Studies of Energy Efficiency and Market Access of Domestic Charcoal Stoves in Maputo City

Studies of energy efficiency and market access of domestic charcoal stoves in Maputo City

Valdemiro Jamal Sultane & Graça do Rosário Massimbe

Master of Science Thesis KTH School of Industrial Engineering and Management Energy Technology EGI-2018 SE-100 44 STOCKHOLM

0 Master of Science Thesis EGI: TRITA-ITM-EX 2018:484

Studies of energy efficiency and market access of domestic charcoal stoves in Maputo City

Valdemiro Jamal Sultane & Graça do Rosário Massimbe

Approved Examiner Supervisor

2018-09-10 Peter Hagström– KTH/ITM/EGI Peter Hagström

Commissioner Contact person at UEM Carlos Lucas, University Eduardo Mondlane, Maputo Geraldo Nhumaio,

1 Abstract

In Mozambique, almost 80% of the population uses firewood for their energy needs, however this use is not exclusive only to rural areas, observing the same in urban areas who not only use the wood and also charcoal stoves.

Because of this situation, there is a huge devastation of the forest, which has caused the depletion of flora, thus missing native species without its due spare.

In Maputo, most households, the use of fire wood was replaced by charcoal because of high energetic intensity and also transportation and storing promptness. In 2011, three millions of sacs of charcoal have been in consumption, managing a market of $70 million in 2010 and 2012, the price rise a lot from 250 to 650 Meticais (200% more).

In this context came the need, to evaluate the energy efficiency of charcoal stoves and their respective access by the population in Maputo in order to contribute to the reduction of excessive consumption of biomass. For it was made evaluation of energetic efficiency in ten stoves most used in the city of Maputo, We tested the quality of charcoal and found to demand access to its coal.

The results showed that the charcoal tested is not the good quality because the values are outside the acceptable levels According to the literature. Energy efficiency evaluation noted that the most efficient stoves have been improved in spite of the water boiling test of the traditional stoves have been boil faster.

There was also, that consumers prefer to buy products from day to day in establishments near to their residence and do not spend more money than 100.00 MTn (2 USD) every time moving to sales points.

Keywords: Energy Efficiency, domestic charcoal stoves, Thermal power, Biomass.

2 Sammanfattning

I Mocambique använder nästan 80% av befolkningen ved för sina energibehov, men denna användning är inte exklusiv bara för landsbygdsområden, där man observerar samma i stadsområden som inte bara använder veden utan även koksugnar.

På grund av den här situationen orsakas en enorm förödelse av skogen, vilket har orsakat utarmning av flora och inhemska arters fortplantning påverkas negativt.

I de flesta hushåll i Maputo ersattes användningen av ved med träkol på grund av hög energiintensitet och snabbare transport och lagring. Under 2011 har tre miljoner säckar träkol konsumerats, vilket motsvarar en marknad på 70 miljoner dollar 2010 och 2012. Priset steg från 250 till 650 Meticais (mer än 200%) under denna period.

I det här sammanhanget uppstod behovet att utvärdera energieffektiviteten hos ugnar för träkol och tillgången av sådana ugnar i Maputo för att bidra till minskningen av överdriven konsumtion av biomassa. För det gjordes utvärdering av energeffektiviteten i tio ugnar som mest används i staden Maputo. Kvaliteten på träkol testades och tillgången på träkol utvärderades.

Resultaten visade att träkolet inte är av god kvalitet eftersom värdena ligger utanför acceptabla nivåer enligt litteraturen. Energieffektivitetsutvärderingen noterade att de mest effektiva ugnarna har förbättrats. Testen av de traditionella ugnarna visade att kokningstiden för vatten har kortats ner..

Det visade sig också att konsumenter föredrar att köpa produkter från dag till dag i företag nära deras hemvist, och de spenderar inte mer än 100,00 MTn (2 USD) varje gång de flyttar till försäljningsställen.

Nyckelord: Energieffektivitet, hushållskolugnar, Värmekraft, Biomassa.

Acknowledgments

Our sincere thanks go to: The supervisor Dr.Peter Hagström, by the humility, love and dedication for having received our thesis in a professional manner. To Dr Nhumaio for facilitating the course and to Dr Carlos Lucas and Prof. Andrew Martin for the coordination and organization of the course; The Royal Institute of Technology (KTH) in Sweden, and all the teachers who participated in our formation; To our families who tirelessly and in many ways supported us during the formation.

Table of Contents

1.0 Introduction ...... 12 1.1 Justification ...... 13 1.2 Objectives ...... 14 1.2.1 General Objective ...... 14 1.2.2 Specific Objectives ...... 15 2.0 Methods and Materials ...... 15 2.1 Fuels tested ...... 15 2.1.1 Provenance of the charcoal ...... 15 2.1.2 Used Material ...... 15 2.1.3 Sample preparation ...... 16 2.1.4 Material preparation ...... 16 2.1.5 Procedure during the experiments ...... 16 2.2 Charcoal Thermal Characteristics ...... 17 2.2.1 Proximate Analysis ...... 17 2.2.2 Absolute humidity ...... 17 2.2.3 Volatile matter ...... 17 2.2.4 Ash content ...... 18 2.2.5 Fixed carbon ...... 19 2.2.6 Ultimate analysis of charcoal ...... 19 2.2.7 Determination of biomass higher heating values ...... 19 2.3 Performance analysis of domestic charcoal stoves ...... 20 2.3.1 Materials ...... 20 2.3.2 Stoves testing ...... 20 2.3.3 The water boiling tests protocol ...... 20 2.4 Tested stove description ...... 21 2.4.1 Wroket works ...... 21 2.4.2 Envirofit ...... 22 2.4.3 Mbaula ...... 22 2.4.4 Zavala/Metal ...... 23 2.4.5 Zavala/Barro ...... 23 2.5.6 Sucata ...... 24 5

2.5.7 Chapa de Zinco ...... 24 2.5.8 Botija de Gás ...... 25 2.5.9 Beira Stove: ...... 25 3.0 Geographical situation of Maputo City ...... 26 3.1 General characteristics of Maputo City inhabitants ...... 26 3.3. Etnographic Contributions ...... 30 3.5 Energy Situation in Mozambique ...... 31 3.6 Priority planned project in Mozambique ...... 33 3.7 Mozambique’s forest Potencial ...... 34 3.7.1 Deforestation to attend the energetic need at household local level 35 3.8 Biomass as an alternative source of energy ...... 36 3.8.1 Biomass Energy in Mozambique ...... 36 3.9 Wood-coal ...... 37 3.9.1 Concept on fuel ...... 38 3.9.2 Traditional charcoal production ...... 38 3.9.3 Wood-coal business ...... 39 3.9.4 Demand for charcoal in Maputo City ...... 41 3.10 Charcoal stoves well succeeded in Maputo ...... 41 3.11 Gas and Ethanol as alternative sources with respect to wood fire and charcoal 42 3.12 Social environment aspects due to the use of traditional stoves ...... 42 3.12.1 Inner air pollution ...... 42 3.13 Energy effectiveness ...... 44 4.0 Results and discussion ...... 44 4.1 Households ...... 44 4.1.1 Age of the target audience ...... 45 4.1.2 Famele leadership households ...... 46 4.1.3 Income ...... 46 4.1.4 Purchase Period ...... 47 4.1.5 Factors that influence the making purchasing decision by Audience ...... 48 4.1.6 Propensity to purchase (Behavior) ...... 48 4.2 Fuel evaluation quality ...... 49 4.2.1 Proximate and Ultimate Analysis of charcoal Stoves ...... 49

4.2.2 Charcoal Properties ...... 50 4.3 Water Boiling Tests Results ...... 51 4.3.1 Four techniques to boil water faster: ...... 51 4.3.2 Time to boil ...... 52 4.3.3 Time to boil ranking ...... 52 4.3.4 Thermal Efficiency ...... 52 4.3.5 Specific fuel consumption and thermal efficiency ...... 54 4.4 Fire Power ...... 55 4.5 Firepower and turn-down ratio of Stoves ...... 56 5.0-Conclusions ...... 59 6. Recommendations ...... 60 References ...... 61 Annexes ...... 64

Acronyms ha - Hectares MC- Moisture Content VM- Volatile matter FC- Fixed Carbon TJ-Terra joule PCI – Inferior Calorific Power % - percentage ºC – Degrees Celsius h - Height ɸ - Diameter CO – Carbon monoxide MP – Particulate Matter

List of figures Figure 2. 1: Wroket works Stoves Figure 2. 2: Envirofit Stove Figure 2. 3: Mbaula Stove Figure 2. 4: Zavala/metal Stove Figure 2. 5: zavala/barro Stove Figure 2. 6: Sucata Stove Figure 2. 7: Chapa de Zinco Stove Figure 2. 8: Botija de Gás Stove Figure 2. 9: Beira Stove Figure 2. 10: Barro Stove Figure 3. 1: Maputo City map Figure 3. 2: Forest cover map of Mozambique Figure 3. 3: Institutional wood stove Figure 3. 4: Metal wood stove Figure 3. 5: charcoal bagged point of sale Figure 3. 6: Form such as charcoal is presented in resale posts Figure 4. 1: Age of the target audience Figure 4. 2: Percentage graph of female heads of households Figure 4. 3: Monthly income of households Figure 4. 4: shopping Period Figure 4. 5: Critical points of purchase decision-making by Audience Figure 4. 6: Main charcoal properties Figure 4.7: Time to boil for could and hot start Figure 4. 8: Time to boil ranking Figure 4. 9: Thermal efficiency for could and hot start Figure 4. 10: Thermal efficiency Figure 4. 11: Specific fuel consumption and thermal efficiency Figure 4. 12: Average burning rates of different stoves type g/min Figure 4. 13: Fire power (Kw) Figure 4. 14: Firepower and turn-down ratio of stoves Figure 4. 15: Indicator performance

