DO C UM E N T A R Y E DU C A T IONA L RE SOU RCE S study guide Sons of Haji Omar

GEOGRAPHY & HISTORY with elevation and the higher mountains receive much snow- Afghanistan is a large moun- fall. This important accumula- tainous country located at the tion of snow is at the origin of western end of the Himalayas. numerous rivers flowing in all It is a landlocked country, bor- directions which in turn feed dered by the Soviet Union to the irrigation canals in the val- the north, Pakistan to the east leys. and Iran to the west. The to- CONTENTS pography is rugged and varied. Considering the dry climate The central area is occupied by with long, very hot summers 1-2 Georgraphy and His- the Kohi Baba range, and its and short, uncomfortably tory sloping fingers eastwards. The cold winters, the vegetation highest mountains, the Hindu is sparse, consisting mostly of 3-5 The Lakenkhel Tribe Kush, with peaks well over grasses and shrubs. Only in the 20,000 feet, are located in the eastern mountains of Nuristan 5-9 Pastoral Nomadism northeast; they are the exten- and Pakhtia which are reached sion in Afghan territory of the by the monsoon, can true for- 9-11 Market Life Karakoram range of north ests be found. The scenery is Pakistan. Flatlands also marked by extremely rugged 11-13 Rivalry abound, mostly at the country’s and tortuous mountains, snow- periphery along the Amu Daria capped peaks, and deep, irri- 14 Film Credits river (the Oxus of classical gated valleys. times) facing the Soviet border, 14 Contact Information in the regions of Harat and The long history of the Afghan Farah near Iran, and all along area is characterized by ex- the South. treme instability: A succession of conquest empires, petty The area is basically a semi- states, tribal confederacies desert. Precipitation, mostly in created a chaotic sequence of late winter, varies considerably political forms. Some inva- from 2 inches in the south- sions like that of Alexander the ern deserts to 13 inches in the Great infused new life in the eastern regions. It increases urban centers. Others like

1 GUIDE:Sons of Haji Omar DOCUMENTARY EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES study guide

Genghis Khan brought devastation, while The Islamic community is divided into nu- still others transformed the local culture per- merous branches and sects. The vast majority manently. This was the case with the Arab of Afghans including the Pashtuns are Hanafi conquerors in the 7th century who brought Sunni and rely on a particular interpretation Islam. Historically the Afghan area has been of the Qur’an and Hadith, the sacred book the recipient of cultural influences emanating of Islam and the sayings of the Prophet Mu- from three directions: the Iranian plateau (ir- hammad respectively. Near the Iranian bor- rigation technology, some settlement patterns, der and in Hazarajat, in the central part of Persian language, etc.); Central Asia (the horse Afghanistan, are numerous followers of Shi’a complex, Turkic languages, elements of urban Islam, which is the state religion in Iran. The architecture, etc.); and the Indian subcontinent Shiites recognize twelve successive imams or (Mahayana Buddhism before the arrival of Is- religious leaders after the Prophet Moham- lam, Dravidian languages, etc.). It is essentially med. Further, in northeastern Afghanistan an area of cultural synthesis. there are numerous communities belonging to the Isma’illya sect with the Agha Khan as Over thirty different languages belonging to at religious leader. least three major language families are spoken in Afghanistan: Indo-European, Uralo-Altaic, Afghanistan is clearly a nation of many eth- and Dravidian. By far the most important are nic groups. Most numerous are the Pashtuns, the two official languages: Persian, locally about 7 million with approximately an equal called Dari meaning “language of the court’’, number living in Pakistan. They are of Cau- which is also the lingua franca in bazaar trans- casoid stock. Next in importance are the Tajik actions, and Pashto, the language of the po- who are settled mainly in the northern valleys. litically dominant group. Both are part of the They number nearly 4 million and their physi- Indo-European family. cal type is mostly Mediterranean. The Per- sian-speaking Hazara in the central mountains With the exception of a few Hindus, Siks, and the Turkic-speaking Uzbak and Turkoman and Jews, practically all Afghans are Muslim. in the northern plains are basically of Mon- Islam is essentially a legalistic and puritani- goloid physical type. Other ethnic groups are cal religion with important elements borrowed the Baluch caravaneers and nomads, the Dra- from Judaism and Christianity (Kroeber, 1948, vidian-speaking Brahui who are mostly tenant pp. 418 and 598). It exerts a strong and con- farmers, the recently converted Nuristani, etc. tinuous influence on individual behavior and (Dupree, 1972, P. 57 ff.) social life in many fields of activity. Of fun- damental importance are the Five Pillars of From an occupational point of view, Afghan Islam: 1) The profession of faith (‘’There is no society is divided into three socio-economic God but Allah, and Mohammed is the Mes- segments: the pastoral nomads following very senger of Allah”) 2) The prayer performed different migratory circuits and at various five times daily after ritual ablutions 3) Alm- stages of sedentarization; the city-bazaar isgiving considered as an act of purification 4) sector comprising the merchant class, govern- The ritual fasting during the month of Rama- ment officialdom and other urban elements; dan 5) The pilgrimage to the sacred city and the agriculturalists who practice mostly of Mecca in Saudi Arabia. mixed farming with plows and constitute the

