The Most Common Arguments Against Immigration and Why They’re Wrong by Alex Nowrasteh

front cover About the Author

Alex Nowrasteh is the director of immigration studies and the Herbert A. Stiefel Center for Trade Policy Studies at the Cato Institute. His work has appeared in the Wall Street Journal, USA Today, and the Washington Post, among other outlets. His peer‐reviewed​ academic publications have appeared in The World Bank Economic Review, the Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, Economic Affairs, the Fletcher Security Review, the Journal of Bioeconomics, and Public Choice. Nowrasteh is the coauthor of the book Wretched Refuse? The Political Economy of Immigration and Institutions (Cambridge University Press).

@AlexNowrasteh

2 What are the best counter- arguments to common complaints about immigration?

Immigration has been the unfavorable court rulings, current immigration debate unanswered and can simmer. most hotly debated public Congress’s unwillingness was listening to the questions policy issue in the United to support his policies, and and concerns of Americans This booklet attempts to States since Donald Trump his administration’s own who don’t live in Washington, answer the most common entered the Republican primary incompetence holding him back. DC, or work in public policy. objections to immigration in mid-2015. His campaign A new Biden Administration The major problem with that I’ve heard throughout for president began with a has an opportunity to reverse “patriotic correctness” and my career from policy wonks speech about the evils of illegal the anti-immigration actions of “political correctness” is and academics as well as from immigration. He went on to the Trump Administration and that many people rarely ordinary Americans. Few support drastic cuts to legal expand legal immigration. state their real objections to people can devote years of immigration and promised to liberalized immigration for their life to studying the most build a wall along the border For more than a decade, fear of being called racist, relevant public policy questions with Mexico. During his time in my job has been to produce xenophobic, bigoted, ignorant, and evidence for any issue. office, he did almost everything original research on the topic of evil, or stupid. When the However, as one who has had in his power as president to immigration, to read hundreds cost of asking questions and that extraordinary privilege, reduce legal immigration, build of thousands of pages of other voicing objections rises, fewer I’ve written this booklet that a border wall, and increase people’s research, and to debate questions and objections boils them down to the 15 immigration enforcement— opposing scholars in public are raised publicly, but the most common objections and with only the resistance of and on various media. But underlying opinions don’t explains how I respond to them. American cities and states, the best preparation for the change; they merely remain

1 15 common myths about immigration

03 07 “Immigrants abuse the welfare “Immigrants are a major source state.” of crime.” 01 05 “Immigrants will take American “Immigrants increase economic jobs, lower wages, and especially inequality.” hurt the poor.”

04 08 “Immigrants increase the budget “Immigrants pose a unique risk 02 deficit and government debt.” 06 today because of terrorism.” “It is easy to immigrate here “Today’s immigrants don’t legally. Why don’t illegal assimilate as immigrants from immigrants just get in line?” previous eras did.”

2 09 11 14 “The United States has the most “Illegal immigration or expanding “The brain drain of smart open immigration policy in the legal immigration will destroy immigrants to the United States world.” American national sovereignty.” impoverishes other countries.” 13 “Immigrants bring with them bad

POLICE cultures, ideas, or other factors ICE that will undermine and destroy our economic and political institutions.” 10 12 15 “Amnesty or a failure to enforce “Immigrants won’t vote for the “Immigrants will increase our immigration laws will destroy Republican Party—look at what crowding, harm the environment, the Rule of Law in the United happened to California.” and [insert misanthropic States.” statement here].”

3 This most common argument negative finding in the peer- in how immigrants affect the has the greatest amount reviewed academic literature wages of adult native-born of evidence rebutting it. was authored by Harvard American high school dropouts, Economists look primarily University economist George who comprise about 9 percent at two effects of immigration Borjas. He found that of American adults—that’s it.4 on the labor market: whether immigrant competition lowered immigrants push natives the wages of native-born At worst, immigrants only out of jobs (also known as American high school dropouts negatively affect the wages of the displacement effect) and by a relative 1.7 percent from a small number of American whether immigrants lower 1990 to 2010 (Figure 1).2 Borjas workers while raising them for the wages of native-born also found that immigrants the rest. Americans or other immigrant boosted the average wages of Immigration increases the Myth workers. First, the so-called other native-born Americans, displacement effect is small, if with an overall average net supply of workers in the 01 economy, but the wage effects in “Immigrants will it actually affects native-born effect of increasing the wages workers at all.1 Immigrants are of natives by about 0.6 percent. Figure 1 are generally positive take American jobs, typically attracted to growing Gianmarco Ottaviano and because many other changes lower wages, and regions, and they increase the Giovanni Peri came to similar occur with immigration that supply and demand sides of the results in studying the same limit competition between especially hurt the economy once they are there. period, with the exception natives and that increase poor.” They expand employment that they estimated that the demand for labor overall. opportunities for everybody. relative wages of native- There are five principal reasons FACT: Immigrants don’t take born dropouts rose by about behind the positive overall American jobs, lower wages, Second, the debate over 1.1 percent (Figure 1).3 The effect of immigrants on native- or push the poor out of the immigrants’ effects on major disagreement among born American wages. The labor market. American wages is confined economists who study this first is that immigrants and to the lower single percentage topic is over the relative 2.8 natives have different skill points (Figure 1). The most percentage point difference levels: 29 percent of immigrant

4 High school Some Post- Dropouts College All oriented jobs are more highly produce goods and services, in graduates college college compensated than are manual response to a rise in population. 1.5 1.2 1.2 1.1 labor jobs, so the net effect on More tools means that more 1 0.9 wages of Americans is slightly workers can be employed to 0.50.6 0.5 0.5 0.5 positive. In a restaurant, produce goods and services. The 0.2 for example, low-skilled fifth and final reason is what 0 Percent -0.1-0.1 immigrants are busboys and economists call a scale effect, -0.5 dishwashers because they can’t which is when a bigger economy

-1 effectively communicate with increases demand for labor.

Borjas the customers, while low-skilled -1.5 Ottaviano New research by Borjas used the & Peri native-born Americans who -1.7 Mariel boatlift to examine how -2 speak English take the higher- paying jobs by becoming waiters immigrants affected the labor Figure 1. Long-run relative effect of immigration on wages of native-born citizens by education and waitresses. Language market. The Mariel boatlift differences incentivize each was a giant shock to Miami’s Sources: Data from George Borjas, Immigration Economics most Americans and most labor market, and it increased (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014), p. 120; group to specialize and change National Academy of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, immigrants. the size of its population by The Economic and Fiscal Consequences of Immigration, jobs, which, as a result, raises 7 percent in 42 days in 1980. Table 8-14, 2017, pp. 235–37; Gianmarco Ottaviano and The second reason is that other wages for both. Giovanni Peri, “Rethinking the Effect of Immigration on The boatlift was caused by a Wages,” Journal of the European Economic Association differences, such as English 10, no. 1 (2012): 152–97. The third reason is that sudden change in Cuban policy language ability, mean that immigrants are about twice as that allowed many Cubans to immigrants push some native- likely to start a business than leave and go to Miami. The born workers into occupations most famous dramatized where they can use their are natives, so immigrants representation of the boatlift adults are dropouts, while superior language skills while often employ themselves and was Brian De Palma’s 1983 only about 9 percent of native- lower-skilled immigrants others. The fourth reason is 5 filmScarface , in which Cuban born Americans are dropouts. concentrate on manual labor that investors increase the criminal Tony Montana is put As a result, there just isn’t occupations until they learn capital stock, which refers to on a boat by Fidel Castro’s much competition between English. Communication- the tools that help workers

5 government and sent to Miami, the wages of native-born high made Mariel look as if it had a where he becomes a drug school dropouts in Miami, it large negative wage effect by kingpin. Beyond providing the had a large positive effect on changing whom they surveyed.10 background for an entertaining the wages of natives who had Correcting for that change film, the Mariel boatlift is a only a high school education— in wage survey methodology useful natural experiment to such a degree that the wages dissipates the negative wage for labor economists because of all Miamians with less than effects that Borjas discovered.11 Miami did nothing to cause some college education actually Cuba to open its borders, but increased.8 The rapid recovery Borjas’s Mariel boatlift finding the city initially received all of Hispanic wages in Miami is doubtful, but it’s important to Cuban immigrants. Borjas’s also produces some doubt as include because it is widely cited paper finds large negative to Mariel’s effect on native by immigration restrictionists. wage effects of 10–30 percent, wages because Hispanics were Although there is still concentrated on Americans the most likely to suffer wage disagreement about the effect who had less than a high school declines from competition of the Mariel boatlift on the degree.6 with new Cuban immigrants wages of native-born Americans who had similar language and in Miami in an extreme quasi- Borjas’s Mariel boatlift study educational profiles.9 natural experiment, there is is one of the most referenced no doubt that immigration has studies in the debate over Economists Michael Clemens overall increased the wages immigration’s effect on the and Jennifer Hunt have the and incomes of Americans labor market, but it is not as most devastating response to nationwide, as Borjas found strong as it appears for several Borjas: His finding was due elsewhere. reasons. Many doubt Borjas’s entirely to a different wage findings, and Borjas’s responses survey sample collected in leave a lot to be desired.7 Even Miami over the years when if the Mariel boatlift had such he observed the wage decline. a large and negative effect on Thus, the data collectors

