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Literature, Language and Reality Notes Notes to the Introduction 1. Hostility to realistic fiction is documented in my book In Defence of Realism, first published by Edward Arnold in 1988 and reissued by Ferrington (London, 1994). 2. Michael Boyd, The Reflexive Novel: Fiction as Critique (Toronto: Lewisburg Bucknell University Press, 1983) p. 19. 3. Quoted in Jonathan Culler, Structuralist Poetics (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1975) p. 193. There is a good deal of doubt whether or not Robbe-Grillet's texts are non-referential. See, for example, Robbe­ Grillet's own rather pompous prefatory remarks to In the Labyrinth, available in English, translated by Christina Brooke-Rose (London: Calder & Boyars, 1%7). 4. Terry Eagleton, Literary Theory (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1983) p. 188. Anyone who reads Eagleton'S works would be unlikely to think of him as 'the man with the exploded assurance'; but then he may have very sensibly kept clear of those modem works that, he tells us, 'pulverise order, subvert meaning and explode our assurance'. 5. Frank Lentricchia, After the New Criticism (London: Methuen, 1980). 6. Roland Barthes, The Death of the Author, available in Image - Music - Text, selected and trans. Stephen Heath (London: Fontana, 1977) p.143. 7. Paul Valery, Leonardo, Poe, Mallarme, trans. Malcolm Cowley and James Lawler, vol. 8 of The Collected Works of Paul Valery (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1972) p. 304. 8. Alain Robbe-Grillet, Snapshots and Towards a New Novel, trans. Barbara Wright (London: Calder & Boyars, 1%5) pp. 56-7. 9. Roland Barthes, Writing Degree Zero, trans. Annette Lavers and Colin Smith (London: Jonathan Cape, 1967). 10. Tzvetan Todorov, Grammaire du Decameron (The Hague: Mouton, 1969) p. 15. This passage is quoted and discussed in Terence Hawkes, Structuralism and Semiotics (London: Methuen, 1977). Notes to Chapter 1: Literature, Language and Reality 1. George Steiner, After Babel (Oxford, 1975) p. 123. 2. Robert Alter, Mimesis and the Motive for Fiction now collected in Motives for Fiction (Harvard University Press, 1984) p. 8. 3. Jacques Lacan, Ecrits, selected and trans. Alan Sheridan (London: Tavistock, 1977) p. 65. (Lacan is discussed in Chapter 5.) 4. Jacques Derrida, Of Grammat%gy, trans. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976) p. 158. 251 252 Notes 5. Frank Lentricchia, After the New Criticism (London: Methuen, 1980) p.I88. 6. Ferdinand de Saussure, Course in General Linguistics, trans. Wade Baskin (London: Fontana; Glasgow: Collins, 1974) p. 120. 7. See, for example, Roland Barthes, The Death of the Author, in Image - Music - Text, selected and trans. Stephen Heath (London: Fontana; Glasgow: Collins, 1977) p. 146. 8. Roland Barthes, 'Science versus Literature', Times Literary Supplement, 28 September 1967, p. 897. 9. Quoted in Jonathan Culler, Barthes (London: Fontana, Modern Masters; Glasgow: Collins, 1983) p. 76. 10. Jonathan Culler, Structuralist Poetics (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1975) p. 53. 11. John Searle, review of Culler's On Deconstruction: The Word Turned Upside Down, The New York Review of Books, vol. 27 (October 1983) pp.74-9. 12. Geoffrey Hartman, Saving the Text (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981) pp. ~1. 13. Although Barthes does admit to being trapped by some of the words he himself made fashionable. In his autobiography, he writes (of himself): He is not very good at getting to the heart of things. A word, a figure of thought, a form fastens on him for several years, he repeats it, uses it everywhere ... but he makes no effort to reflect what he means by such words or such figures ... : you cannot get to the heart of a refrain; you can only substitute another one for it. And this, after all, is what Fashion does. In other words, he has his internal, personal fashions. (Roland Barthes, trans. Richard Howard (New York: Hill & Wang, 1977) p. 127.) Notes to Chapter 2: Literature as Textual Intercourse 1. Roland Barthes, The Death of the Author, in Image - Music - Text, selected and trans. Stephen Heath (London: Fontana; Glasgow: Collins, 1977) p. 146. 2. Harold Bloom, A Map of Misreading (Oxford University Press, 1975) p.3. 3. Tzvetan Todorov, quoted in Terence Hawkes, Structuralism and Semiotics (London: Methuen, 1977) p. 100. 4. Jonathan Culler, Barthes (London: Fontana, Modern Masters; Glasgow: Collins, 1983) p. 81. 5. E. D. Hirsch, Jr, Validity in Interpretation (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1967) p. 74. A yet more exaggerated version of this claim, originating from Pleynet, is quoted by Jonathan Culler in Structuralist Poetics (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1975) p. 136: Notes 253 It is indeed this word (novel, poem) placed on the cover of the book which (by convention) genetically produces, programmes or 'originates' our reading. We have here (with the genre 'novel', 'poem') a master word which from the outset reduces the textual encounter, by making it a function of the type of reading already implicit in the law of this word. 6. Jean-Paul Sartre, What Is Literature?, trans. Bernard Frechtman (London: Methuen, 1970). See especially ch. I, 'What Is Writing?'