j GUIDE: Sons of Haji Omar 2 DOCUMENTARY EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES study guide bulk of the population. The film, The Sons of People continue, however, to assume a vague Haji Omar, is a descriptive statement on the kinship between various tribes with the result interrelatedness of these three socio-economic that all Ghilzal could theoretically be consid- sectors as perceived by a pastoral family in ered kinsmen. process of sedentarization and in a historic period of rapid change. The Lakenkhel have had a turbulent history. They are part of the larger Andar tribe with THE LAKENKHEL TRIBE traditional lands south of Ghazni. During the The family portrayed in Sons of Haji Omar latter part of the nineteenth century they belongs to a relatively small Pashtun “tribe” suffered greatly in the Ghilzai revolt against called Lakenkhel and are settled in the valley the rule of Amir Abdur Rahman. They were of Narin, Baglan province, northeastern Af- severely punished, their leader exited, and ghanistan. The Lakenkhel belong to the Ghil- their flocks destroyed. Without property they zai group of tribes whose original home is the were forced to settle on the southern slopes of hilly and arid region of southwestern Afghani- the Hindu Kush, an agricultural area where stan. Pashtun tribal organization implies the they became laborers on the estates of the lo- distinction of several levels of integration and cal landlords. It is within this context that the a parallel process of segmentation or subdivi- Lakenkhel learned the rudiments of farming. sion. Accordingly a given tribe will be subdi- In time the more enterprising among them vided into several branches, with each one of reconstituted their sheep flocks and camel these named branches fragmented into still herds and began caravaning between the city smaller groupings and so on down to small of Peshawar in British India and the northern localized lineages. Each of these tribal and bazaars along the Oxus valley. Here begins lineage units is named after its apical ancestor. the life of Haji Omar, the principal character In the case of recent lineages of little genea- in this film. logical depth it is possible to ascend the gene- alogical ladder directly to the founding geni- Haji Omar’s father was a wealthy flock owner tor. For the larger tribal units the villagers are and a respected leader in the community. unable to establish links to the apical ancestor. During the Ghilzai revolt he suffered greatly and lost his property. Thus Haji Omar was born into a distinguished but poor family and at an early age had to struggle in order to reconstruct the family flock and assemble a sufficient number of camels in order to be- gin caravaning. This became the determining experience in his life. “Look at the peasants’’, says Haji Omar, ‘’they stay in their villages and wait there. In the old times they didn’t know about money, about other people, about new goods and distant bazaars. In contrast with them were maldar (pastoral nomads) and ujjar (traders). We traveled extensively, got acquainted with many people and many places

