potential impacts to Bear Creek. To evaluate hydrologic connectivity, we completed a flow accumulation analysis in GIS using LiDAR-derived topographic information (USFS, 2013) (Figure 4-19). The analysis used bare earth topography to generate flow pathways that may be difficult to observe on aerial photos or in the field. The results yielded information on areas where natural drainage patterns and runoff may be altered or focused by roads and/or watershed disturbances. Because this analysis was limited to bare earth

Balance Hydrologics, Inc. 109 BEAR CREEK WATERSHED ASSESSMENT -PLACER COUNTY – CALIFORNIA topography it does not account for existing culverts under roadways; however, it is useful for evaluating possible areas of road capture, in-board ditches and areas of highly concentrated runoff catchments. While Placer County has mapped many of the existing culverts, they have confirmed more work may be needed. Future in-depth analysis using GPS locations of all culverts can help evaluate if existing roads require additional culverts or drainage improvements.

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Figure 4-19 Drainage Path Map Bear Creek Watershed, Placer County, California.

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The USFS (2016) identified plugged culverts and stream capture on a dirt road on the south side of the watershed. The road has since scoured and generated measurable runoff and sediment to neighborhood streets and the urban storm drain system (Figure 4-20). In Figure 4-19 and Figure 4-20, the flow accumulation analysis shows clearly where the stream is captured by road segments (green circle) and diverts several other smaller drainages into the urban storm drain system.

Figure 4-20 Stream capture from private/USFS road, Road Area #2 (USFS, 2016), Placer County, California.

The flow accumulation analysis shows where roads may be a concern or where they may be impacting the channel. This tool can be further ty66trused to evaluate other specific sites with flow accumulation thresholds modified to adapt to more detailed areas, for example, sites proposed for restoration.

Other issues with stormwater management were identified in the field or with County staff. Grading of unpaved pullouts and wide shoulders and excavation of the in-board ditches are common forms of maintenance along Alpine Meadows Road. (Figure 4-21). These in-board ditches can accumulate stormwater runoff and road sand and discharge directly or indirectly to the creek. Erosion of the shoulders and inboard ditch is common and requires annual maintenance.

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Figure 4-21 Active grading of wide shoulders that drain directly to Bear Creek, Alpine Meadows Road, Placer County, California.

Identified Opportunities: Improved stormwater management watershed-wide would provide many cumulative benefits before other identified opportunities are implemented. Additional culvert assessment may be necessary, including culvert conveyance and sizing, additional culvert installations, and culvert relocation in some cases. The construction of sediment basins to minimize excess sediment to the creek and stormwater retention features designed to reduce and decrease rapid runoff to the channel will improve instream channel conditions and water quality. Finally, re- evaluation of in-board ditch and shoulder maintenance routines may identify alternative solutions or stormwater management BMPs that can be implemented.

4.3 Uplands and Ski Area Development

4.3.1 DEER PARK SKI AREA

Former ski runs of the Deer Park Ski Area lack sufficient vegetation cover and soil, and exhibit riling and small gully erosion (Figure 4-22). The habitat values of these areas are somewhat limited by erosion and by a lack of trees and shrubs that would improve habitat diversity. However, from a habitat standpoint, there are likely fewer opportunities

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to improve the Deer Park Ski Area relative to other parts of the watershed. Habitat improvement opportunities are limited both due to nearby development (e.g., Highway 89, River Run Condominiums. River Ranch resort) and because conifer forest and upland scrub habitats are generally not limited in the watershed and provide lower-quality habitat values overall (i.e., relative to riparian areas, meadows, and associated wetlands).

Burt and Clary (2015) evaluated multiple former ski areas in the Sierra Nevada, including Deer Park Ski Area, and found that ski runs that were graded have limited recovery over time, but may benefit from restoration activities to improve water quality and provide incidental habitat values. We did identify that runoff and erosion from the Deer Park ski runs are directly connected to the storm drain network and discharge to the Truckee River in the lower Bear Creek Watershed. Similarly, the large parking lots at the former Deer Park Ski Area generate significant runoff with road sand directly to this stormwater system. Manhole covers located in the parking lot suggest underground stormwater chambers for stormwater retention and sediment detention; however, we were unable to confirm their size and whether they are maintained. As such, we have identified this area as a restoration opportunity with a focus on reducing sediment to the Truckee River, consistent with the USFS assessment (2016).

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Figure 4-22 Aerial view of former Deer Park Ski Area, showing areas lacking vegetation, hillside rilling, and stormwater ditch, Bear Creek watershed, Placer County, California.

Identified Opportunities: Consistent with the TNF assessment (2016), we identify multiple opportunities at Deer Park to enhance ground cover and forested vegetation, reduce erosion and improve stormwater management. Future improvements may require close coordination with Placer County and Alpine Meadows Ski Resort.

4.3.2 ALPINE MEADOWS SKI AREA

Historical ski run development at Alpine Meadows also used grading methods and relocated some spring-fed tributaries to accommodate ski runs, lift infrastructure, and parking facilities. We provide some examples observed from the field:

When Kangaroo Run was created, a perennial channel was relocated to the north into a constructed ditch. Seepage from the ditch continues to support wetland vegetation on the ski run but also contributes to hillside erosion (Figure 4-23). A maintenance road used by both Alpine Meadows and ASCWD is located along the run and further exacerbates hillside erosion and habitat degradation.

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Figure 4-23 Diverted stream and erosion on Kangaroo Run, Alpine Meadows Ski Area, Tahoe National Forest, Placer County, California.

Snowmaking water lines have become exposed at the surface over the years. Once exposed, they act as conduits for runoff interception, concentrating flow and exacerbating hillslope erosion (Figure 4-24).

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Figure 4-24 Erosion along water lines, adjacent to Meadow Chair, Alpine Meadows Ski Area, Tahoe National Forest, Placer County, California.

We have described the impacts of the Alpine Meadows parking lot in earlier sections (e.g., Reach I). Over the years, the expansion of the parking lot encroached on what is referred to herein as Scott Peak Springs Meadow. This meadow was likely one of the largest meadows in the watershed before development. It receives hydrologic support from multiple hillside springs along the west aspect of Scott Peak, presumably associated with a mapped fault (Sylvester and others, 2012). While some of the spring flow is diverted by ASCWD, these waters still support a robust meadow and willow riparian adjacent and east of the parking lot and under the Subway Chair.

Finally, the area around the main base lodge has been highly modified over the years. This area was historically a confluence of several upland tributaries. In the 1960s, roughly 1,200 feet of channels was buried in culverts. It’s possible that the tributary we refer to as ‘Hot Wheels Gully’ was diverted into the main channel further upstream of its original confluence, but further investigation may be warranted.

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Identified Opportunities: There may be multiple opportunities to improve ecological functions and habitats and reduce erosion with the Alpine Meadows Ski Area. Some segments of the culverted reaches could be ‘daylighted’ to improve channel and floodplain functions. Improvements or restoration efforts to regain meadow acreage may be feasible, but would require removal of portions of the parking lot. Snowmaking water lines could be relocated or improved to minimize runoff capture and hillside erosion, and road drainage improvements may be adopted to reduce sedimentation of meadow habitats. All of these suggestions will require close coordination with Alpine Meadows Ski Resort such that restoration actions do not disrupt or interfere with ski operations.

Priority of Identified Opportunities: In this section, we have identified multiple opportunities for restoration or management actions to address the goals of this assessment. It is important to consider the order in which restoration or management opportunities are addressed or implemented. When considering restoration of fluvial or river environments, upstream or upland opportunities should always be considered first or priority since these actions may address the sources of the problem or impacts in downstream areas. For example, meadow restoration in lower Bear Creek may only be successful if stormwater issues immediately upstream or watershed-wide are addressed first.

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5 ASSESSMENT CONCLUSIONS

Bear Creek is one of many tributaries to the Truckee River that are sensitive to disturbances due to its elevation, geology, soils, and climate. Bear Creek is unique in that it is one of few tributaries that provides cold, clean, spring-derived flows that support baseflow and aquatic habitat in Bear Creek and the Truckee River. Bear Creek is also a watershed with historical land-uses and impacts dating back to the late 1800s. Both legacy impacts and current land-uses have generated cumulative watershed-wide disturbances that have altered some natural processes and ecosystem functions. However, many areas within the watershed are functioning well.

In this chapter, we summarize the assessment findings and provide a basis for future management actions and/or restoration recommendations. Our disturbance inventory and management/restoration recommendations are discussed in the next chapter:

• Much of the Bear Creek watershed is underlain by erodible material that has been disturbed by historical and on-going land-uses. Restoration and management efforts can be prioritized by focusing on these areas and/or impacts.

• Historical land-uses in the Bear Creek Watershed were less extensive than in other Middle Truckee River watersheds, but the watershed has been more recently impacted by road-building, residential development, and recreational infrastructure. Restoration and management recommendations presented herein therefore include stormwater management strategies along with approaches for offsetting hydromodification impacts.

• Conditions during this assessment were observed shortly after extreme floods at the end of a multi-year drought, representing more unstable conditions than may be encountered at other times. Pre- and post-restoration monitoring data may be expected to show some degree of natural recovery from these conditions, as dependent on future hydrologic conditions.

• Multiple unimproved roads and/or road segments constructed during the logging era continue to alter natural channel flow, and are a source of excess sediment. Drainage management strategy recommendations along dirt/unimproved roads include restoration of natural drainage pathways and dispersal of concentrated flows.

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• Graded ski runs and ski area maintenance roads altered natural drainage patterns, and require similar approaches to reduce the amount of water and sediment that is generated from these features.

• Six out of 10 native fish species may still occur in Bear Creek. These species include: Paiute sculpin, Lahontan speckled dace, Lahontan redside, Tahoe sucker, mountain sucker, and mountain whitefish. Restoration and habitat enhancement measures will include improving physical habitat for which these species are suited.

• Introduced North American beaver (Castor canadensis) likely occur in the watershed and can provide multiple benefits to degraded meadows and aquatic habitat. In-channel restoration strategies will encourage beaver activity.

• Vegetation communities within the Bear Creek watershed are diverse, but primarily dominated by white fir. Existing aspen and cottonwood groves are mapped in few locations of the watershed. Restoration strategies will enhance these areas for habitat benefits.

• Invasive plants mapped within the watershed are mostly located within disturbed areas of the Alpine Meadows Ski Area and in small, localized areas along Bear Creek. Management actions will include efforts to eradicate invasive species.

• Multiple springs and abundant spring flows were observed within Bear Creek watershed. They provide hydrologic support for wet meadow and aquatic habitat and cold, clean baseflow in Bear Creek and the Truckee River. Spring areas are identified and protection and/or enhancements are proposed.

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6 DISTURBANCE INVENTORY AND RESTORATION OPPORTUNITIES

The restoration and management opportunities presented in this report have been developed to a) improve ecological function; b) enhance both aquatic and upland habitats, c) improve water quality and maintain cold, clean baseflows to the Truckee River in times of drought, d) contribute to Sierra-wide efforts to enhance and restore montane meadows, which have been identified as key ecological units for habitat and ecosystem services, and e) support the local economy through long-term sustainable support of nature-based recreational assets. While land ownership in the watershed is diverse, many landowners and stakeholders have similar management goals and resource objectives, or are bound by a regulatory framework to maintain or improve the ecological health of the watershed. For the purposes of these recommendations, the term “restoration” can mean a watershed-scale approach in which management strategies target watershed processes, or targeted actions at a particular location, either of which will improve downstream conditions.

Key management actions and/or restoration opportunities that address disturbances or impacts in the watershed are identified in Table 6-1 and located in Figure 6-1. High priority projects were further developed into Project Sheets (Appendix F). In coordination with TRWC and stakeholders, the Lower Bear Creek Meadow Restoration in Reach C was selected for design. Remaining opportunities will also be given consideration as additional funding becomes available. Recommendations assume coordination with existing stakeholders for further input, design and implementation.

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Table 6-1 Management actions and restoration opportunities, Bear Creek watershed, Placer County, California

Management Actions and Restoration Opportunities, Bear Creek Watershed, Placer County, California, 2017

Project ID Project Location Stakeholders/Landowners Watershed Benefits Sources of Degradation Objectives to Restore Process(es) Constraints Opportunities Priority

Inadequate stormwater detention Stormwater runoff may be the most Multiple outfalls in and conveyance; high 1) Implement additional stormwater BMPs; 2) Increase Steep slopes, avalanche important factor in channel degradation; (Multiple) Stormwater BMPs watershed (see map), Placer County Reduced sediment to Bear Creek connectivity of impervious number of culverts to reduce stormwater concentration HIGH zones reducing and treating stormwater will provide includes project #11 surfaces; concentration of runoff at a point other benefits and aid in enhancing other in single channel-incision projects. stormwater runoff incising Instream wood placement to spreadflow and encourage 1 Bear Creek alluvial fan meadow Reach A USFS Increased meadow wetting, function and integrity access LOW through fan sediment deposition on fan Stormwater and sediment detention; check dams in Deer Park Stormwater Reduced sediment to Truckee River, improved Concentration of flow from Existing parking lot, Stormwater BMPs could be implemented 2 Deer Park Drainage USFS, Squaw Valley Ski Holdings, Inc. gully to reduce further incision and encourage HIGH Management stormwater quality and aquatic habitat parking lots to drainage ditch Apline Meadows Drive with little or no loss to parking capacity sedimentation Deer Park Ski Area: Materials 3 Deer Park Drainage USFS, Squaw Valley Ski Holdings, Inc. Reduced sediment to stormdrain and creek Improper storage; lack of BMPs BMPs education and implementation None Low-cost MOD Management Deer Park Ski Area: Ski run Reduced runoff and erosion; enhanced native Historical grading to create ski Steep slopes, erosion 1) access; 2) reduce sediment sources to Bear 4 rehabilitation/revegetation + Deer Park Drainage USFS, Squaw Valley Ski Holdings, Inc. Decommision roads HIGH vegetation and terrestrial habitat runs control in first 1-3 years Creek; 3) restore upland habitat road decommissioning Reduced sediment and organic matter inputs to Horse trail captures runoff and Impacts to existing Lower Bear Creek Meadow-Horse Possible trail crossing relocation; armour trail, horse 5 Reach C USFS, Alpine Meadows Stables stream, improved water quality and aquatic erodes to creek; horse manure in Alpine Meadows Stables HIGH Crossings manure management habitat active channel operations Increased meadow health and integrity, improved Combine with stormwater management (under other Stormwater runoff, incision of Lower Bear creek Meadow water retention in meadow and reduced bank proposed projects) to reduce runoff; add instream wood, 6 Reach C USFS channel through meadow; lack of HIGH Restoration erosion and sediment to Truckee River, improved strategically place wood to reconnect backwater large instream wood; aquatic habitat channels Beaver activity, conifer 1) remove conifers; 2) beaver deterrence; 3) protect 7 Lower Bear Creek Meadow Reach C USFS Improved terrestrial wildlife habitat values Combine with Project #6 HIGH encroachment spring source waters Encouraged dispersion of spring flow onto Limited # of culverts under Alpine Reach C, Tributary Increase number of culverts; sod/wood check dams in 8 Spring flow channel incision USFS, Placer County meadow surface; reduced erosion, enhanced Meadows Road, below Mineral Multiple stakeholders MOD subcatchment existing incised channel meadow terrestrial and aquatic habitat Springs Trail, stormwater runoff

Lower portion of road- Area #2, Middle Bear Creek Restored drainage patterns and reduced hillside Stream capture by old roads and Decommission roads/skid trails, relocate recreational Improve recreational access (trail used by 9 Tributary Subcatchment ASCWD, USFS, Private private; Buried utilities HIGH Section erosion ski trails trails locals for hiking, biking) (water line) White Wolf, road runoff erosive 10 Tributary Subcatchment White Wolf Reduced sediment to Bear Creek Road and road maintenance Relocate road or improved drainage topography, bedrock Hillslope retention, distance from creek LOW geology/soils Runoff management of Alpine Meadows Road, confluence of Sediment/runoff retention, upgrade culverts, improve 11 Five-Lakes Trailhead Five Lakes Tributary USFS, White Wolf, Placer County Reduced sediment sources HIGH major natural drainages; trail trail drainage; runoff management Reach I (Subway Lift Snow storage; stormwater Requires reduction in Alpine Meadows Parking Lot Reduced sedimentation and mortality of willow in Provide buffer for snow storage betweeen parking lot 12 Parking Lot + Main Lodge USFS, Squaw Valley Ski Holdings, Inc. discharge (absence of treatment, some parking or asphalt HIGH Snow storage management meadow, Improved riparian habitat and creek; sediment BMPs lot) BMPs) areas Contiguous impervious area; 1) Underground stormwater/meltwater + sediment Alpine Meadows Parking Lot 1) Improve meadow condition, 2) mitigate Reduced sediment sources to meadow and Bear inadequate runoff detention, retention; 2) Daylight drainages through parking lot- Possible reduction in 13 Runoff and Sediment Reach I (all parking lots) USFS, Squaw Valley Ski Holdings, Inc. runoff magnitude and frequency, 3) reduce HIGH Creek, Improved water quality direct discharge to meadow and relocate parking spaces to non-sensitive areas 3) provide asphalt/parking areas Management sediment to Bear Creek creek; willow riparian impacts wider buffer for stream/riparian Alpine Meadows Maintenance Reduced sediment sources to meadow and Bear Runoff captured by maintenance 1) Increase number of water dips/bars; 2) Asphalt 14 Road Management for runoff and Reach I USFS, Squaw Valley Ski Holdings, Inc. Creek, Improved water quality and meadow Decrease long-term maintenance HIGH roads, road erosion, chipping; 3) road outsloping sediment to meadows function direct runoff of road cut onto Road cut, sediment source John Scott Trail /Alpine 15 Bear Creek HOA/Placer County Reduced sediment from erosion of road cut road to stormdrain or in-board 1) erosion control, 2) stone wall or slope protection MOD reduction Meadows Road ditch USFS, Squaw Valley Ski Holdings, Inc., Reduced erosion of discharge-slope wetland Minimize sedimentation of snow making 16 Reduce erosion and meadow loss Kangaroo Run Road and road maintenance Abandon road and restore slope; relocate road MOD ASCWD (former channel) ponds

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Figure 6-1 Management actions and restoration opportunity locations, Bear Creek watershed, Placer County, California.

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7 LIMITATIONS

As stated in the introduction to the report, the objectives of this study are to provide the Truckee River Watershed Council with a characterization of the hydrologic and geomorphic processes that support habitat and water quality in the Bear Creek watershed. This is a reconnaissance report, intended to bracket likely historical and potential future conditions, to identify certain hydrologic or geomorphic factors which must be better known, and to help guide initial planning. This report is not intended to serve as a basis for flood management or detailed floodplain planning, both of which are conducted by well-defined and separate procedures, and which frequently require multiple lines of evidence. Use of these results for purposes other than those identified above can lead to significant environmental, public-safety or property losses. Balance Hydrologics should be contacted for consultation prior to considering use of this analysis for any purposes other than the reconnaissance, watershed-scale analysis specified above in this paragraph.

The application of geomorphic history to inferring future channel and corridor change has a long and respected record in the earth sciences. As with all historical or archival analysis, the better the record is known and understood, the more relevant and predictive the analysis can be. We do encourage those who have knowledge of other events or processes which may have affected the site or channel system to let us know at the first available opportunity.

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PERSONAL COMMUNICATIONS

Smolen, K., 2017, HydroRestoration, [email protected]

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136 Balance Hydrologics, Inc.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

Invasive and Sensitive Species

Table A1. Invasive Plants with Potential to Occur in the Bear Creek Watershed

Species Ratings Ecology Threat Hoary alyssum Cal-IPC: NL Annual to short-lived perennial 1-3 feet tall; most prolific on Berteroa incana CDFA: B dry, disturbed, open sites; reproduces from seed bank. Observed along lower Bear Creek below Alpine Meadows Road and by TNF botanists in Alpine Meadows ski resort.

Spotted knapweed Cal-IPC: H Biennial to short-lived perennial 3-4 feet tall; reproduces vegetatively or by seed; found in disturbed, open areas or Centaurea stoebe ssp. CDFA: A rangeland on light and well-drained soils. Observed in micranthos LTBWCG Top Priority watershed by TNF botanists. TRWC Species of Interest Yellow star thistle Cal-IPC: H Winter annual or sometimes biennial 6-7 feet tall; reproduces by seed and can form dense and impenetrable stands; Centaurea solstitialis CDFA: C found in many habitat types following disturbance LTBWCG Top Priority TRWC Species of Interest Bull thistle Cal-IPC: M Biennial, annual, or short-lived perennial 6-7 feet tall; found in disturbed areas; reproduces from seed. Cirsium vulgare CDFA: C LTBWCG Top Priority TRWC Species of Interest Orchardgrass Cal-IPC: L Perennial, cool-season bunchgrass 1-2 feet tall; pasture grass Dactylis glomerata CDFA: NL that has escaped in many locations; reproduces from seed. Observed in meadows along Bear Creek below Alpine Meadows Road. Table A1. Invasive Plants with Potential to Occur in the Bear Creek Watershed

Species Ratings Ecology Threat Klamathweed Cal-IPC: M Erect perennial to 4 feet tall; reproduces from seed and vegetatively from rhizomes; found in rangeland and open, Hypericum perforatum CDFA: C disturbed areas such as roadsides and logged sites; plant LTBWCG Top Priority populations cycle in relationship to populations of leaf- feeding beetles that can produce excellent control of TRWC Species of Interest Klamath weed, particularly below 5,000 feet elevation. Observed along Bear Creek below Alpine Meadows Road and by TNF botanists in Alpine Meadows ski resort.

Perennial pepperweed Cal-IPC: H Erect and vigorous spreading perennial up to 6 feet tall; reproduces vegetatively, including from root fragments, Lepidium latifolium CDFA: B and from seed; found in disturbed areas on moist or LTBWCG Top Priority seasonally-wet soils; tolerates alkalinity and salinity. Observed in watershed by TNF botanists. TRWC Species of Interest Reed canary grass Locally invasive in Bear Creek Watershed Vigorous, long-lived, perennial, sod-forming, rhizomatous Phalaris arundinacea grass between 6 and 8 feet tall; many cultivars and hybrids recorded throughout its range, making native status questionable; can become weedy or invasive in wetland habitats. Observed in watershed by TNF botanists.

Sheep sorrel Cal-IPC: M Erect or ascending perennial 1-2 feet tall; can form dense Rumex acetosella CDFA: NL stands in disturbed sites within natural communities; reproduces from creeping rhizomes and seed

Woolly mullein Cal-IPC: L Erect biennial or annual 1-7 feet tall; invades disturbed or Verbascum thapsus CDFA: NL barren soil in montane meadows and forests; reproduces prolifically from seed. Observed along Bear Creek below Alpine Meadows Road and in scattered locations in the White Wolf property. Table A1. Invasive Plants with Potential to Occur in the Bear Creek Watershed

Species Ratings Ecology Threat

Sources: Cal-IPC 2017, CalWeed Mapper 2017, CDFA 2016, USFS 2017, LTBWCG 2017, USDA 2017, USFS 2013a. Key: Cal-IPC = California Invasive Plant Council; CDFA = California Department of Food and Agriculture; LTBWCG = Lake Tahoe Basin Weed Coordinating Group; NL = not listed (species not included in the Cal-IPC California Invasive Plant Inventory Database and/or CDFA Noxious Weeds list); USDA = U.S. Department of Agriculture. Notes: 1 Rating Codes

California Invasive Plant Council (Cal-IPC) H: High These species have severe ecological impacts on physical processes, plant and animal communities, and vegetation structure. Their reproductive biology and other attributes are conducive to moderate to high rates of dispersal and establishment. Most are widely distributed ecologically. M: These species have substantial and apparent—but generally not severe—ecological impacts on physical processes, plant and Moderate animal communities, and vegetation structure. Their reproductive biology and other attributes are conducive to moderate to high rates of dispersal, though establishment is generally dependent upon ecological disturbance. Ecological amplitude and distribution may range from limited to widespread. L: These species are invasive but their ecological impacts are minor on a statewide level or there was not enough information to justify a higher score. Their reproductive biology and other attributes result in low to moderate rates of invasiveness. Ecological Limited amplitude and distribution are generally limited, but these species may be locally persistent and problematic.

California Department of Food and Agriculture (CDFA) A A pest of known economic or environmental detriment and is either not known to be established in California or it is present in a limited distribution that allows for the possibility of eradication or successful containment. If found entering or established in the state, A-rated pests are subject to state (or commissioner when acting as a state agent) enforced action involving eradication, quarantine regulation, containment, rejection, or other holding action. B A pest of known economic or environmental detriment and, if present in California, it is of limited distribution. If found in the state, they are subject to state endorsed holding action and eradication only to provide for containment, as when found in a nursery. At the discretion of the individual county agricultural commissioner they are subject to eradication, containment, suppression, control, or other holding action. C A pest of known economic or environmental detriment and, if present in California, it is usually widespread. If found in the state, they are subject to regulations designed to retard spread or to suppress at the discretion of the individual county agricultural commissioner. There is no state enforced action other than providing for pest cleanliness.

LTBWCG Top Priority: Weed species at risk of introduction and spread into the Lake Tahoe Basin Region based on historical survey and mapping data gathered by cooperating partners in and around the Basin. Table A1. Invasive Plants with Potential to Occur in the Bear Creek Watershed

Species Ratings Ecology Threat

TRWC Species of Interest: Weeds included in the Invasive Weeds Guidebook available on the Truckee River Watershed Council website: https://www.truckeeriverwc.org/get-involved/weed-warriors/.

Table 4-2. Special-Status Wildlife, Their Status, and Their Potential to Occur in the Bear Creek Watershed

Name Source Status1 Habitat Potential for Occurrence

Amphibians

Foothill yellow-legged USFS SCT, CSSC, Partly shaded shallow streams, riffles, and Unlikely to occur. The watershed is frog USFS-S pools with a rocky substrate in a variety of generally above the elevational habitats from approximately sea level to range of the species. Rana boylii 6,000 feet. Sierra Nevada yellow- CNDDB ST, FE, USFS-S Streams, lakes, and ponds in montane Known to occur. This species has been legged frog riparian, lodgepole pine forest, subalpine detected in alpine lakes within and conifer, and wet meadow habitats. adjacent to the watershed. Rana sierrae Elevation range is 2,040-12,070 feet. Southern long-toed CNDDB CSSC Alpine meadows, alpine lakes, and Known to occur. The species has salamander ponds. recently been observed in the Five Lakes area and in a pond northeast of Ambystoma Lake Estelle within the watershed. macrodactylum sigillatum Birds Table A1. Invasive Plants with Potential to Occur in the Bear Creek Watershed

Species Ratings Ecology Threat Bald eagle USFS SE, FP, USFS-S Requires large bodies of water, or free Unlikely to occur. Suitable nesting and flowing rivers with abundant fish, and foraging habitat is not present on the Haliaeetus adjacent snags or other perches. Nests in watershed. leucocephalus large, old-growth, or dominant live tree with open branchwork and medium canopy. Typically selects largest tree in stand usually near a permanent water source. Ponderosa and sugar pines often used. In winter, roosts in dense, sheltered, remote conifer stands. California spotted owl USFS CSSC, USFS-S Mature mixed coniferous forest with large Potential to occur. The species is not diameter trees and high canopy closure, known from within 5 miles of the Strix occidentalis multiple canopy layers, and downed watershed; however, suitable habitat occidentalis woody debris. Also forages in more open is present in the northeast and stands. southeast portion of the watershed. Recent CNDDB records indicate several nesting territories in proximity to the watershed (but greater than 5 miles distant).

Greater sandhill crane USFS ST, FP, USFS-S Marshes and meadows adjacent to Unlikely to occur. Lacey Valley, grassland or other short vegetation approximately 25 miles north of the Grus canadensis uplands. Nearby montane dry or wet watershed, is known to be the most tabida meadow. southerly breeding area for this species in California and suitable habitat for the species is not present on the watershed. Table A1. Invasive Plants with Potential to Occur in the Bear Creek Watershed

Species Ratings Ecology Threat Great gray owl USFS SE, USFS-S Mature forests surrounding meadows with Unlikely to occur. Mainly occur in the high density of large diameter snags and meadow-mature forest zone on the Strix nebulosa high canopy closure and cooler sub- western slope of the Sierra Nevada. canopy microclimate. Meadow-mature Suitable meadow habitat is not forest zone. present in the watershed.