6 It’s very difficult to immigrate to America are long gone and come here illegally; there legally to the United States. In replaced by a legal system that is no way for them to enter most portions of American law, looks as if it were imported from lawfully. There are two all activities are legal except the Soviet Union (Figure 2). temporary guest worker visa those that the government programs for seasonal workers specifically declares to be There are four basic categories in agriculture and other illegal. Immigration law is of green cards. The first is nonagricultural occupations, the opposite because the only for relatives of other legal but they are highly regulated, legal immigration is that which immigrants and American expensive, and employer- the government specifically citizens. The second is for sponsored. Furthermore, the approves. All other immigration a limited number of skilled nonagricultural work visa is is illegal. Consequently, immigrant workers sponsored numerically limited. Neither by American firms. The third Myth legal immigrants must fit can lead to a green card. Slight into narrow, specific green category is for refugees and expansions in the guest worker 02 asylum seekers. The fourth is “It is easy to card categories in order to visa programs for Mexicans enter—merely being a healthy called the diversity green card. have resulted in many fewer immigrate here noncriminal who doesn’t pose It’s for 50,000 applicants with Mexican illegal immigrants a national security threat at least a high school degree coming during recent years, legally. Why don’t from countries that send few isn’t enough. There are very but now illegal immigrants are illegal immigrants immigrants to the United States, few ways to enter the United seeking entry from countries and it is allocated by lottery. In just get in line?” States legally, and the entire that don’t have access to as 2017, about 23 million people 13 immigration law is “second only many temporary visas. FACT: It’s very difficult to entered the lottery for 50,000 to the Internal Revenue Code 12 immigrate legally to the green cards. in complexity,” according to In 2017, about 23 million United States. Immigration Rutgers law professor Elizabeth There is no green card category people entered the law is second only to the Hull. The pre-Ellis Island days for low-skilled workers, which lottery for 50,000 green income tax code in legal when anybody could come is why so many immigrants complexity. cards.

7 OR Do you have a family Are you eligible Can you invest $500,000 to Do you have a job opportunity in the U.S.? member in U.S.? for Diversity Visa? $1,000,000? Legend

Figure 2: Paths to a Green Card Employment-based immigration— adjustment of status Working on Each year there are 50,000 Source. Immigrationroad.com H1, L1, etc.? diversity visas available, Each year there are 10,000 Already in U.S.? Is your relative a Is your relative a known as the green card lottery Employment-based immigration— Employer still Sorry! EB-5 visas available for investors, U.S. citizen? permanent resident? consular processing You may start employment- willing to with 3,000 set aside for "regional based sponsor you? center" program participants. immigration process DOS sets new rules every year for the Family-based immigration Can you get a DV lottery, which runs from October In legal status? nonimmigrant to December visa (NIV)? The process is similar to Are you a spouse, or Immigration through Diversity Visa EB Adjustment of Status (AOS), Are you a spouse (IR1), Are you a parent If needed, change your unmarried child? Can you start a business? What category? except that you must unmarried child under 21 (IR2), of said U.S. citizen who status before the end of your stay go through interview at or adopted orphan (IR3, 4)? is 21 or older (IR5)? You may enter the lottery whether You may be eligible for U.S. embassy or consulate you are in U.S. or another country Immigration through investment In U.S. since 1972? immigration through the "Registry" Follow any path (EB, FB, EB-1 EB-2 EB-3 EB-4 EB-5 etc.) to green card You qualify for family-based Can you transform an existing Are you a native of NO immigraton 2nd preference (F2), business? You qualify for family-based a country with low rate you need to wait for a visa number 1. Overstaying visa Employer files I-140 immigration (immediate relative) of immigraton to U.S.? YES 2. Violating visa terms Be sure not to jeopardize immigration petition for you and do not need to wait 3. Entering without inspection for a visa number Long waiting time Workers with your legal status while doing so 4. Visa fraud such as marriage Priority workers. advanced degrees or Professionals, Special workers Investors. Are you an unmarried Can you claim nativity No LC required. I-140 denied? You may be eligible for V visa, exceptional ability. skilled workers, (religious, translators, See "investment" son or daughter and of your spouse or parent, EB1(a) may file and enter U.S. to wait for Can you save a struggling NIW may file other workers gov. employees, etc.) on right side 21 or older? which is eligible? self-petition. NIV to AOS may your green card process business? self-petition. raise the question about Some waivers exist, such as Your relative files I-130, your intent while applying 245(i) for certain eligible I-140 approved? Petition for Alien Relative for nonimmigrant visa illegal immigrants. For Do you have at least a others, there is currently If sponsor becomes a citizen, no path to legalization high school education? Sorry! Must file I-360, Must file I-526 You and your children qualify for he/she may upgrade your Can you invest $1M? National by employer, worker, Alien OR family-based 1st preference (F1), petition from FB-2 to IR Below are a few examples: Interest Waiver or someone else Entrepreneur Approved I-140 is sent to you need to wait for a visa number (NIW)? National Visa Center (NVC) Do you have 2 years of work experience? Apply for OPT, H1B, Spouse/child may apply for (see instructions) F1, J1 Student? Find a job (J1 waiver required) Can you invest start EB immigration K3/K4 visa (I-129F) and If approved enter U.S. as nonimmigrant $500,000 in a targeted employment area? Submit DV entry form, along Employer willing Visa number Are you a married son Your relative files I-130, File family-based AOS, or change to another NIV with all supporting documents Submit Form I-829 to to file Labor Adjustment Consular B1, B2 Visitor? available? or daughter? Petition for Alien Relative status if eligible to DOS by lottery deadline. remove conditions within 90 Certification (LC)? of Status (AOS) Processing It is free to enter DV lottery. days before 2nd anniversary OR File I-485 one year after Refugee is required to Sorry! File I-485 to adjust status, and receive green card Computer Can you create 10 Sorry! Refugee, Asylee? being admitted as refugee file AOS; Asylee is eligible Go to U.S. consulate for jobs or maintain employee level or being granted asylum. (highly recommended) Random immigrant visa interview Selection at a struggling business? Post job ads, interview You, your spouse, and children Enter U.S. and receive candidates who meet qualify for 3rd preference (F3), Approved I-130 is sent to conditional green Receive conditional green card if marriage is minimum requirements Get married File I-485 to you need to wait for a visa number National Visa Center (NVC) You will receive a notification card valid for 2 years K1 Fiancé(e)? less than 2 years old. File I-751 to remove within 90 days adjust status if you win the lottery conditions (winning doesn't guarantee a Submit Form I-526, USCIS security green card) Visa number checks cleared? Immigrant Petition by available? Receive conditional green Qualified File I-485 to adjust status Alien Entrepreneur Receive immigrant visa U.S. worker? K3 Spouse? card if marriage is less than 2 years old. File Wait for a visa number to (I-130 was already filed) become available (PD current) LC denied? I-751 to remove conditions Follow instructions to submit Are you a brother or sister your immigrant visa application Meet all of said U.S. citizen who Approved I-526 is sent to is 21 or older? U.S. embassy or consulate. Follow primary applicant, or requirements? Go through consulate Dependent? (Or, if you are already in U.S. LC approved? start own process if elibigle interview for immigrant visa and elected to adjust status, Your employer must file Pay application and other fees you may now file I-485) I-140, Immigrant Petition Receive I-551 stamp in You, your spouse, and children NVC sends out instructions to for Alien Worker I-140 denied? Receive immigrant visa, passport at port of qualify for 4th preference (F4), collect fees and visa application, enter U.S. as a Denied? Respond to RFE in entry; you need to wait for a visa number including DS-230 and I-864 Visa number Sorry! permanent resident time? green card will (Affidavit of Support) available? You may file I-485, Go through U.S. consulate Either way, the entire process Receive immigrant visa, arrive in mail AOS interview for immigrant visa, must complete before deadline enter U.S. as permanent (or file I-485 if you are in U.S.) or DV visas run out resident, or adjust status Sorry!

Your employer must file You can also apply for EAD Prefer Consular USCIS security Request for Meet all Visa number Receive immigrant visa, enter I-140, and you may concurrently I-140 approved? NVC sends complete package You must clear medical and AP along with I-485 Processing (CP)? checks cleared? evidence (RFE)? requirements? available? Go through visa interview U.S. as a (conditional) file I-485, AOS to embassy or consulate abroad exam, security checks, etc. permanent resident 8 Disclaimer: This immigration road map is for general guidance only and shall NOT be construed as legal advice; U.S. immigration laws and regulations are ever changing, so always confirm with USCIS and/or consult a qualified professional with regard to your case; No warranty is made regarding the accuracy of any information; Not all possible ways to GC are covered by this flowchart, and appeals/motion to reopen are not included; You may start multiple processes if your are eligible. OR Do you have a family Are you eligible Can you invest $500,000 to Do you have a job opportunity in the U.S.? member in U.S.? for Diversity Visa? $1,000,000? Legend