List of tables Table 3.1: Distribution of the Maputo population according to the urban areas, suburban and peri-urban Table 3.2: Distribution of households by Urban districts Table 3.3: Mozambique policy ll of gender, class and space in Maputo, Mozambique Table 3.4: Relation of fuel used in the city Maputo Table 3.5: Household Use for Lighting Table 3.6: Household Use for Cooking Table 3.7: Energy resources Table 3.8: Planned power projects in Mozambique Table 4.1: Socio-economic indicators of Maputo Districts Table: 4.2 price Stoves Table 4.3: Proximate and Ultimate Analysis of charcoal Stoves Table 4.4: Characteristic of wood for making good charcoal Table 4.5: Carbon percentage in charcoal Table 4.6: Chemical composition for a good charcoal Table 4.7: Indicator performance

Abbreviations / Nomenclature ADENE- Energy Agency AF- Family household AFCH - Household leadership by man AFCM - Household leadership by woman AFREA - Africa Renewable Energy and Access program AGP- Comprehensive Peace Agreement ARIs - Acute respiratory infection BOP- Guiding Base of the Pyramid CMCM- Municipal Council of Maputo City EE- Energy Efficiency FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations FEC’s- Efficient stoves charcoal FUNAE- National Fund for energy GHG- Green Houses gases GIZ- German Society for International Cooperation IAP- Indoor air Pollution ICS- Improved charcoal Stoves INE- Statistics National Institute MINAG - Ministry of Agriculture NGO-Non Governmental Organization RGPH - Census of Population and Housing SNV- Netherlands Development Organisation UE – Useful Energy WHO-World Health Organization NTFPs- Non-timber forest products

1.0 Introduction In the world, about two third of the population (approximately three billions of people) from developing countries depend much on the biomass fuel (residue of wood, rattan, poles and fibre of residues) for domestic use [1]. Undertaken studies throughout the world demonstrate that there is a higher level of air pollution as a result of biomass fuel use [2], arising afterward a concern on its effects upon living being, in particular women and children health status. Among the health problems from inner air pollution is stated to be acute respiratory infection (IRAB). In Mozambique, 8% of the country population benefit from electricity access, this means 80% of the population use fire wood and charcoal for cooking and heating their residential assets. Apart from energetic use of wood, people use the precious and nonprecious wood for their livelihood, for example, construction of houses and crafts end. Every year, 220.000 hectars (ha) of forest disappear, corresponding to 600 ground pitch per day. This problem is much worse in the provinces of Maputo, Zambézia and Nampula, as a consequence of higher population density than in other provinces.

Not long ago, studies indicated that the higher dependence of Mozambican on the forest resources and regarding to the lower growth rate of tropical forests can fall at limier level or disappear at the near future if there are no substantive measures undertaken in order sort the prevailing problem with regard to global environment security. However, the Mozambican government aiming to ensure the mitigation of high pressure upon the forests resources is promoting forestry plantations of rapid growth exotic species since in the middle of 2005 [3].

In Southern Africa Region, more than 90% of households depend on woody material, including fire wood and charcoal for their energy consumption need [4]. The main reason for this, in energy framework, is that the households have no capacity to access to other fuel sources as gas and fossil fuel mostly supplied in the urban areas. However, it is questionable the sustainability of the higher dependence on the resource for the livelihood of the majority, and reasonably the country should follow the procedure of the

12 most African countries engaged in new and other renewable resources of energy, for example, solar and wind energies.

It should be recognised that in urban areas the access for energy sources is compared to a ladder of many steps where the lower side you have fire wood, and on the upper side you have kerosene, charcoal, gas and electricity. Then, the ease stepping on the ladder depends on household’s income [5]. And because of this, the rate of charcoal consumptions is lower in the urban areas than it does in rural and outskirt areas. On the hand, the rural areas are wealth in fresh and dry trees and shrubs useful for fire wood, and because of this, charcoal is much less used in rural areas than urban and suburban do, since the charcoal is light and produces no smoke [6].

The woody fuel, sawed wood and material for traditional construction, represent the mostly demanded forest products in the country. The source states that in 2007, over 80% of forest products were explored for fire wood and charcoal [7]. The estimated balance between supply and demand of woody fuel and a standard/ scenario of sustainable production of wood-coal and fire wood should contribute to the mitigation of forest clearance in response to fire wood and charcoal natural forest exploration and also supply the essential need of domestic energy of the most vulnerable households in Mozambique urban centres.

1.1 Justification In Mozambique, biomass is the main energy source used about 80% of the population. Taking into account energy losses resulting from coal, wood conversion and charcoal contributes about 11% of final consumption, reason why one should take into account the improvement of stoves in order to reduce the level of losses during use [8].

The carried out study by MINAG for the urban and suburban areas of the Maputo city presented in the annual report[7], shows that the consumption of charcoal in the last 20 years has been increasing significantly, reaching about 3 million sacks of charcoal, equivalent to 70 million USD (US Dollars).

In Mozambique, the production of charcoal is an important activity for energy and income generating for many households, and the production process is described as there is no forests management techniques. This scenario threatens the sustainability of the forests resources at medium and long run [9].

Environmentally, charcoal fuel is acceptable due to its renewable source. Meanwhile, factors, namely poverty, population growth, demand for energy, market charcoal price, and lack of human resources to carry out civic education on environment problems from unsustainable use of natural resources, stands to be highly contributing to increasingly ungovernable exploration of forests resources [10].

The lower output or efficiency of the applied stoves by the population contributes effectively for excessive use of charcoal and fire wood, in this wise, the study of energetic effectiveness (EE) and energetic effectiveness management are key aspects to be taken account for setting viable strategies in order to minimise the scenario o the ground. So as the production of charcoal from energetic forest stands of rapid growth species with minimum environment impact and also for protection and conservation of natural forests, the use of improved stoves of energetic effectiveness should be of great concern and viable for facing the worse scenario [11].

Strategies to alleviate the perceived firewood problem generally advocate increases in the supply of firewood and reduction in its demand, because traditional stoves are widely perceived as being inefficient.

The aim of this study is to assess the efficiency of the charcoal stoves improvement and traditional most used in Maputo City for mitigate the environmental impacts.

1.2 Objectives

1.2.1 General Objective The objective of this study is to evaluate the energy efficiency of charcoal stoves and their respective access by the population in Maputo. 14

1.2.2 Specific Objectives  Assess the calorific properties of charcoal,  To evaluate thermal performance parameter of charcoal stoves through testing and recommending;  To study the behaviour of the population access to the charcoal stoves.

2.0 Methods and Materials The methodology definition was based on relevant material consultations and manuals on the area, following the steps below: 1. Identify the target audience consumption habits: • consumed products; • purchase frequency; • purchase volume. 2. Identify some charcoal stoves on the market. 3. Identify variables that motivate purchase: • Products (variety, quality, availability); • Prices (prices,); • Location (work or live near the site / property sale); 4. Service (speed, quality, uniformity); 5. Identify the technology of tests and test stoves based on the protocol of testing stoves;

2.1 Fuels tested

2.1.1 Provenance of the charcoal The used fuel was charcoal. The used coal is from the Magude district Gaza Province, resulting from native species ( Acácia nilotica, Colophorspermum mopane e Combretum imberbe)

2.1.2 Used Material Material tools applied for conducting the trial: • Spatulas • Glassed flask 15

• Large sieve • Muffle • Digital analytic scale (correctness: ±0,001g) • Three (3) plates of Petri • Pestle • Exsiccate • Stove • crucible (3) • Plastic bucket

2.1.3 Sample preparation The quality of a solid fuel and classified on the basis of 3 main parameters: moisture, volatile matter, and ash results. Introduced into a mortar the pieces of sample, triturated until a particle size of 0.250 mm that recommended for execution of these tests.

2.1.3.1 Samples preparation The sample of charcoal was grinded till 60 mesh, (aperture of 0,250mm) achieved at a desired granulometry and then kept in labelled glass flask.

2.1.4 Material preparation Three plates of Petri, and equal number of crucible, following correctly the procedure of material wash, were place on a greenhouse at 105 oC for half an hour in order to get vapour the moisture content. Then, the plates were taken on to exsiccate for cooling effect.

2.1.5 Procedure during the experiments The trial undertaken in laboratory comprised on the use of samples in different apparatus and the operational conditions as well, in order to get the moisture contents of volatile and ashes matter.

2.2 Charcoal Thermal Characteristics

2.2.1 Proximate Analysis Proximate analysis of charcoal for determination of moisture content (MC), volatile matter (VM), ash content (Ash), calorific value and fixed carbon (FC) was carried out. Calorific value of the raw material was determined using both the standard procedure proximate analysis and derived formulae [12].

2.2.2 Absolute humidity Water content or moisture content is the quantity of water contained in a material, such as soil (called soil moisture), rock, ceramics, fruit, or wood.

2.2.2.1 Absolute humidity determination Weighed and labelled three (3) Petri dishes previously oven dried. Introduced 5g of granulated sample initially for each plate and then kept in a desiccator. After that during 3 hours at a constant temperature (105oC) the plates were placed in the incubator where retired and was cooled to read them, which culminated whit calculation of the moisture content according to the equation below:

W W MC(%wt )  0 1 100% (eq. 2.1) W0 Where: MC (% wt.) = Percentage of moisture in the sample by weight, of the dry sample, W0 = Weight of wet sample before heating (grams), and W1 = Weight of dry sample after heating (grams).

2.2.3 Volatile matter Volatile matter is all substance which in established conditions has a tendency to vaporize. The pressure vapour is the parameter that determines how volatile the substance is.

The volatiles are the substances being present in the sample that evaporates at high temperatures, in this case at 600 ° C to 900 ° C.

2.2.3.1 Volatile matter determination Identified and weighed 3 crucibles previously dried and cooled with a portion of the sample from the oven (approximately 1g). After weighing led to muffle at 600 ° C for 6 minutes, retired from the oven and weighed again after cooling. Data collected before and after the muffle is made the calculation of volatile material according to the following formula: W W VM (%wt )  1 2 100% (eq. 2.2) W0 Where: W0 -weight of sample before heating (grams); W1- weight of sample after heating at 105ºC (grams); W2- weight of sample after heating at 900ºC (grams)

2.2.4 Ash content The ash content of charcoal is an important parameter that determines the charcoal quality. The ash is defined as the coal inutile part (un burnt).

