Russian Purists Against Western Loanwords: Shared Characteristics Through Time
Susan Anderson
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Arts in Linguistics.
Bryn Mawr College
December 2015
Abstract
The following analyzes the opinions of Russian language purists, those who wish to preserve Russian language from change, and their opinions on loanwords from
Western Europe and America. It compares the logic of purists from various time periods
before the fall of the Soviet Union to that of purists writing after 1991 to the present day.
In each previous time period, Pre-Revolutionary Russia, the Early Soviet Period, and the
Mid-Soviet Period, the main arguments against loanwords correspond to arguments used
against loanwords today.
Purist opinions arise in times of sizable social change and increased levels of
loanword creation. In the Imperial Period (1682-1917), the reforms of Peter the Great forced upper class Russians to conform to European norms in order to make Russian
culture appear more civilized in the eyes of Western Europe. Many loanwords entered the language at this time, the majority of which became part of the educated dialect.
Purists of the time dismissed loanwords as unnecessary and incomprehensible. In some
cases the loanwords had a synonym of Russian-origin, like the more Russian sounding
1 mokrostupy "galoshes" instead of the foreign galosy "galoshes". Purists of the time
pushed for the use of the Russian word over the foreign equivalent.
In the Early Soviet Period (1917-1929), the Bolshevik govermnent made language
policy decisions that resulted in the increased use of new social, political, and economic
loanwords amongst the educated elite. The loanwords, such as privilegia "privilege", were used frequently in the newspapers, which caused frustration amongst the uneducated population, who did not understand them. There was a less monumental
purist movement in this time period due to the fact that the govermnent ignored their
complaints about the new language and forced the uneducated to learn these new words.
In the Mid-Soviet Period (1940s-1960s) there appeared a subculture called the
stilyagi, a group of young people who valued individualism over the Soviet ideal of
communalism. This manifested itself in conduct that the mainstream Soviet would not
approve of, such as wild dancing, jazz music, and eccentric clothing all based on
perceptions of American culture. The stilyagi's slang mostly consisted of loanwords, and
Soviet purists feared that their slang was permeating too far into the speech of the
educated populations.
Modern language purists are those who write after the fall of the Soviet Union.
This time period is marked by the increased influence of Western culture on Russia after the drawing of the Iron Curtain. Along with the plethora of loanwords that have come
into Russian language there are many arguments against their use. Purists today also
argue on the subject of the harm of using loanwords when there is a Russian equivalent,
of the incomprehensibility of loanwords, and of slang being used in formal situations.
2 Even though these movements are separated by time, they are not unique and show a pattern of how nationalists react to language changes, and therefore cultural changes.
3 Table of Contents
1 Introduction ...... 5
l.1 General Background: Defining the Tenus "Purist" and "Loanword ...... 5
l.2 Background on Purists After the Fall of the Soviet Union ...... 5
l.3 Methodo10gy ...... 6
2 Analysis ofCrlticisms of Loanwords ...... 8
2.1 Loanwords with Russian Equivalents ...... 8 2.l.l Imperial Russia (1682-1917) ...... 8 2.l.2 Equivalents After the Fall of the Soviet Union (1991-Present Day)10
2.2 Incomprehensibility of Loanwords in Media ...... 12 2.2.1 Early Soviet Period (1917-1929) ...... 12 2.2.2 Incomprehensibility After the Fall of the Soviet Union (1991-Present Day) ...... 14
2.3 Reactions to Slang ...... 15 2.3.1 Mid-Soviet Period (1940-1960) ...... 15 2.3.2 Slang After the Fall of the Soviet Union (1991-Present Day) ...... 17
3 Conclusions ...... 19
References ...... 21
4 1 Introduction
1.1 General Background: Derming The Terms "Purist" and "Loanword"
Russian language purists believe that the Russian language must be spoken and written according to the standards of prescriptive grammar. This way of thinking can
condemn everything from improper syntax to informal word use to improper stressing of words. The particular set of rules of each language purist values may vary, but doing these things spoils the language, from a purist's point of view (Gorham 2006: 18).
The most common reason that a loanword is borrowed is that a new idea appears
in the society of the speakers. The word is borrowed usually from the language
community where the idea came from or from the language community where the
speakers learned about it. Thus, completely new words come into the language. Another reason for borrowing is that a borrowed word may have more prestige than a word in the
receiver language, which has the same meaning (Campbell, 58).
1.2 Background on Purists After the Fall of the Soviet Union
I discuss the cultural factors that affect all the other periods ofloanwords in the
sections designated above. However, since I discuss the modern purists in every one of those sections, I will explain the cultural elements that affected their ideologies in the
introduction.
With the fall of the Soviet Union came a new government, a switch from a
communist economy to a capitalist one, and, as a result, a new way of life for the citizens
of the Russian Federation.
5 In the early 1990s, Russians were welcome to change: "After the fall of the Soviet
Union, there was a deference to the liberal point of view" (Gorham 2006: 22). In the
sphere of linguistics, there was "a kind of linguistic revolt against the cliched and tightly
controlled language of the Soviet state" (Gorham 2003: 19).
Given this liberal atmosphere, purists were not given much attention during the first years after the Soviet Union (Gorham 2006: 21). However, starting with the
economic crisis in the 1990s in Russia, purists began to gain more traction in public
opinion, due to "[the intensification of] the feeling that Russia had lost her way" (Gorham
2006: 23).