Long eared owl CDFW, CSSC Riparian or other thickets with small, Potential to occur. Marginally-suitable eBird densely canopied trees. Hunts in open habitat exists on the watershed. Asio otus areas, occasionally in woodland and Known to occur in the Tahoe Basin. forested habitat Northern goshawk CNDDB, CSSC Mature coniferous forest with large Known to occur. Alarm calls heard eBird diameter trees and high canopy closure. during a site visit in September 2017, Accipiter gentilis USFS-S Frequently forages along meadow edges and eBird records show the species as or in aspen/willow shrub communities. occurring along Bear Creek near Alpine Meadows Drive in 2016. Numerous TNF and CNDDB records in and near the watershed.

Short-eared owl CDFW CSSC Open treeless areas with elevated sites for Unlikely to occur. Suitable grassland perches and dense vegetation, tall habitat not present in the watershed. Asio flammeus grasses, brush, ditches, and wetlands. Willow flycatcher CNDDB SE, USFS-S Medium to large meadows with extensive May occur. Suitable habitat is present areas of montane wet meadow, on the watershed, and the species Empidonax traillii emergent vegetation and large stands of has been observed within 5 miles of willow or other riparian deciduous shrubs. the watershed. Table A1. Invasive Plants with Potential to Occur in the Bear Creek Watershed

Species Ratings Ecology Threat Yellow warbler CNDDB CSSC Meadows, riparian areas, or recent May occur. Suitable habitat is present burned areas with large stands of willow on the watershed, and the species Setophaga petechia or other deciduous shrubs. has been observed within 5 miles of the watershed.

Fish

Lahontan cutthroat CNDDB, FT Small cool-water streams with riffle-runs, Unlikely to occur. Species extirpated trout USFWS rocky substrates, and pools with from this reach of Truckee River and its vegetated and stable stream banks. tributaries. Oncorhynchus clarkii henshawi

Lahontan mountain CDFW CSSC Shallow (< 6ft deep), clear, cool, low- Potential to occur. Species occurs in sucker gradient, low- velocity streams with Truckee River system, but limited diverse substrates with dense cover suitable habitat is present in Bear Catostomus lahontan (emergent macrophytes, logs, undercut Creek. banks). Mountain whitefish CDFW CSSC Clear, cold streams with deeper pools Potential to occur. Species occurs in and runs. Truckee River system, but limited Prosopium williamsoni suitable habitat is present in Bear Creek.

Lahontan Lake tui USFS CSSC, USFS-S Large, deep lakes. Unlikely to occur. Suitable habitat is chub not present on the watershed. Gila bicolor pectinifer

Invertebrates Table A1. Invasive Plants with Potential to Occur in the Bear Creek Watershed

Species Ratings Ecology Threat Perennial flowing streams, seepages, Potential to occur. Suitable habitat is Black juga springs and creeks with substrates present in Bear Creek; however, the USFS USFS-S Juga nigrina including boulders and cobble, gravel, species has not been observed within sand, and mud. 5 miles of the watershed.

California floater Primarily found in lakes, reservoirs, and Potential to occur. Suitable habitat is slow-moving streams with mud or sand present on the watershed; however, USFS USFS-S Anodonta substrates. Occasionally found in creeks records of the species in the general californiensis and rivers with gravel substrates. region are from prior to 1985. Unlikely to occur. Historically, the species has been observed on slow segments of the Truckee River directly downstream of Lake Tahoe in the Large lakes and slow rivers with soft mud Great Basin rams-horn Tahoe Basin Management Unit; CNDDB USFS-S bottoms, including large spring sources however, it has not been observed on Helisoma newberryi and spring-fed creeks. the Tahoe National Forest. The gravelly substrate of Bear Creek does not provide suitable habitat for the species. Mammals Table A1. Invasive Plants with Potential to Occur in the Bear Creek Watershed

Species Ratings Ecology Threat American pika CNDDB None2 Alpine and sub-alpine slopes in the Sierra Known to occur. Suitable habitat exists Ocnotona princeps Nevada from about 7,000 to 12,000 feet in the watershed. CNDDB records schisticeps elevation. Broken rock habitats such as show occurrence with an accuracy of montane talus fields, old lava flows, old 1 mile in the Ward Peak area; ore-dumps, construction rubble, eroding however, the record is from 1937. bedrock outcrops, crevices and cracks in CNDDB predicted habitat models bedrock, lava cones, rip-rap, and rank the high altitude areas of the abandoned stone houses. Vegetation watershed as high habitat suitability. communities include conifer stands, shrub patches, and meadows. California wolverine CNDDB ST, FPT, USFS-S Lodgepole pine forest, mixed conifer, red Unlikely to occur. USFS remote sensor Gulo gulo luteus fir, montane chaparral, and montane wet cameras detected one individual meadow. Elevation range is 4,300-7,300 near the Webber Lake area in 2008, feet. 2009, and 2010, approximately 20 miles northwest of the watershed. One individual was observed in the Truckee area in 2016. This species is known to have a large home range; however, the species’ rarity and its sensitivity to human disturbance makes it unlikely that the species would occur in the watershed. CNDDB record from Squaw Valley is from 1950s and is now located in a heavily developed resort area. Table A1. Invasive Plants with Potential to Occur in the Bear Creek Watershed

Species Ratings Ecology Threat Fisher, West Coast DPS SCT, FPT, CSSC, Mixed conifer with closed canopies and Unlikely to occur. The fisher population USFS-S complex understory structure, montane has been reduced to two native Pekania pennanti riparian scrub. Elevation range is 4,000– populations in the southern Sierra and 8,000 feet. the Klamath-Siskiyou region. All CNDDB records in the general vicinity of the watershed are from prior to 1980.

Fringed myotis USFS USFS-S Crevice-rooster in caves, mines, and May occur. Suitable habitat exists buildings associated with foothill within the watershed. CNDDB Myotis thysanodes hardwood, pinyon-juniper, and predicted habitat models rank the hardwood-conifer habitats from open areas east of the Five Lakes as approximately 4,000 to 7,000 feet. high habitat suitability.

North American CNDDB None2 Most common in montane conifer, Known to occur. CNDDB records porcupine Douglas fir, alpine dwarf-shrub, and wet report occurrence on watershed in meadow habitats. Less common in 2011 and 2016. Suitable habitat is Erethizon dorsatum hardwood, hardwood-conifer, riparian, present on the watershed. aspen, pinon-juniper, low sage, sagebrush, and bitterbrush habitats. Pallid bat USFS CSSC, USFS-S Roosts in natural crevices in rock Potential to occur. Suitable habitat outcrops, caves, mines, trees (including exists in the watershed. CNDDB Antrozous pallidus bole cavities of oaks, exfoliating predicted habitat models rank the ponderosa pine and valley oak bark, and open areas east of the Five Lakes as deciduous trees in riparian areas), and high habitat suitability and east of various human structures, such as bridges, Juniper Mountain Road as moderate. barns, and vacant buildings. Table A1. Invasive Plants with Potential to Occur in the Bear Creek Watershed

Species Ratings Ecology Threat Sierra marten CNDDB USFS-S Old growth fir forests and high elevation Known to occur. Detected by camera Martes caurina sierrae riparian lodgepole pine associations. trap on the south side of Bear Creek in Elevation range is 3,400-10,400 feet. the watershed in 2010. Suitable habitat is present on the watershed.

Sierra mountain CNDDB CSSC Open and intermediate-canopy Known to occur. One individual was beaver coverage in riparian-deciduous observed near a burrow south of Bear Aplodontia rufa vegetation with a dense understory near Creek in 2004 and numerous CNDDB californica water. Deep, friable soil for burrowing. records reported from watershed Elevation range is 5,800-7,600 feet. vicinity. Suitable habitat is present on the watershed.

Sierra Nevada CNDDB CSSC Montane riparian scrub, mixed conifer, May occur. One individual was snowshoe hare lodgepole pine forest, aspen, chaparral, observed by camera trap within 5 montane meadow. Elevation range is miles of the watershed in 2013. Lepus americanus 4,850-8,600 feet. Suitable habitat is present on the tahoensis watershed.

Townsend’s big-eared USFS CSSC, USFS-S Roosts in caves or cave-like features, May occur. Found throughout bat including rock outcrops, mines, natural California. CNDDB predicted habitat cavities, and occasionally hollow trees. models suggest that habitat within the Corynorhinus May use separate sites for night, day, watershed is ranked as moderately townsendii hibernation, or maternity roosts. Prefers suitable for the species. mesic habitats. Western white-tailed CNDDB CSSC Sagebrush, early successional stages of Unlikely to occur. Only record within 5 jackrabbit various conifer habitats, juniper, alpine miles of the watershed is from 1920. dwarf-shrub, perennial grassland, and Habitat is marginal within the Lepus townsendii wet meadows. watershed. townsendii Table A1. Invasive Plants with Potential to Occur in the Bear Creek Watershed

Species Ratings Ecology Threat Reptiles

Western pond turtle USFS CSSC, USFS-S Slow-moving rivers, streams, lakes, ponds, Unlikely to occur. Western pond turtles wetlands, reservoirs, and brackish are typically found below Actinemys estuarine waters with deep pools and approximately 7,000 feet in elevation. marmorata rocks, logs, and other exposed surfaces for basking. Elevation ranges from sea level to 6,696 feet but are generally below 4,980 feet. Critical Habitat Occurring in the Bear Creek Watershed

Sierra Nevada yellow- Critical habitat for the species is found within a large portion of the Bear Creek Watershed. legged frog critical habitat

Notes: CDFW = California Department of Fish and Wildlife; CNDDB = California Natural Diversity Database; DPS = Distinct Population Segment; HTH = H. T. Harvey & Associates; USFS = U.S. Forest Service; USFWS = U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1 Status Codes

U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service FE: Federally listed as endangered FT: Federally listed as threatened

California Department of Fish and Game SE: State listed as endangered ST: State listed as threatened Table A1. Invasive Plants with Potential to Occur in the Bear Creek Watershed

Species Ratings Ecology Threat SCT: State candidate for threatened status CSSC: California Species of Special Concern FP : California Fully Protected Species

Region 5, Tahoe National Forest USFS-S: U.S. Forest Service Sensitive Species (USFS 2013b)

2Species without Designated Status: These species were included because distribution and abundance is currently being monitored by CDFW in the CNDDB due to the species’ declining population size, previous listing petitions, or lack of scientific data on habitat use or population status. Some of these species may be designated as California Species of Special Concern by CDFW in the future.

Table A2. Special-Status Plants, Their Status, and Their Potential to Occur in the Bear Creek Watershed

Potential for Species Lifeform Status1 Habitat Distribution Occurrence Alder buckthorn Perennial CRPR Meadows and riparian areas Alpine County, Known to occur; Rhamnus alnifolia deciduous 2.B2 in conifer forests, elevation Tahoe/Truckee, Lake recorded along Bear shrub 4,521 to 7,029 feet Almanor vicinity; known Creek but not along upper Little Truckee observed recently River and along Truckee (CNDDB occ. no. 3). River just east of the Suitable habitat exists watershed. Observed near in meadows and intersection of Squaw Creek riparian areas Road and Highway 89 in throughout the 2009 and 2015 and on the watershed. west side of Highway 89 northwest of Goose Meadow campground in 2009.

American manna Perennial CRPR Bogs, fens, wet meadows, North Coast Range, Sierra May occur. Recorded grass rhizomatou 2B.3 seeps, marshes, swamps, Nevada, and east of the just outside the Glyceria grandis s grass streambanks, and lake Sierra Nevada in the Great watershed, margins, elevation 3,445 to Basin approximately 650 feet 6,725 feet below confluence of Bear Creek and Truckee River (CNDDB occ. no. 11). Suitable habitat exists in wet meadows and along Bear Creek, other streams, and lakes throughout the watershed. Table A2. Special-Status Plants, Their Status, and Their Potential to Occur in the Bear Creek Watershed

Potential for Species Lifeform Status1 Habitat Distribution Occurrence Amethyst stickseed Perennial CRPR Openings and disturbed Northern Coast Range, Known to occur; Hackelia herb 4.3 areas in lower and upper northern Sierra Nevada recorded in the amethystina montane coniferous forest, watershed in 1912 meadows, and seeps, (CCH 2017), but no elevation 5,085 to 7,150 feet recent records exist. Suitable habitat exists in forests, meadows, and seeps throughout the watershed.

Austin’s astragalus Perennial CRPR Rocky habitats in alpine Known only from the Lake May occur. Two recent Astragalus austiniae herb 1B.3 boulder and rock fields and Tahoe Region records within 5 miles subalpine coniferous forests, of the watershed elevation 7,610 to 8,825 feet (CNDDB 2017), and suitable habitat exists in rocky habitats in the higher elevations of the watershed.

Bolander’s bruchia Moss CRPR Damp soil in lower and upper Widely distributed but Potential to occur. No Bruchia bolanderi 4.2 montane coniferous forest, uncommon throughout records within 5 miles USFS – S meadows, and seeps, Sierra Nevada; may be of the watershed. elevation 5,740 to 7,875 feet found in meadows and Suitable habitat seeps present in forests, meadows, and seeps throughout watershed. Table A2. Special-Status Plants, Their Status, and Their Potential to Occur in the Bear Creek Watershed

Potential for Species Lifeform Status1 Habitat Distribution Occurrence Clustered-flower Annual CRPR Granitic, volcanic, or sandy High elevations in the Sierra Potential to occur. No cryptantha herb 4.3 soils in Great Basin scrub, Nevada and east of the records within 5 miles Cryptantha meadows, seeps, subalpine Sierra Nevada in the Great of the watershed. glomeriflora coniferous forest, and upper Basin Suitable habitat montane coniferous forest, present in forests, elevation 7,315 to 11,320 feet meadows, and seeps throughout watershed.

Davy's sedge Perennial CRPR Subalpine and upper Yosemite north through May occur. Recorded Carex davyi herb 1B.3 montane conifer forest, Truckee/Tahoe Basin in meadows along the elevation 4,950 to 10,560 feet Truckee River adjacent to the watershed, but record is from 1897 (CNDDB occ no. 19). Suitable habitat exists in forests throughout the watershed.

Donner Pass Perennial CRPR Openings in upper montane Tahoe Basin and Donner May occur. Several buckwheat herb 1B.2 coniferous forest on rocky, Pass recent records within 5 Eriogonum USFS -S volcanic soils, meadows and miles of the watershed, umbellatum var. seeps, elevation 6,122 to and suitable habitat in torreyanum 8,646 feet forests throughout the watershed.

Felt-leaved violet Perennial CRPR Gravelly soils in subalpine High elevations in the Potential to occur. No Viola tomentosa herb 4.2 coniferous forests, and in northern to central Sierra records within 5 miles lower and upper montane Nevada of the watershed. coniferous forests, elevation Suitable habitat exists 4,755 to 8,235 feet in forests throughout the watershed. Table A2. Special-Status Plants, Their Status, and Their Potential to Occur in the Bear Creek Watershed

Potential for Species Lifeform Status1 Habitat Distribution Occurrence Fresno ceanothus Shrub CRPR Openings or clearings in Northern and central Sierra Potential to occur. No Ceanothus 4.3 cismontane woodlands and Nevada records within 5 miles fresnensis lower montane coniferous of the watershed. forests, elevation 4,755 to Suitable habitat exists 8,235 feet in forests throughout the watershed.

Galena Creek Perennial CRPR Sandy or rocky soils in Tahoe Basin May occur. Two recent rockcress herb 1B.2 broadleaf upland forest and records within 5 miles Arabis rigidissima upper montane coniferous of the watershed var. demota forest, elevation 7,398 to (CNDDB 2017), and 8,399 feet suitable habitat exists in forests in the higher elevations of the watershed.

Hiroshi’s flapwort Liverwort CRPR Moist soil, meadows, and Only known from Nevada Unlikely to occur. No Nardia hiroshii 2B.3 seeps with underlying granitic County records within 5 miles bedrock, elevation range of the watershed and unknown not known to occur in Placer County, but species could be more widespread than currently known. Suitable habitat exists in meadows and seeps in the watershed. Table A2. Special-Status Plants, Their Status, and Their Potential to Occur in the Bear Creek Watershed

Potential for Species Lifeform Status1 Habitat Distribution Occurrence Long petaled Perennial CRPR Alpine boulder and rock, Known from El Dorado, May occur. Two recent lewisia herb 1B.3 granite soils, subalpine Placer, and Nevada records within 5 miles Lewisia longipetala USFS – S conifer forest, elevation 6,235 Counties; Emigrant Pass to of the watershed to 8,760 feet Donner Pass (CNDDB 2017), and suitable habitat exists in rocky habitats and subalpine forests in the watershed.

Marsh skullcap Perennial CRPR Lower montane coniferous Tahoe Basin and the Modoc Potential to occur. No Scutellaria rhizomatou 2B.2 forest, meadows, seeps, and Plateau records within 5 miles galericulata s herb marshes, elevation 3,280 to of the watershed. 5,875 feet Suitable habitat in forests, meadows, and seeps throughout the watershed.

Mingan moonwort Rhizomatou CRPR Mesic habitats in lower and High elevations in the Potential to occur. No Botrychium s fern 2B.2 upper montane coniferous Cascade and Sierra records within 5 miles minganense forests, and around the Nevada of the watershed. edges of meadows and Suitable habitat in seeps, elevation 5,185 to forests, meadows, and 10,105 feet seeps throughout the watershed.

Mud sedge Perennial CRPR Bogs, fens, meadows, and Central Sierra Nevada, Potential to occur. No Carex limosa grass-like 2B.2 seeps in conifer forests, South Lake Tahoe/Emigrant records within 5 miles rhizomatou elevation 5,085 to 7,840 feet Pass, Cascades of the watershed. s herb Suitable habitat in forests, meadows, and seeps throughout the watershed. Table A2. Special-Status Plants, Their Status, and Their Potential to Occur in the Bear Creek Watershed

Potential for Species Lifeform Status1 Habitat Distribution Occurrence Munro’s desert Perennial CRPR Great Basin scrub Only known from Squaw May occur. One mallow herb 2B.2 Creek, Placer County record within 5 miles of Sphaeralcea the watershed is from munroana 1920 (CNDDB 2017). Suitable habitat exists in alpine-dwarf shrub habitat in the watershed.

Nevada daisy Perennial CRPR Volcanic and rocky soils, Sierra Nevada in Sierra, Potential to occur. No Erigeron eatonii var. herb 1B.2 meadows and seeps, upper Placer, and Nevada records within 5 miles nevadinicola montane coniferous forest, Counties of the watershed. elevation 6,235 to 8,565 feet Suitable habitat exists in forests, meadows, and seeps throughout the watershed.

Nuttall’s ribbon- Perennial CRPR Shallow water, ponds, lakes, Outer North Coast ranges, May occur. One leaved pondweed herb 2B.2 and streams. elevation 2,495 high elevation Sierra record from within 5 Potamogeton to 8,565 feet Nevada, and the Modoc miles of the watershed epihydrus Plateau is from 1932 (CNDDB occ. no. 22). Suitable habitat exists in lakes, ponds, and streams throughout the watershed. Table A2. Special-Status Plants, Their Status, and Their Potential to Occur in the Bear Creek Watershed

Potential for Species Lifeform Status1 Habitat Distribution Occurrence Oregon fireweed Perennial CRPR Bogs, small streams, elevation Outer North Coast ranges Potential to occur. No Epilobium herb 1B.2 2,590 to 8,495 feet and Klamath range. Also records within 5 miles oreganum recorded in Sierra Nevada of the watershed (CNDDB 2017); closest records to the watershed are from 1985 or earlier (CCH 2017). Suitable habitat exists in small streams in the watershed.

Plumas ivesia Perennial CRPR Seasonally wet, volcanic soils Eastern Sierra Valley north to Unlikely to occur. No Ivesia sericoleuca herb 1B.2 in Great Basin scrub and Janesville records within 5 miles USFS – S lower montane conifer forest, of the watershed elevation 4,690 to 7,185 feet (CNDDB 2017). Species range restricted in/around the Sierra Valley and suitable habitat largely absent from watershed.

Robbins’ Perennial CRPR Deep water, lakes, elevation Sierra Nevada, Cascades, Unlikely to occur. No pondweed rhizomatou 2B.3 5,150 to 10,825 feet North Coast Range; could records within 5 miles Potamogeton s herb be found within lakes and of the watershed robbinsii ponds (CNDDB 2017 and suitable habitat generally absent. Table A2. Special-Status Plants, Their Status, and Their Potential to Occur in the Bear Creek Watershed

Potential for Species Lifeform Status1 Habitat Distribution Occurrence Santa Lucia dwarf Annual CRPR Chaparral, Great Basin scrub, Martis Valley north through Potential to occur. No rush grass-like 1B.2 meadows, vernal pools, Cascades, Central and records within 5 miles Juncus luciensis herb elevation 1,085 to 6,365 feet Southern Coast Range of the watershed (CNDDB 2017). Suitable habitat exists in montane chaparral, alpine-dwarf shrub habitat, and meadows in the watershed.

Scalloped Perennial CRPR Bogs, fens, seeps, meadows, Distributed throughout Sierra May occur. Two moonwort rhizomatou 2B.2 elevation 4,184 to 10,824 feet Nevada, populations known records within 5 miles Botrychium s herb USFS – S from Tahoe NF and Sagehen of the watershed crenulatum Creek (CNDDB 2017), and suitable habitat exists in seeps, stream edges, forests, and meadows throughout the watershed.

Sierra starwort Perennial CRPR Meadows and dry understory North and central Sierra Potential to occur. No Pseudostellaria rhizomatou 4.2 of mixed oak or conifer forest, Nevada high records within 5 miles sierrae s herb elevation 4,135 to 6,760 feet of the watershed (CNDDB 2017). Suitable habitat exists in meadows and forests throughout the watershed. Table A2. Special-Status Plants, Their Status, and Their Potential to Occur in the Bear Creek Watershed

Potential for Species Lifeform Status1 Habitat Distribution Occurrence Slender-leaved Perennial CRPR Shallow, clear water of San Joaquin Valley, San Potential to occur. No pondweed herb 2B.2 marshes, swamps, lakes, and Francisco Bay area, and the records within 5 miles Stuckenia filiformis drainage channels, elevation central high Sierra Nevada of the watershed ssp. alpina 984 to 7,053 feet (CNDDB 2017). Suitable habitat exists in meadows, lakes, and drainages throughout the watershed.

Starved daisy Perennial CRPR Granite outcrops in upper Nevada and Placer Potential to occur. No Erigeron miser herb 1B.3 montane coniferous forest, Counties, Lake Tahoe Basin records within 5 miles USFS – S elevation 6,072 to 8,646 feet Management Unit, of the watershed Bridgeport vicinity, Donner (CNDDB 2017). Pass, Lake Almanor vicinity Suitable habitat exists in higher elevation forests throughout the watershed.

Stebbin’s phacelia Annual CRPR Cismontane woodland, lower El Dorado, Placer, and Potential to occur. No Phacelia stebbinsii herb 1B.2 montane coniferous forest, Nevada Counties; records within 5 miles USFS – S and meadows and seeps, American and Yuba River of the watershed elevation 3,480 to 6,560 feet drainages (CNDDB 2017). Suitable habitat exists in forests, meadows, and seeps throughout the watershed.

Tahoe yellow cress Perennial CRPR Decomposed granite, lower Known in CA only from Lake Unlikely to occur. Rorippa rhizomatou 1B.1 montane coniferous forest, Tahoe; many historical Range is restricted to subumbellata s herb meadows and seeps, occurrences extirpated shoreline of Lake elevation 6,200 to 6,825 feet Tahoe. Table A2. Special-Status Plants, Their Status, and Their Potential to Occur in the Bear Creek Watershed

Potential for Species Lifeform Status1 Habitat Distribution Occurrence Three-ranked hump Moss CRPR Meadows and seeps, bogs Widely distributed but Potential to occur. No moss 4.2 and fens, subalpine uncommon in Sierra records within 5 miles Meesia triquetra USFS – S coniferous forest, mesic Nevada, Cascades, North of the watershed upper montane coniferous Coast; known from Tahoe NF (CNDDB 2017). forest, elevation 6,235 to in fen-like wet meadows Suitable habitat exists 7,415 feet and similar habitats in forests, meadows, and seeps throughout the watershed.

Threetip sagebrush Perennial CRPR Openings in upper montane Tahoe Basin and Plumas May occur. Observed Artemisia tripartita shrub 2.B3 conifer forest on rocky, County. adjacent to the ssp. tripartita volcanic soils, elevation 7,260 watershed on the to 8,580 feet southeast slope of Ward Peak in 2005 (CNDDB occ. no. 1). Suitable habitat exists in forests at higher elevations in watershed.

Water awlwort Annual CRPR Lake and wetland margins, Yosemite north to Potential to occur. No Subularia aquatic herb 4.3 streambanks, wet sedge Cascades; could occur records within 5 miles ssp. americana meadows, muddy flats, and along lake margins of the watershed salt marshes in upper (CNDDB 2017). montane coniferous forest, Suitable habitat exists elevation 6,300 to 9,710 feet along lake shores, wet meadows, and streambanks in the watershed. Table A2. Special-Status Plants, Their Status, and Their Potential to Occur in the Bear Creek Watershed

Potential for Species Lifeform Status1 Habitat Distribution Occurrence Western goblin Rhizomatou CRPR Mesic habitats, lower Cascade Range, Sierra Potential to occur. No Botrychium s fern 2B.1 montane coniferous forest, Nevada, and the Warner records within 5 miles montanum meadows and seeps, upper Mountains. of the watershed montane coniferous forest, (CNDDB 2017). often in association with Suitable habitat exists incense cedar, elevation in forests, meadows, 5,280 to 5,415 feet and seeps in the watershed.

Woolly-fruited Perennial, CRPR Bogs, fens, marshes, swamps, Klamath Range, Cascade Potential to occur. No sedge grass-like, 2B.3 and freshwater lake margins, Range, and the Sierra records within 5 miles Carex lasiocarpa rhizomatou elevation 2,100 to 6,430 feet Nevada (Plumas County). of the watershed s herb (CNDDB 2017). Suitable habitat exists along lake shores and in wetlands throughout the watershed.