Employment-based immigration— adjustment of status Working on Each year there are 50,000 H1, L1, etc.? diversity visas available, Each year there are 10,000 Already in U.S.? Is your relative a Is your relative a known as the green card lottery Employment-based immigration— Employer still Sorry! EB-5 visas available for investors, U.S. citizen? permanent resident? consular processing You may start employment- willing to with 3,000 set aside for "regional based sponsor you? center" program participants. immigration process DOS sets new rules every year for the Family-based immigration Can you get a DV lottery, which runs from October In legal status? nonimmigrant to December visa (NIV)? The process is similar to Are you a spouse, or Immigration through Diversity Visa EB Adjustment of Status (AOS), Are you a spouse (IR1), Are you a parent If needed, change your unmarried child? Can you start a business? What category? except that you must unmarried child under 21 (IR2), of said U.S. citizen who status before the end of your stay go through interview at or adopted orphan (IR3, 4)? is 21 or older (IR5)? You may enter the lottery whether You may be eligible for U.S. embassy or consulate you are in U.S. or another country Immigration through investment In U.S. since 1972? immigration through the "Registry" Follow any path (EB, FB, EB-1 EB-2 EB-3 EB-4 EB-5 etc.) to green card You qualify for family-based Can you transform an existing Are you a native of NO immigraton 2nd preference (F2), business? You qualify for family-based a country with low rate you need to wait for a visa number 1. Overstaying visa Employer files I-140 immigration (immediate relative) of immigraton to U.S.? YES 2. Violating visa terms Be sure not to jeopardize immigration petition for you and do not need to wait 3. Entering without inspection for a visa number Long waiting time Workers with your legal status while doing so 4. Visa fraud such as marriage Priority workers. advanced degrees or Professionals, Special workers Investors. Are you an unmarried Can you claim nativity No LC required. I-140 denied? You may be eligible for V visa, exceptional ability. skilled workers, (religious, translators, See "investment" son or daughter and of your spouse or parent, EB1(a) may file and enter U.S. to wait for Can you save a struggling NIW may file other workers gov. employees, etc.) on right side 21 or older? which is eligible? self-petition. NIV to AOS may your green card process business? self-petition. raise the question about Some waivers exist, such as Your relative files I-130, your intent while applying 245(i) for certain eligible I-140 approved? Petition for Alien Relative for nonimmigrant visa illegal immigrants. For Do you have at least a others, there is currently If sponsor becomes a citizen, no path to legalization high school education? Sorry! Must file I-360, Must file I-526 You and your children qualify for he/she may upgrade your Can you invest $1M? National by employer, worker, Alien OR family-based 1st preference (F1), petition from FB-2 to IR Below are a few examples: Interest Waiver or someone else Entrepreneur Approved I-140 is sent to you need to wait for a visa number (NIW)? National Visa Center (NVC) Do you have 2 years of work experience? Apply for OPT, H1B, Spouse/child may apply for (see instructions) F1, J1 Student? Find a job (J1 waiver required) Can you invest start EB immigration K3/K4 visa (I-129F) and If approved enter U.S. as nonimmigrant $500,000 in a targeted employment area? Submit DV entry form, along Employer willing Visa number Are you a married son Your relative files I-130, File family-based AOS, or change to another NIV with all supporting documents Submit Form I-829 to to file Labor Adjustment Consular B1, B2 Visitor? available? or daughter? Petition for Alien Relative status if eligible to DOS by lottery deadline. remove conditions within 90 Certification (LC)? of Status (AOS) Processing It is free to enter DV lottery. days before 2nd anniversary OR File I-485 one year after Refugee is required to Sorry! File I-485 to adjust status, and receive green card Computer Can you create 10 Sorry! Refugee, Asylee? being admitted as refugee file AOS; Asylee is eligible Go to U.S. consulate for jobs or maintain employee level or being granted asylum. (highly recommended) Random immigrant visa interview Selection at a struggling business? Post job ads, interview You, your spouse, and children Enter U.S. and receive candidates who meet qualify for 3rd preference (F3), Approved I-130 is sent to conditional green Receive conditional green card if marriage is minimum requirements Get married File I-485 to you need to wait for a visa number National Visa Center (NVC) You will receive a notification card valid for 2 years K1 Fiancé(e)? less than 2 years old. File I-751 to remove within 90 days adjust status if you win the lottery conditions (winning doesn't guarantee a Submit Form I-526, USCIS security green card) Visa number checks cleared? Immigrant Petition by available? Receive conditional green Qualified File I-485 to adjust status Alien Entrepreneur Receive immigrant visa U.S. worker? K3 Spouse? card if marriage is less than 2 years old. File Wait for a visa number to (I-130 was already filed) become available (PD current) LC denied? I-751 to remove conditions Follow instructions to submit Are you a brother or sister your immigrant visa application Meet all of said U.S. citizen who Approved I-526 is sent to is 21 or older? U.S. embassy or consulate. Follow primary applicant, or requirements? Go through consulate Dependent? (Or, if you are already in U.S. LC approved? start own process if elibigle interview for immigrant visa and elected to adjust status, Your employer must file Pay application and other fees you may now file I-485) I-140, Immigrant Petition Receive I-551 stamp in You, your spouse, and children NVC sends out instructions to for Alien Worker I-140 denied? Receive immigrant visa, passport at port of qualify for 4th preference (F4), collect fees and visa application, enter U.S. as a Denied? Respond to RFE in entry; you need to wait for a visa number including DS-230 and I-864 Visa number Sorry! permanent resident time? green card will (Affidavit of Support) available? You may file I-485, Go through U.S. consulate Either way, the entire process Receive immigrant visa, arrive in mail AOS interview for immigrant visa, must complete before deadline enter U.S. as permanent (or file I-485 if you are in U.S.) or DV visas run out resident, or adjust status Sorry!

Your employer must file You can also apply for EAD Prefer Consular USCIS security Request for Meet all Visa number Receive immigrant visa, enter I-140, and you may concurrently I-140 approved? NVC sends complete package You must clear medical and AP along with I-485 Processing (CP)? checks cleared? evidence (RFE)? requirements? available? Go through visa interview U.S. as a (conditional) file I-485, AOS to embassy or consulate abroad exam, security checks, etc. permanent resident Disclaimer: This immigration road map is for general guidance only and shall NOT be construed as legal advice; U.S. immigration laws and regulations are ever changing, so always confirm with USCIS and/or consult a qualified professional with regard to your case; No 9 warranty is made regarding the accuracy of any information; Not all possible ways to GC are covered by this flowchart, and appeals/motion to reopen are not included; You may start multiple processes if your are eligible. Security and Medicare and Means-tested welfare benefits countries.17 Far from draining $800 billion on the means- account for only about the welfare state, immigrants tested welfare programs 35 percent of all welfare have given the entitlement intended for the American benefits, while 65 percent is programs a few more years of poor.14 Most legal immigrants spent through the welfare operation before bankruptcy. do not have legal access to entitlement programs of Immigrants are not the cause means-tested welfare for their Medicare and Social Security. of American welfare profligacy. first five years here, with few Immigrants are also less likely If you’re still worried about exceptions that are mostly to use welfare benefits than foreign-born consumption of designated on the state level are native-born Americans, welfare benefits, as I am, then and funded with state taxes. and when they do use welfare, it is far easier and cheaper to However, illegal immigrants immigrants consume a lower build a higher wall around the have these exceptions: the dollar value of benefits.16 If welfare state, instead of around Myth Special Supplemental Nutrition native-born Americans used the country.18 Program for Women, Infants, government benefits at the 03 “Immigrants and Children; emergency same rate and consumed Allowing in more legal immigrants abuse the welfare Medicaid; and state-level the same value of benefits as with the strict welfare-use rules Medicaid in California. immigrants, the welfare state that are currently law, or even state.” Altogether, such spending is would shrink by 43 percent, or strengthening them, significantly by more than $1.3 trillion. lessens the fear that new FACT: Immigrants use minuscule. In 2006, illegal immigrant non-elderly adults immigrants will abuse welfare. significantly less welfare Immigrants also make large consumed about $1.1 billion in than native-born Americans. net contributions to Medicare government healthcare benefits and Social Security, which The American welfare state out of $88 billion spent by are the biggest portions of the spent about $2.3 trillion in governments in that year for welfare state, because of their 2016: $1.5 trillion on the that age group—a rate far below ages, ineligibility, and greater entitlement programs of Social their share of the population.15 likelihood of retiring in other

10 Related to the welfare positive fiscal effect if they and welfare benefits first— concern is the argument that arrive at a younger age.20 The meaning they are more likely to immigrants consume more in model also finds that Americans immediately pay taxes without government benefits than they with a low level of education receiving benefits. generate in tax revenue. The impose a larger fiscal burden empirics on this argument are than do immigrants with the Besides making the economy fairly consistent: immigrants in same education level. bigger and increasing tax the United States have about a payments (not rates) as a It seems odd that so many net zero effect on government result, between 50 percent and poor immigrants don’t create a 75 percent of illegal immigrants budgets.19 A new model larger deficit, but many factors comply with federal tax law.21 published by the National explain that result. The first is States that rely on consumption Academies of Sciences in its that higher immigrant fertility or property taxes tend to garner Myth massive literature survey of the and the long-run productivity a surplus from taxes paid by economics of immigration finds of those people born in the illegal immigrants, while states 04 that age is the most important “Immigrants United States generates a lot of that rely on income taxes do factor in estimating whether tax revenue. The second is that not because it is much easier to increase the a new immigrant will be a net immigrants grow the economy avoid paying income taxes than budget deficit and fiscal drain or a contributor to considerably and increase tax property or sales taxes. government coffers, followed by government debt.” revenue overall. The third is education. The least educated that many immigrants come immigrants have a better effect FACT: Immigrants in when they are relatively young on government coffers if they the United States have but not young enough to be in arrive when they’re younger about a net zero effect on public schools for as long as rather than being older. The government budgets—they natives are; thus, they work and most educated immigrants have pay about as much in taxes pay taxes without consuming a negative effect if they arrive as they consume in benefits. hundreds of thousands of after age 64 but an average dollars in public school costs