3 GUIDE: Sons of Haji Omar a DOCUMENTARY EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES study guide and got experience. We had some sheep we their sheep and becoming full-time agricultur- could sell and get money. With this money alists in a new land, the Lakenkhel opted for a we could buy trading goods, and we also had dual form of domestic economy. Households camels to carry our goods, and with the help tried to keep and even increase their sheep of experience we had everything to succeed flocks while at the same time farming in the in this difficult most intensive world.” manner. This was done mainly with The caravan route the labor force from Peshawar to of the household the Oxus valley and a few hired climbed up Pan- hands. A typi- cher valley, across cal case may be the represented by Hindu Kush at a fraternal joint Khawak Pass and family with the then along Narin first brother the valley to the north- sedentary farmer ern plains. Narin and the second in valley at the be- charge of sheep- ginning of the breeding and pas- century was in- toral migrations. habited mainly by semi-sedentary Although the Uzbak. They lived Lakenkhel now mostly in yourts- felt-lined, semispherical consider this form of economic arrangement dwellings- well adapted to their transhumant to be the best of many alternatives, history patterns. They also practiced dry farming, established a different and painful process of but were poorly acquainted with irrigation socio-economic differentiation. methods. Most importantly, the Uzbak did not have a strong sense of land ownership, due to At the beginning of the sedentarization pro- their semi-sedentary way of life. As a conse- cess some Lakenkhel men, like Haji Omar, quence Narin valley was sparsely populated avidly acquired agricultural lands, while many with many marshy or bushy areas. This situa- others, thought that there was no great benefit tion attracted many settlers from other parts in farming and remained “pure’’ pastoralists. of Afghanistan, mainly Hazaras, Tajik, and Sheepbreeding, however, is an activity fraught Pashtuns. The Uzbak abandoned Narin valley with risks. In late winter, bitter cold and oc- without struggle and moved to higher eleva- casional heavy snowfalls may bring the already tion. It is within this context that about fifty weakened sheep to starvation. Various sheep years ago diseases may also take a heavy toll. Flock the Lakenkhel settled in Narin valley with the composition thus undergoes considerable help of the government. Instead of selling variation in time. Consequently, yesterday’s wealthy flockowner may suddenly become

GUIDE: Sons of Haji Omar 4 DOCUMENTARY EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES study guide tomorrow’s poor pastoralist. In the course of were left as paupers. They became the tenant the last fifty years, following the increase in farmers and servants of rich Baramkheli like landholdings by some and the vicissitudes of Haji Omar. pastoralism suffered by others, an important process of socio-econamic differentiation took This historic process led to the emergence of place. This process was related to the lineage social stratification among the Lakenkhel. Der structure of the Lakenkhel. mur and mur are rich land and flock owners, guzarani are self-sufficient without debts, kam- The Lakenkhel tribe comprises basically three pagala are dependent upon the rich for work lineages, each about seven generations deep. and do have debts, while the mizkin are hope- The Sharamkheli were the first settlers in the lessly poor and stand no chance to better their area. Their leader during the initial period of position. sedentarization was an educated man, a holder of a position in the public service in a differ- These brief notes on the recent socio-eco- ent part of the country. The government re- nomic history of the Lakenkhel provide the warded him for his services with a land grant context for the understanding of Haji Omar’s in Narin valley. Many of his lineage members testimony in the film. He opted clearly for followed his example, abandoned pastoralism a highly diversified domestic economy. He permanently, and settled as farmers near his started as a caravaneer, rebuilt the family estate. The second lineage, the Baramkheli flock, obtained land cheaply, continuously whose leader was Haji Omar, followed a dif- engaged in various forms of trading, invested ferent economic policy. With Omar they real- fresh capital in new land holdings, and gradu- ized the importance of agriculture as a stable ally constructed a vast family estate. In all activity producing a regular income. On the his complex endeavors he was energetically other hand, they were fully aware of the dyna- helped by his sons and nephews. Sons of Haji mism of pastoral activities and this despite the Omar tells the story of this intra-family collab- inherent vicissitudes of sheepbreeding. The oration. The activities of the family take place cash obtained from the sale of sheep could be within the framework of a capitalistic market entirely used for the acquisition of new ag- economy. The actors are highly conscious of ricultural lands. This continuous transfer of prices, costs, and benefits immediately trans- capital was possible because the subsistence lated into monetary terms. The lesson taught needs of the household were already covered by Haji Omar is how to succeed in a pre-in- by the regular farm produce. This was exactly dustrial market economy. the economic policy adopted by Haji Omar. He repeatedly used the fresh capital generated PASTORAL NOMADISM by his flocks to acquire new farm holdings. Pastoral nomadism in Afghanistan is a spe- In this he was followed by a number of other cialized subsistence activity well adapted to Baramkheli, albeit less successfully. On the certain environmental characteristics. Basi- other hand, most members of the third lin- cally the nomadic strategy implies a systematic eage, the Badirkheli, shunned effort at exploitation of grass availability at farming and decided to remain essentially different attitudes and in different seasons. pastoralists. In the course of time following a Pastoral nomadism constitutes a part culture series of misfortunes they lost their sheep and (Kroeber, pp. 276-279). No pastoral nomad