Woolly-leaved milk- Perennial CRPR Alpine boulder and rock field, Klamath Range and the Known to occur; vetch herb 4.3 and rocky subalpine northern Sierra Nevada; recorded in the Astragalus whitneyi coniferous forest, elevation Tahoe Basin, Donner Pass, watershed in 1915 var. lenophyllus 4,265 to 9,350 feet Butte, Plumas and Alpine (CCH 2017), but there Counties are no recent observations. Suitable habitat exists in forests throughout the watershed. Table A2. Special-Status Plants, Their Status, and Their Potential to Occur in the Bear Creek Watershed

Potential for Species Lifeform Status1 Habitat Distribution Occurrence Upswept moonwort Rhizomatou CRPR Mesic, lower montane Southern Cascade Range, May occur. One Botrychium s fern 2B.3 coniferous forest, meadows central Sierra Nevada, and record within 5 miles of ascendens and seeps, elevation 5,710 to east of the Sierra Nevada. the watershed 9,480 feet (CNDDB 2017), and suitable habitat exists in forests, wet meadows, and seeps throughout the watershed. Table A2. Special-Status Plants, Their Status, and Their Potential to Occur in the Bear Creek Watershed

Potential for Species Lifeform Status1 Habitat Distribution Occurrence

Notes: CNDDB = California Natural Diversity Database; occ. no. = occurrence number in the CNDDB. 1 Status Codes:

California Native Plant Society CRPR (California Rare Plant Ranks): 1A. Presumed extinct in California 1B. Rare or Endangered in California and elsewhere 2. Rare or Endangered in California, more common elsewhere 3. Plants for which we need more information - Review list 4. Plants of limited distribution - Watch list

Threat Code extensions and their meanings: .1 - Seriously endangered in California .2 – Fairly endangered in California .3 – Not very endangered in California Note that all List 1A (presumed extinct in California) and some List 3 (need more information- a review list) plants lacking any threat information receive no threat code extension Region 5, Tahoe National Forest USFS – S: U.S. Forest Service Sensitive Species (USFS 2013c)

APPENDIX B

History, Culture, and Historical Land-Use (Lindstrom, 2017)

BEAR CREEK WATERSHED ASSESSMENT AND DESIGN A CONTEXTURAL OVERVIEW OF HUMAN LAND USE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS

WORKBOOK

(U.S. Forest Service Report Number: R2018051700005)

Report prepared by: Susan Lindström, Ph.D. (RPA), Consulting Archaeologist Truckee, CA

Report prepared for: Balance Hydrologics, Inc. Truckee, CA

On behalf of: Truckee River Watershed Council Truckee, CA

September 2017 TABLE OF CONTENTS page

PROJECT DESCRIPTION AND SCOPE 1 DATA SOURCES AND CONTACTS 5 Research Archives and Contacts 5 Records Search Results 8 Native American Consultation 13 SETTING 14 Physical Environment 14 Geography and Topography 15 Hydrology 16 Vegetation 16 Prehistory 18 Native American Period 20 Southern Maidu (Hill Nisenan) 20 Washoe 21 Historic Period 23 Early Exploration 23 Transportation 23 Sheep Grazing 25 Logging 31 Deer Park Springs 33 Recreation and Community Development 36 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 40 Cultural Resource Sensitivity 41 Recommendations 44 REFERENCES 39 FIGURES

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 i Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist 1. Project location map (USGS quad) 2 2. Project location map (aerial photo) 3 3. Project location map (LiDAR image) 4 4. Prior Archaeological Coverage (polygons) 10 5. Prior Archaeological Coverage (lines) 12 APPENDIX 1: Tables 56 -Time Line of Human History 57 -Report List of Prior Archaeological Studies 58 -Resource List of Known Cultural Resources 61 APPENDIX 2: Correspondence 63 North Central Information Center 64 Native American Outreach 66 APPENDIX 3: Historic Maps 73 1. General Land Office Survey Plat T15N/R16E, T16N/R16E (1865) 74 2. 1st. Lieut. Geo. M. Wheeler, Corps of Engineers, U.S. Army (1876-77) 75 3. USGS Truckee Quad (1889, 1897 reprint) 76 4. Weber's Map of Placer County (1914) 77 5. Tahoe National Forest California and Nevada (1921) 78 6. Tahoe National Forest California and Nevada (1926) 79 7. Metsker’s Map of Nevada County (ca. 1938) 80 8a. USGS Tahoe City 7.5' Quad (1950) 81 8b. USGS Granite Chief 7.5' Quad (1953) 82 9. USGS Tahoe City 7.5' Quad (photo revised 1969) 83 10. Tahoe National Forest Truckee Grazing District Five Lakes Range (1911) 84 11. Grazing map of Blackwood, Hellhole and Miller Ranges (1924) 85 12. Tahoe National Forest Range Allotment Analysis Five Lakes Allotment (1959) 86 13. Grazing permit area for Kuhn & Miller (1966) 87 14. Sheep trailing map (1979) 88

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 ii Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist 15. Mid-20th century logging in the Bear Creek watershed 89 16. Alpine Meadows Subdivision 90 APPENDIX 4: Plates 91 1. Miscellaneous projectile points inventoried in Bear Creek’s upper reaches 92 2. Prehistoric hunting blinds inventoried along the Bear Creek divide 93 3. Prehistoric rock cairns/game drive lines inventoried along the Bear Creek divide 94 4. Basque aspen carvings (arborglyphs) inventoried in the upper Bear Creek watershed 95 5. Traveling on the Truckee-Tahoe Toll Road near Deer Park Station 96 6. Deep Park Springs Lodge, 1889 97 7. Deer Park Springs Hotel, ca. 1908 98 8. Deer Park Springs Mineral Waters Promotion 99 9. Animal power logging – skidding over the ground with horses 100 10. Animal power logging – skidding with horses and big wheels 101 11. Steam power logging – skidding with a steam tractor and big wheels 102 12. Steam power logging – steam donkey yarding logs through a log chute 103 13. Steam power logging – logging railroad similar to the one used by the Truckee Lumber Company in Bear Valley ca. 1900-1909 104 14. Diesel power logging – tractor skidding 105 APPENDIX 5: Resume 106 CONFIDENTIAL APPENDIX (Note that this appendix contains confidential archaeological site information. To prevent the deliberate and/or inadvertent destruction of heritage resources, this information should be used for planning purposes only and should not be distributed to the general public. Releasing information about the nature and location of archaeological resources is restricted under Section 304 of the National Historic Preservation Act (16 U.S.C. 470w-3) and Section 9 of the Archaeological Resources Protection Act (16 U.S.C. 470hh; 36 CFR296.18) -Map of Previously Recorded Cultural Resources within the Bear Creek Watershed

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 iii Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist PROJECT DESCRIPTION AND SCOPE

The Bear Creek sub-basin encompasses a 5.2-square-mile watershed that drains into the Middle Truckee River watershed. It is situated along the eastern flank of the Sierra Nevada crest within the modern Alpine Meadows development, located in Placer County between the communities of Truckee and Tahoe City (figures 1-3). The Bear Creek study area falls within Township 16 North, Range 16 East, sections 32, 33 and 34 and Township 15 North, Range 16 East, sections 3-9, 17, and 18 M.D.M. (Tahoe City 7.5’ Quadrangle).

Over the past century and a half, the Bear Creek sub-basin has experienced physical and ecological impacts, in part due to anthropogenic disturbances that are largely associated with natural resource exploitation involving logging, grazing, recreation, and impacts due to land and community development. These impacts have altered the health of the watershed's hydrology, geomorphic processes, water quality, and biological resources. The Truckee River Watershed Council (TRWC) is engaged in an assessment of the Bear Creek sub-basin as part of its coordinated water management strategy to evaluate the watershed's natural attributes, disturbances, existing conditions, and opportunities for restoration. To accomplish this work, the TRWC has retained a multidisciplinary team led by Balance Hydrologics, Inc., and joined by H.T. Harvey & Associates and Susan Lindström, Ph.D., Consulting Archaeologist to evaluate the hydrology, biological resources and history of the Bear Creek drainage to better assess prior and on-going impacts to its water quality and habitat.

Human beings are a noteworthy component of the Bear Creek watershed ecosystem and the watershed has had a long period of human occupation, beginning with use by the Washoe Indians and their prehistoric ancestors. Watershed restoration efforts can benefit from an understanding of the long-term ecological role of aboriginal peoples, as well as historical Euroamerican populations, in the dynamics of wild plant and animal populations and alterations of the physical environment. Interdisciplinary science team collaboration is a productive means to explore the direct link between culture history and contemporary restoration project design and implementation to provide the science and policy information needed to establish a baseline to direct restoration and protection projects within the watershed.

As part of this multidisciplinary study, readily available archaeological, ethnographic and historic background data have been assembled in order to assist project planners in assessing potential restoration opportunities and constraints attendant to any alteration of the existing hydrological condition in the Bear Creek sub-basin. This report presents a contextual history of human land use and past environmental conditions that can be used as an independent and corroborative tool to document human disturbances and link these historic conditions to contemporary environmental restoration and protection efforts. This document also identifies the relative sensitivity of lands potentially targeted for watershed restoration improvements with regards to prehistoric and historic archaeological sites and Native American and Euroamerican traditional cultural properties. Data are compiled into a “work book” format, in anticipation that additional archival and field research will follow

This work book appears as an appendix to the Bear Creek Watershed Assessment as supplemental information with which to gain a better understanding of the cultural component of the physical environment. It has been prepared as a stand-alone report, which according to Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 1 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 2 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 3 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 4 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist standard archaeological protocol, is to be filed independently with the North Central Information Center at California State University, Sacramento, an adjunct of the State Office of Historic Preservation's archaeological master data center and with the USFS-TNF. The work book begins as a historical narrative, followed by appendices including: (1) relevant correspondence from the archaeological clearing house at the North Central Information Center; (2) communications initiated as part of Native American outreach; (3) a summary time line of human history (4) historical maps; and (5) historical photographs. Findings presented in this work book are preliminary. Follow-up intensive field archaeological surveys in areas not previously subjected to archaeological coverage, or where prior coverage is older than 10 years, would be conducted as part of subsequent restoration design and environmental review (CEQA, NEPA).

DATA SOURCES AND CONTACTS

To accomplish the archaeological study, Balance Hyrologics, Inc. contracted with Susan Lindström, Ph.D., Consulting Archaeologist. Lindström meets the Secretary of Interior's Professional Qualifications Standards in archaeology, history and related disciplines (48 FR 44738- 44739). She has 43 years of professional experience in regional prehistory and history, holds a doctoral degree in anthropology/archaeology and since 1982 has maintained certification by the Register of Professional Archaeologists (RPA, former Society of Professional Archaeologists/SOPA). (See attached resume.) Research involved a broad-based literature survey of pertinent historic and prehistoric themes and a selective review of prior regional archaeological investigations to assess the overall archaeological sensitivity of the study area. Results disclosed that portions of the project area have been subject to prior archaeological study and several archaeological sites have been field documented. The contextual discussion presented in the report text and accompanying appendices is drawn from the existing literature, supplemented by personal notes and experience. This overview is far from exhaustive and data are uneven. Mostly assembled at an earlier time and for a different purpose, information has been adapted to fit into the Bear Creek Watershed Assessment framework.

Research Archives and Contacts Individuals who were contacted for their historical knowledge of the project are listed as follows. Many of these contacts were initiated between 2015 and 2016 as part of a separate but geographically related project involving ski area developments proposed by Squaw Valley and Alpine Meadows. Information these individuals provided is cited in this report, and so they are credited on the contact list.

• Michael Baldrica: District Archaeologist, USFS, TNF, Sierraville Ranger District, (personal communication 2/17/16; 3/8/16)

• Don Behrens: retired Range Ecologist, Forest Range Conservationist and Zone Range Conservationist 1973-1999), USFS, TNF, 1973-1999 (personal communication 3/5/16)

• Brianne Boan: East Zone Range Management Specialist, USFS, TNF, Sierraville; Five Lakes/Summit Grazing allotment files (personal communication, 2/17/16, 3/8/16, 3/11/16)

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 5 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist • Troy Caldwell: "White Wolf" (Section 5) property owner (personal communication 8/25/15; August-September 2017)

• Jack and Pat Callister: residents of Alpine Meadows since ca. 1965 when they bought three lots in the subdivision located across the creek from the site of the old Deer Park Inn (telephone interview 3/22/09)

• John Callister: son of Jack and Pat Callister; grew up in Alpine Meadows (telephone interview 3/20/09)

• John Collins, General Manager of the Alpine Springs County Water District (personal communication 9/25/17)

• Joe Flannery: Lands, Trails, Wilderness, and Winter Sports, USFS, TNF, Truckee Ranger District (personal communications, 2/9/16, 2/17/16, 3/6/16)

• Harlan Hamburger: retired Range Management Specialist (1973-1990s), USFS, TNF, Foresthill District (personal communication 2/17/16)

• Daniel Heagerty: Director, Granite Chief Wilderness Protection League; resident of Alpine Meadows since 1963; hiker along Five Lakes Trail for 50 years (personal communication 9/14/15, 9/16/15, 9/28/15, 2/9/16)

• John Kennedy: retired Resource Officer Range/Timber (ca. 1970s), USFS, TNF, Truckee Ranger District (personal communication 3/2/16)

• Roberta Lim: Range Management Specialist, USFS, TNF, Supervisor's Office, Nevada City and Foresthill Ranger District and formerly Sierraville Ranger District (personal communication 2/18/16, 3/10/16)

• John Maher: Heritage Resource Coordinator, USFS, Lake Tahoe Basin Management Unit, South Lake Tahoe, California (personal communication 2/18/16)

• Jose Mallea-Olaetxe: Basque Historian, retired Director of Basque Studies Department, University of Nevada, Reno (personal communication 3-9-16)

• Abel and Judy Mendegia: Basque permittee Russell Valley Sheep Camp (1956-1991, personal communication 3/8/16); Judy's brother, Don McCreary, was a stock foreman based out of Whiskey Creek Camp for sheep owner, Bob Carter

• Chaun Mortier, Research Historian, Truckee Donner Historical Society (9/25/17)

• Carol Purchase, Watershed Program Manager, USFS, TNF, Supervisor's Office, Nevada City (personal communication 3/18/16)

• Leigh Sevy: West Zone Range Management Specialist, USFS, TNF, Supervisor's Office, Nevada City (personal communication 2/17/16, 2/23/16, 3-10-16)

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 6 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist • Tom Skjelstad, former General Manager Alpine Springs County Water District (1988-2001); General Manager Donner Summit PUD, Soda Springs

• Bill Slater: District Archaeologist, USFS, TNF, Nevada City District (personal communication 2/17/16, 3-10-16, 3-18-16)

• Carrie Smith: Heritage Program Coordinator, USFS, TNF, Truckee Ranger District (personal communication 8/25/17; 9/6/17; 9/14/17)

• Nolan Smith: District Archaeologist, USFS, TNF, Foresthill District (personal communication, 2/17/16)

• Lou Tift: long-term employee of Alpine Springs County Water District (telephone interview 3/20/09)

Historical photographs appearing in Appendix 4 are credited to a variety of sources (as listed beneath each image). Aerial photographs, on file with the USFS-TNF and dating from 1939, 1952, 1966 and the 1970s through 2000, were also reviewed. Over 40 years of miscellaneous regional research compiled by Lindström was cursorily reviewed and more focused studies regarding the Bear Creek sub-basin were consulted. Resources comprise historic documents, photographs, and maps on file in the consultant’s personal library. Referenced maps appear in Appendix 3 and include the following:

• Degroot's Map of Nevada Territory 1863 • General Land Office Survey Plat 1865 T15N/R15E • General Land Office Survey Plat 1865 T15N/R16E • General Land Office Survey Plat 1865 T16N/R16E • Map of the Placerville Route 1867-1868 • Topographic Map of Lake Tahoe by Ferdinand von Leicht & J. D. Hoffmann 1874 • 1st. Lieut. Geo. M. Wheeler, Corps of Engineers, U.S. Army 1876-77 • Map of Placer County 1887 • USGS Truckee Sheet 1889 • USGS Truckee Quad 1889 (1897 reprint) • USGS Truckee Quad July 1895(April 1914 reprint) • Tahoe National Forest 5/1/1911 by "Gallaher" • Tahoe National Forest California and Nevada 1915 • Weber's Map of Placer County 1914 • Denny's Pocket Map of Nevada County 1916 • Tahoe National Forest 1921 • Tahoe National Forest map 1924 • Tahoe National Forest 1926

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 7 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist • Tahoe National Forest 1930 • Tahoe National Forest 1937 • Metsker’s Map of Nevada County ca. 1938 • USGS Truckee Quad 1940 (1946 reprint) • Tahoe National Forest 1947 • USGS Truckee Quad 1940 (1951 reprint) • USGS Granite Chief 15' Quad 1953 and Granite Chief 7.5' Quad 1953 • USGS Tahoe City 15' Quad 1955 and Tahoe City 7.5' Quad 1955 • USGS Tahoe City 7.5' Quad photo revised 1969 • USGS Granite Chief 7.5' Quad 1986 • Truckee District, Tahoe National Forest 1962 • Lake Tahoe Basin Management Unit 1976 • USGS Tahoe City 7.5' Quad 1978 • Tahoe National Forest 1983 • USGS Tahoe City 7.5' Quad 1985 • USGS Tahoe City 7.5' Quad 1992 • Miscellaneous TNF grazing maps

In addition, general local and state histories, regional inventories, miscellaneous unpublished manuscripts, and newspaper articles were examined. Other resources are listed in the references cited section at the end of this report.

Records Search Results

Tahoe National Forest (TNF) Heritage Program Coordinator, Carrie Smith, conducted a cursory check of prior archaeological studies and known cultural resources on federal lands within the Bear Creek watershed. TNF Heritage staff, Michael Baldrica (Sierraville Ranger District), Bill Slater (Nevada City Ranger District), and Nolan Smith (Foresthill Ranger District) shared available grazing records regarding the Five Lakes Allotment, stock usage and environmental consequences in the Bear Creek watershed. Brianne Boan researched range files stored on the Sierraville District and kindly scanned and emailed copies of allotment records and trailing maps. Roberta Lim, Leigh Sevy and Bill Slater facilitated access to forest-wide grazing records and cultural archives held at the TNF Supervisor's Office in Nevada City. Joe Flannery searched TNF trail easement records. Retired TNF range managers Don Behrens, Harlan Hamburger and John Kennedy were interviewed by phone. Basque Historian, Jose Mallea, and former TNF range permittees and Basque sheep herders, Abel and Judy Mendeguia, were also consulted.

Historical files of the Truckee Donner Historical Society were reviewed to locate pertinent historical photographs, maps, aerial photographs, oral histories, newspaper accounts, and other unpublished resources.

Troy Caldwell, resident of the Bear Creek Valley since 1970 and owner and developer of the White Wolf property (located in Section 5 of the study area), shared a miscellany of details regarding valley history and provided copies of selected land ownership documents.

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 8 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist John Collins, General Manager of the Alpine Springs County Water District, kindly opened his resource files, which were checked in an endeavor to track the history of infrastructure development in Bear Creek valley.

A formal records search at the master data center located at the North Central Information Center (NCIC) of the California Historical Resources Information System, an adjunct of the State Office of Historic Preservation, California State University, Sacramento, was conducted to identify any properties listed on the National Register or California Register or other listings (NCIC File No.: PLA-17-81, see attached correspondence). Results disclosed that 24 archaeological studies have been conducted within the Bear Creek watershed, encompassing about 1,135 acres. To date, about 13 archaeological sites have been inventoried, entailing approximately 30 acres of site area. In addition to the records and maps for sites and studies in Placer County, other official inventories were also reviewed by the NCIC (see attached correspondence): • Office of Historic Preservation’s Historic Property Directory • Determination of Eligibility • California Inventory of Historical Resources • California State Historical Landmarks • National Register of Historical Places/California Register of Historic Resources listings • California Points of Historical Interest • Caltrans State and Local Bridge Surveys

Records search results are summarized on figures 4 and 5, on the accompanying NCIC “Reports” and “Resource” tables in Appendix 1 and on the cultural resource location map in the accompanying confidential appendix. Findings of the more substantive studies and ones of greatest relevance to the watershed assessment are summarized below in more detail. Prior Archaeological Studies

In his survey for the Alpine Meadows Ski Area Five-Year Grading Plan, Henton (1977) recorded a Basque camp (P-31-1934/05-17-57-211) consisting of a can dump, two fire hearths, horseshoes nailed into trees, a possible corral, and lodgepole pine carvings with 1940s dates. Nearby carved aspens or arborglyphs (P-31-1924/05-17-57-212) dating from 1922 to 1955 are situated northeast of the Alpine Meadows base lodge. Carvings range from names and dates, anthropomorphic forms, nude males and females, zoomorphic forms, place names, and fantasy forms. Both site records were updated in 2009 and 2011 as part of the Sierra Pacific Power Company power line upgrade, whose right-of-way passes through the Bear Creek watershed. Their significance was evaluated in terms of criteria established in the National Register of Historic Places as per Section 106 guidelines and the California Register of Historical Resources as per CEQA guidelines. Both were recommended ineligible for listing in either the National or California Register (Waechter 2013).

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 9 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 10 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist Henton (1977) also inventoried a prehistoric site (P-31-2006/05-17-57-225) within the main Alpine Meadows ski bowl. Lindström (2017) made an unsuccessful attempt to relocate the site as part of her survey of the Squaw Valley-Alpine Meadows Base-To-Base Gondola Project. The site no longer exists and as a "severely damaged site" it is therefore ineligible for listing in either register.

Lindström's (1978) early survey of the Pacific Crest Trail disclosed a number of sites around Ward Peak, Five Lakes basin and Whiskey Creek, to include: at least six prehistoric lithic scatters (05-17-57-31, -151, -152, -153, -154, -155) and one prehistoric hunting blind (05-17-57- 152), historic Basque aspen carvings (05-17-57-155), and the site of the Whiskey Creek sheep camp (05-17-57-30). The sheep camp was later evaluated and found eligible to the National Register of Historic Places as a rare and significant complex reflective of Basque culture (Rose 1992). Additional Basque aspen carvings dating around 1926 (05-17-57-155) and 1945 (05-17- 57-251) have been located south of Five Lakes. Subsequent surveys added a prehistoric camp (05- 17-57-252), two more prehistoric lithic scatters (05-17-57-249 and -255), and a possible historic cabin site and debris scatter, which may represent a satellite fishing resort and log cabin associated with the historic Deer Park Springs Inn located on the lower reaches of Bear Creek.

Lindström's (1991b, 1994) study for the Alpine Meadows Ski Area Master Plan involved 2,600 acres in the Bear and Ward creek drainages. Her mixed reconnaissance survey strategy resulted in the identification of 21 sites and 60 isolated finds. These resources are associated with prehistoric occupation marked by plant food processing, tool stone acquisition and manufacture (Plate 1), and 15 hunting blinds (Plate 2) with associated rock cairns arranged in lines to drive game towards waiting hunters, i.e., “drive lines” (Plate 3). Historic resources involve logging, Basque sheep herding camps, debris scatters, and carved aspens or arborglyphs (Plate 4).

Lindström (1983) completed an archaeological survey of approximately 130 acres within the Deer Park Ski Area, for which one new chair lift and seven ski runs were planned to supplement a single existing chair lift. No cultural resources were encountered during the survey. The project was ultimately suspended.

A land exchange in 1991 between the USFS and Alpine Springs County Water District (ASCWD) involving two parcels totaling 19 acres at former sewer ponds near the south bank of Bear Creek prompted an archaeological study. The surface survey disclosed the presence of one prehistoric site (CA-Pla-736/FS-05-17-57-375), along with historic carved aspens (arborglyphs) and miscellaneous isolated historic artifacts (Lindström 1991a) near the south bank of Bear Creek. Archaeological test excavations revealed over 400 pieces of prehistoric debitage (waste flakes) and two glass trade beads. Follow-up mitigation excavation recovered over 2,600 pieces of debitage, several formal tools and projectile points, and an additional six glass trade beads. Since subsurface deposits had been substantially disturbed by sewer pond construction, the site was found to be ineligible for listing in either the National or California Register due to lack of integrity. The ASCWD public park now occupies the archaeological site.

Lindström (1992) surveyed a 2.7-mile long pipeline alignment designed to carry water from the ASCWD to the Alpine Meadows ski area. Three known archaeological sites -- a Basque camp (05-17-57-211), historic debris scatter and possible camp (05-17-57—284), and a prehistoric site (05-17-57-285), along with six new isolated historic finds and one prehistoric isolate were

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 11 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 12 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist located near the pipeline, but outside the area of impact. Pipeline construction impacted the prehistoric site (CA-Pla-736/05-17-57-375) that Lindstrom (1991) had earlier found to be disturbed and ineligible for either register.

A historic chain of title search was conducted for the historic Deer Park Springs Resort as part of Lindström’s 2009 archaeological survey. The study targeted a five-acre parcel owned by Troy Caldwell located on the north side of Bear Creek in Section 5 (Township 15 North, Range 16 East). Results of the archival study and oral history interviews disclosed the location of the Deer Park Springs hotel complex on land adjoining the project area in Section 4. Historic chain of title research confirmed this land ownership and further verified that owners of the resort had never leased land in Section 5 in support of their resort activities in Section 4.

The following year, Lindström (2001) surveyed a 45-acre parcel, also located in Section 5, on the south side of the creek and across from the Caldwell property. No cultural resources were encountered. . One additional archaeological study (not on file with either the NCIC or the USFS) addressed the entire Caldwell 500+-acre private parcel in Section 5 (Spranza in 2013). No cultural resources were encountered (Spranza 2013:5-1, 6-1). To renew the special use permit held by the Alpine Meadows Stables, Far Western Anthropological Research Group, Inc. (Orvald 2017) re-recorded a large prehistoric site first recorded in 1989 by the USFS (P-31-151/CA-Pla-25/FS-05-17-406). The prehistoric site (with minor historic- era component, ca. 1936-1950s) is located above the north bank of lower Bear. Lindström (2017) surveyed three alternative alignments for construction of a base-to-base gondola connecting Squaw Valley and Alpine Meadows ski areas. Field investigations resulted in the inventory of a segment of the historic Five Lakes Trail (05-17-57-846), which passes beneath the proposed gondola alignment. The trail was recommended ineligible for listing in either the National or California Register.

Native American Consultation

As part of the CEQA component of the project, a request for a sacred lands file search was directed to the Native American Heritage Commission (NAHC) on September 5, 2017 (see attached correspondence). According to a response received on September 19, 2017, the NAHC did not identify any Native American cultural resources in the immediate project area. Prior ethnographic studies indicate that the Washoe Tribe is the applicable tribal authority for lands encompassing the project area. However, the region is peripheral to traditional lands of the Southern Maidu. As per recommendation by the NAHC, follow up correspondence and accompanying project maps were sent on September 20th to the Washoe Tribe and four other individuals/organizations on the NAHC contact list -- Southern Maidu/T'si-Akim Maidu, the Colfax-Todds Valley Miwok/Maidu, the Shingle Springs Band of Miwok Indians, and the United Auburn Indian Community of the Auburn Rancheria -- (see attached correspondence). All five groups were contacted to incorporate opinions, knowledge and sentiments regarding the project. Follow-up emails were sent to Chairperson Nicholas Fonseca of the Shingle Springs Band of Miwok Indians, Pamela Cubbler of the Colfax-Todds Valley Consolidated Tribe, Grayson Coney of the Tsi-Akim Maidu, and Darrel Cruz of the Washoe Tribe. Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 13 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist Written comments were received from the Washoe Tribe on October 9th, indicating no specific concerns regarding the study area. Responses from the other groups are still pending. The NAHC was also contacted during Spranza's 2013 study of the Caldwell property in Section 5 (Spranza 2013: Appendix C). No sacred lands were identified in Section 5, nor did any of the follow up contacts have any specific information or concerns regarding the immediate project area. Once specific projects are developed, additional consultation will be initiated according to CEQA guidelines and mandates under California Assembly Bill 52 (pursuant to PRC 21080.3.1). For projects involving federal lands, consultation will occur under Section 106 and NEPA protocols. SETTING

PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

The most significant human modifications of the project vicinity involve grazing, logging and recreational development by ski areas and accompanying subdivision expansion. While the back- country landscape surrounding the upper reaches of Bear Creek remain largely unaltered, the lower and middle reaches of the drainage and terrain within the ski area have been significantly modified. With local guide, Bob Watson, writer George Wharton James traveled through the study area in 1913. James' commentary on vegetation, topography and hydrology provided historical commentary in contrast to the contemporary project setting. James entered the Five Lakes basin from the trail through Olympic Valley on the north. He crossed the divide into Bear Creek drainage and likely descended the canyon along the present-day Five Lakes Trail (James 1992:116). Great groves of willows and alders cover immense areas of the canyon's sides, while we pass a giant red fir with a diameter of fully six feet. When about half a mile from Five Lake Creek the largest portion of the canyon is taken up with irregular masses of granite over which a glacier, or glaciers, have moved. The striation and markings are down the valley, and looking up from below the canyon for a mile or more it has the appearance of a series of irregular giant steps, each step gradually sloping back to the step above. From above the course of the glacier seems clear. It must have flowed downwards, polishing and smoothing each step in turn, then falling over the twenty, thirty or fifty feet high edge to the next lower level, to ascend the next slope, reach the next precipice, and so on. We pass through groups of willows, wild currants and alders, enter a sparsely wooded meadow and in a few moments see the first of the Five Lakes. There is but little difference in their levels, though their sizes vary considerably. The First one is the largest. The two first or lower lakes are the largest and the deepest. It is their flow which makes Five Lakes Creek. The three upper lakes are smaller and shallower. It is said that a divide used to separate the two lower from the three upper lakes, and the flow from the latter descended through Bear Creek, past Deer Park, into the Truckee River and thence into faraway Pyramid Lake in Nevada. [This statement is supported on a 1921 map of the TNF (Map 5), which shows one of the upper five lakes draining westward into Bear Creek.] Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 14 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist From this point the trail is clear and well defined...Passing through a fine nursery of beautiful and exquisite red firs we drop into the canyon of Bear Creek. To the left are great andesite crowns on the mountain tops. Here also are more glacially polished masses and cliffs of granite, clearly indicating great glacial activity in the upper part of this canyon.