11 more important than is the among natives and another distribution, and every group in study that includes immigrants this situation either wins or is income distribution. and their earnings.23 Both unaffected. The argument that immigration methods seem reasonable, is increasing economic but the effects on inequality inequality within nations are small compared to other Although most forms of is getting some attention. factors. A more recent finding is economic inequality are Although most forms of that immigrants increase wealth increasing among people economic inequality are inequality by their effect on the within nations, global increasing among people within price of real estate in American inequality is falling and is at a historic low point. nations, global inequality is cities. About a third of the real falling and is at a historic low estate price increase from 1970 Myth point, likely as a result of rapid to 2010 in American cities can economic growth in much of the 05 be explained by the increase in “Immigrants world over the past generation.22 immigration.24 increase economic The evidence on how Frankly, I don’t see a problem immigration affects economic inequality.” if an immigrant quadruples inequality in the United States his or her income by coming FACT: Maybe. The evidence is mixed—some research finds to the United States and by on how immigration affects relatively small effects, and increasing economic production economic inequality in the some finds substantial ones. here while it barely affects the United States is mixed—some The variance in findings can be wages of native-born Americans research finds relatively explained by research methods: and increases economic there is a big difference in small effects, and some inequality as a result. The outcomes between a study that finds substantial ones. The standard of living is much more measures how immigration standard of living is much important than is the earnings affects economic inequality only

12 A large amount of research from outside the European nation-states that are defined indicates that immigrants— Union, but the findings for by ethnic, linguistic, and including Mexicans—are the United States are quite cultural features that reach back assimilating as well as or better positive.27 One of the main millennia and that are more than previous immigrant reasons immigrants in Europe difficult for outsiders to join. groups.25 The first piece of don’t assimilate as well is that research is the National European countries have more The third work, by University Academies of Sciences’ 2015 labor market regulations that of Washington economist book The Integration of make it particularly difficult Jacob Vigdor, compares Immigrants into American for lower-skilled immigrants modern immigrant civic and Society.26 It’s a thorough to find jobs, thereby slowing cultural assimilation to that of summary of the relevant both economic and cultural immigrants from the early 20th Myth 29 academic literature about assimilation.28 Another major century. If you think early 20th-century immigrants and 06 immigrant assimilation. The reason is that the process of “Today’s their descendants assimilated bottom line: assimilation is assimilation is a two-way successfully, Vigdor’s immigrants don’t never perfect and always takes street. Immigrants and their conclusion is reassuring: assimilate as time, but it’s going very well. descendants must take up most of the customs, mores, “While there are reasons immigrants from The second book, Indicators and values held by long-settled to think of contemporary of Immigrant Integration previous eras did.” natives. The natives must accept migration from Spanish- 2015, analyzes immigrant and the immigrants; their children; speaking nations as distinct FACT: Immigrants to the second-generation integration and some of their particular from earlier waves of United States—including on 27 measurable indicators customs, religions, and habits immigration, evidence does across developed nations. This Mexicans—are assimilating as part of the cultural fabric of not support the notion that report finds more problems as well as or better than the country. This two-way street this wave of migration with immigrant assimilation immigrant groups from is more well traveled in the poses a true threat to the in Europe, especially for those Europe over a hundred United States than in European institutions that withstood years ago.

13 those earlier waves. Basic much less likely to identify as and continual assimilation indicators of assimilation, Hispanic. Thus, the descendants over the generations that is from naturalization to of Hispanic immigrants who comparable to the immigrant English ability, are if successfully economically assimilation trends from the anything stronger now than assimilate are less likely to Age of Migration that ended they were a century ago.” self-identify as Hispanic by the a century ago.30 If you think second, third, and subsequent that immigrants and their Ethnic attrition, which is generations. That progression descendants during the Age when immigrants and their also means that the descendants of Migration from Austria, descendants shed their of Hispanic immigrants who Belgium, Denmark, England, identification with an ethnic are less educated and have Finland, France, Germany, or country-of-origin identity, lower incomes are less likely Ireland, Italy, Norway, does complicate how social to marry outside of their Portugal, Russia, Scotland, scientists measure immigrant ethnicity, and their descendants Sweden, Switzerland, and assimilation. Through are more likely to identify as Wales assimilated just fine, then intermarriage and time, the Hispanic. Thus, studying how you shouldn’t be worried about more educated descendants self-identified Hispanics have the immigrants from Mexico, of Hispanic immigrants assimilated in subsequent China, and India today who are are less likely to identify as generations will not produce an assimilating as well or more Hispanic, which biases the accurate estimate of how all of rapidly. analysis of assimilation over the descendants of immigrants the generations when the from Spanish-speaking For those who believe that research relies on ethnic self- countries have assimilated. immigrants assimilated more identification. Because more smoothly in the past, the educated and higher-earning Adjusting for ethnic attrition plethora of ethnic and anti- Hispanics are more likely to by tracking the outcomes of Catholic riots during the 19th marry outside their ethnic the descendants of all Hispanic and 20th centuries, the nativist group, their children are immigrants shows rapid Know-Nothing movement,

14 and the anti-assimilation Catholics were the majority of to Napoleon’s destruction of organizations such as the immigrants to the United States that city. The largest mass National German-American beginning in the mid-1800s. lynching in American history Alliance are a useful tonic to Nativists and Know-Nothing was of 11 Italian immigrants weepy nostalgia. The United politicians responded by in New Orleans in 1891—for States has a long history of inspiring political movements which President Benjamin anti-Catholic bigotry, which was and riots against Catholics and Harrison publicly apologized to part of the nativist movement immigrants in major cities from the Italian government in his because most immigrants the 1830s through the 1850s. message to Congress in 1892. were Catholic at the time, and One of the most infamous This prejudice didn’t really fade many Americans considered riots was “Bloody Monday,” until Catholic John Fitzgerald Catholicism an alien religion in Louisville in 1855, when Kennedy ran against Richard fundamentally at odds with the nearly 100 Catholics, many of Milhous Nixon in the 1968 values of a free society. Before whom were immigrants, were presidential campaign, won, the American Revolution, Guy injured and more than 20 and governed without being Fawkes Day was known as pope were killed. Anti-Catholic and controlled by the pope. Day, and on that occasion, anti-immigrant riots rocked Americans burned effigies of New York in 1831, Boston in Catholics were not the only the pope. George Washington 1834, Philadelphia in 1844, ones persecuted among bucked the opinion of other and St. Louis in 1854. John immigrant groups. The 1885 Founding Fathers such as Hughes, the archbishop of New Rock Springs massacre of 28 John Jay and Alexander York and the most prominent Chinese immigrant workers by Hamilton when he ordered the Irish-American Catholic at the unionized white workers was a Continental Army to celebrate time, warned that “if a single dark stain on the history of the St. Patrick’s Day in an effort to Catholic church is burned in American West.32 make the Catholics in his army New York, the city will become 31 In spite of the violence and feel more welcome. a second Moscow,” in reference anti-immigrant hostility in the

15 19th and early 20th centuries, government programs to help Americanization policies during the descendants of those expedite assimilation. However, World War I—to such an extent immigrants assimilated, and evidence from the early 20th- that they walled themselves Americans gradually accepted century Americanization and their children off from Catholicism as part of the Movement suggests that efforts, American society, which slowed religious fabric of the United such as outlawing the use of the pace of assimilation.36 States. Despite the occasional foreign languages in public Immigrant assimilation is terrorist attack inspired by or private schools, jingoistic too important to leave in the nativism, such as the 2019 propaganda campaigns aimed hands of bureaucrats or other shooting in El Paso, Texas, at recent immigrants, or forced social planners who ignore by an anti-immigrant white classes in American civics, will the “if it ain’t broke, don’t nationalist, modern cultural fail, or they could even backfire fix it” principle. Government assimilation looks heavenly and make new immigrants and involvement rarely improves compared to the maelstrom their descendants less culturally anything and often makes of the 19th century, when and patriotically American.34 its intended target worse; lynching and riots figured the government should quite prominently alongside That is what happened with not interrupt something as assimilation.33 Immigrant the Germans. In the early 20th important as assimilation. assimilation is always messy, century, the National German- and it looks bad when you’re in American Alliance actively the thick of it—as we are right opposed the assimilation of now. However, the trends are German immigrants within the positive. United States and discouraged the learning of English while Even though the evidence representing that dominant of immigrant assimilation immigrant group.35 German should comfort skeptics, some Americans reacted most have proposed massive new negatively to anti-German

16 This myth has been around time, while civil infractions a crime rate for all immigrants, for more than a century. are remedied by correcting but the modern debate is Government commissions the infraction. In immigration over the crime rates of illegal and academic papers about law, correcting civil infractions immigrants.41 Most people immigration and crime found means deportation, which is not believe that legal immigrants no relationship between crime technically a punishment under have lower crime rates than and immigration in 1896, 1909, American criminal law. To be do native-born Americans. 1931, 1994, or more recent clear, there are immigration Measuring illegal immigrant years.37 Some immigrants do offenses that are technically crime rates is challenging for commit violent and property crimes and that are punished several reasons. crimes but, overall, they are with short jail terms, but being First, the American Community less likely to do so. Cities with an illegal immigrant present in Survey does not ask which more immigrants and their the United States is not one of 39 inmates in adult correctional descendants tend to have less them. Myth facilities are illegal immigrants. crime.38 It is difficult to know whether Second, 49 states do not record 07 “Immigrants are The most contentious debate illegal immigrants are more the immigration statuses of a major source of regarding this issue concerns likely to commit crimes than those in prison or convicted crime.” whether illegal immigrants are native-born Americans are. of a crime. Until recently, more likely to be criminals than All immigrants have a lower those data limitations allowed FACT: Immigrants, including are native-born Americans or criminal incarceration rate, and pundits such as Ann Coulter illegal immigrants, are less legal immigrants. It’s important there are generally lower crime to say anything about illegal rates in the neighborhoods likely to be incarcerated in to clarify that merely being immigrant crime without fear where they live, according to the 42 prisons, convicted of crimes, an illegal immigrant in the of being fact-checked. Third, near-unanimous findings of the or arrested than native-born United States is not a crime, a wealth of circumstantial peer-reviewed research.40 That Americans. but rather a civil infraction. evidence is not consistent with research combines legal and Crimes are punished with jail a higher illegal immigrant illegal immigrants to calculate crime rate. Fourth, a growing