2.2.4.1 Ash content determination Previous experience of retired and made the sample to weigh. It took the sample muffle at a temperature of 600 ° C for 6 hours. After this time withdrew from the oven and proceeded to weighing again after a cooling of approximately 45 minutes in the desiccator.

W W Ash(%wt )  2 3 100% (eq. 2.3) W0 Where: W0 - weight of sample before heating, W2 - weight of sample after heating at 950 ºC, W3 - weight of sample after heating at 600 ºC

2.2.5 Fixed carbon Fixed carbon is a calculated value of the difference between 100 and the sum of the moisture, ash, and volatile matter where all values are on the same moisture reference base. FC (% wt) = 100 - MC - VM – Ash …………………………………………………..(eq. 2.4) Where: MC-moisture Content (%) VM-Volatile matter (%) Ash-ash content (%) Fixed Carbon = 100% - % (moisture) -% (ash) - % (volatile matter)

2.2.6 Ultimate analysis of charcoal

2.2.6.1 Elemental Composition According to the form of elemental analysis, the elemental compositions of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen are determined with the equations below. [12] . C = 0.97 FC + 0.7 (VM – 0.1 Ash) – MC (0.6 – 0.01 MC), % ...... (eq. 2.5) H = 0.036 FC + 0.086 (VM – 0.1 Ash) – 0.0035MC2 (1 – 0.02 MC), % ...... (eq. 2.6) N2 = 2.10 – 0.020 VM, % ...... (eq. 2.7) O2 = 100 – (C + H + N + Ash), % …………………….………...…………….…… (eq. 2.8)

2.2.7 Determination of biomass higher heating values To determine the higher heating values (HHV) of the sample, the following expression was used: TC HHV  p …………………………………………………….………………….. (eq. 2.9) mg Where: ∆T =change in temperature, Cp = heat capacity mg = mass of sample

2.3 Performance analysis of domestic charcoal stoves The tests performed comprise the determination of local water boiling point, the moisture content evaluation the Water Boiling Tests (WBT)

2.3.1 Materials • Digital thermometer, with a 51 KJ thermocouples, Accuracy: 0.1o C and the Range: - 20 to 5000C; • Scale: HF-300G, range: 0 to 310 g, accuracy: 0.01 g (used to weigh the charcoal for moisture content; • Scale (ADAM), accuracy: 5 g, Range: 0 to 15000 g (used to measure the pots, water and stoves); • Charcoal stoves; • Incubator series 2000; • Timer; • Water; • Charcoal; • Pots; • Metal tray; • Heat resistant pads; • Spatula; • Photo grey glasses; • Wood fixture for holding thermocouple probe in water

2.3.2 Stoves testing

2.3.3 The water boiling tests protocol The water boiling test (WBT) is a laboratory test (controlled environment) that allows evaluating the performance of the stove and its quality. This test allows also repeating the process when it is necessary and creating the criteria to difference between stoves types. According to shell foundation house hold energy project WBT version 3.0, the test was carried out following the three phases below: • In the first phase, cold-start (high-power): using a stove and pot cold

• In the second phase, hot-start (high-power): the test followed immediately after the first test while stove was still hot replace the water with a new pot. • In the third phase, simmering (low power): follows immediately from the hot start, in this phase the boiled water is maintained at a simmer for 45 min.

The parameters that were analysed describe the behaviour of stoves in different stages thereby translating its power and efficiency to these levels on the basis of the following categories:

• Time to boil–the time that water contained in the container leads to a boil (up to 100) • Burning rate • Specific fuel consumption • Firepower • Turn down ratio (ratio of the stove’s high power output to its low power) • Thermal efficiency

2.4 Tested stove description Ten charcoal stoves were tested where 5 are traditional and other 5 are improved charcoal stoves, namely (Rocket Works, Envirofit, Mbaula, Zavala/Metal, Zavala/Barro, Sucata, chapa de zinco, botija de Gás, Beira, Barro).

2.4.1 Wroket works Rocket Works is a type of circler stove made of metal, with airing condition in it. This can use fire woody on its lower part and charcoal on its upper part. It has a bigger combustion chamber allowing achievement of full combustion and for security end, it provides an insulator grill which separates the metallic part of the stove that in activity achieves much higher temperature.

h Outer height =24,0 cm

ɸ Outer diameter = 24,5 cm

h Inner height =17,5 cm

ɸ Inner diameter= 12,5 cm

With an average capacity of 821g of fuel

Figure 2. 1: Wroket works Stove 21

2.4.2 Envirofit Envirofit is a metallic stove made mainly in India, of a circular shape with airing conditions on its lower parte. It provides a metallic grill and metallic handles and wooden plated a small chamber of combustion.

hOuter height = 14 cm

ɸ Outer diameter= 22 cm

h Inner height =6,5 cm

ɸ Inner diameter= 17cm

A stove of an average capacity of 465 g of fuel.

Figure 2. 2: Envirofit Stove

2.4.3 Mbaula Mbaula is a Mozambican stove made, in Maputo province, of aluminium material at outer part and a plate made of clay at the inner part (argil). The clay plate has got 7 holes of 1,5 cm of diameter.

Thickness of 10 cm

h Outer height of 20,5 cm

ɸ Outer diameter of 27,5 cm

h Inner height of clay plate is 6,5 cm and a ɸ = 19,5 cm,

ɸ The airing holes in alluminium: =11 cm and =4 cm

ɸ hole of the clay plate = 1,5 cm

A stove of an average capacity of 477 g of fuel

Figure 2. 3: Mbaula Stove

2.4.4 Zavala/Metal This type of stove is produced in Zavala district, Inhambane province, that is why i tis named. The circular shaped stove is made only of Clay, and being placed a metal plate in it.

Thickness of the stove is 13 cm

H stove = 36,5 cm

ɸ outer of the stove = 32,5 cm

ɸ Inner of the stove = 21,5 cm h Plate of metal =9,0 cm ɸ =20,5 cm Inner of metal plate ɸ Outer of metal plate =23,5 cm

ɸ Hole of the clay plate = 1,5 cm

ɸ opening spaces=4,5 cm

ɸ iron supporting the port=8 mm A stove of an average capacity of 535 g of fuel

Figure 2. 4: Zavala/metal Stove

2.4.5 Zavala/Barro This type of stove is the source of Inhambane province, specifically in zavala district so took the name of Zavala district. Constituted only by clay, with a circular shape.

Thickness of 13 cm H Stove = 36,5 cm

ɸ Outer of stove = 32,5 cm ɸ Inner of stove = 21,5 cm

H Plate of clay =9,0 cm ɸ Inner of clay plate =20,5 cm

ɸ Outer of clay plate =23,5 cm ɸ Hole of clay palte = 1,5 cm

ɸ airing holes=4, ɸ=4,5 cm ɸ Iron supporting the pot =8 mm

A stove of an average capacity of 565 g of fuel.

Figure 2. 5: zavala/barro Stove

2.5.6 Sucata This name is due to the stove factorying material from recycled scrap-iron. General, these stoves are quandragular shaped and four footed support. And two handles at the outer superior, and the stove as a whole is divided into two parts, upper for charcoal fuel, and at the lower part is for ashes and airing purposes.

H Stove = 48 cm

h chamber of fuel = 5 cm

A Upper part of stove = 400 cm2

h Part of the tin =25 cm

A hole for airing = 260 cm2

ɸ support =8 mm

A stove of an average capacity of 700 g of fuel

Figure 2. 6: Sucata Stove

2.5.7 Chapa de Zinco This type of stoves are named “Chapa zinco” because of its strutural shape is naturally of zinc matter. The circular stove has got four feet which also supports the pot, with two division one for charcoal fuel and other for ashes.

Hstove = 32,0 cm

hfuel =6,0cm

hash =11,0cm

ɸInner =25,5cm

ɸ Hole of metal plate = 12,0 cm A stove of an average capacity of 900 g of fuel

Figure 2. 7: Chapa de Zinco Stove

2.5.8 Botija de Gás This type of stoves are named "gas cylinder" due to the main chamber of the stove, which is made from a cross section of the gas bottle. The circular stove has got four feet which also supports the pot, with two division one for charcoal fuel and other for ashes.

H Stove = 37 cm

ɸ Inner of stove = 23,5cm

H chamber fuel =10,0cm

H fuel =4,0 cm

H main section =15 cm

A stove of an average capacity of 800 g of fuel

Figure 2. 8: Botija de Gás Stove

2.5.9 Beira Stove: Due to its provenance the stove is named “Fogão Beira”, i tis manufactured in Beira in central zone of Mozambique. The stove differs from the stoves described previously. It is divided into two parts, one for charcoal fuel and other for ashes, and no feets but supported by a base. Moreover, the fuel area is struturely divide in two parts (major and minor). The minor part is the grill separating the two main division of stove.

Thickness of the stove is 13 cm

H stove = 36,5 cm

h combustion chamber =9,0 cm

ɸ supports =8mm

A stove of an average capacity of 568 g of fuel

Figure 2. 9: Fogão Beira

2.5.10 Barro With regard to the manufacturing material (clay – barro), the stove is named “barro” stove. It is cylindrically shaped with different diameters from upper and lower sides, the plate for fuel and base supports ashes. The separating grill is clay with 17 holes of 1 cm of diameter which all together cover an empty area of 13.35 cm2.

H stove = 22 cm ɸ thickness= 2,5cm ɸ = 21,5cm Inne of stove ɸ Inner of clay plate =20 cm

ɸ Outer of clay plate =23,5cm

ɸ hole of clay plate = 1,5cm It has got 17 airing holes ɸ=4cm ɸ Iron which supports the pot =8mm Stove of an average capacity of 426g of fuel.

Figure 2. 10: Barro stove

3.0 Geographical situation of Maputo City Maputo City is the capital of Mozambique which is located in south part of the country, and it is limited by Marracuene district at north; and Matola and Boane districts at northwest and Matuitine district at south. And it is also located on the sea level, providing its natural and scenic beauty of beaches and island, and strong hostelry infrastructures along the coastal zone. Maputo City is a strategical place playing a crucial role at national and internationally level, since among many aspects, the city holds the mostly best infrastructures and provides many different products and services than the other parts through the country.