Geology and Topography Much of the project topography is characterized by steep, rugged, and rocky terrain truncated by vertical cliff bands. Cliffs moderate as they approach the valley bench lands and floodplain. Project elevations within the Bear Creek drainage range from around 6,200 feet at the mouth of the valley to 8,637 feet at the top of Ward Peak. The relatively lower, more broken ranges of the Tahoe Sierra allowed prehistoric trek routes and historic roads and trails emerging from the upland valleys to be more dispersed, in contrast to the single, strong, "backbone" effect of the southern Sierra, which channeled trans-montane routes into a few restricted but well-known passes (Lindström 1978:22-23). The geomorphology and geology of the region is mapped by the California Division of Mines and Geology, Chico Sheet (1965). Alpine Meadows is situated west of the Carson Range and east of the main crest of the Sierra Nevada. The valley is characterized by a northeast-trending glacial landscapes containing outwash and morainal deposits (Birkeland 1964). Prior to 40,000 years ago, Pleistocene trunk glaciers flowed down the Truckee River from its tributaries (including Bear Creek) sculpting the broad sierran granitic batholith into its present form. Holocene glaciation within the past 10,000 years was limited to the advance of small cirque glaciers. Widespread morainal and fluvio-glacial outwash deposits, left in the wake of glaciers, deposited large granitic boulders, which were commonly used as bedrock mills by prehistoric occupants of the area. Landforms have also been influenced greatly by Pleistocene volcanic activity that occurred between 2.3 and 1.2 million years ago. These flows contain Pliocene volcanic pyroclastics (including basalts, granitics and andesites) and are correlated with the Lousetown Formation, a series of early Quaternary basaltic rocks extruded from several local vents that underlie much of the Truckee and North Tahoe basins and their flanks (Birkeland l963). The presence of tool stone-quality rock attracted prehistoric populations into the general area for stone tool manufacture. High-quality basalt sources occur near the valley mouth on the east side of the Truckee River. Source-specific tool stone quarries targeting small pockets of meta-sedimentary rock and chalcedony have been inventoried along the ridge near Ward Peak (Lindström 1994). Hydrology Bear Creek drains Alpine Meadows. Otherwise, flowing water within the watershed is largely limited to seasonal snowmelt on the granite shelves and multiple spring seeps through the escarpments. Glacial tarns within the Five Lakes basin and at Lake Estelle comprise the larger bodies of standing water. A series of at least three substantial spring complexes on the valley’s south side have been tapped by the ASCWD to supply the water needs of Alpine Meadows. Four different mineral springs - iron, sulphur, soda, and non-carbonic waters - (Waring 1915:232-233), located near the upper end of the valley, were developed in historic times along the southeast side of Bear Creek and across from the health resort that was appropriately named "Scott's Springs" (later known as Deer Park Springs). These mineral springs occur along with several other mineral seeps located in the Truckee region. James (1992:113) reported on an active iron spring in neighboring Olympic Valley and other “carbonic” springs were noted in the early 19th century period press. Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 15 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist Truckee Mineral Water. Receiving wide attention…Five miles above Truckee where the railroad crosses the River. 100 yards below the bridge on the eastern bank…in the bed of the river is where the spring bubbles up. The bubbles rise in 30-40 places within a 20-yard radius. Bubbles are caused by Carbonic gas. It is only when the gates [of the dam] are closed at Tahoe City that the springs can be seen… [Truckee Republican, 4-29-1906] Vegetation The study area falls largely within Storer and Usinger's (l97l) Subalpine Belt (Hudsonian Zone). In the project vicinity, whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis ), lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), red fir (Abies magnifica), mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana), and sierra juniper (Juniperus occidentallis) dominate the forest stands. Understory species include mountain ash (Sorbus sitchensis), red mountain heather (Phylladoce breweri), western choke-cherry (Prunus demissa), manzanita (Arctostaphylos spp), Spirea spp., and Ceanothus spp. Wetlands support willow (Salix spp.), alder (Alnus tenuifolia) and assorted grasses and forbs. Rocky cracks and crevices sustain low- growing succulents. It is doubtful that modern plant and animal communities closely resemble their pristine composition, due to shifts in climate and past human disturbances. In the Sierra Nevada, flora and fauna are distributed in a series of lengthwise zonal belts that vary according to elevation, exposure, and precipitation. Accordingly, aboriginal community organization tended to be highly zonal. Many hundreds of montane plants were regarded as significant by prehistoric populations. This diversity offered a great variety of ecological niches in a relatively small area and would have allowed aboriginal groups to move seasonally to higher altitudes, while remaining in a similar botanic community. Forests Historic records suggest that virgin forest stands were more open, less dense, and composed of trees that varied widely in diameter (Taylor 1997). Historic chronicles describing these trees are typically written in the superlative, with trees portrayed in unbelievable size and bounty. Comstock-era harvesting targeted stands that had matured during the mid-1600s to mid-1800s, a period of generally cooler and wetter conditions coincident with an event known as the "Little Ice Age." This unique climatic event may, in part, account for the notably large stem diameters and overall forest vigor of virgin stands. To illustrate, one early observer described the forests of the Tahoe Basin as "...dominated by giant pine trees with so much room on the forest floor that riders could travel at full gallop without losing their hats" (San Francisco Chronicle 8/21/1995:1). This early account stands in striking contrast to the observation made by John Leiberg (1902) during a forest survey a few decades later in 1902: "...Let anyone...examine the sapling stands now springing up in old-growth forests ...These sapling stands...are so dense that a man can with difficulty force his way through… Lieberg predicted the future condition of Tahoe's timber stands this way: ...[T]he general condition of the forests at the end of the century, or even fifty years hence, will be about as follows: The...basins will have been wholly denuded of large timber, and in its place will have come a sapling growth, heavy and close set in some places, open, under sized, and brushy in others. Most of it will consist of

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 16 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist white fir, for the yellow pine which has given the present forest its chief value will form a comparatively small percentage of it. Lieberg's predictions were largely correct, and degraded forest conditions are currently driving actions by the federal, state and county government to remedy forest health problems in the Tahoe Sierra. There is a growing consensus that the pre-Euroamerican condition of Tahoe's forest ecosystem is the desired future state. Rangelands With the demise of logging by the turn of the 19th century, cut-over lands were sold to ranchers for grazing; lake lands generally supported cattle, and high meadows were used for sheep. Sheep herding was largely conducted by Basques. Local Native American populations were especially affected by the impacts of livestock grazing that caused declines in many important plants. Excessive over-feeding exterminated native browse species, promoted erosion, and hindered forest regeneration. Sudworth wrote in 1900 on the impacts of the over-grazing he saw in the Tahoe Sierra. ...There are practically no grasses or other herbaceous plants. The forest floor is clean. The writer can attest the inconvenience of this total lack of grass forage, for in traveling over nearly 3,000,000 acres not a single day's feed for saddle and pack animals was secured on the open range...it is evident that formerly there was an abundance of perennial forage grasses throughout the forest in this territory...it would seem that this bare condition of the surface in the open range has been produced only through years of excessive grazing by millions of sheep - a constant overstocking of the range. Sheep were singled out as more destructive than cattle. Two years later in 1902, John Leiberg also observed degenerating rangelands in the Tahoe Sierra. The trampling of thousands of sheep pastured on these slopes during summer and fall reduces the soil, to a depth of 6 or 8 inches, to the consistency of dust. Rain washes this dust into the creeks and rivers, and heavy winds lift it up and carry it far away.... [tree] seeds are largely shed in July and are trampled into the ground and destroyed. All seedling trees on the sheep runs are either cut off below the ground by the sharp hoofs of the animals or uprooted and trampled. In these runs, where trees have succeeded in establishing themselves, they are bent and stunted...while sheep are pastured there they never will return to forest cover. Burning Charles H. Shinn, a forester for the U.S. government, visited the basin in 1902, and reports sighting many small and smoldering fires, viewing four to ten in one day's travel. The natural fire regime was augmented by millennia of purposeful micro-burning by Native Americans, by the accidental and unchecked blazes in Comstock-era cutovers where cordwood or lumber awaited shipment (and damaging blazes fed upon debris in

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 17 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist cutover areas and sparks from logging equipment), and by the intentional fires set by Basque herders to improve rangelands. Native Americans in the Tahoe Sierra cleared the ground by fire and burned off brush, making areas more accessible and enhancing the growth of seeds and feed for animals. Their systematic micro-burning may have extended the range, increased the frequency, and altered the timing of the natural fires regime. The practice served to keep down fuel loads and resulted in low-intensity fires. Sheepherders were criticized for deliberately setting fires to improve the range and facilitate movement of sheep through the forest. Upon leaving "fed-out" seasonal grazing lands, Basque shepherds set fire to high-elevation meadows and shrub lands and burned many large downed trees. "Shorn of its wealth and beauty, [the Tahoe Basin] has been partly burned over to give a few sprouts to hungry hordes of sheep" (Manson 1899:298). ...all the fires observed during the last summer closely followed the sheep camps. [Lieberg 1902:41]

No less than seventeen such fires of this kind were found on the trail of one band of sheep, covering a distance of 10 miles. [Sudworth 1900:555-556)] The belief is generally held that the sheep herders fired the country in all directions and have been responsible for most of the fires of recent years. [Leiberg 1902:41] The chaparral areas will be brush covered, very much as they are, because they will be burned now and then so as to furnish fresh browse for the sheep, and the burnings will serve only to increase the density of the next stand of chaparral. [Leiberg 1902:52] Agency control dramatically changed land use patterns in the Tahoe Sierra after 1900, especially regarding fire suppression. Prior to this time, there any coordinated attempt at fire suppression. By the mid-1920s, all national forests (and national parks) in California and the Sierra had fully developed policies, procedures, and organizations to suppress fire in their jurisdictions. Before the adoption of a fire suppression policy, a debate ensued whether to allow "light" or "Indian burning" versus total suppression. Ultimately, it was resolved that repeated small fires caused progressive damage to the forest, inhibiting effective regeneration of mixed forests, the sources of a sustainable commercial timber supply. In 1924 a congressional act was passed clearly establishing fire exclusion as a national policy. Fire suppression formed the basis of USFS policy until the 1960s, after which time doubt over the merits of total suppression led the national forests to employ the reintroduction of fire as a management strategy. PREHISTORY A large view divides the prehistory of the Sierra Nevada and adjoining regions into intervals marked by changes in adaptive strategies that represent major stages of cultural evolution (Elston1982,1986). In broadest terms, the archaeological signature of the Tahoe Sierra marks a trend from hunting-based societies in earlier times to populations that were increasingly reliant upon diverse

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 18 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist resources by the time of historic contact. The shift in lifeways may be attributed partially to factors involving paleoclimate, a shifting subsistence base, and demographic change. The archaeology of the region was first outlined by Heizer and Elsasser (l953) in their study of sites located in the Martis Valley. They identified two distinct prehistoric lifeways which are believed to have once characterized the area's early occupants. Subsequent studies have further refined the culture history of the region (Elston 1971; Elston et al 1977). Current understanding of northern Sierra Nevada and western Great Basin prehistory is framed within a chronological sequence spanning nearly 12,000 years that is drawn from archaeological investigations throughout the northern Sierra and the Truckee Meadows (Elston 1971, 1986; Elston et al. 1977; Elston et al. 1994, 1995; Grayson 1993; Lindström and Bloomer 1994; Martin 1998; Moore and Burke 1992). Known as "The Eastern Sierra Front Chronology" (Elston et al. 1994, 1995), it provides a relevant time frame for comparing and interpreting Tahoe Sierra archaeology. The earliest recognized period in western Great Basin prehistory, from ca. 11,500 to 10,000 before present (B. P.), is marked by the presence of fluted projectile points found along the shores of shallow Late Pleistocene/Early Holocene lakeshores. Pre-Archaic sites date from 10,000 to ca. 7,000 B. P. and cluster around lakeshores, river terraces, and high ground above valleys. Following the retreat of sierran glaciers, humans began to occupy the Tahoe Sierra by at least 8,000 to 9,000 years ago during the Tahoe Reach Phase (Elston et al. 1977). Climates were warmer and drier, although conditions remained relatively cool and moist. The earliest archaeological evidence of human presence in the region is found at South Lake Tahoe along Taylor Creek (Martin 1998) and along the Truckee River near Olympic Valley (Elston et al. 1977). Early populations were highly mobile in the pursuit of large game animals (Elston et al. 1995) and are represented by scant occurrences of isolated projectile points (large stemmed, edge- ground projectile points of the Great Basin Stemmed series). The Early Archaic Period (or Spooner Phase ca. 7,000 to 4,000 B. P.) begins with a mid- Holocene warming trend, during which lakes and marshes receded and drought-tolerant vegetation communities expanded. Drying lowlands may have prompted sparse populations to travel into upland resource zones to hunt and fish and gather plants. Archaeological sites dated to the Early Archaic are rare and no diagnostic projectile point types have been identified until ca. 5,000 B. P., which is when the Martis Contracting Stem and Martis Split Stem atlatl dart points appear. This cultural phase was first identified at Spooner Lake in the Lake Tahoe Basin (Elston 1971). Late Holocene archaeology is better known and chronologies are relatively well developed. Populations were on the rise and land use was more diversified, with large sites located near permanent water. Big game hunting was supplemented by intensified seed processing and storage. Late Holocene climate (after ca. 4,000 B. P.) saw a trend toward cooling and more moisture. Population densities increased and land use intensified as people moved into the Tahoe Sierra high- lands on seasonal gathering, fishing and hunting forays. The Middle Archaic Period begins at about 4,000 years ago during the Early Martis Phase, and continues through the Late Martis Phase to ca. 1,300 B. P. The Martis Contracting Stem and Martis Split Stem projectile points reflect an early aspect of the Middle Archaic, but Martis Corner- notched and Elko Eared points (ca. 3,000 to 1,300 B. P.) are the predominant Middle Archaic time markers. A hallmark of Middle Archaic prehistoric culture in the Tahoe Sierra is the use of basalt (fine-grained volcanics) in the manufacture of stone tools and production of large bifaces. Examples

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 19 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist of these projectile point types (Plate 1) are well represented in the Bear Creek watershed (e.g., Lindström 1994). The Late Archaic Period spans about 1,300 years ago to historic contact. This period is marked by an overall drying trend, punctuated by cool-moist episodes alternating with extended severe drought that lasted until about 500 years ago. Such extreme climatic fluctuations may have allowed for year-round residence in the highlands at sometimes and prohibited even seasonal occupation at other times. Throughout the Late Archaic populations continued to rise, as reflected archaeologically in more intensive use of all parts of the Tahoe Sierra landscape and a greater emphasis on plants, fish and small game. The early half of this period (Early Kings Beach Phase ca. 1,300 to 700 B. P.) is characterized by Rose Spring series arrow points and the latter half (Late Kings Beach Phase; ca. 700 to 150 B. P.) is marked by Desert Side-notched and Cottonwood arrow points. The bow and arrow (with emphasis on core/flake technology) replaced the atlatl and dart (and production of large bifaces). This period has been associated with the Washoe Indians, as known from the ethnographic period. It is estimated that the prehistoric Washoe had one of the highest population densities in the western Great Basin. Relatively high estimates are attributed to the bountiful environment in which they lived (Price 1962:2). Historic declines in Washoe population and traditional resource use were caused by disruptions imposed by incoming Euroamerican groups.

NATIVE AMERICAN PERIOD Although Bear Creek valley is consistently reported in ethnographies as firmly inside Washoe territory and trading routes, use by neighboring Maidu, Miwok, and Northern Paiute groups is not ruled out, especially in areas along the pacific crest, which Washoes shared with the Hill Nisenan (or Southern Maidu). Ethnographer Warren d'Azevedo (1984:23) pointed out that much of the Washoe range, including the core territory, was used jointly by adjacent non-Washoe peoples and constituted a ventilated corridor of trade and travel. He further noted that, in terms of clear-cut tribal boundaries, the overall picture is one of extensive interaction among Washoes and their neighbors, an arrangement that engaged in cooperative practices of trade, inter-visiting and intermarriage between Washoe subgroups and the Pyramid Lake and Walker River Paiute, the Miwok, and the Maidu (Beals 1933:366; d'Azevedo 1984:32, 1986a:471; Downs 1966:51; Riddell 1960:75). For millennia Washoe territory formed a major trans-Sierran corridor and convention holds that Washoes were active traders (Davis 1961). The strategic geographic position afforded them an opportunity to transfer a number of trade goods between the Great Basin and California (Downs 1966:37). Southern Maidu (Hill Nisenan) The Southern Maidu (or Hill Nisenan) held the foothill and mountainous portions of the drainages of the Yuba, Bear and American Rivers and the lower drainages of the Feather River (Kroeber l925; Wilson and Towne l978). Nisenan occupation was most probably by small groups during hunting, fishing and plant collecting forays in the uplands above their more permanent villages along the sierran west slope. Nisenan villages consisted of from four to l2 separate dwellings, housing a nuclear or polygamous family with the main cooperative or corporate unit being an informal bilateral "family" (Beals l933:344). Larger social organizations, called tribelets (Kroeber l925), were formed by several villages uniting under a single chief. Boundaries of such tribelets were formed

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 20 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist by using natural ridges between streams. However, the higher elevation areas were apparently not included in any one tribelet’s territory.

For the Nisenan, like most hunters and gatherers, vegetable food resources formed the subsistence baseline. The Nisenan utilized a wide range of floral and faunal species although they apparently made extensive use of only a small percentage of these. The least productive time of the year was late winter-early spring. The salmon run began in late spring. Throughout the summer, nuts and seeds were gathered. Acorns became available in massive quantities in the autumn, which was also the time of deer hunting. Groups went on hunting and gathering expeditions within the mountains in the fall. Temporary camps were located along creeks where temporary lean-to structures with some mud covering at the base were constructed (Beals 1933; Wilson and Towne 1978).

Washoe Territory and Inter-Tribal Relations The Bear Creek drainage is most firmly within Washoe territory or Wa She Shu, with primary use by the northern Washoe or Wélmelti’ (Downs 1966; Nevers l976; Stewart 1966). Northern Washoe traditional territory encompasses the Truckee Basin and Donner sub-basin, the Sierra Valley, the Truckee Meadows (Reno) and Washoe Valley, and the Wélmelti’ are acknowledged in the most general sense to have known the most about Tahoe’s north shore. However, d’Azevedo’s northern contacts indicated less emphasis on Lake Tahoe, and he suggests that the northern Washoe may have withdrawn relatively early in the post-contact period (d’Azevedo 1984:32; Rucks 1996:2). In any event, the Washoe regard all "prehistoric" remains and sites within the Tahoe-Truckee basins and environs as associated with their own past. In support of this contention, they point to the traditions of their neighbors (the Northern Paiute, Sierra Miwok and Southern Maidu) that include stories about migrations and movement, whereas theirs do not (Rucks 1996:6). However, use by these neighboring groups is not ruled out (Bloomer and Lindström 2006:10). Out of 249 place names collected by d’Azevedo (1956) and others (Dangberg 1968; Freed 1966) in the extended territory used by the Washoe, none are found along the Tahoe Reach of the Truckee River; yet, prehistoric sites are well-represented here (Elston et al. 1977; Payen 1973). Nonetheless, Washoes have a specific term (a’wabu wa’ta) for the stretch of the Truckee River that encompasses its confluence with Bear Creek (Correspondence: d’Azevedo to Lindström, 1996). Several recent research reports offer extensive treatments of Washoe ethnography and history, subsistence, and land use (Lindström 1992, 1996; Lindström in Bloomer et al. 1997:III-11-28; Lindström and Bloomer 2006; Lindström et al. 2000, 2002; Rucks 1996; Rucks in Lindström et al. 2007) and include more recent accounts of Washoe presence in the Tahoe Reach of the Truckee River. Washoe consultant, Lance Astor, recalled that his grandmother and other family members traveled through the Tahoe Reach during the late spring and early summer to go to their “place” along Lake Tahoe, where they spent the summer months. Wélmelti' from Sierra Valley and Loyalton also passed along the Truckee River on their way to summer at Lake Tahoe. While there is no available documentation of Washoe use of the Bear Creek drainage, it is likely given multiple accounts of Washoe occupation of neighboring Olympic Valley. Washoe Society and Economy

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 21 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist While the Washoe were an informal and flexible political collectivity, their ethnography hints at a level of technological specialization and social complexity that was uncharacteristic of their surrounding neighbors in the Great Basin. A semi-sedentary existence and higher population densities, concepts of private property, and communal labor and ownership are reported and may have developed in conjunction with their residential and subsistence resource stability (Lindström 1992, 1996).

Local communities, referred to as "the bunch" (or gam_ánu lák'azlélewzáhalizi - "many people living nearby one another") and comprised up to 15 closely related households each containing up to 10 individuals, formed the basic viable unit. Each bunch formed a cluster of closely related households or variant forms of the extended family (d'Azevedo 1984:91, 93, 96; Downs (1966:44-46; Price 1962:4). This is the social unit that may have composed the more localized community occupying Alpine Meadows. The next level of social organization was the "band", a regional community made up of several local communities and constituting a population of hundreds. Ties beyond the regional community were more nebulous and existed through extensive intermarriage, overlapping ranges of subsistence procurement, joint festivals, systems of communication, and occasional cooperation in defense (d'Azevedo l984:96).

Washoe land use is best characterized as generally following a seasonal cycle, moving from low elevation winter villages to high elevation summer camps and back again, but not everyone moved from their villages. The concept of zišgézeš or "moving about" characterizes the practice of seasonal mobility and corresponding temporary camps or áyadiz (d'Azevedo 1984:94-95). The flexible subsistence and settlement pattern of Washoe seasonal use, as well as periodic year-round occupation, was probably characteristic of settlement in Alpine Meadows throughout prehistory. Small groups temporarily separated off from the winter communities to form gathering contingents (ánu gutéšiwé.s démlu ziduwéwezi, "people off searching for food") or small hunting parties (ánu gutéšiwé.s t'a.yani). Hunters in pursuit of herds constructed hunting blinds with rock, poles and brush. Large group hunts were organized to drive deer, mountain sheep, and antelope herds towards hunters waiting in hunting blinds or into corrals where they were shot. The strategic placement of rock cairns in linear arrangements (i.e., “drive lines”, Plate 3) facilitated and funneled game movement towards hunting blinds and/or corrals. Suitable toolstone was quarried at various locales, with one source recorded at the mouth of Olympic Valley (Bloomer and Lindström 2006) and two sources inventoried above the headwaters of Bear Creek (Lindström 1994). Gathering plants for food, medicinal use and raw material for many manufactured items was an intensive effort from spring through fall (d’Azevedo 1986: 473-477). Fresh greens were typically abundant in the spring. Roots, bulbs and seeds were harvestable during summer, while pine nuts were the most abundant and valuable local plant resource in the fall. Acorns were also a valuable fall resource, but had to be gathered by trekking west over the Sierra crest to oak groves on the western slopes. Therefore, acorns were not a staple for the most distant Washoe groups, but were probably available to Olympic Valley and Alpine Meadows residents. Insects, worms, larvae and honey were also collected. Fish were a reliable, productive, well-timed, and year-round Washoe food source (d’Azevedo 1986; Lindström 1992, 1996) that may have allowed for extended stays in the upper reaches of the Truckee River watershed, even into the early winter season. Their relatively rich environment afforded the Washoe a degree of isolation an independence from neighboring peoples and may account for their long tenure in their known area of historic occupation (d'Azevedo 1984; 1986:466, 471; Price 1962), as also evidenced by linguistic studies. The

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 22 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist Washoe are part of an ancient Hokan-speaking population, which has been subsequently surrounded by incoming Numic speakers, such as the Northern Paiute (Jacobsen 1966). By the l850s Euroamericans had permanently occupied the Washoe territory and changed traditional lifeways. Mining, lumbering, grazing, commercial fishing, tourism, and the growth of settlements disrupted traditional Indian relationships to the land. As hunting and gathering wild foods were no longer possible, the Washoe were forced into dependency upon the Euroamerican settlers (Lindström et al. 2000). Washoes survived by trading goods and services to the dominant Euroamerican population (selling baskets, catching fish and game, and working as domestic laborers, wood cutters, ice harvesters, caretakers, game guides, etc.). In exchange Washoes arranged for camping privileges on traditional lands with access to what resources remained. Traditional plant management continued on the fringe of "white" settlements, but on a very reduced scale, and many established patronage relationships with incoming Euroamerican residents.

Beginning in 1917, the Washoe Tribe began acquiring back a small part of their traditional lands (Nevers 1976:90-91). The Washoe remain as a recognized tribe by the U. S. government and have maintained an established land base. Its tribal members are governed by a tribal council that consists of members of the Carson, Dresslerville, Woodfords, and Reno-Sparks Indian colonies, as well as members from non-reservation areas. Even into the 21st Century, the Washoe have not been completely displaced from their traditional lands. The contemporary Washoe have developed a Comprehensive Land Use Plan (Washoe Tribal Council 1994) that includes goals of reestablishing a presence within the Tahoe Sierra and re-vitalizing Washoe cultural knowledge, including the harvest and care of traditional plant resources and the protection of traditional properties within the cultural landscape (Rucks 1996:3). HISTORIC PERIOD Dominant historical themes pertaining to the project involve transportation, logging, grazing, and recreation and community development. Early Exploration Rugged summit areas above Alpine Meadows remained uncharted on the earliest maps of the area, with the 1865 General Land Office Survey Plat characterizing the general study area as "High Granite Mountains destitute of timber and vegetation of any kind." Yet, familiar land marks such as "Bear Creek" appear (Map 1). The Map of the Placerville Route 1867-1868 labels the "Five Lakes Val" (although no lakes are shown). The 1876-1877 map by 1st. Lieut. Geo. M. Wheeler, Corps of Engineers, U.S. Army (Map 2) identifies "Ward Pk" (Map 2). The USGS Truckee Sheet 1889 names "Five Lakes Creek" (Map 3). Transportation Some of the first Euroamerican visitors to the Truckee area were members of the Stephens- Murphy-Townsend Party, who ascended the Truckee River past its confluence with Bear Creek in mid-November of l844 (Farquar 1965). In 1860 John A. Huntington constructed the Tahoe-Truckee Toll Road along this emigrant route, up the Tahoe Reach of the Truckee River canyon and past the entrance to Alpine Meadows (Plate 5). Modern State Route 89 basically follows this historic route (Scott 1957:26). Five Lakes Trail System

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 23 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist The Five Lakes Trail is a branch of a main trail that traversed Olympic Valley between the Truckee River and the sierran divide. The development and expansion of this trail system can be traced on maps dating from 1865 into modern times. The main trail was first referred to in 1865 as the "Trail to Last Chance" (Map 1). The Wheeler map of 1876-1877 (Map 2) shows the trail through Olympic Valley along the south side of Squaw Creek, going over the pass and westward down the N. Fork of American River. The trail branches southwestward at the head of Olympic Valley and below "Sugar Loaf" (Squaw Peak) in southwest corner of Section 31, to pass by the western edge of Five Lakes basin before heading south to Hell Hole and the Rubicon River. This same branching route from the head of Olympic Valley and southward to Five Lakes basin appears on subsequent historic maps: USGS Truckee Sheet 1889; USGS Truckee Quad 1889/1897 reprint (Map 3); USGS Truckee Quad July 1895/April 1914 reprint; Tahoe National Forest California and Nevada 1915; Weber's Map of Placer County 1914 (Map 4); Denny's Pocket Map of Nevada County 1916; Tahoe National Forest maps dating from 1921 (Map 5) and 1926 (Map 6), and Metsker’s Map of Nevada County ca. 1938 (Map 7). The main trail from the head of Olympic Valley southward to Five Lakes basin no longer appears on the USGS Granite Chief 7.5' Quad 1986. This historic connecting route between the two valleys, which had been an established route since at least 1876, was replaced with the Pacific Crest National Scenic Trail shown leading eastward from Whiskey Creek Camp, crossing Five Lakes Creek, below Five Lakes and ascending the ridge near Ward Peak. The trail connecting Alpine Meadows and the Five Lakes basin, known today as the Five Lakes Trail, does not appear on available maps until 1921 (Map 5), where the five lakes are accessed by a trail leading westward from the historic Deer Park resort, once located near the modern trailhead. The trail trends east-west through Section 5 and heads around the north end of Five Lakes basin to intersect with the branching trail from Olympic Valley on the west side of the lakes. The trail then continues southward down Five Lakes Creek towards Hell Hole and the Rubicon River. This well-established trail system and its connecting route from Deer Park in Alpine Meadows appears on the following historic maps: Tahoe National Forest 1921 (Map 5), 1926 (Map 6), 1930, 1937, 1947, and the 1962 Truckee District; on the USGS Truckee Quad 1940/1946 reprint, the USGS Truckee Quad 1940/1951 reprint, the USGS Granite Chief 15' Quad 1953/Granite Chief 7.5' Quad 1953 (Map 8), the USGS Tahoe City 15' Quad 1955/Tahoe City 7.5' Quad 1955 (Map 8), and the USGS Tahoe City 7.5’ 1969 quad (Map 9).