17 body of peer-reviewed research of native-born Americans in has confirmed that illegal 2017. In the same year, legal Figure 3. Incarceration rates by immigrants are less crime- immigrant incarceration rates immigration status in 2017, per 100,000 prone than are native-born were also half those of illegal Native-born 1,471 Source: Michelangelo Landgrave and Alex Americans. Fifth, the databases immigrants (Figure 3). Americans Nowrasteh, “Criminal Immigrants in 2017: Their Numbers, Demographics, and Countries of kept by the government to Origin,” Cato Institute Immigration Research and The state of Texas provides Policy Brief no. 11, March 4, 2019. determine who is illegal Illegal 756 valuable data about criminal immigrants and who isn’t are woefully Note: Rates are per 100,000 residents in each inadequate, meaning that conviction rates of illegal subpopulation. immigrants. Unlike every other Legal 364 they will likely need to be immigrants reorganized to actually reveal state, Texas keeps track of the immigration status of convicted 0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400 1,600 the information required. Incarceration rate criminals and the crimes that Michelangelo Landgrave, a they committed. Texas is a But even in Texas, illegal Consistent with the Texas doctoral student in political good state to study because it immigrant conviction rates are research, crime along the science at the University of borders Mexico, has a large about half those of native-born Mexican border is much lower California–Riverside, and I illegal immigrant population, is Americans—without controls than in the rest of the country; estimated illegal immigrant a politically conservative state for age, education, ethnicity, or homicide rates in Mexican incarceration rates by using governed by Republicans, had any other characteristic (Figure states bordering the United the same residual statistical no jurisdictions that limited 4).44 The illegal immigrant States are not correlated with method that demographers its cooperation with federal conviction rates for larceny, homicide rates in adjacent use to estimate the number immigration enforcement in sex crimes, and almost all other American states. El Paso’s of illegal immigrants in the 2017, and has a reputation crimes are also below those of border fence did not lower United States, but we applied for strictly enforcing criminal native-born Americans—even crime, and Texas criminal that method to the prison laws. If anything, Texas is for the worst crime of homicide conviction rates remain low (but 43 population. We found that more serious about enforcing (Figure 5). The criminal not as low) when recidivism is illegal immigrant incarceration laws against illegal immigrant conviction rates for legal factored in.45 Police clearance rates were about half those criminals than are other states. immigrants are the lowest of all. rates are not lower in states

18 with many illegal immigrants, and DUI arrests when looking meaning that immigrants don’t at a larger illegal immigrant just commit their crimes and population and no statistically Figure 4. Criminal conviction rates by immigration run back across the border.46 significant relationship between Native-born 1,702 status in 2017, per 100,000 Americans Furthermore, arrest rates for increased illegal immigration Sources: Alex Nowrasteh, “Criminal Immigrants in Texas in 49 2017: Illegal Immigrant Conviction Rates and Arrest Rates illegal immigrants are as closely and DUI deaths. Illegal 899 for Homicide, Sex Crimes, Larceny, and Other Crimes,” Cato correlated with their conviction immigrants Institute Immigration Research and Policy Brief no. 13, The preceding paragraphs August 27, 2019; author’s analysis of data from the Texas rates as the arrest rates for Department of Public Safety, the American Community native-born Americans are will not console a victim of Legal 599 Survey, and the Center for Migration Studies. immigrants correlated with their conviction illegal immigrant crime—and Note: Rates are per 100,000 residents in each 47 it shouldn’t. To those victims 0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400 1,600 1,800 subpopulation. rates. Criminal conviction rates and their loved ones, their pain In peer-reviewed journals, is not diminished by knowing sociologists Michael Light and how unlikely it was to happen Ty Miller found that a higher to them. There will be criminals illegal immigrant population in any large group of people, Figure 5. Homicide conviction rates by does not increase violent crime and there are some infuriating 3.6 immigration status in 2017, per 100,000 Native-born rates.48 Those two researchers and shocking incidents such as Americans the killing of Kate Steinle in San Sources: Alex Nowrasteh, “Criminal Immigrants in Texas in teamed up with Purdue 2017: Illegal Immigrant Conviction Rates and Arrest Rates Francisco in 2015.50 The public Illegal 2.5 for Homicide, Sex Crimes, Larceny, and Other Crimes,” Cato sociologist Brian C. Kelly to look immigrants Institute Immigration Research and Policy Brief no. 13, at how higher illegal immigrant seems to understand that the August 27, 2019; author’s analysis of data from the Texas actions of a comparatively small Department of Public Safety, the American Community populations affected drug Legal Survey, and the Center for Migration Studies. number of illegal immigrants immigrants 1.5 arrests, drug overdose deaths, do not mean that they are more Note: Rates are per 100,000 residents in each and driving under the influence subpopulation. crime-prone than are native- 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 (DUI) arrests. They found large Homicide conviction rates and statistically significant born Americans, which is what associated reductions in drug matters the most when debating arrests, drug overdose deaths, public policy.

19 A 2016 Pew poll found that of Kate Steinle, is that most only 27 percent of Americans illegal immigrant criminals thought that illegal immigrants probably victimize other illegal were more likely to commit immigrants. Of the homicides serious crimes than were in 2018 where the relationship native-born Americans, while between the murderer and 67 percent said they were less the victim is known, about 80 51 likely. Among Republicans, percent of murderers knew 42 percent said that illegal their victims.53 The relationship immigrants are more likely between victim and murderer to commit serious crimes and could be even higher for illegal 52 percent said they are less immigrants as they try to avoid likely. A Quinnipiac poll in 2018 problems with Americans while revealed that only 17 percent living and working in the black of voters thought that illegal market. Americans tend to immigrants committed more care more when native-born crimes than did native-born Americans are murdered by Americans, and 72 percent illegal immigrants than when of voters thought that illegal an illegal immigrant murders immigrants committed less another illegal immigrant. crime.52

Part of the reason that American voters might not be so concerned with illegal immigrant crime overall, but might be very concerned in specific cases such as the killing

20 Terrorism is not a modern means to wage war. A large number of bombings and terrorist attacks occurred in the early 20th century, many of

them committed by immigrants, Visa category Terrorism Terrorism per deaths visa category Annual chance of being killed labor unionists, socialists, 54 and their fellow travelers. All 3,037 1 in 3,808,372 Today, deaths from terrorism Tourist 2,829.4 1 in 4,087,787 committed by immigrants are greater than they were a Student 158.8 1 in 72,838,750 century ago, but the risk is still Lawful permanent 17 1 in 680,354,517 resident (LPR) Myth low. Overall, immigration is not correlated with terrorist attacks, K-1 14 1 in 826,144,771 08 and the risk of being murdered “Immigrants Asylum 9 1 in 1,285,114,088 in an attack committed by a pose a unique risk foreign-born terrorist is also Unknown 4.8 1 in 2,409,588,916 small.55 For instance, the annual today because of Refugee 3 1 in 3,855,342,265 chance of being murdered in a terrorism.” Visa Waiver terrorist attack committed by a 1 1 in 11,566,026,795 Program (VWP) FACT: The annual chance of foreign-born person on U.S. soil from 1975 through the end of Illegal 0 0 being murdered in a terrorist 2017 was about 1 in 3.8 million attack committed by a per year (Table 1). More than 98 foreign-born person on U.S. 9/11, and the attackers entered Table 1. Terrorism deaths per visa category and percent of the people murdered annual chance of being murdered, 1975–2017 soil from 1975 through the on tourist visas and one student by foreign-born terrorists on visa, not immigrant visas. Source: Alex Nowrasteh, “Terrorists by Immigration Status end of 2017 was about 1 in 3.8 U.S. soil were murdered on and Nationality: A Risk Analysis, 1975–2017,” Cato Institute million per year. Policy Analysis no. 866, May 7, 2019.

21 The risk of foreign-born terrorism on U.S. soil has also increased fears over the government’s vetting system for new immigrants and travelers, prompting President Trump to temporarily ban travelers and immigrants from certain countries.56 But according to Cato Institute immigration policy analyst David Bier, there have been few vetting failures since 9/11. From 2002 through 2016, only one radicalized terrorist entered the United States for every 29 million visa or status approvals.57 Only one of the post-9/11 vetting failures resulted in an attack on U.S. soil, meaning that a single deadly terrorist entered as a result of a vetting failure for every 379 million visas or status approvals from 2002 through 2016. That is a very low risk, especially compared with the pre-9/11 vetting system. 22 More immigrants come to the but other countries assimilate United States legally each year immigrants well and allow than to any other country. much more legal immigration. However, the annual inflow of immigrants as a percentage of our population is below that of most other rich countries in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development because the United States has such a large population. For instance, annual immigrants Myth to the United States account 09 for about 0.31 percent of the “The United American population, while States has the most the equivalent figures for open immigration Canada and Australia are 0.74 percent and 1.1 percent, policy in the world.” respectively.58 The percentage of

FACT: The annual inflow of our population that is foreign- immigrants to the United born is about 13.5 percent— below historical highs in the States, as a percentage of United States, less than half of our population, is below that what it is in New Zealand and of most other rich countries Australia, and well below that of in the Organisation for Canada.59 America does a good Economic Co-operation and job of assimilating immigrants, Development.