3.1 General characteristics of Maputo City inhabitants In accordance with population and habitation general census of 1997 [13], the city is accommodating 1300.000 inhabitants distributed over five municipality districts and two administrative posts, and gathering all villages are 53 altogether. Looking into the districts, localities and villages, at organization and urbanization point of view, either in 26 demographic characteristics or social status of citizens, you might find out substantial differences And under demographic and social point of view, the city is divided into three diversified areas, namely urban area (the perimeter of Neighborhood with cement houses), suburban (Neighborhood with grass houses) and outskirt area (new constructed villages far away the main city).

Figure 3. 1 Maputo City map

With respect to the three areas in reference above, the population from Maputo is distributed as follows: the suburban area comprises 36 villages and accommodates 77,5% of population; urban area with 13,8% of population and finally the outskirt, dispite of its extension, accommodates 8,7% of population.

Table 3. 1 Distribution of the Maputo population according to the urban areas, suburban and peri-urban

Area Population No % Urban 133.759 13,8 Sub-urban 748.513 77,55 Peri-urban 84.565 8,7 Total 966.837 100 Source [14].

In general, at Maputo City level, the avergage number of households is high which may comprise 5 or 4 persons for household. If you look into the distribution of population over the districts und comparison, you can see that the KaMfumo district is mostly 27 inhabited by households with less than five members, whilst the districts of suburban (polana caniço A e B) and outskirt areas there are many more households with eight (8) member, and so as these districts are naturally the most populated ones.

Table 3.2: Distribution of households by Urban districts Average No of people by AF Urban Districts Dimension AF < 5 (%) AF de 5 a 8 (%) AF > 8 (%) by AF kaMfumo 4,6 54,1 38,4 7,5 KaLhamanculo 5,5 42,1 41,9 16,0 Kamaxaquene 5,8 37,8 44,8 17,4 Kamavota 5,3 42,9 43,9 13,2 Kamubukwane 5,6 40,4 43,1 16,5 Total da Cidade 5,4 43,3 42,6 14,1 Source [14].

Despite of relevant transformations carried out over the economic rehabilitation in 1986 and 1992 time upon which the signature of peace agreement took place, the substantial differences between “Cement zone” and outskirt area are still remaining unchangeable so far. But, of course, there is some relatively social-economic growth in the suburban and outskirt areas over the last five years. However, it is important to note that since 1992, there is a considerable economic growth which is targeted through energies access, improvement of habitation infrastructures, improvement of environment sanitation systems, and construction of new dwellings, contributing for households per capita income any way. In table 3.3 is represented the distribution of social-economic indicators through the Maputo districts and is also setting apart the women because in Mozambique, with high incidence in Maputo City, there are many households under women leadership, and also they are on the rise in issues related to economy and decision making as well.

Table; 3. 3 Policy of gender, class and space in Maputo, Mozambique

Socio-economic indicators of Maputo Districts

Urban District Proportion of AFCM Poverty rate of AFCH Poverty rate of AFCM kaMfumo 28,0 2,0 2,4 Kamaxaquene 33,6 39,0 35,1 KaLhamanculo 28,6 26,1 23,7 Kamavota 28,3 29,2 26,6 Kamubukwane 29,0 36,3 34,0 Source [14].

Table 3. 4: Relationship of fuel used in the city of Maputo

Production Tera Joule (TJ) 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Fuelwood 268,001 270,895 273,821 276,778 279,767 282,827 Charcoal 11,187 11,484 11,715 11,946 12,185 12,429 Other 744 1,817 4,434 6,799 9,481 12,206 Total 279,932 284,196 289,970 295,523 301,433 307,462 Source [14].

Table: 3. 5: Household Use for Lighting

Firewood Kerosene Other 1997 2003 1997 2003 1997 2003 % Maputo Province 14.8 4.1 49.6 69.3 34.3 26.6 Maputo City. 0.2 0.1 53.7 38.8 45.9 61.0 Total 46.2 31.6 42.0 53.8 9.2 14.4 Source [14].

Table 3. 6: Household Use for Cooking Household Use for Cooking % 1997 2003 1997 2003 1997 2003 Firewood Charcoal Other Maputo 72.6 61.1 19.9 26.1 7.1 12.7 Maputo C. 17.4 9.9 53.6 63.4 29.1 26.3 Total 89.8 85.1 7.1 12.4 3.0 2.3

Source [14].

3.3. Etnographic Contributions For better understanding the dynamic of lower rate of poverty among the households under the women leadership in Maputo, it was established an atypical structure focusing on structural specific containments and the interaction of women and men. And simultaneous, there was recognition that activities being carried out by people are an aged through the particular position with regard to unfair social relations and also by common cultural discourses, including the gender group.

Most often men and women in good economic conditions hold higher academic levels and are capable to get better employments and run succeeded formal business. On the other hand, women and men Unemployed, with no employment in the public or private sector, run informal and few run formal business which is their main source for income. The diversified economical activities should of course require the establishment of confident contacts. Which are mostly set with neighbouring households member.

3.4 Energy According to Vasconcelos, energy is the capacity of performing work, be that a man, machine or be a natural phenomenon operating. And regarding to the history, the available energy for undertaking work was the physical force of men and animals. However, over the time the technology evolution, there were created conditions for use of available energy in nature under the need capabilities. The result from the inventions and innovations led to men not only using man and animal power, but also other power source [14].

Later on the petroleum and natural gas were being used in the machines and become great sources of energy. In that same time started de development of exploitation of petroleum and come out the fossil energy economy (charcoal, petroleum and natural gas). The increase in the power of electric energy in the 20th century makes it possible to see a great increase in human development.

Meanwhile it is crucial to refer to that it is always truth that energetic crises arises vulnerability of generating system focused on few fuels, becoming in this wise the alternative sources of energy the solutions can respond with satisfaction the communities need [16]. From the petroleum world crises of 1973, there was more attention on biomass as an alternative source, and then, in the world came out many national programs aimed at getting major effectiveness in biomass combustion and gasification systems as cited on [17]. Policies, legislation and financings are indispensable in order to make viable the use of alternative sources, which are still now out expensive and little efficient. As far the decrease of gases causing greenhouse effect as the diminishing of fossil fuels stocks, contributing that the alternatives sources, mainly the renewable and not polluting ones, should be set apart. According to Kazay e Legey [16], in Mozambique, among diversified alternative sources, the most important estimated potential is: wind energy (4.5 GW); solar photovoltaic (14,3Twp); got from biomass (2 GW); and the hydroelectric centrals (18 GW).

3.5 Energy Situation in Mozambique Mozambique provides a substantial potential in energetic resources, viable conditions for the country not only to supply the domestic market, but also to export either to the southern African region or to other international markets [18]. The biomass will further be a crucial and keystone at supplying the energy requirement for rural and suburban population if there is no vigorous program for change of current situation.

For the current situation, gas in way of Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) and the illumination petroleum has little contribution on national energetic balance, so being reliable on use of LPG supplied much a lot in some provinces capital cities as Maputo, Matola, Beira and Nampula. Most often the consumption of this energy oscillate due to supply chocking, and annual supply may not be greater than 14.000 tonnes [18].

In the country, the solar radiation is 5.7 kWh/m2 /day in average, and with 5,2 kWh/m2 /day minimum recorded in Lichinga – Niassa province and 6,0 kWh/m2 /day maximum recorded in Pemba and Maniquenique. So far, there was installed over 135.000 Wp, and it is hope that once the project in implementation on the ground the available solar power will go up to 1 million of Wp demonstrating an evident growth.

The current knowledge for Aeolian issues is so far incipient, although preliminary assessments undertaken mostly along the coastal zone indicate that it is promising. Identified geothermal sources have a potential which is considerably appraised at range of 25 MW, in the seismic flaw of the east of Africa region [18].

Table 3. 7: Energy resources Resouces Estimated potencial 18 GW potential Small Hydro 3 competetive projects 5.6 Gw priority projects 23 Twp- Potencial Solar Global horizontal Radiation-betwen 1.785 to 2.206 KWh/m2 /year 600 MW - Potencial for grid connections 4.5 GW - Potencial Wind 1.1 GW - Potencial Grid Connection 230 GW - Priority Projects 2 GW – Potential 128 Mw – Priority projects 1.006 MW – Residual Forest Biomass 831 Mw – sugar companies 280 MW – pulp 68 MW – Municipal Solid Waste Geothermal 200 MW – Potencial 20 t MW – Prioroty Projects waves ~2 TW; 10KW/m on south coast Source: [46].

Mozambique in terms of per capita income is low levels and financial resources shortage in the public sector, represent strong fence constraint against the acceleration

32 of improvement access to new energies by the population. The annual consumed energy among households is nearly 30.6 millions of forest hectares its represents about 80% of total production.

3.5.1 Production and potential of renewable energy in the country. The energy constitutes one of the main factors of economic development and the availability of energetic resources (hydrologic, natural gas and mineral coal) gives to the country better conditions to satisfy national demand but also the energy needs to all austral regions. Mozambique is poor country, but has enormous energy resources that have not hardly been tapped in the same time.

It is one of smallest consumers of energy in southern Africa, with about 80% of the country’s energy consumption being based on biomass, and less than 3% of the population using electric energy.

3.6 Priority planned project in Mozambique Mozambique’s current planned power projects include a number of ‘traditional’ large- scale hydro, coal and gas power generation projects, which are summarized in Table 3.8.

Table 3.8: Planned power projects in Mozambique

Project name Type of project size Comments Cahora Bassa Hydropower 850- 1200 Detailed feassibility study under way North Bank expansion additional MW Mpanda Nkuwa Hydropower 2,500 MW Developed by Camargo correia, Brasil Massingir Hydropower 40MW Managed by EDM Lúrio Hydropower 120 MW Majawa Hydropower 25 MW Malema Hydropower 60 MW Moatize Coal-fired for Plant 1,500 MW Developed by IES Combined-Cycle natural gas-fired Temane power plant 300-400 MW On the Sasol gas pipeline, 2010 Source: [42]

Renewable energy has been a particular focus of recent energy policy in initiatives, which have been designed to discover why renewable energy options have not 33 achieved a significant market presence. Some of the measures that have been developed to address this problem include: . having mandated renewable energy targets; . the provision of subsidies for renewable energy; . the incorporation of externalities into energy prices and . Government-sponsored research aimed at improving renewable energy technologies [19].