The trail system out of Deer Park continued to develop with a trail branching southward from the historic resort through Section 8 and up the headwaters of Bear Creek and over into Ward Creek. This branching trail is shown on Tahoe National Forest maps dating from 1926 (Map 6), 1930, 1947, and 1962 Truckee District, the USGS Truckee Quad 1940/1946 reprint, and the USGS Tahoe City 15' Quad 1955/Tahoe City 7.5' Quad 1955 (Map 8). Metsker’s Map of Nevada County ca. 1938 (Map 7) depicts three branching trails from Deer Park Spring: one leading westward around the north end of Five Lakes; a second trail coming from Deer Park Spring leading westward around the south end of Five Lakes, where both north and south trails join the main trail from the head of Olympic Valley to head southward down Five Lakes Creek; and a third trail goes south from Deer Park Spring up the headwaters of Bear Creek to Page Meadow and Ward Creek. The USGS Tahoe City 7.5' Quad 1955 depicts later modifications of the Five Lakes Trail in Section 5, where portions of the original route were abandoned (Map 9).

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 24 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist The Five Lakes Trail accesses the Granite Chief Wilderness from Alpine Meadows over private property owned by Troy Caldwell in Section 5. The 19,480-acre wilderness was established in 1984 in response to the federal California Wilderness Act (Haegerty 2015; Siig 2015:18). The Five Lakes Trail is a very popular recreational hike, with some claiming: "Five Lakes has come to be possibly the most popular hike in the entire Tahoe Basin with an estimated 30,000 hikers a year" (Heagerty 2015). Others have alleged that Five Lakes Trail may even be the second most popular trail in Northern California (Caldwell, personal communication with Siig 2015:20). The trail has a longstanding and irrevocable federal easement (Flannery, personal communication 2/17/16). Dan Haegerty, a long-term resident of Alpine Meadows and champion of the Granite Chief Wilderness, has raised the issue that the "trail was originally a sheep trail, used to move sheep between summer pastures" (Haegerty 2015). I was told by FS staff that they understand the trail was created for sheep herding to pasture lands, then evolved into the tourist and hikers trail it is now, but FS staff haven't seen any actual reports. [Heagerty, personal communication 9/28/2015] Sheep Grazing Increasing human populations in the Basin were supplied with meat, milk, butter, and cheese from herd animals that denuded high-elevation alpine areas and lake-level meadow systems. A livestock business quite naturally developed around the lush meadows and as adjacent forests were harvested, the growth of vegetation in the cutovers provided at least temporary sources of stock feed. Supplemental forage was also derived from natural glades in the timberlands (Wilson 1992:45). Sheep were singled out as more destructive than cattle, and, as noted above, sheep herders were criticized for deliberately setting fires to improve the range. Overview Basque shepherds grazed their herds throughout the Tahoe Sierra and frequented the region surrounding Five Lakes (James 1992:138) and the meadows of Bear Creek, Olympic Valley and Whiskey Canyon (Fiedler 1977:28). On his tour of the region in 1913, James observed: "In the region of Five Lakes, Basque and other foreign shepherds may be found tending their flocks" (James 1992:138). The first domesticated sheep were brought into Nevada in 1841, crossing the Sierra Nevada on their way to California markets. By the 1860s the trend had been reversed, as California sheep were driven to the mining camps of the Great Basin and railheads in the plains (Douglass and Bilbao 1975:214). The Basque reputation for excelling as shepherds, combined with the fact that herding sheep was often unappealing to non-Basques (due to the risks involving physical safety, mental stability and sexual frustration within the context of social isolation), rendered Basque sheep herders as indispensable to the sheep industry of the American West (Douglass and Bilbao 1975:407). By the 1900s Basque sheepherders had become indispensable to large stockowners and they dominated the industry from the 1890s until the 1970s (Anon n.d.a[a-b]; Anon n.d.b). While wartime demand increased the number of livestock permitted on public lands between 1914 and 1918, immigration restrictions during the 1920s caused a severe shortage of herders in the sheep industry. The Great Depression hit the livestock industry and herd numbers dropped throughout the 1930s (Jackson et al. 1982:168), but rose again during the 1940s. Bands were large, numbering at least 1,000 (Mallea-Olaetxe 1992:30) and the seasonal transhumance of the herds sometimes involved treks of several hundred miles. Sheep were driven overland or transported by

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 25 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist rail to and from the summer range; later they were moved to pasture by truck (Sawyer 1971:81- 83). The traditional Basque homeland is a small geographical range located in the Pyrenees of Spain and France, Euskal Herria, "the land of the speakers of Basque" (Mallea 2000:7; Mallea and Berryman 2008:23). Aspects of Basque culture and language were maintained in the remote upland sheep camps as well as in lowland valleys where boarding houses served as social and economic support centers during winter. Shepherds moved camp daily in the uplands, tent camping with a single burro or in a sheep wagon (Behrens, personal communication 2009 in Lindström and Waechter 2009; Sawyer 1971:108). Main summer base camps/supply depots where established at strategic locales and staffed by camp tenders who ferried supplies to individual herders on packhorses. The hallmark Basque oven and assorted camp furnishings were set up at base camps used year after year, such as Whiskey Creek sheep camp.

Herders personalized the landscape along the trails/roads they traveled by the characteristic rock cairns that marked the way. Stacked rock cairns (harri mutilak), known as "stone boys" or "stone girls", functioned as boundary markers between range allotments and to prevent mixing of sheep. The cairns also served as strategic trail markers for newer shepherds unfamiliar with the countryside. Rocks were continually added to these markers, with the larger cairns being the most strategic (Mallea personal communication in Lindström et al. 2002; Mallea and Berryman 2008:58-61). Basque herders also left archaeological signatures of their passing and affirmations of their existence in the form of carved aspens or arborglyphs (Plate 4). Aspen carvings are made by fine knife incisions into the bark of the trees that barely reach into the cambium layer. Over time, the incision scars over, turning a rich black and producing a clear impression. Names, dates, narratives, and art inscribed into the trees chronicle historical land use and provide modern researchers with a general idea of land capacity, forage yield and overuse (Baldrica and Smith n.d.). There is also a high percentage of animated animal representations and sexually explicit and erotic graphics that reflect portraits of traveling prostitutes who frequented the more accessible camps and made a name for themselves.

The first grazing regulations imposed by the USFS became effective in 1905. Summer pasture was rented and rates per head were established each season (Sawyer 1971:144). For grazing administration purposes, areas were subdivided into allotments that became the basic unit of apportioning grazing privileges amongst individuals and sheep companies. Allotment boundaries were commonly drawn in conformance with natural landforms, with the higher elevations and the eastern slope relegated primarily to sheep men. With the passage of the Taylor Grazing Act in 1934, efforts in government management were directed toward range restoration to improve poor and deteriorating range conditions (Behrens, personal communication 2009 and Mendeguia, personal communication 2009 in Lindström et al. 2009; Mendegia, personal communication 3/8/16; USFS n.d.:2). Water developments enhanced livestock distribution and programs to control poisonous plants and infectious diseases, as well as predator eradication, were coordinated with stock-growers (Jackson et al 1982:168). Considerable loss was had each year from coyotes, and since the range was unusually rough, it was difficult not to lose sheep that strayed (USFS 1925b). The government designated the timing and seasonal movement of sheep and the “flockways” or stock “driveways” to be followed (Sawyer 1971:82, 89-90). Grazing was increasingly curtailed in the last half of the

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 26 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist 20th-century due to stricter government regulation and competition for grazing lands by recreational and residential/commercial development in the Sierra Nevada (Baker 2004:13; Jackson et al. 1982). Five Lakes Allotment/Sierra Crest Allotment Summary. The study area incorporates the eastern portion of the historic Five Lakes grazing (maps 10 through 13). Federal grazing records for the "Five Lakes Allotment" (later combined into the "Sierra Crest Allotment") dating from 1911 into the 1970s were reviewed for any clues and dozens of individuals associated with grazing activities on the TNF were interviewed. Historic records indicate that USFS range managers expended considerable time and expense to regulate sheep movements by channeling bands into a system of stock driveways (Map 14). Sheep quotas were continually downsized to prevent overgrazing and maintain the integrity of the range and watershed and enhance recreation (Behrens, Hamburger and Kennedy, personal communication 2015). An ever-increasing focus was to preserve the integrity of the hiking trail system "...keeping sheep out of sight and out of mind for the recreationist" (Behrens, personal communication 3/5/16). The archives make limited reference to sheep activities in the "Deer Park Unit" and along "Lower Bear Creek" and the focus of sheep ingress and egress into the Five Lakes/Whiskey Creek area seemed to be based out of Olympic Valley, Soda Springs (and the former Lake Van Norden meadow) or on the western sierran flank. The early, well-established and long-standing network of trails was tethered to the divide between Olympic Valley on the east and the American River drainage on the west, with branching trails heading southward from the divide, past Five Lakes and on to Hell Hole and the Rubicon River (maps 10-14). The area around Five Lakes was grazed as early as 1911 (Maps 10). According to the 1959 Tahoe National Forest Range Allotment Analysis Five Lakes Allotment map (Map 12), the study area along the western edge of Section 5 and in the extreme northwest corner of Section 8 fall within the allotment. The Five Lakes Allotment (or Five Lakes Range) is one of several separate historic allotments that were consolidated into the Sierra Crest Allotment during the early 1970s (Anon. n.d.a:2). Bands divided their time on the sierra crest between the former Five Lakes and Soda Springs ranges, with browsing in the adjoining lower ranges of Grayhorse, Hell Hole, Diamond Crossing, Miller, Picayune, Middle Fork of the American River, Deer Park, Truckee River, Juniper Creek, Boca, and Martis Valley. In addition, Nevada ranges were used early and late in the season in transit to and from Five Lakes (USFS 1930a, b, c). Bands were trucked into the range and shipped by rail from Soda Springs and Truckee. More typically, sheep were driven through a federally established network of stock driveways (Map 14). Stock driveways were established to funnel the ingress and egress of sheep into their designated allotments expediently and with minimal environmental impact. The Forest Service monitored the range (Baldrica, personal communication 3/8/16), walking sample transects either to assess the condition of the allotment capability or its use (as shown by the directional arrow symbols on Map 14). Sheep quotas were continually downsized to prevent overgrazing and maintain the quality of the range and watershed and enhance recreation (Behrens, Hamburger and Kennedy, personal communication 2015). An ever-increasing focus was to preserve the integrity of the hiking trail system "...keeping sheep out of sight and out of mind" for the recreationist (Behrens, personal communication 3/5/16). Considerable work and dollars were expended in the construction of stock driveways. For example, Project Work Inventories on file at the TNF, Sierraville Ranger District and dating from the mid-1940s report that in one year, 144 days were required to construct 18 miles of

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 27 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist stock driveways, including a total of 3,331 “man” days and $18,000 (Baldrica, personal communication 2/17/16). The grazing management workload and budget also involved erosion and rodent control, the eradication of willow, brush and poisonous and exotic plants, spring development and the construction of water storage dams, propagation of seed and scarification and revegetation of forage, and the construction of shipping corrals. Permittees within the Five Lakes Grazing Allotment Historical information regarding these historic allotments is drawn from available range management plans, annual reports and maps prepared by the TNF (ca. 1911 to 1963). Activities of permittees are summarized below. In general, the Five Lakes range has been characterized by a history of abusive grazing. The earliest mention of stocking rates showed that various permittees grazed between 5,000 and 10,000 sheep summer-long. (anon. n.d.a:1). Grazing records indicate that three sheep outfits have had permits in the study area [i.e., Five Lakes Allotment] since 1924. The Whitney Estate grazed 5,000 to 10,000 sheep over the area from 1924 through 1946. The Kuhn and Miller Company next grazed 3,000-5,000 head from 1947-1964. Mr. Carter purchased the Kuhn and Miller Company in 1969 and grazed two bands of 1000 head each during the 1970 season. Carter did not use the range in 1971. [USFS 1971:1] Jensen Brothers (ca. 1911-1928). P. S. and J. S. Jensen came from Denmark and were the first sheepmen of the Five Lakes area (Mallea 2000:208). Available USFS annual reports name the Jensen brothers as occupants of the range in 1913, 1921-1923, 1925-1926, and 1928. A 1911 map of the Five Lakes Range boundary (Map 10) indicates P.S. Jensen as the permittee who leased patented lands in Section 5 (the private parcel within the study area owned by Troy Caldwell). A 1924 map of the Tahoe National Forest map (Map 11) shows a trail (now known as the Five Lakes Trail) heading westward from Deer Park Springs and circling around the north end of Five Lakes to "Jensen Camp" (later known as Whiskey Creek Camp). Over time, range boundaries shifted and an undated range appraisal report (likely predating 1923) stated: "Squaw Valley has not been included in this range [Five Lakes range] as it is more a part of the Truckee River range...[noting]...Some of the canyons of upper Squaw Creek are decidedly rough..." (USFS n.d.). Yet, the 1923 report recommended that Section 8 of Township 15 North, Range 16 East (the area containing the Alpine Meadows ski lodge and study area) should be used as part of the Five Lakes range, and not the Hell Hole range. Jensen's sheep were driven over the Lincoln Highway (Old U.S. 40) to and from their base of operations in Reno, stopping in route on the Juniper Creek range and the Truckee River range (USFS 1923). Lambs were shipped by rail from Truckee in the fall (USFS n.d.; 1923). Sheep were wintered on the open ranges of Nevada (USFS 1925b). The 1923 annual report referenced a camp tender named McDonald (USFS 1923), who looked after four herders and was stationed near the head of the North Fork of the American River (USFS 1922). The 1925 report mentioned the main headquarters camp ("Jensen Camp", Map 11) and corral being located on Whiskey Creek (USFS 1925b), and the sheep herders' needs supplied from it by McDonald (USFS 1925b). While Jensen visited the range occasionally, it was his camp tenders and herders who looked after the sheep (USFS 1923). Jensen died in 1925 and his widow continued the business (USFS 1925a). Andrew Nelson, Jr. (ca. 1926-1928). Andrew Nelson, Jr. (Nielsen was Americanized to Nelson) tended camp for his father in the 1920s in the summer range of Hell Hole, Diamond Crossing,

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 28 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist and Five-Lakes Canyon. He married in 1945 and brought his wife to live at the sheep camp on Five Lakes Creek (Mallea 2000:44-45). Nelson's camp appears on a 1924 grazing map (Map 11) farther down Five Lakes Creek. According to the annual reports, Nelson tended to overstay on the range and his sheep were watched to see if any "loitering" while driving occurred. Nelson may have based from Olympic Valley (at least in 1928), as indicated by the district ranger's comment that one band of Nelson's sheep did take about one day longer going from Olympic Valley to Bear Pen than was necessary (USFS 1928). Whitney Estate Company (ca. 1926-1932). The Whitney Estate is mentioned in grazing reports between 1926 and 1932 as permittee in the Five Lakes range along with several others. The Whitney Estate had 16 head pack and saddle animals used in herding and tending camps on the Five Lakes Allotment and environs (USFS 1927). Between 1857 and 1913, J. Parker Whitney established the 30,000-acre Whitney's Spring Valley Ranch near Rocklin in the Sacramento Valley, where he grazed over 15,000 head of selectively bred sheep. During the early 1900s, sheep were railed to Soda Springs from the Whitney Station siding located along the Southern Pacific line (Lindström 1989, 1991c). According to the 1926 USFS annual report, the vicinity around the headwaters of Whiskey Creek received the most abuse because of the promiscuous routing of Nelson's, Jensen's and Whitney Estate's sheep to and from the various ranges and the Soda Springs shipping point (USFS 1926:1). The 1926 report further indicated that the Five Lakes and Soda Springs ranges were subject to the greatest impact from crossings, with a total of 25 bands passing over the range, plus four bands of Whitney Estate sheep using this range. It also stated that, although a stock driveway had been established along the ridge of the divide, crossing sheep did not keep to the ridge driveway (USFS 1926:2). The 1927 report observed "harder usage" under the Whitney Estate than it did with Jensen, complaining of the Whitney Estate's tendency to "hog the feed, change or enlarge numbers on the range, change field management, and desire to make all money possible off the range before quitting the business" (USFS 1927). The 1928 annual report mentioned the Alpine Meadows area, noting that Whitney Estate sheep left the range in the fall to Lower Bear Creek. Other sheep were shipped from Soda Springs. That same year, a range exchange was effected with Jensen, whereby the Whitney Estate gave the Deer Park unit to Jensen in exchange for the Picayune unit. Yet, the 1930 report included Deer Park in the company's range, whereby bands from the Nevada range; passed through Truckee towards Deer Park and out of Deer Park to Five Lakes range (USFS 1930a, b, c). Holmes and Hughes (ca. 1933-1934). Range files from 1933 and 1934 refer to "Holmes" and "Hughes" using the Five Lakes range under a five-year lease from the Whitney Estate (USFS 1933a, b, 1934a, b). "Wing" also owned part of the sheep (USFS 1933a, b). Hughes' foreman was named Valerio (last name likely Zubiri). Sheep were both shipped and driven to the valley winter range via Anderson Peak and Soda Springs (USFS 1933a, b). Kuhn and Miller (ca. 1946-1970). The Kuhn & Miller Company was a large livestock operation that handled cattle and sheep on a volume basis, in addition to real estate sales in Sacramento. Integral to Alfred Kuhn and Verne Miller's operations were the four USFS allotments - - Five Lakes (Map 13), Grayhorse, Hell Hole, and Truckee River -- where elevations ranged from 6,000 to 8,500 feet at the crest of the Sierras (USFS 1960, 1963a:1). All four of the allotments had a history of heavy use, with a steady increase in the permitted number of sheep since the 1920's. Whiskey Creek Camp became a base camp or stopping place for Kuhn and Miller's herding operations that began at the company's seasonal headquarters in Olympic Valley (Rose 1991:2; USFS 1963a:1).

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 29 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist Early on, most of the bands were driven through the Truckee River Allotment and into the vicinity of Donner Lake, in route to Olympic Valley and the other three back country allotments. In later years, most of the bands were trucked to Olympic Valley and distributed from that point (Anon. n.d.:1; USFS 1963a:1). To illustrate, Kuhn and Miller sheep were rotated and routed as described (USFS 1963a:4). Band #1 will come onto the north end of the Truckee River Allotment; thence working south to Squaw Valley; thence to the Grayhorse allotment (American side) and thence to the west side of the Truckee Allotment and end of season. Band #2 will go from Squaw Valley to Five Lakes; thence south to Hellhole and back to Five Lakes and Squaw Valley at end of season. A 1971 report describes a similar pattern of sheep movement. The current system of management is to graze two dry bands of 1000 sheep upon the five allotments. The season of use is July 16 to September 30. The routes of travel are as follows. Both bands come on the Truckee River Allotment on July 16...one band stays on the Anderson Peak and the Truckee River allotments for the entire season. The second band travels through the Truckee River Allotment across Squaw Valley State Park to the Five Lakes area of the Five Lakes Allotment. Band No. 2 then travels up Whiskey Creek and into the headwaters of the Middle Fork of the American River of the Greyhorse Allotment. After grazing the waters of the American, Band No. 2 then comes back down Whiskey Creek to Five Lakes Creek. Band No. 2 grazes the west-facing slopes of Five Lakes Creek and then grazes up the east- facing slopes to Five Lakes Creek, across Squaw Valley State Park to the Truckee River Allotment and off the range at the end of the grazing season, September 30th. [USFS 1971:7] Map 14 shows a typical trailing map in 1979. The name of the permittee is unknown. An undated USFS map (ca. 1970s) includes Lower Bear Creek within the Truckee River Allotment. The upper reaches of the drainage are not included in any allotment. By the 1960s, both Olympic Valley and Lower Bear Creek/Deer Park are excluded from the allotments and sometimes designated as "special zones", likely due to increased recreational use. Robert Carter (1970-1989). In the late 1970s there were at least five sheep companies operating on the TNF, including one owned by Robert Carter. The public land allotments of some of these sheep outfits were enormous (Mallea 2000:4). Carter operated in the American River headwaters (Hamburger, personal communication 2/17/16). Following Carter, the permit was transferred to two entities, Bernard Etcheverry[sic Bernard Etcheberry] of the Little Panoche Sheep Company and Albert Erratchu [sic Albert Evratchu] (Anon. n.d.:3). After the sale, Erratchu never turned sheep out on the allotment and his permit was subsequently terminated in 1994. Ray Talbot (among others) acquired the Sierra Crest Permit from the Little Panoche company in 1996. Talbot never ran sheep on the Sierra Crest allotment and Little Panoche only used it sparingly. As such the allotment had an extended period of rest beginning in 1989 (Anon. n.d.:4). Demise of Grazing on the Five Lakes Allotment/Sierra Crest Allotment. By 1963 the management direction for grazing in the Tahoe Sierra crest zone was guided by the philosophy that range management is subordinate to recreation, wildlife and most importantly watersheds (USFS 1963a:3-4). The Crest Zone is generally unsuited for sheep grazing; therefore, through management, shift sheep use from this zone because of detrimental effects on soil and water. The shift may be

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 30 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist accomplished by transfer to other allotments if available or it may result in a further reduction in sheep numbers. [USFS 1963a:3] The entire allotment was relegated to "secondary range status" due to prolonged over use on the easily disturbed and highly erodible soils and insufficient relief from grazing pressure to allow the browse to recover. Five Lakes and Upper Whiskey Creek were especially targeted to limit sheep use to a safe grazing capacity and erosion control measures focused on the stringer meadows along upper Five Lakes Creek below the junction of Olympic Valley and Five Lakes trails (USFS 1963a:4-5; USFS 1963b:4). Archaeological Evidence of Grazing within the Bear Creek Watershed Basque camps and aspen carvings have been documented in Alpine Meadows. Several problematic stacked rock cairns identified in the Bear Creek headwaters may have served as allotment boundaries and trail markers (Lindström 1994). One Basque camp (P-31-1934/05-17-57-211; P-31- 1924/05-17-57-212) inventoried near the base lodge of the Alpine Meadows ski area (Henton 1977; Waechter 2013), may be associated with the grazing range referenced as the "Deer Park Unit" (USFS 1928, 1930). Another possible camp (Lindström 1991a), situated farther down the Bear Creek drainage and near the former Bear Creek Campground and current equestrian stables, may relate to a locale referenced in the 1928 USFS annual grazing report as "Lower Bear Creek", where bands were gathered as they left the range in the fall (USFS 1928). From the valley, a logical historic stockway southwestward into and over the Bear Creek bowl and into the Ward Creek canyon is suggested by the multiple Basque camps and groves of arborglyphs inventoried by Lindström (1994): nine arborglyph groves, four sheep camps, 11 debris scatters, at least eight rock cairns (possible "stone boys"), and one blazed tree. A main summer base camp/supply depot for the Five Lakes allotment was located on Whiskey Creek near Five Lakes. Structure remains are now situated at the intersection of two major trail systems, the Western States Trail and the Five Lakes Creek Trail. In 1991 the Whiskey Creek Camp was nearly torn down in compliance with the rules governing the Granite Chief Wilderness (Mallea 1991b:150-152). The camp first appears on a 1924 Tahoe National Forest map (Map 11) as "Jensen Camp." It is later referred to as "Whiskey Creek Camp", as shown on Tahoe National Forest maps dating from 1930, 1962 Truckee Ranger District, and 1983, as well as Metsker’s Map of Nevada County ca. 1938 (Map 7). The cabins were constructed in 1954-1955 by shepherds Severino Ibarra and Pete Bengoechea and the outdoor "beehive-shaped" granite oven was built in 1956 by Fausto Lavari (Mallea 1991b:93). Severino Ibarra and Aniceto Vergara were camp-tenders and Valerio Zubiri was supervisor. All were Basque men from Navarrese who worked for Kuhn and Miller's sheep operation (Mallea 1991b:150-152; Rose 1991:2). Logging Logging was first initiated in the Truckee-Tahoe area after the discovery of the Comstock Lode in l859. After the completion of the transcontinental railroad, lumber companies diversified and grew as new markets were opened to them. Knowles (l942), Myrick (1962) and Wilson (1992) describe several of these lumbering operations in the project vicinity.

The Truckee Lumber Company commenced operations in Truckee in 1867, logging in the Truckee River canyon and within the project area after the turn of the century. The last years of the company's activities in the Truckee Basin, from 1900 through 1909, were occupied in logging out

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 31 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist their land along the Truckee River accessible to the Lake Tahoe Railway and Transportation Company railroad. Family members of lumber baron D. L. Bliss incorporated the Lake Tahoe Railway and Transportation Company railroad in December 1898. The necessary right-of-way was secured across lands of the Truckee Lumber Company and Bliss purchased the site of the Tahoe Tavern resort at Tahoe City, which served as the major steamer stop for ports of call around Lake Tahoe (Myrick 1962:430). Beginning in 1900 the railroad operated a 15-mile-long narrow-gauge railroad between the main line at Truckee and the Tavern. It followed the Truckee River, crossing its confluence with Bear Creek. The rail line, referenced as “Lake Tahoe and Navigation Co”, appears on the Tahoe National Forest map dating from 1921 (Map 5) and 1926 (Map 6). Unlike previous railroads in the Tahoe region, the Lake Tahoe Railway and Transportation Company line was intended primarily as a tourist railroad. In 1925 the narrow-gauge railroad was leased to the Southern Pacific Railroad. In exchange, Southern Pacific widened (i.e., broad-gauged) the tracks and operated Pullmans with over-night service between San Francisco and Tahoe City (Scott 1957:45; Myrick 1962:435-436). An extensive publicity campaign was launched and Tahoe was promoted as an all-year resort. The line was abandoned in 1943, as more automobile traffic moved over the highways (Myrick 1962:436). At the Truckee Lumber Company's camp on Bear Creek, the Truckee Lumber Company built a two-mile track for use in logging with horses (Knowles 1942:35). The Reno Gazette (9/14/1881) reported that "large patches" of timber were harvested on Squaw Creek and other branches [of the Truckee River] (Knowles 1942:31). During this period, the railroad was making two round trips a day and handling about seventy-five logs each round trip (Knowles 1942:36). Timber tracts were usually not clear-cut at once; rather, stands were re-entered over time for different purposes. Historically, trees were selectively harvested to suit varying wood markets. Although the Jeffrey, sugar, and ponderosa pines were favorites, lumbermen eventually found that there was a market for some associated species as well. White and red fir were not favored for lumber, yet they occupied significant areas in some timber stands. Many of these stands were logged after the turn of the century for paper pulp (Knowles 1942:37,45; Wilson 1992:58). In 1913 traveler and writer George Wharton James passed through the Bear Creek valley, visiting the famed Deer Park Spring Resort. He noted that one portion of the resort, beginning about a mile from the Truckee River up Bear Creek Canyon, “was originally taken up from the Government as timber claims, but the timer has never been cut, and the great pines, firs and junipers remain as the original settlers found them” (James 1992:120). The few available accounts indicate that logging in Bear Creek valley may have begun by at least by 1881, with a more intensive period of railroad logging occurring ca. 1900-1909. Overall, historic timber harvest may not have been so intensive, leaving virgin stand “pines, firs and junipers” to grow at least until the second decade of the 20th century, as observed by James in 1913. According to logging research maps on file with the Tahoe National Forest, timber harvest occurred within the study area between ca. 1948 and 1968 in sections 3, 4, 8, and 17 (Township 15 North, Range 16 East) and in Section 33 (Township 16 North, Range 16 east). Cutting also occurred during this time in areas bordering the study area to the north and south. Cut areas are shown on Map 15. Logging after ca. 1970s was largely focused on selected areas for thinning, fire management and forest health, and for ski area development.