23 11 capricious and that are present, good laws are required, destructive laws is preferable not just strict adherence to to strict enforcement, but contrary to our traditions is and government enforcement liberalization is still the best inconsistent with a stable of bad laws. An amnesty is an option. Admitting that our laws Rule of Law. admission that our past laws failed, granting an amnesty for have failed, that they need lawbreakers, and reforming the For a law to be consistent with reform, and that the cost of law would not doom the Rule of the principle of the Rule of Law, enforcing them in the meantime Law in the United States—they it must be applied equally, have exceeds the benefits. Hence, would strengthen it. roughly predictable outcomes there have been numerous based on the circumstances, and POLICE immigration amnesties ICE be consistent with our Anglo- throughout American history, Saxon traditions of personal An amnesty is an Myth such as in 1929, 1958, 1965, autonomy and individual liberty. admission that our past 1986, 1997, 1998, and 2000.60 laws have failed, that 10 Our current immigration laws they need reform, and “Amnesty or a violate each of those principles. Enforcing laws that are that the cost of enforcing failure to enforce Through arbitrary quotas inherently capricious and that them in the meantime and other regulations, the are contrary to our traditions is our immigration exceeds the benefits. immigration laws are applied inconsistent with a stable Rule laws will destroy the differently according to people’s of Law, which is a necessary Rule of Law in the country of birth. The outcomes but not sufficient condition for prosperity and liberty. United States.” are certainly not predictable, and they are hardly consistent Enforcing bad laws poorly FACT: America’s current with America’s traditional is better than enforcing bad immigration laws violate immigration policy and our laws uniformly despite the conceptions of liberty. uncertainty that the action every principal component generates. In immigration, of the Rule of Law. Enforcing For the Rule of Law to be poor enforcement of our laws that are inherently 24 11 ability to defend American keeping out other competing or removing them would not sovereign governments. Our infringe on the government’s sovereignty. government maintains its national sovereignty any more By not exercising control sovereignty by excluding the than a policy of unilateral free over borders through actively militaries of other nations, trade would. If the United blocking immigrants—users of by stopping insurgents, and States were to return to its this argument warn—the U.S. by interrupting the plans of 1790–1875 immigration policy, government will surrender a terrorists. Keeping out nonstate foreign militaries crossing U.S. vital component of its national actors who do not intend to borders would still be countered sovereignty.61 Rarely do those commit violence that would by the U.S. military. Allowing users explain to whom the U.S. replace or overthrow the the free flow of nonviolent government would actually state is not necessary for the and healthy foreign nationals surrender sovereignty. Even Myth continued existence of the U.S. does nothing to diminish the in the most extreme open government. U.S. government’s legitimate 11 immigration policy imaginable monopoly on the use of force. “Illegal (totally open borders), national U.S. immigration laws are not immigration or sovereignty is not diminished designed primarily to keep A historical argument can be out foreign armies, spies, or made that free immigration and expanding legal if we assume that our government’s institutions chose insurgents. The main effect national sovereignty are not in immigration such a policy. How can that be? of our immigration laws is conflict. From 1790 to 1875, the will destroy to prevent willing foreign federal government placed no The standard Weberian workers from selling their restrictions on immigration. American national definition of a government is an During much of that period, labor to Americans who wish institution that has a monopoly various states imposed sovereignty.” to voluntarily purchase it. (or near monopoly) on the restrictions on the migration of Such economic controls do not FACT: Different immigration legitimate use of violence within free blacks and likely indigents aid in maintaining national policies do not reduce a certain geographical area. through outright bans, taxes, sovereignty; thus, relaxing the U.S. government’s It achieves this monopoly by passenger regulations, and

25 bonds. States did not enforce it had open borders during the 12 many of those restrictions, presidential administrations and the Supreme Court struck of George Washington, down the rest of them in the Andrew Jackson, Abraham 1840s. However, the open Lincoln, and others. We do not immigration policy did not stop have to choose between free the United States from fighting immigration and U.S. national three major wars: the War of sovereignty. 1812, the Mexican-American Furthermore, national War, and the Civil War. The sovereign control over U.S. government’s monopoly immigration means that the on the legitimate use of force government can do whatever during that time was certainly it wants with that power— challenged from within and including relinquishing it without, but it maintained its entirely. It would be odd for national sovereignty even with restrictionists to argue, as they near-open borders. Those who apparently do, that sovereign claim the U.S. government states should have complete would lose its national control over their borders but sovereignty under a regime that they cease to be sovereign of free immigration have yet states if their borders are too to reconcile their claim with open. After all, I am arguing America’s past. To argue that that the U.S. government open borders would destroy should to allow for more legal American sovereignty is to immigration, not that the U.S. argue that the United States was government should cede all its not a sovereign country when immigration power to a foreign government. 26 12 This is an argument used They would further have to on border security rather than by some Republicans and explain why Texas Hispanics are forcing every state employee to conservatives to oppose so much more Republican than help enforce immigration law liberalized immigration. They those in California are. Nativism as the California GOP tried to point to my home state of has never been the path do in 1994. My comment here California as an example of toward national party success assumes that locking people out what happens when there are and frequently contributes of the United States because too many immigrants and to their downfalls.63 In other they might disproportionately their descendants: Democratic words, whether immigrants vote for one of the two major Party dominance. The evidence vote for Republicans is mostly parties is a legitimate use of is clear that Hispanic and up to how Republicans treat government power—I do not immigrant voters in California them. Republicans should believe that it is. in the early to mid-1990s did look toward the inclusive and relatively pro-immigration Myth turn the state blue, but that was policies and positions adopted as a reaction to California’s In other words, whether 12 by their fellow party members immigrants vote for “Immigrants GOP declaring political war in Texas, at least prior to the Republicans is mostly up on them.62 Those who claim won’t vote for election of Donald Trump in to how Republicans treat that an immigration-induced 2016, and their subsequent them. the Republican change in demographics is electoral success rather than solely responsible for the shift Party—look at trying to replicate the foolish in California’s politics must what happened to nativist politics pursued by the explain the severe drop-off in now almost-extinct California California.” support for the GOP at exactly Republican Party. Although the same time that the party FACT: Republican some Texas Republicans was using anti-immigration immigration policies pushed have changed their tone on propositions and arguments to immigrants away, not the immigration in recent years, win the 1994 election. other way around. they have focused primarily

27 13 of the countries that they weakening in immigrate to.64 Their model economic growth assumes that immigrants means that transmit anti-growth factors to the United States in the form of immigrants will lower economic productivity. destroy more However, as the immigrants assimilate, those anti-growth wealth than they factors weaken over time. will create over the Congestion could counteract long run.” that assimilation process when there are too many immigrants Myth FACT: There is no evidence with too many bad ideas, thus 13 that immigrants weaken overwhelming assimilative “Immigrants or undermine American forces. Clemens and Pritchett economic, political, or are rightly skeptical that this is bring with them bad occurring, but their paper lays cultural institutions. cultures, ideas, or out the theoretical point that other factors that This is the most intelligent anti- immigration restrictions would immigration argument, and it be efficient by balancing the will undermine would be the most convincing benefits of economic expansion and destroy if the evidence supported it. caused by immigration with the Economists Michael Clemens theoretical costs of degradation our economic and Lant Pritchett lay out an in economic growth. and political enlightening model of how Empirical evidence does not institutions. immigrants from poorer countries could theoretically point to this effect existing The resultant weaken the growth potential either. In a recent academic

28 paper, my coauthors and I in states with more immigrants. American conception of admire American institutions compared economic freedom Additionally, large and sudden private property rights would or have opinions on policies scores with immigrant movements of immigrants not accompany me in any that are very similar to those populations across more into specific countries resulted meaningful way if I went to of native-born Americans. than 100 countries over in vast improvements in the Cuba. Local institutions are This appears to be the case 21 years.65 Some countries economic freedom score.66 incredibly robust under a in the United States, where were majority immigrant, Large immigrant populations model called the Doctrine immigrants arrive with opinions while some had virtually no also do not increase the size of First Effective Settlement very close to those of native- immigrants. We found that the of welfare programs or other whereby the first institutions born Americans and then have larger a country’s immigrant government programs across established in an area persist even more similar opinions by 69 population was in 1990, the American states, and there unless the original settlers, their the time they naturalize. As a more economic freedom is a lot of evidence that more descendants, the assimilated result, adding more immigrants immigrants, and their who already broadly share the increased in the same country immigrants in European descendants are all virtually and opinions of most Americans will by 2011. Immigrant countries countries can actually decrease 67 quickly replaced by newcomers not affect policy. of origin did not affect the support for big government. with different institutions.68 outcome. Those results held Although this anti-immigration In other words, it would take The third explanation is that for the United States nationally argument could be true, a rapid inundation of a local foreigners and Americans but not for state governments. it seems unlikely to be so area by immigrants and a have very similar policy States with greater immigrant 70 for several reasons. First, replacement of natives to upend opinions. This hypothesis populations in 1990 had less it is very hard to upend institutions in most places— is related to those just economic freedom in 2011 established political and similar to what happened described, but it indicates an than did those with fewer economic institutions through during the settlement of the area where Americans may be immigrants, but the difference immigration. Individual American West. unexceptional compared to the was small. The national immigrants change to fit into rest of the world. According to increase in economic freedom the existing order rather than The second possibility is this theory, Americans are not more than outweighed the small vice versa. Institutions are immigrant self-selection: those more supportive of free markets decrease in economic freedom ontologically collective—my who decide to come here mostly than are most other people; we