3.7 Mozambique’s forest Potencial Mozambique is a country relatively rich in natural forests and habitat of wild fauna. So as in Mozambique forests cover nearly a quarter of the country. It has 5 important parks located across the country. These parks are set up with an aim of protecting and conserving the existing diversified ecosystems; rich biodiversity; scenic landscapes; wildlife threatened with extinction; as well as to maintain ecological processes; and preserve cultural and natural resources. The parks are very important to the rural inhabitants as NTFPs help sustain these communities in many ways and not only for their source of food and livelihood.

And about 70% of the country (65.3 millions of heactars) is covered by forests and outher woody plants. The forest area covers nearly 40.6 millions of hectars (51% of the country), while other types of woody plants (shrubs, thicket and forests with traditional agriculture) cover about 14.7 millions of hectars (19% of the country. Yielding forests (timber yield) cover about 26.9 millions of hectars (67% of total forest area). Thirteen millions of hectars are not for timber explotation in which the large part is located in the national parks, forest reservoirs and other area of conservation [20]. In figure 3.2 is shown the distribuition of types of forests in Mozambique. In general, Mozambique has no problems regarding to Woody fuls availability, but actual there is a shortage in areas of easy access and higher population density (for example, many rural areas), and also good forest resource in area of tough access. And as a result of lack, charcoal and fire wood supplied for poor living in outskirt are explored in increasingly long distances.

Figure 3.2: Forest cover map of Mozambique; source [20]

3.7.1 Deforestation to attend the energetic need at household local level Dispite of some developing countries, that Mozambique is a partaker, have still a wide range of native forests are threatened with extinction. The high exploration pressure on wood in domestic market and requirement of supplying woody energy are stated to be some of the main threatening factors [21]. Although the existing legislation does not encourage the cut of specific species for energy end, Afonso et al [9] state people cutting the species for fire wood purpose. The tree falling for energy is characterized by low cutting and without plans for sustainable management, further there is no forest reposition programs. As Souza (2000) and MEIRA (2002) [43], from government point of view, there is not seen funding for conservation and use technology on sub products from carbonization, unfortunately it might historically be evident that charcoal production is a forest and other natural resources more devastating economic activity. This is due to the poor techniques applied for wood exploration, 35 leading the ecosystem to a critical estate situation. atassanov et al. [5], it is annually devastated about 141 985, 12 045, e 23 360 hectares in supply the energetic need urban centre of Maputo/Matola, Beira e Nampula, respectively in terms of hectares ready meant.

3.8 Biomass as an alternative source of energy Upon the energy framework, the concept biomass describes all forms of plants and its derived products can be turned into usage energy, as for example, wood, urban wood residues, forests, rattan essential oils, floral, medicinal products, herbs and spices, dyes, raisins. The energy generated from biomass is also known as “green energy” or bioenergy. According to Vasconcelos et al. [14], an energetic biomass is the outcome got from plants physiological activity transforming solar energy through photosynthetic process in chemical energy. Of course, this process is a cyclical, and then the CO2 is available to produce new biomass [22]. Biomass is set part on world energetic scenario due to the development of more advanced technologies for transformation of matter into energy, regarding to the threatening upon end off of fossil fuels reservoirs and by incorporation of definitive environmental thematic in discussions on sustainable development. Yet, the author refers to the other key factor is the signature taken in Kyoto Protocol, on which was set that all developing countries might reduce significantly emissions of gases with greenhouse effect, and remarking that the use of renewable energies shows a trend of great concern on world energy framework [23].

3.8.1 Biomass Energy in Mozambique The country has an annual production potential of firewood and charcoal about 22 million tons, where in this moment the consumption is about 14.8 million tons a year whose rate of growth is 2% / year. [24] In the framework of the introduction clean and efficient technologies in the country for institutional and domestic use, the government sensitizes for use improved cook stoves which the efficiency is around 60 to 70%. This efficiency 36

represents a considerable gain in relation those stoves used in time. In relation to production of biomass the country has good agro Energetic conditions that favour the production of biofuels (biodiesel and ethanol), without compromising the availability of land for food production or endanger biodiversity conservation.

Figure3.3:Institutional wood stove, source:[author unknown] Figure 3.4: Metal stove [Author unknown]

3.9 Wood-coal The charcoal is gotten by uncomplete combustion of wood. In the primitive era, man used pieces of wood in blaze to light caves or heat themselves in winter season. Probably it was not late to realize the use of the burned wood (charcoal) of black color and friable, since this could neither make blaze nor smoke, generating heat in more controlled way than the one produced by direct use of fire wood , then, it was the discovery of the use of charcoal fuel [25].

However, even in some countries where the access to other energy sources is true, the charcoal is of great technological use, as for example on the use of some molten iron in Brazil that need raw material (pi-iron) free of sulfur found in charcoal. There ng the ecological disasters occurrence like the one took place in Madagascar lived to terrible time of devastation use of forests. In Brazil, the yielding of charcoal supplies on about one third (1/3) of world production, here is used almost full for iron- foundry, should be safeguarded the full need of utilization of the forests by rational way, avoidi but still produced in large, as a age ago, without looking into the major concern for preservation of environment, and with deteriorated labor conditions [15].

3.9.1 Concept on fuel Every matter that flame is known as fuel. This is a burning substance that in an atomic battery can generate chain reaction, a reaction which itself evolves since the required agents for the reaction take place are yielded from it [26]. In accordance with the nature and properties of matter, either Woody or not.

3.9.2 Traditional charcoal production According to Belward, 2011 [44], Mozambique produces between 1.2 and 2 millions of Mg of charcoal annually. Mozambique faces the comsumption of charcoal basically from hard wood which is produced throuhg a traditional stove. The method is performed by eigth steps as follow: (i) Identification of viable trees; (ii) Assessing the correct palce for stove building; (iii) Falling trees and carrying to the stove place; (iv) Selection of considered important material for stovebuilding, (grass, sand or clay and stones if available); (v) Stove building (vi) Stove operational; (vii) Turning off the stove; (viii) Loading charcoal in the sac [27].

Figure 3. 5: charcoal bagged point of sale, source [ 6 ]

In Maputo, most households, the use of fire wood was replaced by charcoal because of high energetic intensity and also transportation and storing promptness. According to Vilanculos (1998) [45], the charcoal is produced in stoves made from clay and grass, and depending on the species, the yielding can vary between 20 and 50 sacs (hardly 70 sacks) weighing from 25 and 35 kg per sac.

This type of stove reacquires bit tough work and plain tools, so that the construction is carried out by the household members or some relatively known people that receive local beverage in payment - "Wutchema" (20 to 25 liters).

The majority of studies carried out in Mozambique took place in Maputo. This is because the city has the greatest fuel woody consumption rate in the country which is explained by shortage of biomass in it. Thus, the techniques for charcoal production in discussion below are carried out in the south region of the country.

Moreover, the charcoal produced in this region is from private sector naturally. The charcoal producers operate in two main areas of charcoal production (Changalene and Marracuene districts) supplying Maputo city. According to Pereira (1989) [46] and in accordance with researches undertaken by National Directorate of Forestry and Wildlife (DNFFB) in 1985 and 1988 [11], these areas supplied 90% of total charcoal transported to Maputo City, where the major quantities of charcoal transported through Michafutene corridors (National Road, N1) and Matola-Rio (National Road, N2).

3.9.3 Wood-coal business The charcoal is distributed in different quantities. Usually, sacs of 50kg and water bucket are used as standard on sale course. The common pile is measured by the 500g tin of "milk Nido" and also varying piles from 250g to 20l of oil quantities of charcoal [28].

With regard to the sale of charcoal sale price, particular resealing was $ 2.06 / sac. The retailer could get a profit of $ 0.35 and $ 0.42, or be 67% of buying price. This means that the cost of hiring workers is much lower than the cost of hiring workers. 39

In period 1988 and 1992, the woody fuel price raised considerably, in the same time the charcoal was supplied for different places. Thus, the charcoal profit was 42%, and for fire wood was only 5.8% [28].

According to Van Beukering (2007) [29], cited by the Report of AFREA (2011) [30], the commerce and transport f charcoal from rural areas to urban centers as well as the chain of values from producer to the consumer is similar in all sub-Saharan African countries (Figure 3.5). It comprises an interaction between small and big scaled transporters and sales / business men, in particular of big scaled ones that also commonly transport charcoal.

In Mozambique, charcoal and fire wood are the main fuel for urban areas Mozambique. While about 70 to 80% of urban households rely on woody fuels, and for rural households depend heavily and only on woody fuels for domestic energy generating [31]. But the use of charcoal in urban households is affected by its availability. Over the rain season, the charcoal scarce in urban markets and, of course, the price rises. It is also seen in other places of southern Africa, the charcoal shortage and its price rise is too high in January, February and March, heavy rain months

In Maputo City, the increased demand for woody fuels was meant to be the main internal force for deforestation and the possible cause for natural forests degradation. Saket (1994) [32] made estimation that, in 1970 and 1988, the deforestation rate rounded 20% in Maputo.

Despite the forest resources being full ended off in consequence of charcoal production, the woody fuels are still the basic product for the majority households in Maputo. This situation may last for a long time since the alternative sources of electricity are not accessible and trustable for most parts of households, although the modernization of substation of 60 MW at West of Maputo City (BTG, 1990) , as well as the marketing campaign for charcoal stove purchase in such a way that the consuming habits could be changed, so the demand for woody fuels should be mitigated.

3.9.4 Demand for charcoal in Maputo City In 2011, Maputo, three millions of sacs of charcoal have been in consumption, managing a market of $ 70 million, in 2010 and 2012, the price rise a lot from 250 to 650 Meticais (200% more).