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 32 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist Historic techniques of yarding (over the ground movement) of logs had varied consequences on erosion and sedimentation of the watershed. Twentieth-century steam-powered yarding and tractor skidding were more destructive than 19th century animal-powered yarding, where the negative effects of erosion were slightly less. However, destructive effects of various logging methods on residual trees, on log utilization, seed production, and other factors varied according to the layout of the logging operation and the overall forest context. In general, the unregulated activities of post-1950s tractor logging were more destructive than steam logging, and steam logging was more destructive than animal powered logging. Varying logging techniques are illustrated on plates 9-14. With adequate [log] chute layouts and reasonable operation of power, steam logging resulted in damage to the residual timber stand that was not seriously greater than damage by animal logging. When skidding was performed without chutes - with logs being dragged indiscriminately across the terrain - damage to the residual stand was naturally greater than with chutes. And some of the steam-powered logging…was of that kind. Inevitably, the cables that systematically and swiftly dragged logs across the terrain did more damage to immature trees than did skidding by animals. Seedlings were ripped out, saplings broken or mangled, thus adding to the denudation contributed by the slash from trees that were harvested. Consequently, on some sites, decades elapsed before second growth was established. [Wilson 1992:54] Deer Park Springs The Deer Park Springs mountain resort, a historic recreational development in Alpine Meadows along Bear Creek, was heralded as a “Sierra wilderness showplace” (plates 6-7). It served as the gateway to the adjoining present-day Granite Chief Wilderness Area, Five Lakes, Upper and Lower Hell Hole, and the Rubicon wilderness country (Scott 1957:19-22; 1973:213-216). In 1880 before the establishment of the resort, John P. Scott owned a large cattle ranch in Sacramento County and grazed his cattle in Hope Valley and later in Alpine Meadows. He and his wife Alice Scott acquired sections of grazing land from Casper Shock, Lowell and Locke and other landholders in Alpine Meadows valley (Scott 1957:19-20). John P. Scott died in 1882 and in 1888 his widow married John Brown Scott (no relation). The couple constructed the Deer Park Springs Hotel, a large three-story and 20-room hotel with outlying cabins, ice house, stable and barn, and log corral. Bear Creek was dammed and small boats were placed on the artificial lake. Mountain man and trapper Jim McNutt was year-round caretaker for the John B. Scott family (Scott 1957:19). In 1900 a post office was authorized for this popular and rustic resort (Hinkle and Hinkle 1987:333). A rail station, situated at the junction of present-day Alpine Meadows Road (formerly Deer Park Road) and the Lake Tahoe Railway and Transportation Company’s railroad (modern-day River Ranch), transported clientele, mail and supplies to and from the resort. The resort was serviced by telephone and Wells Fargo connections (Scott 1973:213).

After John Brown Scott's death, Katherine Chandler of San Francisco took over the inn at Scott's Springs in 1905. She changed the name to "Deer Park Inn" and made several improvements. New England flower gardens (James 1992:138), a tennis court and croquet grounds were added, and well-kept rock-bordered paths led to the mineral springs that were enclosed by a log trellis (Scott 1957:22). Four different mineral springs – iron, sulphur, soda, and non-carbonic waters --were located across the creek and about 800 feet southeast of the Inn and the health resort was appropriately

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 33 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist named "Scott's Springs." The domestic water supply of the Inn was tapped from four different mineral springs and spring water was piped throughout the resort complex and to every cottage (James 1992:138). Four different tributaries to Bear Creek drained the property (James 1992:138).

Deer Park Springs was described in a 1915 publication on the springs of California (Waring 1915:232-233) as follows: In the canyon of Bear Creek, 8 miles in a direct line southeast of Summit Soda Springs, four small springs form drinking pools of cool, mildly carbonated water that deposits considerable iron. They were formerly known as Scott Springs but are now known as Deer Park Springs. The place has been conducted as a resort since the eighties. In 1909 a hotel, a dining hall, and seven cottages provided accommodations for 150 guests. The buildings are situated in a little flat on the northwestern side of Bear Creek, and the springs are on a hillside 150 to 200 yards eastward, across the stream. Small rustic houses have been erected over the springs, two of which are beneath one roof. Two of them are known as Soda springs, one as the Sulphur Spring, and one as the Iron Spring. Their waters have the distinctive tastes indicated by these designations and differ somewhat though not markedly in composition. The springs rise in a small area of granitic rock which probably forms the core of the mountains to the west. At the springs the rock is decomposed to gravel and to kaolin-like clay. It is nearly surrounded by andesitic lava, which covers the slopes less than 100 yards east of the springs and the surrounding area for several miles. Initially the land for Deer Park Springs remained in public ownership until 1890, when U.S. patents were issued to John B Scott and his wife Alice Scott. The Scott’s and Chandler owned the north half of Section 4 and the center of Section 6 and a historic chain of title search (Lindström 2000) confers that the main resort was located in the northwest quarter of Section 4. In 1898 John B. Scott was assessed for the northwest quarter of Section 4 for real estate valued at $300 and improvements and buildings valued at $1500. He was also assessed for the northeast quarter of Section 4 for real estate valued at $200 and no improvements. This indicates that the hotel complex was in the northwest quarter of the section. Miscellaneous assessments included furniture ($200) and musical instruments ($50). Subsequent to the patents issued to John B. Scott and Alice Scott, the next sale in the title history occurred in 1908 when J.B. and Alice Scott of Sacramento, sold the property to Katherine Chandler for $10,000. This deed transferred not only the title to the northwest and northeast halves of Section 4 to Chandler, but also the center part of Section 6, owned by Alice's son. In 1912 Katherine Chandler was assessed for real estate on the northwest quarter of Section 4 valued at $1540 and improvements and buildings valued at $3000. She was also assessed for real estate in the northeast quarter of Section 4 valued at $1540 and no improvements. Assessments on real estate in Section 6 were valued at $1650 and no improvements. Katherine Chandler (and the Scotts) not only held title to the hotel complex in the north half of Section 4, but they also owned land located in the high country in the center of Section 6 in the Five Lakes basin. Deer Park is a private estate of approximately 469 acres, in two sections, one the Mineral Springs Section, consisting of nearly 309 acres [Section 4]... and the other, the Five Lakes Section, of 160 acres [Section 6]...The former begins a mile from the Truckee River, up Bear Creek Canyon…The Five Lakes section is a fascinating and attractive location two miles

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 34 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist away, over the first divide of the mountains, and therefore 1000 feet higher than the Inn, where five glacial lakes nestle in their granite basin...Four of these, and a large part of the fifth, are included in the estate, while all surrounding is government land of the Tahoe National Forest. [James 1992:120] Three boats and fishing tackle were kept at Five Lakes and up to seven guests were accommodated in a log cabin, complete with cook, as James (1992:137) during his 1913 visit. At the point where we strike Five Lake Creek, in a large expanse of meadow, we pass a camp, where in the distance we can clearly see three men and a woman. Deer hunters probably. We give them a cheery Halloo! and pass on....in a few moments see the first of the Five Lakes...The First one is the largest. Here is a log cabin and two or three boats. These are owned by the Deer Park Springs resort, and are for their fishing and hunting patrons. [James 1992:116] Five Lakes afford excellent fishing and a log cabin, three boats and fishing tackle are kept here throughout the season for the pleasure of guests. Those who disdain the ordinary accommodations of a hotel can here camp out, rough it, and make it their headquarters while climbing the adjoining peaks or exploring the ravines and canyons at the head of the American River. [James 1992:137] ...there are full accommodations at the cabin for seven persons, and the rule of the camp is that guests stay only one night, moving on to make room for the next comer... [James 1992:138] In 1908 Chandler "improved" the trail from Deer Park to Hell Hole via Five Lakes (i.e., the Five Lakes Trail) to enhance hiking to The Crags and over Inspirational Ridge to Ward’s Peak and beyond (James 1992:138). It was from Deer Park that the trail into the famous Hell Hole was recut [emphasis added] by Miss Katherine Chandler, owner of the Inn and estate, in 1908, after having been lost for many years. Arrangements for this trip, and other famous hunting and fishing trips may be made at the Inn and many people who have gone over the mountains to the Yosemite have outfitted and secured their guide here. [James 1992:138] From this point [Five Lakes] the trail is clear and well defined being traveled constantly during the season by guests of Deer Park Springs...we drop into the canyon of Bear Creek...The trail is ticklish in a few places, with steps up and down which our horses take gingerly, but nothing which need excite an extra heartbeat to one used to mountain trails...In less than half an hour we are at Deer Park Springs, drinking its pleasant waters, and while we still have six and a half miles to go to the Tavern it is over easy and ordinary road, and therefore our pleasant trip is practically at an end. [James 1992:116] Katherine Chandler faced hard times and was forced to take out various mortgages on the property as late as 1926. Until the end of the 1920s, several other owners subsequently acquired Deer Park Springs, after which time the land and improvements were ultimately foreclosed upon. At the "Big Bend" on the Truckee River (just south of its confluence with Bear Creek), a new Deer Park Lodge was built and run as an all-year resort. In 1964 the lodge was renamed River Ranch, a popular restaurant/resort which operates today.

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 35 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist As the resort changed hands, it also changed names. A single building, labeled "Scotts Springs" and accessed by a road from the Truckee River along Bear Creek, appears on the 1889 USGS Truckee Sheet, the 1897 reprint (Map 3), the USGS Truckee Quad July 1895/April 1914 reprint, and the Tahoe National Forest California and Nevada 1915 map. Weber's Map of Placer County 1914 (Map 4) and Metsker’s Map of Nevada County ca. 1938 (Map 7) refer to the resort as "Deer Park Spring(s)." Denny's Pocket Map of Nevada County 1916 reverts to calling the resort "Scott's Springs." From at least 1937 onward, the resort, for which multiple buildings appear, is simply referred to as "Deer Park", as shown on the following maps: Tahoe National Forest 1937; USGS Truckee Quad 1940/1946 reprint; Tahoe National Forest 1947; USGS Truckee Quad 1940/1951 reprint; and the USGS Tahoe City 15' Quad 1955/Tahoe City 7.5' Quad 1955, which refers to the former resort as the "Deer Park Site" (Map 8). Recreation and Community Development Skiing Squaw Valley ski area (State Landmark 724) is one of the oldest ski operations in the Tahoe Sierra (Tahoe Daily Tribune 2/23/1981:6H). Through the vision and perseverance of Wayne E. Poulsen, it opened in 1947. The ca. 1938 Metsker’s Map of Nevada County had already designated the valley as a "Winter Sport Area" (Map 7). "KT-22" peak is named on the USGS Granite Chief 15' Quad 1953/Granite Chief 7.5' Quad 1953 but there is no ski lift (Map 8). Explosive ski area development for both Olympic Valley and Alpine Meadows is indicated on maps post-dating the 1960 Squaw Valley Winter Olympics. An article published in 1960 in the Nevada State Journal was a harbinger of winter sports development in the Tahoe Sierra. There is a proportionate increase in the number of sitzmarks on Lake Tahoe’s snow-clad peaks and a swelling clamor from the cash registers jingling out a tune of wintertime prosperity. While it may not be as near as some expected in the fever of the 1960 Winter Olympic Games at Squaw Valley, the day may yet come when Tahoe’s winters are as hectically profitable as its summers…the nation’s clamor for more winter sports facilities has brought about the construction of nearly 100 new ski lifts in the last year alone… (Nevada State Journal 11-30- 60). Many small to mid-size resorts sprang up during the postwar skiing boom. An estimated 82 resorts opened in the United States from 1940 to 1960, with 107 more in the 1960s (Krieger 2017). Snowfall was ample during the 1950s and 1960s. However, challenges during the 1970s, brought on by drought, economic downturns, and skyrocketing operating costs, caused small ski areas to close with increased competition from the larger resorts like Squaw Valley and Alpine Meadows.

These declining resorts and abandoned ski runs have left a legacy of altered landscapes and the rate of recovery can influence water quality and wildlife habitat. For example, the landscape of the abandoned Powder Bowl ski area, located at the mouth of Bear Creek valley, still bears witness to its past, more than two decades after its closing (Krieger 2017, after Burt and Clay 2016). The small ski area opened operations with a single lift sometime prior to 1955 (Map 8). Some Powder Bowl ski runs remain exposed and scarred, where heavy machinery scraped off topsoil, seeds, vegetation and boulders, leaving just a grassy field. Others runs, cleared less intensively, now support diverse vegetation and are slowly being reclaimed by the surrounding forest (Krieger 2017). Early ski areas were typically developed in natural openings, where clearing Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 36 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist work was largely confined to mowing grass, lopping brush and cutting random stumps (personal communication with Norm Sayler, former owner of Donner Ski Ranch, in Krieger 2017). Subsequent construction techniques were more aggressive, as ski runs were clear cut and graded. Today’s ski operators are generally more sensitive to mountain ecology and environmental concerns (personal communication Mike Livak, executive vice president, Squaw Valley Alpine Meadows, in Krieger 2017).

Alpine Meadows Ski Area After hosting the 1960 Squaw Valley Winter Olympics, Olympic Valley became a world- class ski resort with extensive facilities under ownership and management of Alex Cushing. Although Alpine Meadows followed suit, its investors and homeowners refrained from the glitz and glamor of commercial development and prided themselves on being a “family area – owned and operated by real skiers.” (Ancinas 2013:13). The Alpine Meadows area, a skier’s co-operative (it will be owned by skiers and their families, though open to the public. [San Francisco Chronicle 2-5-61] Alpine Meadows remained one of the few resorts in the world that has no base facilities other than a ski shop, cafeteria and slopeside restaurant (Ancinas 2013:139). Alpine Meadows was founded in 1958 and the ski area was opened with three lifts during the 1961-1962 season as the Ward Peak Ski Resort. John McClintic Reily (with the help of Peter Klaussen and a number of families) developed the resort as an alternative to Olympic Valley. Reily was a Los Angeles businessman, treasurer of the Carnation Company, president of the Southern Ski Club of Los Angeles, and chairman of the L.A. Chamber of Commerce (Ancinas 2013:23; Nevada State Journal 11-30-60). He first came to Olympic Valley in 1955 and by the winter of 1957-1958 he was arranging ski tours from the top of KT down to Bear Creek valley, where a Weasel waited to carry skiers to SR 89 (Ancinas 2013:44). In 1958 Reily and his son John applied for a USFS permit to construct the ski area. The 25-year lease encompassed the backside of KT and the top of Papoose to allow skiers to ski the ridge above Olympic Valley down to Alpine Meadows. Reily proposed to operate most of its facilities on USFS land in the south one-half of Section 4, sections 8, 9 and 18, and a part of Section 6 of Township 15 North, Range 16 East. The lease included the right to “select a 50-foot wide ski strip for a ski lift across the north half of Section 5 and a five-acre site for a restaurant (Ancinas 2013:44). In connection with this permit, Reily held Section 5 of Township 15 North, Range 16 East under lease from the Southern Pacific (SP) Railroad (AMOT Prospectus 1960:7). In addition, Reily obtained a road easement across the north half of Section 4 from its owner, Fay N. Rupley Gunby, along with the agreement of first rights of refusal to purchase the north half of Section 4. Reily’s ultimate intention was to subdivide the property near the old Deer Park Springs Resort. His lease from SP Land Company permitted him to also construct homes in Section 5 (AMOT Prospectus 1960:8-9). In 1959 Reily built two A-frame houses for an office and visitor center and constructed a restaurant at the top of KT-22 named The Cornice (Ancinas 2013:47). The restaurant was used during the Olympics as a television transmission center (Ancinas 2013:48). Despite these prior arrangements, Reily’s business associate and avalanche specialist, Peter Klaussen, advised developing the ski area in Alpine Meadows independent of the Squaw Valley ski area, locating the resort farther up the valley around Ward Peak (Ancinas 2013:45). Reily embraced the new plan and formed the Alpine Meadows of Tahoe, Inc. (AMOT). He continued his Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 37 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist sales efforts through a series of guest mountain forays and picnics, at sales meetings, and in the press and engaged a growing group of dedicated experts (among them ski Olympian Willy Schaeffler and famed photographer Warren Miller) and famed celebrities (e.g., Art Linkletter) to further promote the marketing effort. Planned facilities included a chair lift, T-bar lift, rope tow, spacious day lodge, paved road from SR 89 to the base of ski lifts, and a 500-car asphalt parking area. (AMOT Prospectus Questionaire n.d.:1). The slope, aspect and elevation (with a 1,700-foot vertical rise from 6,950 feet to the top of Ward Peak at 8,637 feet), combined with the unusual ridge formations enclosing four bowls, afforded some of the best and most varied skiing in the U.S. (Ancinas 2013:49; AMOT Prospectus 1960:5). To enhance summer recreation, AMOT operated a restaurant and gift shop, maintained camping sites near the mouth of the valley, and developed walking/hiking/equestrian trail throughout the valley and into the primitive area around Five Lakes, Whiskey Creek and Diamond Crossing (AMOT Prospectus 1960:4). Hunting could be had in the high country, with fishing in the many trout pools along Bear Creek. After nearly two successful decades, in 1975 Reily ended financial ties to the area he had founded (Ancinas 2013:97). He signed a quitclaim with SP Land Company, releasing his title to the 55-year lease he had signed in 1958 on the land from Alpine Meadows Road up and over KT-22 in Squaw Valley. He sold his home overlooking Alpine Meadows as well as his interest in AMOT. He then turned attentions to real estate development on the Tahoe side of the Bear Creek divide. Alpine’s reputation as a family-friendly destination, with improvements in lift and hill maintenance and safety and local good will was well established, although it sometimes struggled financially (Ancinas 2013:93, 95). Meanwhile, Squaw Valley strived to regain its reputation. Allegations of negligence resulting in lift accidents in the late 1960s and early 1970s, environmental infractions, and the resort’s reputation for ill-mannered and unhelpful personnel in the 1980s generated enough bad publicity that many of Squaw’s “faithful” frequented other local resorts, traveled out of the area or went next door to Alpine Meadows (Ancinas 2013:138). During the later 1990s, resort management at Alpine Meadows shifted in the later 1990s, from a public company whose board of directors and shareholders had known and loved their ski area for over 30 years to a private corporation whose interest would be more focused on profit margins than on community relations (Ancinas 2013:140). Alpine Meadows ultimately consolidated with the Squaw Valley ski resort in 2011 and the two resorts currently operate as one under the ownership of the umbrella company Squaw Valley Ski Holdings LLC. The contemporary merger is an expression of a long-held dream to link skiing between the two neighboring valleys. Early on, Wayne Poulsen explored Alpine Meadows and envisioned connecting the two valleys with a chairlift up Papoose Peak above Olympic Valley, with another down the other side, where a series of Pomo lifts would access nearby slopes (Ancinas 2013:39). The Poulsen’s nearly bought Alpine Meadows and Five Lakes for $2,500. Similarly, from his first view from the top of KT-22 chair lift in 1955, John Reily was also struck by the pristine Bear Creek valley to the south (Ancinas 2013:13). He imagined skiing from Olympic Valley to Lake Tahoe and perhaps all the way from Sugar Bowl. Having skied from resort to resort in Europe, he thought that a European-style “Ski Circus” – where resorts are linked by ski lifts and skiers ski from their chalet to a lift without the need of a car – was possible in the northern Sierra (Ancinas 2013:81), as reported in a 1961 news release: …it will be possible to take Squaw Valley’s KT-22 lift, schuss down past Five Lakes to the Meadows at 7,000 feet, then help yourself to a choice of runs off towering 8,640-foot Ward

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 38 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist Peak. This is the first step toward the kind of skiing that one finds in Europe…there in the Alps you can ski mile after mile from village to village, alternative lift and slope over snow- packed trails…Alpine Meadows is already part of a master plan announced by the U.S. Forest Service for development of a giant ski and winter resort complex with the Olympic facilities as a basic part.” (San Francisco Examiner 2-5-61). White Wolf Troy Caldwell came to Alpine Meadows in 1970 to work for the ski area. In 1989 he and wife Susan intended to develop a modest bed and breakfast accommodation and buy five acres of property from SP Land Company along the north side of the valley just below the ski area parking lot. SP was unable to subdivide, but the company was interested to liquidate their land holdings and offered Caldwell all 460 acres in Section 5 (Siig 2015:18). The deal was transacted at a remarkably low sales price of under $400,000 (Ancinas 2013:127; Caldwell personal communication 8/25/15), much to the dismay of Alex Cushing who for years had been bargaining with SP to acquire this. This is the same section John Reily had leased from SP in 1958 and then relinquished in a quitclaim in 1975 (Ancinas 2013:125). The Caldwells called their development “White Wolf”, a planned private ski resort and exclusive subdivision where homes are situated on estate lots and building codes require avalanche and fire-proof-style homes. The Caldwells obtained a conditional use permit from Placer County to install a chairlift on their land in 2000. They fabricated the lift towers and began erecting them up the mountainside when Bear Creek homeowners sued Placer County for issuing the permit. The Caldwells ultimately compromised with the homeowners and Alpine Meadows ski area, agreeing that they would not sell lift tickets and that access from Squaw Valley ski area would be denied. Further restrictions allowed them only 25 “friends or family” on the mountain at a time, and skiers had to take a first aid course and be avalanche certified (carrying beacons, probes and shovels). With these restrictions in place, White Wolf became the second private ski area in the country after the Yellowstone Club in Montana. Bear Creek Valley Subdivision Subdivision development began in the early 1960s when developer John Reily built four cedar log cabins in Section 5 near the historic Deer Park Springs Resort, with development subsequently expanding into Section 4. Street names such as Deer Park Drive, Old Barn Road, John Scott Trail, Mineral springs Trail, and Trapper McNutt Trail that appear on the subdivision map (Map 16) are token reminders of the historic Deer Park Springs Resort. Early homeowners frequently encountered remains of the old resort on their respective lots. • Pat Callister (personal communication 2009 in Lindström 2009): In 1965 the family purchased three lots on John Scott Trail bordering the upper (south) side of the creek (lots 1675-1677). The Callister cabin occupies lot 1676. The historic ice house was also on lot 1676. In 1965 remnants of the ice house foundations were six feet tall and comprised exterior logs and interior boards (with sawdust filling). Cottonwood trees growing near the ice house may have been planted for shade. The bridge across the creek from the ice house to the hotel remained intact when the Callisters moved to Alpine Meadows. On lot 1675 there were two to three small sheds (5’ x 5’) that were in the process of collapsing in 1965. The family continued to find artifacts (tableware, spoons and an angle iron from an old stove) on the north bank of Bear Creek and directly across from the Callister cabin.

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 39 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist • John Callister (personal communication 2009 in Lindström 2009): As a child, he “scavenged” in the Deer Park dump, located on the north bank of Bear Creek and directly across from their house (lot 1676). Mineral Springs Road identifies the location of the spring. The artesian wells that surfaced every spring caused drainage problems in the modern subdivision.

• Lou Tift (personal communication 2009 in Lindström 2009): During the early 1960s, he saw foundations of the Deer Park Hotel located half way down Deer Park Drive between the west entrance and the loop (east of the project). The Inn was located on the south side of the road and foundations were marked by displaced footings on rocks. The Callister property was one of the first developed lots in the subdivision (ca. early 1960s) and it contained the ice house remains. The ice house was between Trapper McNutt Trail and Mineral Springs Drive. Mr. Tift has observed an old rusty pipe on the south side of Bear Creek that climbs the hill above the mineral springs and up towards the District’s water supply at the springs. This pipe may be a remnant of the old Deer Park water system. He also recalled a concrete structure near the Creek that may represent remains of the old Deer Park dam.

Alpine Springs County Water District To service growing development in Bear Valley, the Alpine Springs County District (ASCWD) was formed to provide services for water, sewage, garbage, fire, and recreational parks. It was created in response to health issues and septic failures identified by Placer County within Alpine Meadows development. By 1962 the ASCWD began installing a water/sewer system (Troy Caldwell, personal communication 2009 in Lindström 2009:7; Lou Tift, personal communication 2009 in Lindström 2009:7). The Certificate of Formation and By Laws was ratified on March 19, 1963 and the first meeting of the ASCWD Board was held April 1, 1963. A special bond election was held May 28, 1963, which allowed the ASCWD to incur a bonded debt of $560,000 for the acquisition, construction and completion of multiple improvements: a sewer system for the District, including collection and trunk lines, sewage treatment plant and percolation ponds, and other appurtenances; treatment and disposal ties for the collection, treatment and disposal of sewage of the District and its inhabitants, lands, easements, and rights of way; and other works, property or structures useful or necessary for the collection, and treatment and disposal of sewage for the benefit of the District. A second special bond election on May 28, 1963 allowed the ASCWD to incur an additional debt of $290,000 for the acquisition, construction and completion of: a water system for the District, including acquisition and improvement of the privately owned water systems of Alpine Meadows of Tahoe, Inc. and of Alpine Springs Mutual Water Company, the construction of new water system facilities and the connection of said existing systems to said new facilities; connecting and transmission lines, creek crossing, booster pumps and tanks and filtration facilities; lands, easements and rights of way; and other works, properties, appliances, rights and privileges useful or necessary to convey, supply, store or otherwise make use of water for the benefit of the District. The system has since expanded: six water tanks are now placed throughout the valley (tanks 1, 2, 3, 4, 4a, and 5). The tanks are fed by three major springs flowing from the south flank of the valley. District activities occur on federal land and operate under USFS special use permit. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 40 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist

CULTURAL RESOURCE SENSITIVITY

This preliminary cultural resource assessment confirms the moderate to high potential for important cultural resources to occur within the study area. Prior archaeological work within and adjacent to the Bear Creek Sub-basin indicates that sensitivity to contain cultural resources ranges from high to low. Zones of greatest sensitivity fall along on knolls and elevated benches above Bear Creek and its tributaries and at meadow margins and wet meadows along creeks and glacial lakes, mineral springs, within boulder rock out-crops, aspen groves, and on ridge lines along the pacific crest. Moderate cultural resource sensitivity is attributed to forest-valley-meadow ecotones and mid- slope benches. Areas of lower sensitivity comprise the moderate to steep forested slopes.

• Elevated benches along the Bear Creek corridor, especially at the lower end of the valley, contain Native American sites marked by prehistoric flaked stone and milling feature complexes. • Ridge-tops along the pacific crest contain prehistoric hunting blinds, game-drive rock-cairn features, small scatters of flaked stone, with a possible prehistoric tool stone chalcedony quarry located near Ward Peak and a meta-sedimentary rock quarry on adjoining rock benches. • Early 20th century logging landscapes (ca. 1903-1910) are most likely within forest stands in the mid to lower reaches of the valley, especially in proximity to the logging narrow gauge railroad at the lower end. • Mature aspen stands typically exhibit tree carvings (i.e., arborglyphs) left by 20th-century (ca. 1911-1960ls) Basque shepherds. Larger groves encompass sheep camps and related trash scatters. Grazing allotment boundaries marked by rock cairns and trail markers occur nearer to the Bear Creek headwaters. Sheep driveways (or flockways) climbing from the valley bottom up and over to the western side of the crest targeted the broad bowls that now form the heart of the ski area. • 19th and early 20th century recreation activities centered out of a former resort (ca. 1888-1926), which is now situated in the southwestern quadrant of Bear Creek Valley residential development in Sections 5. A major attraction at the resort focused on the mineral springs located along Bear Creek and across from the resort. The Five-Lakes Trail trailhead embarked from the resort and climbed the rocky ridge to the Five Lakes Basin. Archaeological remains are clustered along the trail alignment and at the lakes, where an old cabin and fishing lodge once stood. • Recreational development expanded to winter sports with the initial development of the Power Bowl/Deer Park Ski Area at the mouth of the valley, sometime prior to 1955. • The Bear Creek valley became a ski destination with opening of the Ward Peak Ski Resort (ca. 1961-1962), later known as Alpine Meadows. • Residential subdivisions (ca. early 1960s) centered in the valley and along its lower mountain flanks and associated infrastructure to support these developments kept pace with the growth of the ski area.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 41 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist Impacts to cultural resources could result with implementation of the various project alternatives under consideration. The completion of additional archaeological tasks is required prior to NEPA or CEQA project actions. These tasks are standard archaeological protocols outlined in state antiquities guidelines under the California Environmental Quality Act (CEQA Section 5024, Public Resource Code) and federal guidelines under Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, as amended (16 USC§ 470 et seq.) and 36 CFR 800. Recommended archaeological tasks, which outline the proper protocol for cultural resource management, are summarized below in the appropriate order of their completion. The relative level of effort and timing for completion of each of these archaeological tasks would be determined later as specific restoration proposals are developed.