29 14 are just lucky that we inherited As the late labor historian (and States never had a popular excellent institutions from our immigration restrictionist) worker, labor, or socialist party. ancestors. Vernon M. Briggs Jr. wrote, “This era [of immigration The theory that immigrants The fourth reason is that restrictions from 1921 to 1968] could worsen our economic more open immigration witnessed the enactment of the and political institutions, thus can make native voters most progressive worker and slowing economic growth oppose welfare or expanded family legislation the nation and killing the goose that lays government services because has ever adopted.” None of the golden eggs, is one of the they believe immigrants will those programs would have most potentially devastating disproportionately consume been politically possible to arguments against liberalized the benefits (regardless of create amid mass immigration. immigration. Fortunately, the the fact that poor immigrants Government grows the fastest academic and policy literature actually underconsume when immigration is the does not support this argument, welfare compared with poor most restricted, and it slows and there is some evidence that Americans). In essence, voters dramatically when the borders immigrants actually improve hold back the expansion of are more open.72 our institutions. those programs on the basis of a belief that immigrants may Even Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels thought that the take advantage of them. As prospects for a working-class Paul Krugman aptly observed, revolution in the United “Absent those [immigration] States were smaller because restrictions, there would have the immigrant workers were been many claims, justified or divided by a high degree of not, about people flocking to ethnic, sectarian, and racial America to take advantage of diversity.73 That immigrant-led [New Deal] welfare programs.”71 diversity may be why the United

30 14 country, enriches the being called a brain drain, this phenomenon should more immigrants, and helps (or at accurately be called a skill least does not hurt) those left flow. Economic development behind. should be about increasing the The empirical evidence on incomes of people and not the this point is conclusive: the amount of economic activity in flow of skilled workers from specific geographical regions. low-productivity countries Immigration and emigration do to high-productivity nations just that.74 increases the incomes of people in the destination country, Myth enriches the immigrants, and 14 helps (or at least does not hurt) “The brain those left behind. Furthermore, remittances that immigrants drain of smart send home are often large immigrants to enough to offset any loss in home country income through the United States emigration. In the long run, impoverishes other the potential to emigrate countries.” and the higher returns from education increase the incentive FACT: The flow of skilled for workers in the developing workers to rich nations world to acquire skills that increases the incomes of they otherwise might not have, thereby increasing the quantity people in the destination of human capital. Instead of

31 15 The late economist Julian crowding were really a problem, Simon spent much of his career then privatizing government showing that people are an functions so that owners economic and environmental would have an incentive to blessing, not a curse.75 Despite rapidly meet demand is a cheap his work, numerous anti- and easy option. Even if the immigration organizations government does not do that, today were funded and founded and I do not expect it to do so to oppose immigration because soon, the problems of crowding it would increase the number are manageable because of Americans who would then having more immigrants also Myth harm the environment. Yes, means having a larger tax base. seriously—that was the driving Reforming or removing local 15 motivation of the late John “Immigrants land-use laws that prevent Tanton, who was the Johnny development would also go a will increase Appleseed of modern American long way to alleviating any nativism.76 crowding, harm concerns about overcrowding. Concerns about overcrowding the environment, Although we should think of are focused on publicly and [insert such issues on the margin, provided goods or services such would you rather be stuck misanthropic as schools, roads, and heavily with the problem of crowding zoned urban areas. Private statement here].” as suffered in Houston or businesses do not complain the problem of not enough FACT: People, including about crowding because they crowding as in Detroit? immigrants, are an economic can boost their profits by and environmental blessing expanding to meet demand or and not a curse. by charging higher prices. If

32 Conclusion These arguments against immigration policy position immigrants are the main after being confronted with ones usually debated. There such facts, but that person must are others that people use in come up with entirely different opposition to immigration, but arguments. many of those revolve around issues of “fairness”—a word with a fuzzy meaning that differs dramatically between people and cultures. Arguments about fairness depend entirely on feelings and, usually, on a misunderstanding of the facts, a misunderstanding that can be corrected by reference to any of the earlier points.

This document’s responses to the common complaints about immigration are short, quick, and consistent with the evidence regarding immigration and its alleged negative impact on the United States. One can, of course, disagree with a pro-