The new pattern of prices and expenditure for households of low income builds up an opportunity of really market for the private sector to introduce alternative upon charcoal, among them there is briquettes, efficient charcoal stoves, gas and ethanol.

In 2014, there was carried out a study upon which was identified the consumer profile, as a layer foundation for introduction of new products that can be accessible with great effectiveness, competitive price and provision of good business atmosphere.

Figure 3.6: Form such as charcoal is presented in resale posts, source:[Author unkwown]

3.10 Charcoal stoves well succeeded in Maputo According to FUNAE, SNV is developing micro-clusters of Charcoal Efficient Stoves (CFS) in Maputo province, strengthening the local capacity to produce and distribute stoves of 40% of effectiveness Mbula modality, as well as other standards for domestic use and commerce. Mbula is a charcoal stove label and well succeeded in Kenya and Tanzania, only through adaptations and marketing strategies towards a base of Pyramid which will be transformed into a viable alternative for cooking in Mozambique. This is a 41 joint venture between GIZ, Livaningo and Kulima partnership. SNV aims to stimulate their activities in the sector, promoting the access of 22 thousand FEC's and benefiting more than 100 thousand people up to the end of 2015.

3.11 Gas and Ethanol as alternative sources with respect to wood fire and charcoal The follow-up of population growth at Maputo City level is the increase of demand in charcoal, causing the rise in 200% more. Consequently, the 65kg of charcoal sac is sold at more than USD 30, hence the gas and ethanol turned into viable energy for about 28 thousand households in Maputo City. The Clean Star, through the SNV introduced ethanol from Ndzilo label in the local market as a consequence of their experience in economic development to promote alternative cooking solutions in the market. In Mozambique, the cooking upon ethanol was introduced with "Ndzilo" label (meaning flame in local mother tongue) and the outcome encouraged to be a confident alternative solution for low income households. There is a hope that up to the end of 2015, more than 30 thousand women can use ethanol in their kitchens. This product is being promoted before the sellers in 40 municipal markets in Maputo City Municipality (CMCM), cooperating for charcoal consumption reduction.

For the gas, SNV, Maputo Municipality and GALP share with joy the idea of transforming households in natural gas consumers, and on this conquest, ones to save money and time in cooking. This Project will contribute to support the private sector capacity in good quality gas supply, at good price and through effectiveness distribution network and adapted to the BOP.

3.12 Social environment aspects due to the use of traditional stoves

3.12.1 Inner air pollution It is roughly stated that cooking and heating with solid biomass, under traditional stoves and fireplaces, is an important source of inner air pollution which causes respiratory diseases as the main cause for mortality in African country. It increases the risk of getting asthma, bronchitis, flu, pneumonia and other diseases. The exposing levels are so high among women and children that stay in the house most of their time [33]. 42

According to WHO, in developing countries, inner air pollution is the major risk for health ranking after sub nutrition, HVI / AIDS, lack of water drink and appropriate sanitation. It is estimated that 1.5 million people die because of pollution effects from saw dust every year. It means that 4,000 death per day. In sub-Saharan Africa 396 000 peoples, in particular women and children, would die of inner air pollution in 2002 [34].

With regard to this phenomenon, and since the cooking in closed places as an urban characteristic, could ensure secure conditions which may not endanger the users and other members like old people and children. And it is not advisable to use firewood in urban centers, and in replacement one can use charcoal or clean fuels.

The impacts related to the burn of woody fuels are many which may reach high proportions, damaging the inner air quality. Therefore, inner air quality comfortably reflects the human health. The most evidential problems are in respiratory and cardiovascular system which is always novice for social groups of risk (pregnant women, feat us, new born, children and old peoples).

Studies carried out in Mexico City (Sandoval et al., 1993) [35] and India, Nepal and New Guinea (Larson et al., 1994) [36], concluded that people who expose themselves for long time before fire, either in the house or out, to cook, appeared to show more increasing in respiratory diseases the chronic bronchitis and lowering the pulmonary function. A report of World Health Organization points out that in developing country children and women are the most victims of woody biomass utilization as residential source due to inner air pollution [34].

Moreover, the smoke from biomass combustion is among the main causes of death in developing countries, so this might be responsible for the death of 1.3 million peoples annually. And it is also to remark that air pollution in the houses is responsible for 2.7% of world diseases [34].

3.13 Energy effectiveness Energy efficiency can be defined as an energy consumption optimization, holding the energy constant without decreasing the yielding rate [37]. Some part of energy is lost in consequence of friction, heat loss or other factors during the energy conversion for final use. This energy is usually realized or lost to the atmosphere in the way of heat [38]. Carrying analysis on the energy flow of the charcoal energy production process should be of great importance to estimate the energy used system, on the other hand identifying energetic losses points and the components that can be replaced by other of major effectiveness, further improving the visibility over energetic balance of the resource, and a new scientific foundation for sustainable energy production [39].

There is advantageous and benefits from energy efficiency related to a greater energy availability, meanwhile avoiding loss and also the protection of environment through minimization of environmental impact, mitigating the burning of fossil fuels, emission of GEE, deforestation, increase of oceans level, etc. [40].

4.0 Results and discussion The results of this study are grouped in three categories: 1. Socio-economic status of user household; 2. Fuel evaluation quality: physical and chemical properties of the charcoal from mondzo tree, whose scientific name is (Acacia nilotica, Colophorspermum mopane and Combretum imberbe); 3. Performance Parameters and stove evaluate: Time to boil, Burning rate, Specific fuel consumption, Firepower, Turn down ratio, Thermal efficiency.

4.1 Households Household comprises the singular person or group of persons related to parenthetic ties, living in the same house, sharing foods and major part of expenditures.

In Mozambique, commoner type of household is the enlarged one, meaning that apart from father, mother and sons, there is an inclusion of other parents. The number of household members is increasing so far, since it is about 4 million in 1997 to 5 millions 44 in 2000, for all country in general. Household leader refers to the person responsible for the household members, one must be resident or present or not, but absence should be over 6 months.

4.1.1 Age of the target audience

Figure 4.1: Age of the target audience

According to the results presented in figure 4.1, the age range that was out of that of 25- 35 years with 42% of the total surveyed. This is due to the fact that this range understands the stage where most of the young people begin to take on an autonomous life with financial independence and also understand the age that registers highest number of marriages. In Mozambique, data from the general census of inhabitants and dwelling in 1997 and 2007 [13] shows that, despite record of increasing numbers of women under the leadership of households, the major part of households are under leadership of men (Figure 4.2) So far, in Maputo there is a slight increase in the percentage of household leadership women in Figure 4.2.

4.1.2 Famele leadership households

Figure4. 2: Percentage female leadership households, source

Table 4.1 Socio-economic indicators of Maputo Districts Socio-economic indicators of Maputo Districts Urban District proportion of AFCM Poverty rate AFCH Poverty rate AFCM kaMfumo 28,0 2,0 2,4 Kamaxaquene 33,6 39,0 35,1 KaLhamanculo 28,6 26,1 23,7 Kamavota 28,3 29,2 26,6 Kamubukwane 29,0 36,3 34,0 Source:[14 ]

If you look into the city in Socio-economic terms, there are remarkable social asymmetries between urban and suburban zones as the poverty indicators sustain between households under men and women leadership in the two zones. Further, the level of poverty is higher in women than in the men group. However, the rate of poverty among urban people is 5% lower in comparison with the rest of districts which is about 26%.

4.1.3 Income Monthly households' income varies in accordance with the economic activity run among citizens. As of 31.43% of residents get an income under 2500Mt (USD 59.5) per month, and only 6% of residents get an income over 17000Mt (USD 404.8), and for this last group of people should be noted that the majority hold higher education level and have formal employment. And most of residents are not running business on their own.

Figure 4. 3: Monthly income of households

4.1.4 Purchase Period We found that consumers prefer to buy products from day-to-day facilities near his residence. Most of the customers, ie nearly 70% of those surveyed spend more than 100.00 MTn increasingly moving to sales points.

Figure 4. 4: shopping Period

4.1.5 Factors that influence the making purchasing decision by Audience The most unsatisfactory points compared to sales points which respondents attended, about 15%, were lacking in options (variety of such products) and those who complained of high prices were around 21%, and were the biggest complaint in relation to sales points.

Figure 4. 5: Critical points of purchase decision-making by Audience

Another issue addressed fairly by the residents was the fact that the biofuel last a very short time, especially when you cook up foods such as beans, rice and xima, which by the way are the daily basis of most citizens

4.1.6 Propensity to purchase (Behavior) It seems that purchases by consumers were mainly influenced by the price and convenience of the stove use and less for the quality itself. The fact of ever having used a same type stove seemed to us that also had some influence when choosing the stove to buy. The point most appreciated by respondents in relation to sales points was its location, which is justified by the fact that most of our respondents who attended these posts because of them are located close to their homes or workplaces.

Table: 4. 2 Price of Stoves iten Stove’s name Price (MZM) Price (USD) 1 NZILO 1.450,00 MTn 29 2 POCA 250,00 MTn – 600,00 MTn 12 3 NBAULA 250,00 MTn 5 4 Envirofit 1500 30 5 Beira 450 9 6 Zavala Barro 400 8 7 Zavala Metal 400 8 8 Chapa de Zinco 200 4 9 Sucata 250 5 10 Botija de gas 350 7 11 Wroket works 1750 35

4.2 Fuel evaluation quality

4.2.1 Proximate and Ultimate Analysis of charcoal Stoves

Table 4.3: Proximate and Ultimate Analysis of charcoal Stoves Physical Composition of Biomass Elementar Composition Property Result (%) Property Result(%) Mosture Content 6.35 C 35.78623 Volatile Matter 33.13 H 3.157819 ASH 41.06 N2 1.4374 Fix Carbon 19.46 O2 59.61856

Table 4.3 shows that for the elemental composition the oxygen this to around 60% and the carbon below 40% and the Hydrogen and nitrogen are below 5%.

Based on (LUENGO and Emmerich) The charcoal properties are not fixed, they depend on the type of wood and the carbonization process that is different woods also originate from different charcoals.