5 GUIDE: Sons of Haji Omar DOCUMENTARY EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES study guide will kill his sheep in order to eat the meat. tain pastures. Around early June, flocks and Rather, sheep are sold for cash to be used to caravans reach Daraykhar valley, elevation purchase necessities, includ- about 3000 meters, in ing food. The sheepbreeder the heart of the Hindu is thus obliged to enter in No pastoral nomad Kush. There the Laken- contact with traders and ag- khel have traditional - riculturalists to acquire their will kill his sheep in grazing rights. According goods. Pastoral nomadism has to custom, these pas- a symbiotic relationship with order to eat the tures belong to the Tajik the other socio-economic sec- villagers who are estab- tors of Afghan society; it is meat. lished in the lower valley part of an integrated regional and own mostly goats economy. which are better adapted to the bushy vegetation of lower altitudes. The pastoral year for the Lakenkhel begins The Tajik villagers are the subjects of a pow- in spring with the establishment of a lamb- erful local chieftain, and it is to him that the ing camp in the lowlands of Gerdau near the Lakenkhel pay tribute, the amount of which is Kunduz River. These pastures are protected renegotiated every year. The Lakenkhel re- by the government, and they have been regu- main at the green pastures of Daraykhar until larly used by the Lakenkhel and other Pashtun the middle of August when the male lambs are nomadic groups for about two generations. sold to related Lakenkhel traders residing on In recent years following rapid demographic the southern slopes of the Hindu Kush. Once increase, neighboring villagers have continu- back home the Lakenkhel pastoral families ously tried to bring these pastures under cul- behave as sedentary villagers completely sepa- tivation. Such encroachments have led to pen rated from the flocks that graze throughout fighting and hesitant government intervention. winter on wheat stubs and dry grass on the In 1976, at the time of filming, the Lakenkhel hills around Narin valley. considered these pressures to be endangering the pastoral enterprise and moved to another Lakenkhel migratory patterns reveal an un- spring location, at Col, where grazing rights stable process of ecological adaptation. In the were negotiated by Haji Omar. spring, lowland-pastures agriculturalists and pastoralists compete directly for land. This is a Around early May the lambs are strong long historic process well understood by both enough to undertake the move to the high groups. Demography and modern technology mountain pastures. Flocks and caravans travel (utilization of tractors) favor the agricultural- separately. The flocks move slowly around ists, and present government policy can only mountain slopes where grazing is available, delay the final outcome. It is thus unfair to while the caravans travel quickly on the roads state that these pastoralists occupy an empty at the bottom of the valleys and stop frequent- ecological niche that no other group could ly. At the stop in Narin, the camels are loaded exploit. At the upper end of the migration trek with summer supplies and the caravans the situation is reversed. Two generations ago, are enlarged by the addition of cattle and a very large number of Lakenkhel exploited many horses to be fattened at the high moun- the Daraykhar pastures. At present, the small