(1) On-going Consultation • contact with tribal representatives (Washoe and Nisenan) • oral history interviews with individuals knowledgeable in local history (Truckee Donner Historical Society) • on-going consultation with USFS cultural resource staff

(2) Archival Research • periodically update records search at the North Central Information Center, California State University, Sacramento • periodically update records search of USFS files

(3) Archaeological Field Research • field verification of known archaeological sites to assess their current content and integrity • in areas not previously subject to archaeological coverage or where prior coverage is older than 10 years, conduct project-specific archaeological field reconnaissance to detect any newly discovered archaeological resources within the project area; the field reconnaissance will be conducted by a qualified archaeologist. A local Native American representative ma be involved as appropriate.

(4) Preparation of Final Report • final cultural resource inventory report must comply with Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) of 1966 (as amended 16 USC§ 470 et seq.) and guidelines established by Placer and Nevada counties under the California Environmental Quality Act (CEQA Section 5024, Public Resource Code) • review and concurrence by agency personnel (USFS), in consultation with the State Historic Preservation Officer (if appropriate) and other interested parties (including Washoe and Nisenan tribal representatives).

(5) Archaeological Monitoring

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 42 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist • public access into the study area is likely to grow over time and the potential for increased archaeological site vandalism should be monitored on a periodic basis • monitoring of archaeological sites during the implementation of restoration projects may be required; a Native American monitor may be required on or near prehistoric sites

(6) Public Interpretation • selected archaeological sites (that have been studied/stabilized and where vandalism is not likely to occur) should be developed as part of a program to further educate the public regarding the prehistory and history of the Bear Creek sub-basin; details of any public out reach program would be developed on a project-specific basis.

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 43 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist

REFERENCES

Alpine Meadows of Tahoe, Inc. (AMOT)

1960 Alpine Meadows of Tahoe, Inc. Prospectus, February 26, 1960. Manuscript on file Truckee Donner Historical Society, Truckee.

Alpine Meadows of Tahoe, Inc. Prospectus Questionaire (AMOT) n.d Alpine Meadows of Tahoe, Inc. Prospectus Questionaire. Manuscript on file Truckee Donner Historical Society, Truckee.

Alpine Springs County Water District (ASCWD)

1963 “Resolutions/Ordinances” (including Certificate of Formation and By Laws). Binder on file ASCWD Administration Office. Alpine Meadows.

Ancinas, Eddy Starr

2013 Squaw Valley and Alpine Meadows: Tales from Two Valleys. Charleston, South Carolina: The History Press.

Anonymous n.d.a Sheep Grazing History on the Tahoe National Forest. Manuscript on file Tahoe National Forest. Truckee. n.d.b Historical Notes on Sierra Crest Allotment (n.a.; n.d.). Notes on file Susan Lindström Personal Library. Truckee. Baker, Cindy L. 2004 National Register of Historic Places Evaluation of Three Sheep Camps, Tahoe National Forest. Draft report prepared for the Tahoe National Forest, Nevada City, California. Baldrica, Michael and Carrie Smith n.d. Research, Management and Interpretation of Historic Sheep Camps on the East Side of the Tahoe National Forest. Draft manuscript on file Tahoe National Forest. Truckee. Beals, R. L.

l933 The Ethnology of the Nisenan. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 3l(6). Berkeley.

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 44 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist Birkeland, Peter W. l963 Pleistocene Volcanism and Deformation of the Truckee Area, North of Lake Tahoe, California. Geological Society of America Bulletin 74:l452-l464. l964 Pleistocene Glaciation of the Northern Sierra Nevada, North of Lake Tahoe, California. Journal of Geology 72:8l0-825. Bloomer, William, Susan Lindström 2006 Archaeological Investigations at Squaw Valley. Report on file North Central Information Center, California State University, Sacramento. Bloomer, William W., Sharon A. Waechter, Susan Lindström, and Helen McCarthy 1997 Basalt Quarrying on Watson Creek: An Archaeological and Ethnographic Study in the Northern Lake Tahoe Basin. Report prepared for U.S. Forest Service, Lake Tahoe Basin Management Unit. South Lake Tahoe. Burt, Jennifer W., and Jeffrey J. Clay

2016 Initial disturbance intensity affects recovery rates and successional divergence on abandoned ski slopes. Journal of Applied Ecology, April 2016

Conners, Pamela A. 1997 The Sugar Pine Railway: History of a Sierran Logging Railroad, Stanislaus National Forest. Report on file Stanislaus National Forest, Sonora. Dangberg, Grace 1968 Washoe Tales. Occasional Paper No. 1, Nevada State Museum. Carson City. Davis, J. T. 1961 Trade Routes and Economic Exchange Among the Indians of California. Ballena Press Publications in Archaeology, Ethnology and History No. 3, edited by Robert F. Heizer. Ramona: Ballena Press. d'Azevedo, Warren 1956 Washoe Place Names. Manuscript on file Special Collections, Getchell Library, University of Nevada, Reno. 1984 The Washoe. Unpublished manuscript in possession of the author. Reno. 1986 Washoe In Handbook of North American Indians Volume 11 (W. d'Azevedo, ed.). Douglass, William A. and Jon Bilbao 1975 Amerikanuak: Basques in the New World. Reno:University of Nevada Press. Downs, J. l966 The Two Worlds of the Washo. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. New York.

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 45 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist Elston, R. G. 1971 A Contribution to Washoe Archeology. Research Paper No. 2, Nevada Archeology Survey, University of Nevada, Reno. 1982 Good Times, Hard Times: Prehistoric Culture Change in the Western Great Basin. In Man and the Environment in the Great Basin, edited by D. B. Madison and J. F. O'Connell, pp. 186-206. SAA Papers No. 2. Society for American Archaeology, Washington D.C. 1986 Prehistory of the Western Area. In Great Basin, edited by W. L. d'Azevedo, Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 11, W. G. Sturtevant, general editor, Smithsonian Institution, Washington D.C. pp. 135-148 Elston, R. G., K. A. Ataman, and D. P. Dugas 1995 A Research Design for the Southern Truckee Meadows Prehistoric Archaeological District. Report on file Humboldt-Toiyabe National Forest. Sparks, Nevada. Elston, R. G., J. O. Davis, A. Leventhal and C. Covington l977 The Archeology of the Tahoe Reach of the Truckee River. Report to Tahoe Truckee Sanitation Agency, Truckee, CA. Ms on file, Special Collections, Getchell Library, University of Nevada, Reno. Elston, R. G., S. Stornetta, D. P. Dugas, and P. Mires 1994 Beyond the Blue Roof: Archaeological Survey of the Mt. Rose Fan and Northern Steamboat Hills. Report on file, Intermountain Research, Silver City, Nevada. Farquar, F. P. 1965 History of the Sierra Nevada. University of California Press. Berkeley. Ficklin, Marilou West 2009 Deer Park Springs Brief Title History 1890-1925. In Heritage Resource Study Caldwell Rezone (APN 095-290-017-000) Alpine Meadows, California. Report prepared by Susan Lindström, Consulting Archaeologist, for Troy Caldwell, Tahoe City. Fiedler, J. 1977 A History of Squaw Valley. Published by author. Squaw Valley, California. Freed, Stanley 1966 Washoe Habitation Sites in the Lake Tahoe Area. University of California Archaeological Survey Report 66:73-83. Berkeley. Grayson, Donald. K.

1993 The Desert's Past: A Natural Prehistory of the Great Basin. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 46 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist Haegerty, Daniel 2015 The Long View of the Squaw-Alpine Gondola. Moonshine Ink, August 2015. Truckee. Hanft, Robert M. 1971 Pine Across the Mountain. Glendale, California: Trans-Anglo Books. Heizer, R. F. and A. B. Elsasser l953 Some Archaeological Sites and Cultures of the Central Sierra Nevada. University of California Archaeological Survey Reports, No. 2l, Berkeley. Henton, Gregory H. 1977 Archaeological Reconnaissance Report of the Alpine Meadows Five Year Grading Plan. [ARR #05-17-435?] , with site evaluations by Ann Carlson (1980). Report (#4362) on file North Central Information Center, California State University, Sacramento. Hinkle, George and Bliss Hinkle 1987 Sierra Nevada Lakes. Reno: University of Nevada Press (1949 reprint). Ibarra, Severino and Juan Ibarra 1991 Interview Conducted by Susan Rose, Carmel Meisenbach, and Jose Mallea. Notes on file, Tahoe National Forest, Supervisor's Office, Nevada City. Jackson, W. Turrentine, Rand Herbert and Stephen Wee 1982 History of Tahoe National Forest: 1840-1940. Report prepared by Jackson Research Projects, Davis. Report prepared for the Tahoe National Forest, Nevada City, California. Jacobsen, W. H., Jr. l966 Washo Linguistic Studies. In: The Current Status of Anthropological Research in the Great Basin, l964, W. d'Azevedo, ed., pp. 113-136. Desert Research Institute Publications in the Social Sciences l:ll3-l36. James, George Wharton 1992 Lake Tahoe: Lake of the Sky. Las Vegas: Nevada Publications (1915 reprint). Knowles, C. l942 A History of Lumbering in the Truckee Basin from l856 to l936. Office Report from the Bibliographical Research Conducted under WPA Official Project No. 95l2373 for the Forest Survey Division, California Forest and Range Experiment Station. Ms on file Nevada Historical Society, Reno, NV. Krieger, Lisa M.

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 47 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist 2017 Defunct Ski Areas: Why Healing is So Hard. Bay Area News Group. Published 8/5/2017, [email protected] .

Kroeber, A. L.

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Leiberg, J. b.

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Lindström, Susan G. 1978 An Archaeological Reconnaissance of the Pacific Crest Trail, Tahoe National Forest, Parts I & II. Report (#541) on file North Central Information Center, California State University, Sacramento. 1983 A Cultural Resource Reconnaissance of the Deer Park Ski Area. Report (NCIC #4347) on file North Central Information Center, California State University, Sacramento.

1989 A Cultural Resource Evaluation of the Stanford Ranch Annex Project, Placer County. Report on file North Central Information Center, California State University, Sacramento. 1991a A Cultural Resource Surface Survey of the Alpine Springs County Water District and USDA Forest Service, Tahoe National Forest Land Exchange involving Two Parcels Totaling 19 Acres near Alpine Meadows and Archaeological Test Excavations at CA-Pla-736/FS-05-17-57-375). Report prepared for Alpine Springs County Water District on behalf of Tahoe National Forest. 1991b Phase 1: A Literature Review and Preliminary Evaluation of Known and Potential Cultural Resources, Alpine Meadows Ski Area Master Plan EIR/EIS involving 1,000 Acres at Alpine Meadows (U.S. Forest Service Report 05-17-990). Report prepared for Alpine Meadows Ski Area. Report on file USFS, Tahoe National Forest, Nevada City, California. 1991c A Cultural Resource Surface Survey of the Stanford Ranch West Project involving 690 Acres between Roseville and Lincoln, California, Placer County. Report on file North Central Information Center, California State University, Sacramento. 1992 Great Basin Fisherfolk: Optimal Diet Breadth Modeling of the Truckee River Prehistoric Subsistence Fishery. Ph.D. Dissertation. University of California, Davis. 1994 Phase II: Heritage Resource Field Inventory Alpine Meadows Ski Area Master Plan EIR/EIS, Alpine Meadows, Placer County. Report (USFS TNF #05-17-990 / LTBMU #05-19-322) prepared for Alpine Meadows Ski Corporation. Report

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 48 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist (NCIC #4396) on file North Central Information Center, California State University, Sacramento. 1996 Great Basin Fisherfolk: Optimal Diet Breadth Modeling of the Truckee River Prehistoric Subsistence Fishery. In Prehistoric Hunter-Gathering Fishing Strategies, edited by M. Plew. Boise State University Press. Boise, Idaho. 1997 Ethnography. Part III. In Basalt Quarrying on Watson Creek: An Archaeological and Ethnographic Study in the Northern Lake Tahoe Basin. Report prepared for U.S. Forest Service, Lake Tahoe Basin Management Unit. South Lake Tahoe by William W. Bloomer, Sharon A. Waechter, Susan Lindström, and Helen McCarthy. 2001 Alpine Meadows Subdivision Project (Barbara Nelson). Heritage Resource Inventory. Report (NCIC #4342) on file North Central Information Center, California State University, Sacramento.

2009 Heritage Resource Study Caldwell Rezone (APN 095-290-017-000) Alpine Meadows, California. Report prepared for Troy Caldwell, Tahoe City. 2017 Alpine Meadows | Squaw Valley Base-To-Base Gondola Project Cultural Resource Inventory and Evaluation. Report (USFS R2016051700065) will be on file U.S. Forest Service-Tahoe National Forest and North Central Information Center, California State University, Sacramento.

Lindström, Susan G. and William A. Bloomer 1994 Evaluation of Site Data Potential for 26Wa5322 (TY3437/05-19-280), Tahoe Meadows Prehistoric Site Complex, Segment 17 of the Tahoe Rim Trail near Mt. Rose, Lake Tahoe, Nevada, Washoe County. Report (TY-94-1004) prepared for U.S. Forest Service, Humboldt-Toiyabe National Forest. Sparks. Lindström, Susan, Penny Rucks and Peter Wigand 2000 Chapter 2: A Contextual Overview of Human Land use and Environmental Conditions. In the Lake Tahoe Watershed Assessment Vol. 1. USDA Forest Service, Lake Tahoe Basin Management Unit. South Lake Tahoe, California. Lindström, Susan and Sharon Waechter 2009 Evaluations at Prehistoric and Historic-Era Sites for a Proposed Watershed Restoration Project/Wetland Mitigation at Stockrest Spring, Truckee, Nevada County. Report by Susan Lindström, Consulting Archaeologist, Truckee and Far Western Anthropological Research Group, Inc., Davis. Report (TNF R2008-05- 17-00047 and 48) on file Tahoe National Forest. Truckee. Lindström, Susan, Sharon Waechter, Penny Rucks, Ron Reno, Charles Zeier 2007 From Ice Age to Ice Works: Archaeological, Ethnohistorical and Historical Studies for the Truckee River Legacy Trail Project (Phase 3). Far Western Anthropological Research Group, Inc., Davis and Susan Lindström, Consulting Archaeologist,

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 49 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist Truckee. Report on file North Central Information Center (8960), California State University, Sacramento. Mallea, Jose 1992 History that Grows on Trees: Basque Aspen Carving in Nevada. Nevada Historical Society Quarterly 35, No. 1:21-39. Reno. 2000 Speaking through the Aspens: Basque Tree Carvings in California and Nevada. Reno: University of Nevada Press. Mallea, Joxe and Judy A. Berryman 2008 Unspoken Messages-Basque Arborglyphs: Methods for Recording and Documenting Arborglyphs on Department of Defense Land. Department of Defense Legacy Resource Management Program (Project Number 07-359), U.S. Marine Corps, October 2008. Manson, Marsden 1899 Observations on the Denudation of Vegetation: A Suggested Remedy for California. Sierra Club Bulletin 2. June 1899, page 298.

Martin, Thomas 1998 Archaeological Test Excavations at the Visitor Center Site, an Early Holocene Site in South Lake Tahoe. M.A. Thesis, on file Sonoma State University, Rhonert Park. Moore, M. and T. Burke 1992 Cultural Resource Inventory and Evaluation: Truckee River Flood Control Project, Washoe and Storey Counties, Nevada. Summary Report. Archaeological Research Services. Virginia City. Report on file Army Corps of Engineers. Sacramento. Myrick, D. l962 Railroads of Nevada and Eastern California, Vol. l. Howell-North Books: San Diego, CA. Nevada State Journal 1960 November 30, 1960. Reno. Nevers, Jo Ann l976 Wa She Shu: A Tribal History. University of Utah Printing Service. Salt Lake City. Orvald, Tucker 2017 Archaeological site record, USFS (P-31-151/CA-Pla-25/FS-05-17-406). Far Western Anthropological Research Group, Inc. Davis. Payen, Louis A.

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 50 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist 1973 Archaeological Reconnaissance of the Truckee River Interceptor and Martis Valley Treatment Plant Site. Report prepared for Tahoe Truckee Sanitation Agency. Report on file North Central Information Center, California State University, California. Price, J. A. l962 Washo Economy. Nevada State Museum Anthropological Paper 6. Carson City. Quinn, Tom, Correspondence 2014 Correspondence: Office of Historic Preservation to Tom Quinn, Forest Supervisor, U.S. Forest Service, Tahoe National Forest, July 28, 2014. Correspondence on file Nevada City. Reno Gazette 1881 9/14/1881, Reno. Riddell, F.

1960 Honey Lake Paiute Ethnography. Nevada State Museum Anthropological Papers 4. Carson City.

Rose, Susan K. 1991 Determination of Eligibility for the Whiskey Creek Camp, Truckee Range District, Tahoe National Forest, Placer County, USDA, Forest Service, Region 5 (CRR #05- 17-905). Report prepared by Susan K. Rose, Assistant Forest Archaeologist, Tahoe National Forest, April 1991. Rucks, M. 1996 Ethnographic Report for North Shore Ecosystems Heritage Resource Report (HRR#05-19-297). Ms. on file, USFS - Lake Tahoe Basin Management Unit, South Lake Tahoe. 2007 From Ice Age to Ice Works: Archaeological, Ethnohistorical and Historical Studies for the Truckee River Legacy Trail Project (Phase 3). Far Western Anthropological Research Group, Inc., Davis and Susan Lindström, Consulting Archaeologist, Truckee. Report on file North Central Information Center (8960), California State University, Sacramento. San Francisco Chronicle 1961 February 5, 1951. San Francisco. 1995 August 21, 1995, page 1. San Francisco Sawyer, Byrdwall 1971 Nevada Nomads: A Story of the Sheep Industry. San Jose: Harlan-Young Press. Scott, E. B. Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 51 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist 1957 The Saga of Lake Tahoe. Crystal Bay, Sierra-Tahoe Publishing Company. 1973 The Saga of Lake Tahoe. Crystal Bay, Sierra-Tahoe Publishing Company. Siig, Melissa

2015 Does the Squaw-Alpine Gondola Run through Wilderness? Moonshine Ink, 14 August-10 September 2015, pp. 18, 20. Truckee.

Spranza, John

2013 Cultural Resources Inventory for the White Wolf Tentative Subdivision (APN 095- 290-022-000, 095-280-030-000, and 095-290-024-000). Report prepared by Cardno Entrix, Sacramento. Report prepared for Troy Caldwell, Tahoe City, California.

Stewart, O. C.

l966 Tribal Distributions and boundaries in the Great Basin. In the Current Status of Anthropological Research in the Great Basin: 1964 (W.A. d’Azevedo, ed.). Desert Research Institute, Social Sciences and Humanities Publication No. 1. Reno. Storer, T. and R. Usinger l97l Sierra Nevada Natural History. Berkeley: University of California Press. Sudworth, G. B. 1900 Stanislaus and Lake Tahoe Forest Reserves: California and Adjacent Territory. 21st Annual Report, USGS, Part V. Forest Preserves. Tahoe Daily Tribune 1981 2/23/1981:6H, South Lake Tahoe. Tahoe Tattler 1958 Tahoe City, 1/24/1958:2. Taylor, A. 1997 Reconstruction of Pre-Euro-American Forest Structure, Composition, and Fire History in the Carson Range, Lake Tahoe Basin. Report on file U.S. Forest Service, Lake Tahoe Basin Management Unit. South Lake Tahoe. Truckee Republican 1906 April 29, 1906. Truckee U. S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service (USFS) various Whiskey Creek Range Records. Folder on file U. S. Forest Service, Tahoe National Forest, Truckee. U. S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), Forest Service, Annual Report on Ranges (USFS)

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 52 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist n.d. Supervision-Tahoe, Range Appraisal Soda Springs Range [pre 1923]. Report on file U. S. Forest Service, Tahoe National Forest, Truckee. 1913 Tahoe Annual Report on Ranges, December 2, 1913. Report on file U. S. Forest Service, Tahoe National Forest, Truckee. 1921 Supervision Annual Report on Ranges Soda Springs and Five Lakes Range, Monte Carlo and Juniper Creek. Report on file U. S. Forest Service, Tahoe National Forest, Truckee. 1922 Supervision Tahoe Annual Report on Ranges Juniper Creek, Soda Springs, Five Lakes, and part of Truckee River Range. Report on file U. S. Forest Service, Tahoe National Forest, Truckee. 1923 Supervision Tahoe Annual Report on Ranges Juniper Creek, Soda Springs, Five Lakes, and part of Truckee River Range. Report on file U. S. Forest Service, Tahoe National Forest, Truckee. 1925a Reports, Tahoe, Soda Springs, Five Lakes, Juniper, & 5 1/2 Sections used in conjunction on Truckee River by H. I. Snider, District Ranger. Report on file U. S. Forest Service, Tahoe National Forest, Truckee. 1925b Working Plans Tahoe - Five Lakes-Soda Springs Range, March 20, 1925, by H. I. Snider, District Ranger. Report on file U. S. Forest Service, Tahoe National Forest, Truckee. 1926 Tahoe National Forest, Truckee, Calif., November 7, 1926, Soda Springs, Five Lakes, Grayhorse and Miller Ranges. Report on file U. S. Forest Service, Tahoe National Forest, Truckee. 1927 Tahoe National Forest, Truckee, Calif. November 7, 1927, Five Lakes, Soda Springs, & Grayhorse Ranges, Memorandum to Forest Supervisor. Report on file U. S. Forest Service, Tahoe National Forest, Truckee. 1928 Tahoe National Forest, Truckee, California., October 29, 1928, Five Lakes, Soda Springs Range, Memorandum to Forest Supervisor from H. I. Snider, District Ranger. Report on file U. S. Forest Service, Tahoe National Forest, Truckee. 1929 Tahoe National Forest, Truckee, Calif., November 5, 1929, Five Lakes, Soda Springs Range, Memorandum to Forest Supervisor from H. I. Snider, District Ranger. Report on file U. S. Forest Service, Tahoe National Forest, Truckee. 1930a Permits, Tahoe, Whitney Est. Co., Truckee, California, Oct. 21, 1930. Report on file U. S. Forest Service, Tahoe National Forest, Truckee. 1930b Tahoe National Forest, Truckee, 12-2-30, Copy of Report 1930, H. I. Snider. Report on file U. S. Forest Service, Tahoe National Forest, Truckee. 1930c Tahoe National Forest, Truckee, Calif., October 25, 1930, Five Lakes-Soda Springs Range, by Acting District Ranger, Memorandum to Forest Supervisor. Report on file U. S. Forest Service, Tahoe National Forest, Truckee.

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 53 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist 1931 Tahoe National Forest, Truckee, Calif., October 24, 1931, Five Lakes-Soda Springs Range Annual Report on Five Lakes-Soda Springs Range-1931, by H. I. Snider, District Ranger. Report on file U. S. Forest Service, Tahoe National Forest, Truckee. 1932 Tahoe National Forest, Truckee, Calif., November 15, 1932, Five Lakes-Soda Springs Range Annual Report on Five Lakes-Soda Springs Range-1932, by H. I. Snider, District Ranger. Report on file U. S. Forest Service, Tahoe National Forest, Truckee. 1933a Tahoe National Forest, Truckee, Calif., November 13, 1933, Five Lakes-Soda Springs Range Annual Report on Five Lakes-Soda Springs Range-1932, by H. I. Snider, District Ranger. Report on file U. S. Forest Service, Tahoe National Forest, Truckee. 1933b Tahoe National Forest, Truckee, Calif., Jan. 18, 1933, Five Lakes-Soda Springs Range Work Plan. Report on file U. S. Forest Service, Tahoe National Forest, Truckee. 1934a Tahoe National Forest, Truckee, Calif., November 5, 1934, Five Lakes-Soda Springs Range Annual Report on Five Lakes-Soda Springs Range-1934, by H. I. Snider, District Ranger. Report on file U. S. Forest Service, Tahoe National Forest, Truckee. 1934b Tahoe National Forest, Truckee, Calif., March 14, 1934, Five Lakes-Soda Springs Range Work Plan-1933. Report on file U. S. Forest Service, Tahoe National Forest, Truckee. 1960 Range Management Plan Five Lakes Allotment, Tahoe National Forest, April 1960. Report on file U. S. Forest Service, Tahoe National Forest, Nevada City. 1963a Record of Review and Approval: Truckee River, [Hell] hold, Greyhorse and Five Lakes, Truckee-Foresthill District, Tahoe Forest, prepared by Roy Saraii, District Ranger, Truckee. Report on file U. S. Forest Service, Tahoe National Forest, Truckee. 1963b Record of Review and Approval: Truckee River, [Hell] hole, Greyhorse and Five Lakes, Truckee-Foresthill District, Tahoe Forest, prepared by Roy Saraii, District Ranger, Truckee, 1963, Appendix C Five Lakes Allotment. Report on file U. S. Forest Service, Tahoe National Forest, Truckee. 1960s Range Allotment Analysis-Five Lakes and Truckee River (work sheets various dates ca. 1960s). Report on file U. S. Forest Service, Tahoe National Forest, Nevada City. 1971 Report on Sheep Grazing on the Crest of the Sierra Nevada (Hellhole, Five Lakes, Greyhorse, Truckee River, and Anderson Peak Range Allotments. Report on file U. S. Forest Service, Tahoe National Forest, Nevada City. Waechter, Sharon

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 54 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist 2013 Volume II: Historic-Era Resources. National Register Evaluations of Cultural Resources within the Sierra Pacific Power Company Power Line Corridors on the Truckee and Sierraville Ranger Districts, Tahoe National Forest (Report #R2011051700071). Nevada City. Waechter, Sharon A. and Susan G. Lindström 2009 Evaluations at Prehistoric and Historic-Era Sites for a Proposed Watershed Restoration Project/Wetland Mitigation at Stockrest Spring, Truckee, Nevada County (TNF R2008-05-17-47, 48). Report on file North Central Information Center, California State University, California. Waring, Gerald A. 1915 Springs of California. Department of the Interior United States Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 338. Washington D.C.: Government Printing Office. Washoe Tribal Council 1994 Comprehensive Land Use Plan. Ms. on file, Tribal Government Headquarters, Gardnerville. Wilson, Dick 1992 Sawdust Trails in the Truckee Basin. Nevada City. Nevada County Historical Society. Wilson, N. and A. Towne l978 Nisenan. In: Handbook of North American Indians California, Vol. 8. R. F. Heizer (ed.). William G. Sturtevant, general editor. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution, pp. 387-397.

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 55 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist

APPENDIX 1: TABLES

Time Line of Human History Report List of Prior Archaeological Studies Resource List of Known Cultural Resources

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 56 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist BEAR CREEK WATERSHED ASSESSMENT: TIME LINE OF HUMAN HISTORY Date Event

Prehistory 9,000 years ago- 1840s -prehistory/Washoe and Nisenan Indian occupation of Bear Creek valley Transportation 1860 -Tahoe-Truckee Toll Road constructed in Truckee River Canyon 1900 -Lake Tahoe Railway and Transportation Company Railroad constructed in Truckee River Canyon Logging 1881 -animal power logging in Bear Creek valley 1900-1909 -steam power railroad logging in Bear Creek valley by Truckee Lumber Company 1948-1968 - diesel power tractor logging in Bear Creek valley Grazing 1880 -John P. Scott grazed cattle in Bear Creek valley 1897-1933 -dated arborglyphs in Alpine Meadows ca. 1911-1960 -Basque sheep grazing in Bear Creek valley 1924-1946 -Whitney Estate grazed 5,000-10,000 sheep in Five Lakes Allotment 1947-1964 -Kuhn and Miller Co. grazed 3,000-5,000 sheep in Five Lakes Allotment 1970-1971 -Robert Carter grazed 2,000 sheep in Five Lakes Allotment Resort History 1888 -Scott’s Springs resort 1905-ca. 1926 -Deer Park Inn resort 1908 -Five Lakes Trail “re-cut” Skiing pre-1955 -Powder Bowl Ski Area opened (Deer Park Ski Area) 1961 -Ward Peak Ski Resort opened (Alpine Meadows ski area) Subdivisions and Infrastructure early 1960s -construction of first homes in Bear Creek valley 1963 -formation of Alpine Springs Water Company Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 57 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 58 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist

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Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 61 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 62 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist APPENDIX 2: Correspondence

North Central Information Center Native American Outreach

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 63 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 64 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 65 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist Susan Lindström, Ph.D.