33 (29) Jacob Vigdor, “The Civic and Cultural Assimilation Conflicting Results.”ILR Review 72, no. 4 (August 2019): (20) National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and of Immigrants to the United States,” working paper, 818–57. Medicine, The Economic and Fiscal Consequences of Sanford School of Public Policy, Duke University. See References Immigration (Washington: National Academies Press, also Benjamin Powell, The Economics of Immigration: (11) George Borjas, Immigration Economics, p. 120. 2017), Table 8-14. Market-Based Approaches, Social Science, and (1) Alex Nowrasteh, “CIS’ All Job Growth Since 2000 Public Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, (12) U.S. Department of State, “Diversity Visa Program (21) Elena Fairley and Rich Jones, “Colorado’s Went to Immigrants’ Report Is Flawed,” Cato at Liberty 2015). (blog), March 10, 2015; Joseph G. Altonji and David Statistics,” DV Statistics 2016–2018. Undocumented Immigrants: What They Pay, What They Cost in Taxes,” Bell Policy Center, April 22, 2011; Card, “The Effects of Immigration on the Labor Market (30) Brian Duncan and Stephen Trejo, “Socioeconomic (13) Alex Nowrasteh, “H-2 Visas Reduced Mexican Illegal Wayne A. Cornelius and Jessa M. Lewis, eds., Impacts Outcomes of Less-Skilled Natives,” Immigration, Trade, Integration of U.S. Immigrant Groups over the Long Immigration,” Cato at Liberty (blog), July 11, 2019. of Border Enforcement on Mexican Migration: The and the Labor Market, ed. John M. Abowd and Richard Term: The Second Generation and Beyond,” National View from Sending Communities (Boulder, CO: Lynne B. Freeman (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper no. Rienner, 2007). 1991), pp. 201–34. (14) Alex Nowrasteh and Robert Orr, “Immigration and 24394, March 12, 2018; Ran Abramitzky, Leah Platt the Welfare State: Immigrant and Native Use Rates and Boustan, and Katherine Eriksson, “Cultural Assimilation (22) Max Roser, “Global Economic Inequality,” Our (2) George Borjas, Immigration Economics (Cambridge, Benefit Levels for Means-Tested Welfare and Entitlement during the Age of Mass Migration,” National Bureau World in Data, October 2016, https://ourworldindata. MA: Harvard University Press, 2014), p. 120; National Programs,” Cato Institute Immigration Research and of Economic Research Working Paper no. 22381, org/global-economic-inequality. Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, “The Policy Brief no. 6, May 10, 2018. September 2017. Economic and Fiscal Consequences of Immigration,” (23) Alex Nowrasteh, “Immigration and Economic Table 8-14, 2017, pp. 235–37. (15) Dana P. Goldman, James P. Smith, and Neeraj (31) Alex Nowrasteh, “Immigration Bolsters American Equality,” Cato at Liberty (blog), April 21, 2015. Snood, “Immigrants and the Cost of Medical Care,” Freedom,” Law & Liberty, October 8, 2014. (3) Gianmarco Ottaviano and Giovanni Peri, “Rethinking Health Affairs 25 (November/December 2006): 1700–11. (24) Ryan Murphy and Alex Nowrasteh, “U.S. the Effect of Immigration on Wages,” Journal of the (32) Matt Reimann, “At the Rock Springs Massacre, Immigration Levels, Urban Housing Values, and Their European Economic Association 10, no. 1 (2012): 28 People Were Killed Because White Miners Feared Implications for Capital Share,” Institute of Economic 152–97. (16) Author’s calculations from Alex Nowrasteh Chinese Immigrants,” February 3, 2017. and Robert Orr, “Immigration and the Welfare State: Affairs 37 (2017): 411–21. Immigrant and Native Use Rates and Benefit Levels for (4) American Community Survey, Table S0501, 2017 (33) Nowrasteh, “Immigration Bolsters American Means-Tested Welfare and Entitlement Programs,” Cato (25) Joel Perlmann, Italians Then, Mexicans Now: 5-Year sample. Freedom.” Institute Immigration Research and Policy Brief no. 6, Immigrant Origins and Second-Generation Progress, May 10, 2018. 1890–2000 (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, (5) American Community Survey, Table S0501. (34) Alex Nowrasteh, “The Failure of the 2007); Alex Nowrasteh, “The Great Assimilation Scare,” Americanization Movement,” Cato at Liberty (blog), (17) Leah Zallman et al., “Immigrants Contributed an Cato at Liberty (blog), January 19, 2016. (6) George Borjas, “The Wage Impact of the Marielitos: December 18, 2014; Alex Nowrasteh, “Government Estimated $115.2 Billion More to the Medicare Trust A Reappraisal,” Industrial and Labor Relations Review Immigrant Assimilation Programs Can Backfire: The Fund than They Took Out in 2002–09,” Health Affairs (26) National Academies of Science, Engineering, 75, no. 5 (2017). Case of German Americans,” Cato at Liberty (blog), 32 (June 2013): 1153–60; Stuart Anderson, “The and Medicine, The Integration of Immigrants into March 6, 2018. (7) Giovanni Peri and Vasil Yasenov, “The Labor Contribution of Legal Immigration to the Social Security American Society (Washington: National Academies System,” National Foundation for American Policy Press, 2015). Market Effects of a Refugee Wave,” Journal of Human (35) Nowrasteh, “Immigration Bolsters American Analysis, March 2005. Resources 54 (2019): 267–309. Freedom.” (27) Organisation for Economic Co-operation and (18) Alex Nowrasteh and Sophie Cole, “Building a Wall Development and European Union, Indicators of (8) Alex Nowrasteh, “The Mariel Boatlift Raised the (36) Vasiliki Fouka, “Backlash: The Unintended around the Welfare State, Instead of the Country,” Cato Immigrant Integration 2015: Settling In (Paris: OECD Wages of Low-Skilled Miamians,” Cato at Liberty (blog), Effects of Language Prohibition in U.S. Schools after Institute Policy Analysis no. 732, July 25, 2013. Publishing, 2015). January 2, 2017. World War I,” working paper, King Center on Global Development, Stanford University, December 2016. (9) Alex Nowrasteh, “Further Thoughts on Mariel (19) Alex Nowrasteh, “The Fiscal Impact of Immigration,” (28) Lawrence Kahn, “The Impact of Employment Cato Institute Working Paper no. 21, July 23, 2014; Protection Mandates on Demographic Temporary Boatlift,” Cato at Liberty (blog), January 13, 2017. (37) Alex Nowrasteh, “Immigration and Crime—What Benjamin Powell, The Economics of Immigration: Employment Patterns: International Microeconomic the Research Says,” Cato at Liberty (blog), July 14, Market-Based Approaches, Social Science, and Public Evidence,” Economic Journal 117, no. 521 (June 2007): (10) Michael A. Clemens and Jennifer Hunt, “The 2015. Labor Market Effects of Refugee Waves: Reconciling Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015). F333–F356. 34 (38) Graham C. Ousey and Charis E. Kubrin, (47) Landgrave and Nowrasteh, “Criminal Immigrants Policy Analysis no. 838, April 17, 2018. (67) Zachary Gochenour and Alex Nowrasteh, “The “Immigration and Crime: Assessing a Contentious in 2017.” Political Externalities of Immigration: Evidence from Issue,” Annual Review of Criminology 1 (January (58) Alex Nowrasteh, “More Family-Based Immigrants in the United States,” Cato Institute Working Paper no. 14, 2018): 63–84. (48) Michael T. Light and Ty Miller, “Does Australia and Canada than in the United States,” Cato at January 15, 2014. Undocumented Immigration Increase Violent Crime?” Liberty (blog), April 11, 2017. (39) Alex Nowrasteh, “Illegal Immigrants and Crime— Criminology 56 (2018): 370–401. (68) Alex Nowrasteh, “The Great Assimilation Scare.” Assessing the Evidence,” Cato at Liberty (blog), March (59) Migration Policy Institute, “U.S. Immigrant 4, 2019. (49) Michael T. Light, Ty Miller, and Brian C. Kelly, Population and Share over Time, 1850–Present,” (69) Alex Nowrasteh and Sam Wilson, “Immigrants “Undocumented Immigration, Drug Problems, and chart, http://www.migrationpolicy.org/programs/ Assimilate into the Political Mainstream,” Cato Institute (40) Nowrasteh, “Immigration and Crime—What the Driving under the Influence in the United States, data-hub/charts/immigrant-population-over-time; Alex Economic Development Bulletin no. 27, January 19, Research Says.” 1990–2014,” American Journal of Public Health 107 Nowrasteh, “Defending Green Cards,” Cato at Liberty 2017. (2017): 1448–54. (blog), July 21, 2016. (41) Nowrasteh, “Immigration and Crime—What the (70) Pew Research Center, “Support for Free Market Research Says.” (50) National Public Radio, “Stories about Kate Steinle,” (60) Alex Nowrasteh, “Legalization or Amnesty for System,” infographic, October 7, 2014, http://www. https://www.npr.org/tags/565838790/kate-steinle. Unlawful Immigrants—An American Tradition,” Cato at pewglobal.org/2014/10/09/emerging-and-developing- (42) Ann Coulter, Adios, America: The Left’s Plan Liberty (blog), July 28, 2014. economies-much-more-optimistic-than-rich-countries- to Turn Our Country into a Third World Hellhole (51) Pew Research Center, “On Immigration Policy, about-the-future/inequality-01/. (Washington: Regnery Publishing, 2016). Partisan Differences but Also Some Common Ground,” (61) Alex Nowrasteh, “National Sovereignty and Free August 25, 2016. Immigration Are Compatible,” Cato at Liberty (blog), (71) Paul Krugman, “Suffer Little Children,” New York (43) Michelangelo Landgrave and Alex Nowrasteh, April 28, 2014. Times, November 20, 2014. “Criminal Immigrants in 2017: Their Numbers, (52) Quinnipiac University, “Trump Trying to Derail Demographics, and Countries of Origin,” Cato Institute Russia Probe, U.S. Voters Tell Quinnipiac University (62) Alex Nowrasteh, “Proposition 187 Turned California (72) Vernon M. Briggs Jr., Immigration and American Immigration Research and Policy Brief no. 11, March National Poll; Don’t Shut Government over Immigration, Blue,” Cato at Liberty (blog), July 20, 2016. Unionism (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2001). 4, 2019. Voters Say 2-1,” February 6, 2018. (63) Alex Nowrasteh, “National Sovereignty and Free (73) Seymour Martin Lipset and Gary Marks, It Didn’t (44) Alex Nowrasteh, “Criminal Immigrants in Texas in (53) Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Expanded Immigration Are Compatible,” Cato at Liberty (blog), Happen Here: Why Socialism Failed in the United 2017: Illegal Immigrant Conviction Rates and Arrest Homicide Data Table 10: Murder Circumstances by April 28, 2014. States (New York: W. W. Norton, 2000). Rates for Homicide, Sex Crimes, Larceny, and Other Relationship, 2018,” https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the- Crimes,” Cato Institute Immigration Research and Policy u.s/2018/crime-in-the-u.s.-2018/tables/expanded- (64) Michael A. Clemens and Lant Pritchett, “The (74) Michael Clemens, “Skill Flow: A Fundamental Brief no. 13, August 27, 2019. homicide-data-table-10.xls. New Economic Case for Migration Restrictions: An Reconsideration of Skilled-Worker Mobility and Assessment,” Journal of Development Economics 138 Development,” SSRN Electronic Journal 8 (HDRP-2009- (45) Alex Nowrasteh, “Crime along Mexican Border (54) Matthew Carr, The Infernal Machine: A History of (May 2019): 153–64. 08), January 2009. Is Lower than in the Rest of Country,” Cato at Liberty Terrorism from the Assassination of Tsar Alexander II (blog), January 8, 2019; Alex Nowrasteh, “Mexico Is Not to Al-Qaeda (New York: The New Press, 2006). (65) J. R. Clark et al., “Does Immigration Impact (75) Julian L. Simon, The Ultimate Resource 2 Sending Its Murderers: Homicide Rates on the Mexican Institutions?,” Public Choice 163, no. 3–4 (June 2015): (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998). Border,” Cato at Liberty (blog), July 31, 2018; Alex (55) Andrew C. Forrester et al., “Do Immigrants 321–35. Nowrasteh, “El Paso Homicides Spiked after Border Import Terrorism?” Journal of Economic Behavior (76) Mario H. Lopez, “Hijacking Immigration?” Human Fence Was Completed; The Fence Didn’t Cause It,” Cato and Organization 166 (October 2019): 529—43; Alex (66) Alex Nowrasteh, Andrew C. Forrester, and Cole Life Review, October 28, 2012. at Liberty (blog), February 13, 2019; Alex Nowrasteh Nowrasteh, “Terrorists by Immigration Status and Blondin, “How Mass Immigration Affects Countries with and Andrew Forrester, “Illegal Immigrant Conviction Nationality: A Risk Analysis, 1975–2017,” Cato Institute Weak Economic Institutions: A Natural Experiment in Rates Are Low Even When Factoring in Recidivism,” Policy Analysis no. 866, May 7, 2019. Jordan,” World Bank Group Development Economics Cato at Liberty (blog), January 7, 2019. Vice Presidency Strategy and Operations Team Working (56) Dara Lind, “How Trump’s Travel Ban Became Paper no. 8817, April 2019; Benjamin Powell, J. R. Clark, (46) Alex Nowrasteh, “Police Clearance Rates Are Not Normal,” Vox, June 26, 2018. and Alex Nowrasteh, “Does Mass Immigration Destroy Lower in States with Many Illegal Immigrants,” Cato at Institutions? 1990s Israel as a Natural Experiment,” Liberty (blog), October 23, 2018. (57) David Bier, “Extreme Vetting of Immigrants: Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 141 Estimating Terrorism Vetting Failures,” Cato Institute (September 2017): 83–95. 35 About the Cato Institute Despite the achievement studies are commissioned to of the nation’s Founders, examine the federal budget, Founded in 1977, the Cato today virtually no aspect of Social Security, regulation, Institute is a public policy life is free from government military spending, international research foundation dedicated encroachment. 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