. 7. Frank Lentricchia, After the New Criticism (London: Methuen, 1980). 8. I. A. Richard, Principles of Literary Criticism (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1925). See, for example, p. 267: 'A statement may be used for the sake of the reference, true or false, which it causes. This is the scientific use of language. But it may also be used for the sake of the effects in emotion and attitude. : And poetry was distinguished by being predominantly emotive and hence non-referential, of aesthetic rather than utilitarian value. Richards subsequently regretted the simple-minded way in which his early doctrine was applied and developed more complex schemes of analysis; but it was the early distinction that was influential. 9. From Ars Poetica, first published in 1926. This poem, although enjoyable, seems to me to have meaning rather than being, to be more like a statement than a globed fruit, audible and visible rather than mute and palpable. 10. Cleanth Brooks, The Well Wrought Urn (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1947). 11. Gerard Graff, Literature Against Itself: Literary Ideas and Modern Society (University of Chicago Press, 1979) p. 10. 12. Todorov, quoted in Terence Hawkes, Structuralism and Semiotics (London: Methuen, 1977). 13. Michael Boyd, The Reflexive Novel: Fiction as Critique (Toronto: Lewisburg Bucknell University Press, 1983); William E. Cain (ed.), Philosophical Approaches to Literature: New Essays on Nineteenth- and Twentieth-century Texts (Associated University Presses, 1985). 14. W. M. T. Nowottny, 'Formal Elements in Shakespeare's Sonnets: Sonnets I-VI', Essays in Criticism, vol. II (January 1952) pp. 76-84. 15. Roland Barthes, A Lover's Discourse, trans. Richard Howard (New York: Hill & Wang, 1978). 16. Harold Bloom, The Anxiety of Influence: A Theory of Poetry (Oxford University Press, 1973). 17. Bloom, A Map of Misreading, p. 18. 18. Ibid., p. 3. 19. Ibid., chaps 2 and 3. 20. Ibid., p. 19. 21. Ibid., p. 10. 22. It aligns him with Jacques Derrida as one of the great modern heirs of Mr Pickwick. Bloom's recent encomium of Robert Penn Warren in The New York Review of Books relates that writer's poetic impulse and choice of themes to the accident by which Warren caused his brother 254 Notes to lose an eye in childhood. In other words, Bloom seems to have forgotten the irrelevance of extra-poetic influences in a poet's oeuvre. It appears that he no longer believes his own unbelievable thesis. 23. Bloom, A Map of Misreading, p. 20. 24. Ibid., p. 10. 25. Catherine Belsey, Critical Practice (London: Methuen, 1980) p. 45. 26. Michael Riffaterre, 'Intertextual Representation: On Mimesis as Interpretive Discourse', Critical Inquiry, vol. 11 (1984) pp. 141-62. 27. See, for example, Frederick Copleston, Mediaeval Philosophy, Part II, Albert the Great to Duns Scotus (New York: Doubleday, 1962) especially chap. 46. 28. Joseph Weizenbaum's famous ELIZA programme is discussed in his Computer Powers and Human Reason (San Francisco: Freeman, 1976). 29. This example is also discussed in R. C. Tallis, 'The Realistic Novel versus the Cinema', Critical Quarterly, vol. 27, no. 2 (1985) pp. 57-65. 30. Jonathan Culler, Structuralist Poetics, p. 138. 31. Roland Barthes, S/Z, trans. Richard Miller (New York: Hill & Wang, 1974) p. 10. 32. Ibid., pp. 2~1. 33. Quoted in Culler, Structuralist Poetics, p. 138. 34. Jonathan Culler, On Deconstruction: Theory and Criticism after Structuralism (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1983) p. 125. 35. Culler, Structuralist Poetics, p. 135. Notes to Chapter 3: The Illusion of Reference 1. Robert Scholes, 'The Fictional Criticism of the Future', TriQuarterly, vol. 34 (Fall 1975). 2. Catherine Belsey, Critical Practice (London: Methuen, 1980) p. 46. 3. John B. Carroll (ed.), Language, Thought and Reality: Selected Writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1956) p. 213. 4. For a marvellously suggestive and wide-ranging exploration of the implications of the idea that 'the universe' is itself an idea, see Paul Valery's essay 'On Poe's "Eureka''', available in Leonardo, Poe, Mallarme, trans. Malcolm Cowley and James R. Lawler, vol. 8 of The Collected Works of Paul Valery (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1972). 5. See Chapter 7: 'Statements, Facts and the Correspondence Theory of Truth'. 6. See Elizabeth Anscombe, 'The Intentionality of Sensation: a Grammatical Feature', in R. J. Butler (ed.), Analytical Philosophy, Second Series (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1965). 7. The arguments presented in this section are developed with more technical rigour in Chapter 7: 'Statements, Facts and the Correspondence Theory of Truth'. 8. Geoffrey Leech, Semantics (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1974) p.29. Notes 255 9. B. Berlin and P. Kay, Basic Color Terms (Berkeley, Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1969). 10. Jonathan Culler, Structuralist Poetics (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1975) p.
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