Consulting Archaeologist P.O. Box 3324

Truckee CA 96160

530-587-7072

[email protected]

DATE: September 5, 2017 TO: Native American Heritage Commission 1550 Harbor Boulevard, Suite 100 West Sacramento, CA 95691 916-373-3710; 916-373-5471 (fax) [email protected] RE: Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design Project Cultural Resource Study I am writing to request a records search of the Sacred Land Files. The Truckee River Watershed Council is proposing a series of restoration projects within Bear Creek Valley/Alpine Meadows. The project area is located north of Lake Tahoe and south of Truckee, California (Placer County) in Township 16 North, Range 16 East, sections 32, 33, 34 and Township 16 North, Range 16 East, sections 3-9 and 17- 18 M.D.B.M. (see accompanying map). I wish to bring this project to your attention and I invite your opinions, knowledge and sentiments regarding any potential concerns for traditional Native American lands within the project vicinity. Thank you very much.

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 66 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 67 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 68 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist Susan Lindström, Ph.D.

Consulting Archaeologist P.O. Box 3324

Truckee CA 96160

530-587-7072

[email protected] DATE: September 20, 2017 TO: Grayson Coney, Cultural Director (Don Ryberg, Chairperson) Tsi Akim Maidu, P.O. Box 510, Browns Valley, CA 95918 530-274-7497; [email protected] RE: Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design Project The Truckee River Watershed Council (TRWC) is conducting an assessment of the Bear Creek Watershed, located within the middle reach of the Truckee River Watershed, within Alpine Meadows and about six miles northwest of Tahoe City, Lake Tahoe (Placer County). The project study area is in Township 16 North, Range 16 East, sections 32, 33, 34 and Township 15 North, Range 16 East, sections 3-9, 17 and 18, Tahoe City 7.5’ Quad, MDB&M (see accompanying map). The goal of the Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design is to provide the science and policy information needed to establish a baseline to direct restoration and protection projects within the watershed, and the design necessary to implement these projects. The Bear Creek watershed has had a long period of human occupation and watershed restoration efforts can benefit from an understanding of the long-term ecological role of aboriginal peoples and historical Euroamerican populations in the dynamics of wild plant and animal populations and alterations of the physical environment. Research would be conducted to gather basic background data to assist project planners in assessing potential restoration opportunities and constraints. To accomplish this goal, the work plan would focus on: (1) watershed attributes and social history of the basin; (2) anthropogenic disturbances history to land and water; (3) existing conditions in terms of prior archaeological study, known cultural resources and expected cultural resources sensitivity of locales throughout the watershed; and (4) the feasibility and compatibility of cultural resource protection and enhancement concerns in conjunction with habitat, wildlife and landscape restoration, and contemporary development interests within the Bear Creek watershed. No ground disturbance activities are planned at the present time, but would be accomplished in the future. I am following up on the Native American Heritage Commission’s recommendation to reach out to tribes/individuals that may have information about this project. I wish to bring this project to your attention and I invite your opinions, knowledge and sentiments regarding any potential concerns for traditional Native American lands within the project vicinity. Thank you very much. Susan Lindström Consulting Archaeologist

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 69 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist Susan Lindström, Ph.D.

Consulting Archaeologist P.O. Box 3324

Truckee CA 96160

530-587-7072 [email protected] DATE: September 20, 2017 TO: Darrel Cruz, THPO, Washoe Tribe, Cultural Resources Department 919 Highway 395 South Gardnerville, NV 89410 [email protected]; 775-782-0014; 775-546-3421 (cell) RE: Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design Project The Truckee River Watershed Council (TRWC) is conducting an assessment of the Bear Creek Watershed, located within the middle reach of the Truckee River Watershed, within Alpine Meadows and about six miles northwest of Tahoe City, Lake Tahoe (Placer County). The project study area is in Township 16 North, Range 16 East, sections 32, 33, 34 and Township 15 North, Range 16 East, sections 3-9, 17 and 18, Tahoe City 7.5’ Quad, MDB&M (see accompanying map). The goal of the Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design is to provide the science and policy information needed to establish a baseline to direct restoration and protection projects within the watershed, and the design necessary to implement these projects. The Bear Creek watershed has had a long period of human occupation and watershed restoration efforts can benefit from an understanding of the long-term ecological role of aboriginal peoples and historical Euroamerican populations in the dynamics of wild plant and animal populations and alterations of the physical environment. Research would be conducted to gather basic background data to assist project planners in assessing potential restoration opportunities and constraints. To accomplish this goal, the work plan would focus on: (1) watershed attributes and social history of the basin; (2) anthropogenic disturbances history to land and water; (3) existing conditions in terms of prior archaeological study, known cultural resources and expected cultural resources sensitivity of locales throughout the watershed; and (4) the feasibility and compatibility of cultural resource protection and enhancement concerns in conjunction with habitat, wildlife and landscape restoration, and contemporary development interests within the Bear Creek watershed. No ground disturbance activities are planned at the present time, but would be accomplished in the future. I am following up on the Native American Heritage Commission’s recommendation to reach out to tribes/individuals that may have information about this project. I wish to bring this project to your attention and I invite your opinions, knowledge and sentiments regarding any potential concerns for traditional Native American lands within the project vicinity. Thank you very much. Susan Lindström Consulting Archaeologist

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 70 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 71 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist Susan Lindström, Ph.D.

Consulting Archaeologist P.O. Box 3324

Truckee CA 96160

530-587-7072 [email protected] DATE: September 20, 2017 TO: Daniel Fonseca, Cultural Resource Director (Nicholas Fonseca, Chairperson) Shingle Springs Band of Miwok Indians, P.O. Box 1340, Shingle Springs, CA 95682 [email protected]; 530-676-8010 RE: Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design Project The Truckee River Watershed Council (TRWC) is conducting an assessment of the Bear Creek Watershed, located within the middle reach of the Truckee River Watershed, within Alpine Meadows and about six miles northwest of Tahoe City, Lake Tahoe (Placer County). The project study area is in Township 16 North, Range 16 East, sections 32, 33, 34 and Township 15 North, Range 16 East, sections 3-9, 17 and 18, Tahoe City 7.5’ Quad, MDB&M (see accompanying map). The goal of the Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design is to provide the science and policy information needed to establish a baseline to direct restoration and protection projects within the watershed, and the design necessary to implement these projects. The Bear Creek watershed has had a long period of human occupation and watershed restoration efforts can benefit from an understanding of the long-term ecological role of aboriginal peoples and historical Euroamerican populations in the dynamics of wild plant and animal populations and alterations of the physical environment. Research would be conducted to gather basic background data to assist project planners in assessing potential restoration opportunities and constraints. To accomplish this goal, the work plan would focus on: (1) watershed attributes and social history of the basin; (2) anthropogenic disturbances history to land and water; (3) existing conditions in terms of prior archaeological study, known cultural resources and expected cultural resources sensitivity of locales throughout the watershed; and (4) the feasibility and compatibility of cultural resource protection and enhancement concerns in conjunction with habitat, wildlife and landscape restoration, and contemporary development interests within the Bear Creek watershed. No ground disturbance activities are planned at the present time, but would be accomplished in the future. I am following up on the Native American Heritage Commission’s recommendation to reach out to tribes/individuals that may have information about this project. I wish to bring this project to your attention and I invite your opinions, knowledge and sentiments regarding any potential concerns for traditional Native American lands within the project vicinity. Thank you very much. Susan Lindström Consulting Archaeologist

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 72 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 73 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist Susan Lindström, Ph.D.

Consulting Archaeologist P.O. Box 3324

Truckee CA 96160

530-587-7072 [email protected] DATE: September 20, 2017 TO: Gene Whitehouse, Chairperson United Auburn Indian Community of the Auburn Rancheria 10720 Indian Hill Road, Auburn, CA 95603, 530-883-2390 RE: Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design Project The Truckee River Watershed Council (TRWC) is conducting an assessment of the Bear Creek Watershed, located within the middle reach of the Truckee River Watershed, within Alpine Meadows and about six miles northwest of Tahoe City, Lake Tahoe (Placer County). The project study area is in Township 16 North, Range 16 East, sections 32, 33, 34 and Township 15 North, Range 16 East, sections 3-9, 17 and 18, Tahoe City 7.5’ Quad, MDB&M (see accompanying map). The goal of the Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design is to provide the science and policy information needed to establish a baseline to direct restoration and protection projects within the watershed, and the design necessary to implement these projects. The Bear Creek watershed has had a long period of human occupation and watershed restoration efforts can benefit from an understanding of the long-term ecological role of aboriginal peoples and historical Euroamerican populations in the dynamics of wild plant and animal populations and alterations of the physical environment. Research would be conducted to gather basic background data to assist project planners in assessing potential restoration opportunities and constraints. To accomplish this goal, the work plan would focus on: (1) watershed attributes and social history of the basin; (2) anthropogenic disturbances history to land and water; (3) existing conditions in terms of prior archaeological study, known cultural resources and expected cultural resources sensitivity of locales throughout the watershed; and (4) the feasibility and compatibility of cultural resource protection and enhancement concerns in conjunction with habitat, wildlife and landscape restoration, and contemporary development interests within the Bear Creek watershed. No ground disturbance activities are planned at the present time, but would be accomplished in the future. I am following up on the Native American Heritage Commission’s recommendation to reach out to tribes/individuals that may have information about this project. I wish to bring this project to your attention and I invite your opinions, knowledge and sentiments regarding any potential concerns for traditional Native American lands within the project vicinity. Thank you very much. Susan Lindström Consulting Archaeologist

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 74 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist

APPENDIX 3: HISTORIC MAPS

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 75 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 76 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 77 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist

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Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 83 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 84 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 85 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist

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Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 88 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 89 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 90 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 91 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 92 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist APPENDIX 4: PLATES

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Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 94 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 95 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 96 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 97 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 98 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist

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Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 101 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 102 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 103 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 104 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 105 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 106 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 107 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist

APPENDIX 5: RESUME

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 108 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 109 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 110 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist

Bear Creek Watershed Assessment and Design: Contextual Overview of Human Land Use September 2017 111 Susan Lindström, Ph.D. Consulting Archaeologist

APPENDIX C

Representative Photographs of Bear Creek by Reach with GPS Location Coordinates (Transmitted Separately)

APPENDIX D

Stream Reconnaissance Field Forms

APPENDIX E

Spatial Data in GIS (Transmitted Separately)

APPENDIX F

Project Sheets

Lower Bear Creek Meadow, Placer County, California, Project #1 Problem: Hydromodification, channel incision and widening; loss of floodplain/meadow function Project: Meadow restoration (contingent on County stormwater improvements) Location: Reach C, Tahoe National Forest and Placer County General Description of Problem: The Lower Bear Creek Meadow is defined by alluvial valley fill, a lower gradient system that once supported a multi-threaded wet-meadow system. Its location in the lower 1 reaches of the watershed provide for sediment deposition functions, and aquatic and wildlife habitat. Today, many of these functions and habitats are impaired by an eroding, unstable channel. Instabilities were likely introduced from road construction in the watershed from the 1960s onward. Impervious surfaces generate rapid runoff to the channel, and result in more flashy and higher magnitude peak flows (hydromodification). The modified hydrology increases the stream’s ability to erode and over time has deepened and widened Bear Creek through the former meadow. The impaired condition results in less frequent inundation of the meadow surface, in turn, reduces groundwater recharge, and increases meadow desiccation and conifer encroachment due to a lowered groundwater table. Higher magnitude floods are now contained in the channel and exacerbate sediment delivery to the Truckee River from chronic bank erosion. Stormwater ditches along Alpine Meadows Road contribute additional sediment to Bear Creek from erosion of in-board ditches and application of road traction sand during the winter. Other stormwater culverts under Alpine Meadows Road focus spring-fed tributaries to fewer channels, resulting in tributary incision that furthers meadow desiccation.

*Cost Estimate: Goal(s) Sources of degradation Objectives to achieve goal(s) Reduce stormwater runoff and Less than $10K Restore Stormwater, sediment inputs to channel; fill stream- $10K-$100K absence of channel or encourage channel floodplain/ stormwater sedimentation and overbank $100K-$500K meadow BMPs and flows; Increase # of culverts functions $500K-$2M infrastructure under Alpine Meadows Road. and habitat $2M +

Restoration or Management Approach: Meadow restoration may be possible for this roughly 30 acre wet meadow. In-channel and meadow restoration strategies may include, but not limited to, channel fill, introduction of large wood debris, conifer thinning, aspen/cottonwood enhancement and beaver protection; sod check dams in spring-fed tributaries in combination with additional culverts under Alpine Meadows Road. Success of restoration is contingent on stormwater management. While watershed wide stormwater improvements are recommended, stormwater management along Alpine Meadows Road may provide the most benefits.

*cost estimate includes implementation of non-stormwater project elements.

217121 Bear Creek Watershed Assessment Lower Bear Creek Meadow, Placer County, California, Project #1

Target Conditions/Success Criteria: 1) Increased wet meadow vegetation/habitat 2) Restored channel-meadow connectivity Meadow Restoration Design Alternatives 3) Higher groundwater levels 4) Reduced bank erosion 1. Introduction of large instream wood structures to encourage sediment Implementation Timeframe deposition and overbank flows 60% Design (4-6 weeks) 2. Channel fill: import materials consistent 90% Design (4-6 weeks) with local alluvial texture to increase grade Permitting (6-12 months) of channel 3. Engineered check dams to encourage Implementation (2 months) deposition of sediment delivered to reach Monitoring and adaptive management (5+ years)

Pre- and Post-project monitoring recommendations: 1) Vegetation/meadow condition surveys 2) Repeat x-section channel surveys 3) Streamflow and sediment transport gaging 4) Observations of channel conditions 5) Groundwater monitoring

Phasing or Order of Implementation: Stormwater management should be implemented prior to or in concert with meadow restoration or in- stream channel projects.

Horse Crossings

Meadow extent

Lower Bear Creek Meadow showing approximate area proposed for meadow restoration 217121 Bear Creek Watershed Assessment Deer Park Ski Area Upland Restoration, Placer County, California, Project #2 Problem: Hillside erosion from old graded ski runs and roads Project: Road decommissioning, revegetation and erosion control Location: Tahoe National Forest, Former Deer Park Ski Area General Description of Problem: Development of Deer Park Ski Area (formerly Powder Bowl) in the 1950s included grading of ski runs and roads for lift operations. Runs were regraded in the early 1980s further 3 removing vegetation and exacerbating hillside erosion. Previous erosion control efforts have largely failed (USFS, 2016). Hillside runoff and sediment are conveyed to a stormwater ditch along the base of the ski slopes. The same ditch receives stormwater runoff from a parking lot which conveys flows directly to the Truckee River. Burt and Clary (2015) evaluated Deer Park Ski Area, and found that graded ski runs may slowly recover over time, but may benefit from restoration activities to improve water quality and provide incidental habitat values.

Goal(s) Sources of degradation Objectives to achieve goal(s)

Reduce hillside Road decommissioning; regrading to Historical ski run erosion; reduce restore flow paths, revegetation and grading runoff to ditch erosion control elements

Aerial image showing active rilling, sparse vegetation, and an old road that captures and concentrates hillslope runoff.

*Cost Estimate: Restoration or Management Approach: Less than $10K The remediation plan for this site was developed by the USFS (2016) and $10K-$100K includes: 1) road decommissioning by re-contouring, 2) restore hillslope $100K-$500K infiltration by re-incorporating rock and roughness elements to ski slopes, 3) re-grading of heavily rilled or gullied areas to restore flow paths, 4) $500K-$2M revegetation, 5) erosion control BMPs, and 6) remove any remaining ski lift $2M + infrastructure (e.g., concrete pads, pipelines, etc).

217121 Bear Creek Watershed Assessment Deer Park Ski Area Upland Restoration, Placer County, California, Project #2

Target Conditions/Success Criteria: 1) Reduced hillside runoff and erosion 2) Increased vegetation cover 3) Enhanced upland or terrestrial habitats

Implementation Timeframe 60% Design (2-4 weeks) 90% Design (2-4 weeks) Permitting, CEQA (3-6 months) Implementation (1 month) Monitoring and adaptive management (5+ years)

Pre- and Post-project monitoring recommendations: 1) Vegetation transects 2) Photo documentation (aerial and ground)

Former maintenance road

Graded ski run

Bare earth image from LiDAR showing graded ski runs, roads, and gully erosion, former Deer Park Ski Area.

217121 Bear Creek Watershed Assessment Five Lakes Trailhead Improvements, Placer County, California, Project #3 Problem: Inadequate drainage, erosion and excess sediment to Bear Creek Project: Sediment reduction (contingent on County stormwater improvements) Location: Tahoe National Forest, White Wolf General Description of problem: The Five Lakes Trailhead is a focal point for runoff from both an upland watershed and Alpine Meadows Road drainage. The tributary watershed drains highly erosive geology and in some events, can naturally trigger significant sediment transport. Stormwater runoff from Alpine Meadows Road increases and focuses 4 flows to 2 undersized culverts which discharge to a single channel downstream of Alpine Meadows Road. The culverts frequently become plugged with sediment and force runoff and sediment onto the road and private property. The receiving channel shows evidence of scour and bank erosion and is a likely sediment source to Bear Creek.

Goal(s) Sources of degradation Objectives to achieve goal(s)

Stormwater and Improved stormwater drainage; runoff Reduce excess inadequate and sediment detention basins, check sediment to Bear drainage dams to encourage channel fill and Creek infrastructure minimize further erosion.

Restoration or Management Approach: Reduction of sediment to Bear Creek from the Five Lakes Trailhead tributary requires County improvements to stormwater drainage and infrastructure as well as some in-channel restoration.

Five Lakes trail drainage could be improved to reduce stream capture. Check dams could be constructed in the tributary channel, downstream of Alpine Meadows Road, to encourage channel fill and reduce further erosion.

*Cost Estimate: Less than $10K $10K-$100K $100K-$500K $500K-$2M $2M +

*cost estimate will depend on stormwater engineering Flow accumulation analysis showing required and number of BMP facilities added. concentration of watershed and road runoff

217121 Bear Creek Watershed Assessment Five Lakes Trailhead Improvements, Placer County, California, Project #3

Target Conditions/Success Criteria: Stormwater Improvements 1) Reduced sediment to Bear Creek 1. Runoff and sediment retention basins 2) Restored drainage connectivity to capture road runoff prior to 3) Reduced flooding of Alpine Meadows Road discharge into Bear Creek (utilize wide pull-outs for construction of basins) 2. Replace existing culverts with properly Implementation Timeframe sized culverts at existing trailhead 60% design (4-6 weeks) 3. Reduce in-board ditch runoff 90% design (2-4 weeks) accumulation by constructing additional Permitting (3-6 months) culverts under Alpine Meadows Road at Implementation (2-4 weeks) points where natural swales or Project monitoring (1-3 years) channels exist 4. Erosion control or slope stability Pre- and Post-project monitoring recommendations: measures along Alpine Meadows Road 1) Repeat x-section channel surveys road-cuts. 2) Observations of culvert and channel conditions 3) Quantify sediment removed from detention basins.

Phasing or Order of Implementation: Stormwater management should be implemented prior to or in concert with channel restoration or in-stream channel projects.

Existing culvert and sedimentation at Five Lakes Trailhead; photo also shows extent of road east of culvert that captures stormwater runoff

Eroded tributary channel below Alpine Meadows Road

217121 Bear Creek Watershed Assessment Road Area #2 (USFS, 2016), Placer County, California, Project #4 Problem: Stream capture by unimproved roads, sediment source to Bear Creek Project: Road drainage improvements and natural flow path restoration Location: Tahoe National Forest and Private Property. General Description of problem: Spring-fed channels and sheet flow are captured by unimproved roads. USFS (2016) used WEPP modeling to identify improvements to 0.62 miles of road and 0.45 miles of trails to reduce sediment to Bear Creek. The road is maintained for access to water lines by Alpine 5 Springs County Water District (ASCWD) but is currently impassable for most vehicles. The road directs runoff and sediment onto neighborhood streets and Bear Creek via a stormwater system.

Goal(s) Sources of degradation Objectives to achieve goal(s)

Restore drainage flow direction; Introduction Reduce sediment of water bars/dips; re-contouring some roads to Bear Creek; Ineffective drainage; with outsloping surfaces; armoring drainage Improve drainage road grading crossings to maintain road

Restoration or Management Approach: *Cost Estimate: Drainage improvements could be completed to restore drainage flow direction Less than $10K into existing natural channels. Reduction of road runoff can be alleviated by $10K-$100K outsloping the road and/or introducing additional dips. Where natural channels cross the road, ‘Arizona crossings’ (rock-lined water dips) or additional culverts can $100K-$500K be installed to replace undersized or sediment plugged culverts. The USFS $500K-$2M assessment (2016) provide additional options and details. Additional $2M + considerations of downslope drainage and property flooding require evaluation.

217121 Bear Creek Watershed Assessment Road Area #2 (USFS, 2016), Placer County, California, Project #4

Target Conditions/Success Criteria: 1) Reduced sediment to Bear Creek 2) Eliminate stream capture by roads 3) Reduced flooding/sediment of neighborhood streets

Implementation Timeframe 60% design (2-4 weeks) 90% design (2-4 weeks) Permitting (3-6 months) Implementation (2-3 weeks) Project monitoring (1-3 years)

Pre- and Post-project monitoring recommendations: 1) Observations of hillslope erosion and runoff 2) Vegetation transects and surveys

Example of improving road drainage that could be applied in Road Area #2.

217121 Bear Creek Watershed Assessment Alpine Meadows Ski Area Roads and Ski Runs, Placer County, California, Project #5 Problem: Erosion and sedimentation of meadow habitats Project: Ski area road and infrastructure improvements Location: Tahoe National Forest, Alpine Meadows Ski Area General Description of problem: Alpine Meadows Ski Area includes steep terrain with poor vegetation and exposed soils; disturbance of these soils allows for increased slope runoff and erosion. Historical ski area development and on-going ski area operations create challenges for hillslope runoff and sediment management. Current issues include maintenance roads, water lines, and ski runs where former grading practices were used to develop ski runs. Maintenance roads can be subject to extreme runoff events, debris flows, rock fall, and erosion. Buried water lines, used for snowmaking, have become exposed at the surface over time and act as conduits for runoff interception, concentration of flow and hillslope erosion. Historical 6 grading of ski runs removed vegetation and topsoil which increases runoff and erosoin. Finally, some stream segments have been relocated into constructed ditches and culverts to accommodate runs and lift infrastructure.

Goal(s) Sources of degradation Objectives to achieve goal(s) Improved road drainage; provide buffer Reduce hillslope zone to protect aquatic and meadow erosion and Historical ski area habitats; relocation or deeper burial of sedimentation of development water lines. meadow habitats

Meadow sedimentation from road runoff and erosion. *Cost Estimate: Less than $10K $10K-$100K Hillside seepage from relocated tributary and $100K-$500K hillside erosion along maintenance road $500K-$2M $2M +

217121 Bear Creek Watershed Assessment Alpine Meadows Ski Area Roads and Ski Runs, Placer County, California, Project #5

Restoration or Management Approach: The USFS (2016) also identified this area in their sediment source assessment and include many recommendations. Overall, efforts to increase vegetation and/or ground cover will help reduce runoff and sediment entrainment. Road maintenance may be decreased if additional water bars, dips, and outsloping of roads are implemented. In areas where roads convey runoff and sediment to sensitive meadow habitats, roads should be either relocated to provide buffer zones or drainage improved with sediment detention basins. Water lines should be buried deeper (where feasible) or constructed with water spreading structures in frequent intervals to reduce concentration of flow along lines. Finally, where historical grading and channel relocation occurred, maintenance roads should be relocated to avoid seepage areas and erosion. In an effort to better outline these improvements, the USFS can work with their permittees to develop a Natural Resources Management Plan.

Target Conditions/Success Criteria: 1) Reduced hillside and road erosion 2) Reduced sedimentation of meadow habitats

Implementation Timeframe 60% Design (4-6 weeks) 90% Design (2-4 weeks) Permitting (3-5 months) Implementation (1-2 months) Monitoring and adaptive management (annually)

Pre- and Post-project monitoring recommendations: 1) Vegetation/meadow condition surveys Restoration treatment following installation of 2) Observations of hillside and road conditions a water line (IERS, 2009)

The ski run on the left was graded, while the ski run on the right was cleared (IERS, 2009).

217121 Bear Creek Watershed Assessment Scott Peak Springs Meadow Restoration, Placer County, California, Project #2 Problem: Loss of wet meadow area and habitat Project: Meadow restoration Location: Tahoe National Forest, Alpine Meadows Ski Area General Description of Problem: Development of the historic parking lot for Ward Creek Ski Area (Alpine Meadows) in the 1960s impacted an area that once supported a large contiguous wet meadow complex. Expansion of the parking area in the 1970s resulted in further filling of the meadow that derives its source water from springs on the slopes of Scott Peak. Today, stormwater runoff, road traction sands and refuse are discharged to the meadow. Furthermore, snow storage 2 occurs in and near the remnant meadow and riparian corridor, further impacting habitat values and ecological functions. Meadow drainage is confined to a ditch alongside the parking lot and access road and discharges to Bear Creek via one or more culverts.

Goal(s) Sources of degradation Objectives to achieve goal(s)

Restore Historical parking meadow area and lot development Modify or relocate asphalt parking areas; habitat for ski area

Springs Springs

Historical aerial photography illustrating the dissection of a large wet-meadow complex in the Upper Bear Creek Watershed. Red box approximates the same area in both photographs. Restoration or Management Approach: The USFS (2016) also identified this area as impairing Bear Creek and tributaries *Cost Estimate: and proposed several remedial actions. In addition to these actions, we encourage Less than $10K consideration of meadow restoration. While full-scale meadow restoration may not be immediately feasible, some modifications to the existing parking lot may provide $10K-$100K a wide range of benefits to meadow function and habitat including enhancing $100K-$500K groundwater discharge areas, flood water retention, water quality improvements, and willow riparian and wet meadow habitats. Removal of some of the asphalt and $500K-$2M restoration of wetland soils, hydrology, and vegetation may provide the greatest $2M + benefits. Other management actions may include additional stormwater BMPs including underground stormwater chambers, sediment detention basins, and daylighting of drainage channels at culvert(s).

*cost estimate may be reduced with a more defined restoration strategy.

217121 Bear Creek Watershed Assessment Scott Peak Springs Meadow Restoration, Placer County, California, Project #2

Target Conditions/Success Criteria: Project Benefits 1) Increased wet meadow area 1. Montane meadow ecosystems are 2) Restored channel-meadow connectivity the most botanically diverse in the 3) Reduced sediment and refuse in meadow Sierra Nevada, and they have high 4) Enhanced wet meadow vegetation and habitat wildlife values because of their abundance of food and cover. Implementation Timeframe 2. Montane meadows also play a Dependent on project complexity unique and crucial role in the ecology of many bird species found in the Pre- and Post-project monitoring recommendations: Sierra Nevada 1) Vegetation/meadow condition surveys 3. These ecosystems also store water, 2) Wetland acreage evaluation recharge local groundwater, and 3) Geomorphic surveys of channel conditions provide a perennial source of 4) Piezometers for groundwater response baseflows to Bear Creek and the Truckee River. 5) Photo documentation (ground and aerial)

217121 Bear Creek Watershed Assessment