To get coal with a good quality, water and ash levels should not be superiors to 8% and 3%, respectively, because the greater these levels are more easily coal spoils.

According Luengo and emmerich, to produce a good charcoal timber should have the following characteristics in table below:

Table 4. 4: Wooden characteristic for good manufacturing charcoal carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Ash 50,5% 6,2% 42,4% 0,4% 49

The percentage of carbon varies with the carbonization temperature, the higher the temperature of carbonization, the higher its proportion.

Table 4. 5 of Carbon percentage in charcoal

Temperature obtaining charcoal (°C) Carbon percentage in charcoal (%) 250°C 65% de carbono 300°C 73% de carbono 400°C 80% de carbono The chemical composition of a fine carbon, carbonized at a temperature of about 500 ° C.

Table 4.6: Chemical composition of a good coal carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Mosture Ash content 84,5% 2,5% 4,3% 7,5% 1,2%

The main parameters used to analyze the properties of charcoal are: wood moisture content, ash content, volatiles, caloric power, power absorber and fixed carbon.

4.2.2 Charcoal Properties Comparing literature data with the experimental results note that there are considerable lags that lead us to conclude Under Luengo and Emmerich that the coal tested is not good because the values are outside the acceptable levels.

LUENGO e EMMERICH Experiency 70 59.619 60 50.5 50 42.4 41.060 40 35.786 30

Percentile (%) 20 6.2 10 3.158 0.4 0 Carbon hydrogen oxygen Ash

Figure 4. 6: : Main charcoal properties 50

4.3 Water Boiling Tests Results

A water-boiling test is usually used to determine efficiency. The detailed data of the test results of each stove can be found in appendix. The following analysis comprehends the summary of the water boiling test results.

The important aspect to study stove performance is to analyze the entry and exit areas of air and the channel between the combustion chamber and the ash which allows contact between entering air and coal burning.

In this experience 10 stoves which 5 are traditional and others 5 are improved charcoal stoves. The results of these experiences as well as those of traditional stoves in this case have been found to have been used as a gas stove boil water more quickly than any of the 5 improved charcoal stoves. The Rocket Works is the second stove that boils water fast with 1.4 minutes difference between the first (gas cylinder), and the last one stoves was Beira with approximately 25 minutes time for boiling the water.

4.3.1 Four techniques to boil water faster: 1. Create a large enough fire in the combustion chamber. 2. Force the gases to flow against the bottom and sides of the pot in narrow channels. 3. Make sure the gases are as hot as possible. 4. Increase the speed of the hot gases flowing over the surface of the pot.

The stoves tested, underwent the same scenarios (hot and Could start), where there was the time each takes to boil 2.5 liters of water. The graph of the figure shows the two hot start matches and the cold of the tests. Beira, Envirofit and Mbaula have quite pronounced deviations above 15 minutes differences in two starts in other cookers differences ranges from 3 to about 8 minutes.

4.3.2 Time to boil

20 Could start

Timeto Boil 15 HOT start 10

0 Sucata Chapa Botija Beira Barro Rocket Envirofit Mbaula Zavala Zavala Zinco de Gás Works Metal Barro

Figure 4.7: Time to boil for could and hot start

4.3.3 Time to boil ranking

Time to boil Ranking to Boil 30.00 10 9 25.00 8 20.00 7 6 15.00 5

Minutes 4 10.00 3 5.00 2 1 0.00 0 Sucata Chapa Botija Beira Barro Rocket Envirofit Mbaula Zavala Zavala de zinco de Gas Works Metal Barro

Figure 4. 8: Time to boil ranking

4.3.4 Thermal Efficiency The thermal efficiency is the ratio of the work done by heating and evaporation whater to the energy consumed by burning wood.

Based on the above definition, we can say that higher thermal efficiency indicates a greater ability to transfer heat produced to the pot. The data obtained from testing of the samples revealed that, the average thermal efficiency of stoves 10 surveyed range from 19.15% to 30.45%. The average data for the second starts in high power, have considerable intervals, with 41% variations for hot start and 7% for a cold start. However, the results of the average cold start test show that Envirofit stove has a higher efficiency with 21.1% and the border with the low 14%.,for the hot start the Roquet Works has the highest with 62.4% and Zinc plate (21.3%) lower. In general, the thermal efficiencies of Warm starts are expected to be higher compared with cold starts, but these considerations do not always occur.

70 60 50 40 30 could Start 20 10 hot Start 0

Figure 4. 9: Thermal efficiency for could and hot start

50.00 45.00 40.00 35.00 30.00 25.00 20.00 15.00 Eficiência Térmica (%) 10.00 5.00 0.00

Figure 4. 10: Thermal efficiency

The fig. 4.10 shows the average of thermal efficiency over all phases (cold start, hot start and simmer phases). As can be seen from the graph all improved stoves perfumed at high efficiency than all 5 traditional stoves, with the envirofit is only necessary to 2 traditional stoves namely scrap and zinc plate witch least efficient (19.15%). The high efficiency is Envirofit works with 46.6%.

4.3.5 Specific fuel consumption and thermal efficiency

Figure 4. 11: Specific fuel consumption and thermal efficiency

Analyzing the figure above, comparing the parameters (thermal efficiency and specific fuel consumption) was observed that traditional stoves, excepting the clay stove, consume over 50 (g / l), while the improved stoves only the rocket and Zavala Barro consumes over this value.

g/min 10

0 Chapa Botija Rocket Envirof Mbaul Zavala Zavala Sucata Beira Barro Zinco de Gás Works it a Metal Barro Could start 8 10 13 5.7 7.6 15.5 21.1 19 15 17 Hot Start 8.3 11.3 11.5 7 6.7 9.7 4 5.7 6.2 6.4 simmer 3.7 4.7 4.7 4 2.7 2.3 1 2.8 2.7 3

Figure 4. 12: Averege burning rates of different stoves type g/min

Burning rate is the measure of average grams of wood burned per minute during the tests. This measure indicates how quickly the stove consumes fuel.

Figure 4.12 shows the average burning rates of different stoves tested in the field. The data shows that the burning rates of the low power (simmer) tests were lesser than the higher power tests either cold start or hot start. Largest variations were observed in the ICS where during the hot start, the envirofit stove shows the lowest value comparative whit the other stoves whit the same start. They were in the cold start where the stove had the highest value in all stove tested.

4.4 Fire Power According to generated data the figure 4.13 Show as that Gas stove has higher Fire power (6.05 KW) as compared to others cooking stoves, Traditional and improved charcoal stoves were tested. The envirofit stove, although improved, has a lower potential. In tests, the first three stoves with greater power are two that are traditional: Bottle of gas and Zinc plate. This is the area of the air passage, which enables contact between incoming air and charcoal combustion.

Fire power

Figure 4. 13: Fire power (Kwatt)

4.5 Firepower and turn-down ratio of Stoves The figure 4.14 shows the average of 10 stoves high firepower for boiling and the low firepower for simmering for each tested stove. The ratio between the high and low firepower is called the turn-down ratio (TDR). It is a measure of how well the stove can be "turned down" from high to low power.

Turndown ratio is an important parameter to gauge the performance of stoves. It tells the ability of the stove to adjust to various fire powers. Turn-down ratio indicates how much the user adjusted the heat between high power and low power phases. A higher value indicates a higher ratio of high power to low power, and could signal a greater range of power control in the stove. The observed turn-down ratio of the different types of stoves does not show any significant dissimilarity.

The data generated shows that the scrap has the lowest turn-down ratio of 0.38 while zinc sheet with 9.12 is comparatively on the higher side among the different stove types tested. The majority of the stoves hover around the bottom of the table are 2.63 to 3.10 for ICS and the traditional are more disperses except border and clay are similar to.

Fire power and turn-down ratio of stoves

12.00 10.00 9.00 10.00 Fire Power(kwatt) 8.00 8.00 7.00 Fire Power (kwatt)(SIMMER) 6.00 6.00 5.00 TURN-DOWN-RATIO 4.00 4.00

Firepower(KW) 3.00 2.00 2.00 1.00 0.00 0.00 Sucata Chapa Botija Beira Barro Rocket Envirofit Mbaula Zavala Zavala Zinco de Gás Works Metal Barro Stoves type

Figure 4. 14: Firepower and turn-down ratio of stoves

Table 4.7 Indicator performance

Zinco

Sucata Chapa Botija Gás de Rocket Works Envirofit Mbaula Zavala Metal Zavala Barro Beira Barro Time to Boil 2.5L (min) 20.50 15.00 12.50 25.00 16.00 13.90 21.55 23.85 23.85 19.35 Thermal Efficiency (%) 21.00 19.15 21.65 24.00 26.75 30.45 46.6 28.15 28.15 29.95 Specific Fuel Consumption (g/L) 61.20 63.30 60.80 61.00 48.85 62.90 38.20 48.65 48.65 62.40 Specific Energy Consumption (kJ/L) 1.85 1.90 1.80 1.85 1.50 1.89 1.15 1.46 1.46 1.89 Fire Power(kwatt) 4.00 5.40 6.05 3.15 3.65 5.58 2.13 2.50 2.50 3.95 Taxa de Queima (g/min) 8.15 10.65 12.25 6.35 7.15 11.25 4.50 5.02 5.02 7.95

Figure 4. 15: Indicator performance

In Figure 4.15, it was observed that a bottle of gas had less time to begin boiling the 2.5 liters of water (12.50 minutes), and on the hand, it was observed that from Beira it was marked as last with a range of time 25.0 minutes . Regarding to the thermal effectiveness, Envirofit was set apart with 46.6% as the best one, and the last was the "Plate" of zinc stove in terms of thermal conservation.

It is important to note that, in the case of the stove, the stove is in the first position, even though it took longer. to boil water over the gas stove stove.

On the other hand, the fact that the gas cylinder stove to be boiled first, due to greater flow of primary and secondary aeration (in the areas of inlet and along its height) in this double aerationIt acts as a gasifier. The stove Envirofit noted that higher thermal efficiency because this oven is a full use of heat and aeration is made in the base of the stove (bottom).