GUIDE: Sons of Haji Omar 6 p DOCUMENTARY EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES study guide pastoral segment of the Lakenkhel is faced shepherd. It is impossible to relate flock size with an overabundance of summer pastures. to household size because flock management is However, this favorable situation is due to the accomplished by the owner and hired hands Lakenkhel’s ability to retain their preferential (the shepherd and his assistants) without the grazing rights in the area. Persistent cold in necessary intervention of additional household late winter and the resultant heavy snowfall members. Considering further that there is no is a prime killer of sheep and another factor limitation to individual access to pastures, an of instability for Lakenkhel pastoralism. Frost owner should be capable in principle of in- affects the various flocks differently, depend- creasing his flock indefinitely. However, this ing on precise flock location, the shepherd’s clearly does not happen. technical abilities, and the application of res- cue measures by flock owners. It is clear that What are the factors limiting flock size? First, Lakenkhel pastoral adaptation is a dynamic the obvious catastrophes: various sheep diseas- process in response to a variety of social and es, predation by wolves, losses due to snowfalls, environmental pressures. etc. Second, structural factors specific to in- heritance practices: at the time of marriage or The technology associated with pastoral no- later, a son (or sons) may ask for his share of madism is relatively simple. Most important is the flock in order to establish himself separate- the black tent, a large comfortable shelter pro- ly. This causes the breakup of the large flocks, viding good protection against rain and sun. and, in a sense, the process of fission in the It is made of goat’s wool woven by traveling developmental cycle of the family is projected weavers belonging to the Wardak tribe. Inside on the flock. Fissive tendencies are stronger in the tent are numerous woolen mattresses, pile polygynous households and in the presence of and felt carpets, blankets and cushions--all very large flocks. Third, personal factors may important sleeping accessories for cold nights. be important, such as the varying managerial Cooking utensils and milk containers are made abilities of flock owners. of metal. Leather and woolen bags complete the equipment which is all unbreakable, can The functions of the shepherds are crucially be packed quickly into bundles, and loaded on important in flock management. The shep- camels. herd is supervised by the owner, and generally important decisions are made during continual What are the basic organizational forms of consultation. Yet the shepherd is the person Lakenkhel pastoralism? Sheep are owned in- mainly responsible for the flock’s welfare. dividually except in the case of fraternal joint Shepherds are hired on a one-year contract families where an alignment of brothers exer- in two phases; for six winter months they are cises joint ownership. Flocks vary greatly paid a salary of up to 8,000 afghanis (about in size, from about 50 to over 500. According $160). For the six summer months they get 1/6 to local preferences 500 sheep is an optimal of the total number of newborn male lambs number, although a flock comprising 300 to and 1/20 the total number of newborn female 500 sheep is considered a good flock. It is said lambs. It is obvious why shepherds prefer large that a flock of this size moves at a good graz- flocks. A shepherd is always assisted by a sala- ing speed, a smaller flock travels too fast, while ried servant. A shepherd is a trusted individual a larger flock is difficult to control by a single with high prestige pre-selected by the flock

7 GUIDE: Sons of Haji Omar DOCUMENTARY EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES study guide owner from among his relatives. Small flock most rational way possible. Clearly Lakenh- owners are obliged to join forces and estab- kel sheep represent a “Valeur d’echange” and lish an association with the aim of managing not a “valelur d’usage” as P. Bonte assumes a common flock. Members of such associa- (Bonte, 1978, P. 10) Milk products, however, tions are always relatives (hpil meaning related remain outside the market economy. They are people in general or more specifically uragi- strictly for domestic use, and it is considered ray/sakanayi tirbur – distant/ close cousins). degrading to sell any. The owner of the largest share (djamdar: holder of the totality) is responsible for flock man- Two additional activities are closely related agement and selecting shepherds. The man- to Lakenkhel nomadic sheepbreeding. The ager and associates share in the expenses of first is the breeding of a substantial number flock management prorated according to the of cattle, camels, and horses which follow the number of sheep owned by each. In case an caravan on the migration trek. These are fat- associate’s family is not present in camp, the tened at Daraykhar valley and later sold to vil- manager has the right to milk his sheep. De- lagers and in bazaars. Thus the availability of spite frequent quarrels among partners, such the rich Daraykhar pastures has allowed the associations have an average life span of four Lakenkhel to extend their breeding activities years. to other species. The second is trading. This is a continual and exuberant activity carried Lakenkhel pastoralism is absolutely and fully all along the migration trek and in camp. In a part of a monetized market economy. All male sense any pastoralist, rich or poor, is primarily lambs are sold in summer in toto in a single a trader. The propensity to trade is so strong transaction to a single trader. The sale of old, that practically anything (animals, carpets, senile sheep is a continual activity throughout guns, etc.) can be bought or sold provided that the year under a variety of circumstances. the price is right.