5.0-Conclusions The purpose of this study is to evaluate the energy efficiency of stoves whose fuel is charcoal and their respective access by the population in Maputo. Calorific properties of charcoal, water boiling tests and the behavior of the population access to the charcoal stove were performed with success to the satisfaction of the general and specific objectives.

The main parameters used to analyze the properties of charcoal in the study were: moisture content, ash content, volatiles, caloric power, power absorber and fixed carbon.

Luengo and Emmerich (2007). In this paper, we present the results of the literature on the use of the term ' ) [41], the properties of charcoal are not fixed, they depend on the type of wood and the carbonization process.

The difference of woods originates also different quality of charcoals.

The sampled charcoal had moisture content (6.35%), very high ash content (41.06%), and a heating value of 17.6 MJ / kg against the recommended values 6.7%, 26.2%, 21.5MJ / kg respectively.

In regards to efficiency, all 5 improved charcoal stoves offered improvement over all 5 traditional stove. There is a trade-off though, in time to boil as all stove took much longer to bring water to boil the traditional stove. Overall in terms of both specific fuel consumption and thermal efficiency the Envirofit and Zavala Metal and Mbaula performed best. However, as described above in many instances, their performance was statistically significantly different from the Scrap or the Zinc Plate.

During the water boiling tests, charcoal stoves demonstrated less time to boil 2.5 liters of water is Gas cylinder, with 12.50 minutes, compared with Beira stove, 25 minutes.

It is important to note that the efficiency depends on several factors like:

Skill / training of the cook tending the stove 59

Fuel (diameter, moisture content, density, wood species, etc)

Stove design

Fit the pot to the stove

Type of food and type of cooking performed

In terms of product acquisitions, usually the populationuy products that around him, often without taking account the durability of the product, however observing the acquisition of price as a key factor in achieving. In this case the popular zinc plate and scrap metal stove are the most popular for its price and availability in the market.

6. Recommendations For similar studies is important to take into account all the factors characterizing for a good stove. The analyzes are made of: pollution, hardness and safety of stoves, using pre-established protocols for this purpose and which are further developed studies to reneweble energy sector, in particular for improved stoves charcoal and wood stove, to aprimoralos increasing its efficiency.

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20. Marzoli a. 200, National Forest Inventory. MINAG. Maputo. 21. Nhantumbo; Izidine, s. 2012, Preparing for REDD in dryland forests: investigating the options and potential synergy for REDD payments in the miombo eco-region: Mozambique country study. 22. McKendry p, 2002 Energy Production from Biomass. 23. Muller, m. d. 2005,Wood production to generate electricity in a clonal eucalyptus plantation in Itamarandiba. 24. Ministry of Energy. (2013). Strategy for Conservation and Sustainable Use of Biomass Energy Maputo, Mozambique 25. Juvillar, j. b. 1980, Wood Processing Technology of wood in Coal, In use of wood for Energy Purposes, publishing foundation Technological heart of mine. 26. Tuzine, Mario S. 2005 - Use of characterization of charcoal and other energy sources in Beira. 27. Fernandes, A. e Monjane, C. (1997) Biomass assessment. University Eduardo Mondlane. 28. Cajadas, J. N. (1992) Survey of the current situation in the wood market, charcoal and charcoal stoves in the city of Maputo. Energy Conservation Center. Faculty of Engineering, University Eduardo Mondlane. 29. Brouwer, R., L. Brander and P.J.H. van Beukering (2007). “A convenient truth”: air travel passengers’ willingness to pay to offset their CO2 emissions. Climatic Change. 30. AFREA – Africa Renewable Access Program (2011) Wood-Based biomass energy development for Sub-Saharan Africa – Issues and approaches. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, The World Bank Group, (Washington) USA. 31. WILLIAMS, A1993. An overview of the use of woodfuels in Mozambique and some recommendations for a biomass energy strategy. 32. SAKET, M. 1994. Report on The Updating of the Exploratory National Forest Inventory. FAO/UNDP, MOZ/92/13. DNFFB, Moçambique. 33. World Health Organization (WHO). 2004. “Indoor Air Pollution: Household Energy and the Millennium Development Goals”. Geneva

34. World Health Organization (WHO). 2006. “Fuel for Life: Household Energy and Health”. Geneva 35. Sandoval et al.,1993, Pulmonary arterial hypertension and cor pulmonale associated with chronic domestic woodsmoke inhalation. 36. Larson et al., 1994 traditional biomass energy:improving its use and moving to modern energy use. 37. ADENE- 2010, Efficiency Energy Guide, Agency for Energy. Lisbon 38. Energy Statistics: Definitions, Units of Measure and Conversion Factors Department of International Economic and Social Affairs, 1987, New York. 39. Santos & Santos, 2008 The current energy challenges. implementation and use of renewable energy. 40. Busse,M 2010 Does innovation fail to produce enough energy efficiency? 41. Luengo, Emmerich, 2007. Charcoal manufacturing.(Tropical Foundation for Research and Technology). Agro industrial Technology Series, Volume 14 42. Hankins, Mark. 2009. A renewable energy plan for Mozambique. 43. Souza, Pa And Meira N. (2002) - Structural changes in conventionally forest area explored in the Paraiba do Sul basin, Minas Gerais, 44. Belward (2011); Rapid changes in biomass burning aerosols by atmospheric oxidation 45. Vilanculos (1998); Proceedings of the "Conference on Charcoal and Communities in Africa 46. Pereira (1989) Eucalyptus globules. Effects of climate mineral fertilization and irrigation in biomass for energy and industry.

Annexes

Annex 1 - Charcoal properties of nine common species in Mozambique

The charcoal Properties Moisture Ash Content Fixed Higher Species Content Content Of Carbon Calorific (%) (%) Volatile (%) Power (%) (MJ/Kg) Afzelia quanzensis 3.65 9.26 19.80 70.94 26.40 Millettia Stuhimannii 3.63 2.23 18.50 79.94 29.00 Pterocarpus angolensis 3.20 1.58 20.30 78.12 30.80 Daldergia melanoxylon 4.80 3.60 19.50 76.90 29.00 Swartzia madagascariensis 3.70 1.05 20.90 78.05 30.20 Amlygonocarpus andogensis 4.24 1.28 19.50 79.22 30.40 Khaya nyasica 4.57 3.40 25.50 71.10 28.90 Combretum imberbe 3.73 16.19 25.50 58.31 21.90 Guibourtia conjugata 4.49 3.10 18.40 78.50 29.00 Source: ATANASSOV et al, (2012) “Mozambique Urban Biomass Energy Anayisis 2012

Annex 2 - Occurrence of diseases among housewives and the kitchen environment (open or closed)

% of respondentes Maputo/Matola Beira Nampula 3-Cities average Cook in open air 24% 10% 1% 12% % of the above who signal a respiratory 17% 33% 50% 22% desesase in the household Cook on the balcony 7% 21% 33% 20% % of the above who signal a respiratory 18% 42% 20% 27% desesase in the household Cook in separated closed kitchen 21% 11% 21% 18% % of the above who signal a respiratory 21% 16% 35% 26% desesase in the household Cook in a kicthen inside house 41% 59% 45% 48% % of the above who signal a respiratory 18% 22% 23% 21% desesase in the household Cook in another configuration 7% - - 2% % of the above who signal a respiratory 26% - - 9% desesase in the household TOTAL 100% 100% 100% 100% % of the above who signal a respiratory 19% 26% 25% 23% desesase in the household Source: ATANASSOV et al, (2012) “Mozambique Urban Biomass Energy Anayisis 2012

Annex 3 – Main types of stoves used in Maputo / Matola, Beira and Nampula

Source: ATANASSOV et al, (2012) “Mozambique Urban Biomass Energy Anayisis 2012”

Annex 4: Interview Guide Questions Answers 1. What is the usualy post sale of improved stoves that you Opened ______attend? A. ( ) It is near Home 2. why do you attend this post sale? (Mark only one B. ( ) is next job alternative) C. ( ) Product Quality D. ( ) Price E. ( ) Others ______A. ( ) Cookers 3. What kind of products usually do you buy? (Select up to B. ( ) Biofuel 3 options) C. ( ) stove accessories D. ( ) Others ______A. ( ) 2 times per day 4. How often do you go to the point of sale? (Mark only one B. ( ) 1 time per day alternative) C. ( ) 2 to 3 times per week D. ( ) More than three times a week E. ( ) Occasionally 5. How much do you spend usually on point of sale? (Mark A. ( ) Up 50.00 MTn only one alternative) B. ( ) from 50.00 to 100.00 MTn C. ( ) Above 100.00 MTn 6. Who usually goes to the post? (Mark only one A. ( ) Yourself alternative) B. ( ) Employed C. ( ) Family 7. Which is the periods that purchases are made? A. ( ) Morning (Tick as many options as needed) B. ( ) Afternoon C. ( ) Evening A. ( ) Product Quality 8. What are the most unsatisfactory points from the point of B. ( ) variety of products sale that usually attend? (Select up to 3 options) C. ( ) Price D. ( ) Operating days E. ( ) Service F. ( ) Outros______A. ( ) location B. ( ) Product Quality 9. which are the most favorable points? (Select up to 3 C. ( ) Variety of products options) D. ( ) Price E. ( ) Service F. ( ) Outros______A. ( ) to 25 years 10. Age group: B. ( ) From 25 to 35 years C. ( ) from 36 to 45 D. ( ) Above 45 years A. ( ) to 25 years 11. Marital status: B. ( ) From 25 to 35 years C. ( ) from 36 to 45 D. ( ) Above 45 years A. ( ) Up to 2500 MTn 12. Income: B. ( ) From 2500-4500 MTn C. ( ) In 4600-10000 MTn D. ( ) From 10,100 to 17,000 MTn E. ( ) Over 17,000 MTn 13. Profession: Opened______14. Mr/Miss: A. ( ) works in the region B. ( ) Resides in region C. ( ) Both Note: Report the respondent only answers the questions: 10, 11, 12 and 14. 1USD=45 MT

Annex 5 – Sheet for general information; Version 4.2

Annex 6 – Data entry sheet