The sale price of the male lambs is directly Among the Lakenkhel, sheepbreeding leads determined by national and international to fresh capital formation consecutive to both markets. The Lakerikhel are very frequently sheep sales and flock increase. With fresh informed about sheep prices in the various ba- capital the Lakenkhel acquire agricultural zaars of northern Afghanistan. The sale price land or engage in trading ventures. Therefore, of the male lambs follows the baybala practice it is clear that while the immediate objectives – the trader is charged an overprice for de- of Lakenkhel pastoralists are centered on the layed payment. This is used in place of inter- flock, the long range objectives of pastoralism est on cash loans which is forbidden in Islam. fall outside sheepbreeding, into other econom- It should be noted that baybala payments are ic sectors. This process is similar to the Basseri used in all sectors of the economy. The Lak- situation described by Barth (Barth 1961, p. enkhel rigorously avoid killing sheep for con- 110) with an important difference: In the Bas- sumption. So strong is this attitude that even seri case only rich flock-owners transfer capital sick or wounded sheep killed prior to natural into the agricultural sector while among the death are sold to neighboring villagers at a Lakenkhel practically all pastoralists, whether low price. Thus, the Lakenkhel consider their they own 50 sheep or 500, are engaged in this sheep “capital on hoofs” to be exploited in the transfer process.

GUIDE: Sons of Haji Omar 8 DOCUMENTARY EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES study guide

MARKET LIFE Many articles are also imported from other Narin bazaar occupies an important position parts of Afghanistan: sugar, textiles, leather in the regional economy. At the beginning of shoes, salt, dry fruit, etc. The peasants from this century Narin bazaar comprised only a the valley and the surrounding hills bring few shops owned by Persian-speaking mer- their meager surplus: wheat, barley, sheep, chants. Today there are numerous traders: goats, and cattle. The local grain, consid- general store operators, tailors, silversmiths, ered of high quality is purchased by traders, blacksmiths, carpenters, gunsmiths, butchers, loaded on trucks, and exported to the major potters, butter vendors, druggists, and cities of the country. The livestock is mostly many specialized shops for the sale of textiles, acquired by needy households and generally radios, shoes, redistributed in the area. salt, grain, etc. While grain prices are Several flour established nationally mills use water and involve little discus- power provided sion, there is endless by the local bargaining over the cost irrigation ca- of animals. Bargain- nal grid. A rice ing is a complex bazaar mill is located ritual performed in front upstream. Nu- of onlookers who par- merous caykhana ticipate in the debate, (teahouses or evaluate the arguments, restaurants) and make suggestions of serve as impor- their own. Spontaneously tant meeting a mediator emerges and places negotiates a compromise for travelers. All these are stable commercial between the antagonistic parties. Money keep- establishments open seven days a week. Mon- ing is an additional and interesting function days and Fridays are bazaar days. On these performed by the local shopkeepers. Peasants two days, hundreds of peasants from the sur- very rarely keep cash in their houses for fear rounding villages and peddlers from other that it may be stolen by relatives. They deposit towns converge on Narin in order to buy and their money with a trusted shopkeeper who sell, conduct business in some government of- will return it upon request. This practice is fice, and meet friends. The grain and animal performed on good faith. There are no written bazaars attract most of the visitors. These are records and there are no known cases of ma- vast open places where either grain is bought levolent appropriation. and sold, or sheep, goats, and cattle change hands.Narin bazaar perform the function of a It is clear that Narin bazaar is the integrator regional distribution center for many foreign of the regional economy, the link with other goods: transistor radios from Japan, pharma- economic sectors of Afghanistan, the regional ceutical products from Germany, pots and distribution center for practically all imported pans from Pakistan, rubber shoes and matches goods, and the collecting point for the local from the Soviet Union or even tea from India. surplus. Corresponding to its economic

9 GUIDE: Sons of Haji Omar DOCUMENTARY EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES study guide importance, Narin bazaar is the center of the first recruiting source for the government the regional government. It is the seat of the cadres and as a separation line between the wuluswal or subgovernor of Narin administra- traditional segments of Afghan society and tive district who is responsible to the wali or the modern bureaucratic sector. It should provincial governor, located in the provincial be noted that high school students in Narin capital of Baghlan. The wuluswal is the highest represent a very small proportion of the to- district officer and controls the activities of all tal population in this age bracket. Only two other government officials in the area, includ- Lakenkhel boys have attended the high school; ing the police. Cases of trouble are reported the first is a son of a wealthy sheep and land to the police; yet the wuluswal has the right to owner who is attending law school in Kabul preliminary hearings to attempt reconcilia- and the second is Ismail, son of Haji Omar, tion before the case is forwarded to the judge who intends to become a police chief. or kazi. This gives the wuluswal considerable It is clear that Narin bazaar is the nexus latitude to control directly the state of affairs through which modern tendencies penetrate in the countryside. In the performance of the highly traditional and conservative coun- his various administrative functions the wu- tryside. Modernity may use the channels of luswal is helped by the alakadar in charge of commerce, government administration or sub-districts and the various malik represent- education. Narin bazaar depends closely on ing the major ethnic groups in the area. While the wali, wuluswal and alakadar (in descending order) administer distinct territorial units, the social groups represented by the malik are widely dispersed and consequently lack terri- torial continuity.

The only high school in the area is also locat- ed in Narin bazaar. It is, in general, only for boys who belong to the wealthier families in the area. Instruction is very formal in the sense that both students and teachers closely follow the textbooks, section by section, one chapter after another with little deviation. modern communications to fulfill its many di- There are very few other books in the school, verse functions. Most important is the highway students do not read them and no effort is leading to the provincial capital of Baghlan. made for the students to make a personal syn- An exotic fleet of Russian jeeps and trucks and thesis or a critical evaluation of the material American-made vehicles transport passengers presented in class. Students are passive, and and goods. Travelers bring news from the ma- taught by rote. Generally, only the better jor cities and Kabul. This information is trans- and more ambitious students intend to fur- mitted first to careful listeners in the caykhana ther their education and enter a professional teahouse and from there travels to the remote school in a major city. Their aim is to enter corners of the countryside. Local officials officialdom by becoming teachers, judges, po- depend on the telephone for frequent contact lice chiefs, etc. The high school serves as with their superiors. This is a single line

GUIDE: Sons of Haji Omar 10 DOCUMENTARY EDUCATIONALa RESOURCES study guide system linking only government offices. Most always perceived as beneficial to the other. important as a link with the outside world is The applicability of the term siali is wider. the transistor radio. Many town and peas- Sial means equal and siali refers to rivalry ant households including nomad camps own among equals. When two men of roughly a transistor and often listen to folk music, the equal status meet and form an interacting national news and various educational pro- dyad in the presence of others, siali is ex- grams. In the absence of newspapers the pressed immediately in order to establish the transistor is an extremely important link be- primacy of one person over the other. Siali tween the national government and the people nicely illustrates the inclusion of inequality of Narin district. It is a direct link in the sense within equality and is indicative of the preva- that the information is not mediated, and it lence of the hierarchical principle. Siali is a is also an essential instrument in the develop- neverending process; it includes rivals out- ment of national identity and consciousness. side the kinship circle, and when acted out by chiefs it gives rise to the performance of elab- RIVALRY orate political strategies including constantly Rivalry is an important theme in Afghan so- shifting alliances. cial organization. It is clearly illustrated in this film by two episodes: the dog fight and buz- The dog fight sequence at the lambing camp kashi. According to the local saying: ‘’A chief illustrates tirbgania. Anvar, the camp leader, is the rival of a chief, a shepherd is the rival is a rich man who owns over 1000 sheep and of a shepherd and a woman is the rival of a much land in co-propriety with his brothers. woman.” Two terms are used in describing His cousin Mamanur, who is his rival, is al- these complex dyadic patterns: tirbgania and most equally rich. Although Anvar, a member aiali. of a chief ’s family, is usually arrogant and his behavior overtly assertive and despotic, Ma- The term tirbgania derives from tirbur which manur is considered a quiet peaceful man. He means cousin and tirbgania refers to forms is a very capable manager of his estate, and is of competition between cousins of varying determined to overcome Anvar in wealth and degrees and is applicable mainly within the power. During the filming, relations between kinship group. Cousins live nearby and have the two were bad, Mamanur accused Anvar of the opportunity to observe each other daily. stealing from other people and bringing shame Each one independently strives to increase his to his lineage. Mamanur separated his tents assets: build a better house, marry additional from Anvar’s and established camp on the women, accumulate more sheep, acquire more other side of a ridge. One evening Mamanur land, etc. Since goods (capital and land goods) and Anvar’s dogs were incited to fight. Men available for acquisition are considered to be and children gathered around and the pace in limited supply, it is assumed that the eco- of action quickened. It became clear that the nomic growth of one cousin can only be to the two rivals were using their dogs in their own detriment of the other. Therefore, cousins are competition for prestige in front of the audi- topographically and genealogically the clos- ence. Unable to confront each other directly, est competitors. They remain locked in hostile they employed substitutes. The political clients competition for life, and tirbgania continues of each rival took sides according to their alle- until the collapse of one of the rivals, which is giance. Faqir, a rather independent individual

11 GUIDE: Sons of Haji Omar DOCUMENTARY EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES study guide assumed the role of active mediator and su- lookers gather on the game grounds. The field pervised and stimulated the dog fight. The itself has no precise boundaries; on one side people expected that Anvar’s dog would per- stands a line of mounted horse owners, elderly form more aggressively by virtue of its belong- and influential people, and government of- ing to the chief. When it became apparent ficials. In addition to these notables, several that Anvar’s dog was winning the fight, Anvar rows of spectators sit on the ground. In front withdrew it from the action circle and declared of the elders is the goal, a circle about ten feet it the winner. Faqir brought the dog back and in diameter, outlined with gravel. In the oppo- after a second fight Mamanur left – feeling an- site direction a pole is stuck in the ground. gry, cheated, and ‘that Anvar manipulated the The game president (rais) places the buz in the goal. The chapandaz then struggle briefly until one of them manages to grab the carcass. The lucky horseman is then supposed to round the pole and return to the goal. If he manages to throw the buz inside the circle, he wins a point. En route however, he has to face the other chapandaz, who try to take the buz away from him. The ensuing violent clashes are the game’s raison d’etre, the enactment of the horse owners’ political rivalries. This game may con- tinue indefinitely, until the buz or two or three carcasses have been torn to pieces.

Through buzkaski the local landowners or chiefs compete directly against each other try- dog fight unjustly to his own advantage.’ Just ing to outdo their rivals. Year round, chiefs before Mamanur’s departure, the whole audi- breed, buy and sell horses, lavish them with ence turned in admiration towards Anvar. care, try to attract the ablest chapandaz and se- cure their loyalty, and provide horses and rid- Buzkashi is illustrative of aiali or the wider ers with the best gear. Since these are expen- pattern of rivalry. As an insider explained, sive projects, buzkashi is an aristocratic game, “everything in buzkashi rivalry.” Buzkashi is a political strategy applied by local chiefs for an exceptionally violent game with few rigid the maximization of social prestige. As for the rules played on horseback by North Afghani- chapadaz,they are rivals of each other by stan tribesmen.Playgrounds located near vil- definition, every chapandaz struggles alone and lages, should be grass-covered and free of rock, competes directly with all other chapandaz in to avoid hurting horses’ hoofs. It is a winter the arena. Society even projects its pattern of game; the season usually begins in the autumn, rivalry on the horses themselves as it ‘is said after the rainfall, and concludes shortly after that horses develop rivalries of their own, the Muslim New Year’s Day, March 21. Every spontaneously biting and kicking each other. Friday afternoon in the villages the horse own- Clearly buzkashi is a good illustration of the ers, the chapandaz or riders, and a crowd of on pattern of rivalry in Afghan society

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Barth, F. Political Leadership Among Swat Pathans.The Athlone Press, University of Lon- don, 1959.

Barth, F. Nomads of South Persia. Little, Brown and Company, Boston, 1961.

Bonte, P. L’approche Marxiste des Societes d’Eleveurs Nomades Dans Les Pays Occiden- taux, Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Paris, 1978.

Dupree, Louis. Afghanistan. Princeton University Press,1973.

Kroeber, A.L. Anthropology. Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1948.

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Purchase Information Film Credits

Color, 57 mins, 1978 A Film by dvd/vhs Asen Balikci, Tom and Patsy Asch Institution Sale $195.00 Produced by Consumer Sale $59.95 The National Film Board of Canada and the Smithsonian

Study Guide Credits Contact Information

Study Guide Written by Documentary Educational Resources Asen Balikci 101 Morse St. Watertown MA 02472 Compiled and Edited by Razan Alzayani 800-569-6621 or 617-926-0491 http://www.der.org Study Guide Design by [email protected] Razan Alzayani

14 GUIDE: Sons of Haji Omar