Ideas oflanguage purism have had considerable effects on policy since that time.
In 1995, Boris Yeltsin created the President's Russian Language Council, "a body made up of distinguished writers, philologists, university administrators and state officials relating to the support and development of the Russian language" (Gorham 2006: 23).
This council was renewed and given even more funding by President Vladimir Putin in the year 2000 (Gorham 2006: 28). Putin's administration has even given approval for the television program '''Russian Language' for 2002-2005, with an allotted budget of80 million rubles for. .. a series of TV and radio programs 'propagandizing Russian language
and culture." (Gorham 2006: 28).
1.3 Methodology
The data I collected are mostly words that language purists condemn in their
articles on the subject.
6 Because "periods of radical social change tend to share a basic dynamic in the
evolution of a language culture ... [which] spawn a round of reaction, most commonly in
some form oflanguage purism" (Gorham 2006: 19) I am looking at three periods of great
social change in Russian culture and the similarities of how purists react to the new
loanwords of their time. The modern purists, from the Fall of the Soviet Union to the
present day, share qualities with all of the other period's reactions to new loanwords.
Therefore, I show the similarities between the modern period's and each past period's
criticism of loanwords. First, I discuss the Europeanization of Russia under Peter the
Great and how purists of the nineteenth century reacted to this with nationalistic demands to choose Russian-rooted words over their European counterparts. Secondly, in the early years of the Soviet Union, there were many peasants who were frustrated at journalists in the newspaper for writing incomprehensibly because of the large number of new
loanwords they use. In the third period, purists react to the spread of loanword slang of the stilyagi to the dialects of the educated.
The origins of these words may vary, but they are all from Western Europe or
America. What is important is the fact that they are from the West, and how that element
affects the usage and meaning of the word. What Russians refer to when they talk about the West depends on the time period they are speaking about. In the Imperial times, it
was generally considered Western Europe, and, therefore, there the words from this time
are generally of French or German origin (Ruttl-Worth 1963: 8-20). It was only during the Soviet Union that the United States began to be a key part of the so-called West, and, therefore, the words borrowed in the later periods are of American English origin. The
7 usage of the tenn "the West" in this paper, therefore, depends on the time period being
discussed.
2 Analysis of Criticisms of Loanwords
2.1 Loanwords with Russian Equivalents
2.1.1 Imperial Russia (1682-1917)
While words from Europe were borrowed before the seventeenth century, it
became vastly more frequent during the reign of Peter the Great, which began in 1682
(Huttl-Worth 1963: 2). Europe at this time viewed itself as a hub of prosperity, and all
other places as sub-standard, or barbaric. Because Russia was both geographically and
culturally on the periphery of Europe, Western Europeans did not consider Russia a part
of Europe (Hokanson 2008: 3-5).
Europe's lack of respect for Russia did not seem to overly concern any Russians
until the reign of Peter the Great. Greatly influenced by a tour of Europe in his youth,
during which he surveyed Europe's technological advancements, Peter the Great believed that Russia should elevate itself to Europe's level of "civilization" (Kagan 2004: 501).
After ascending the throne, he put into effect many refonns to control the behavior of the
Russian nobility, or boyars. These refonns included outlawing the traditional Russian-
looking beard and long-sleeved clothing for more European styles (Kagan 2004: 502).
Amongst language refonns were a change of the Cyrillic alphabet!, from Greek-looking
letters to more Latin-looking ones, in order to associate Russia more with Western
Europe (Zhivov 2009: 62) and mandates to travel among Western Europe and learn the
! The new alphabet was used in the secular sphere, while the Church still used the old alphabet (Zhivov 2009: 54).
8 languages there (Kagan 2004: 501). With the increased presence of the European
influence in Russian culture, there came a nationalistic backlash in the nineteenth century from purists.
The main argument of purists of this time is against what they consider unnecessary loanwords. The following is a chart, which lists loanwords that originated in
Imperial Russia and the Russian equivalents that purists of the time suggested should be used in place of it:
Loanword Russian Equivalent Definition
bril'anty sverkal' cy* diamonds
bil'iird sarotik* billiards
arhipelag mnogoostrovie* archipelago figura izvitie* figure
individuum nedelimy individual filosofia lilbomudrie philosophy trotuar toptalise* sidewalk
egOlzm acestvo egotism fakt byt fact
instinkt pobudka instinct
galosy mokrostupy galoshes kasne nosopriitka * neck scarf
gimnastika lovkosilie* gymnastics konditer clastnik* confectioner
9 I gorizont 10kolozem* I horizon
* Starred items cannot be found in a modern dictionary.
However, most of the arguments against 'unnecessary' loanwords come from a
place of nationalism. For example, Vladimir Dal', the author of the Explanatory
Dictionary of the Great Russian Language (1863), was a leading advocate for the use of
Russian words (Pogosova 2013). It was he who suggested that the word okolozem
"horizon, Russian equivalent" be used in place of gorizont "horizon, foreign equivalent".
He explained that this would "return speech to its national soil" (Pogosova 2013). Not
only are words of Russian origin more authentic, but they are purer than loanwords,
according to Vissarion Belinskij (1811-1848), "to hell with any type of foreign word,
whatever they might be, and greet the chemically clean, pure, Slavic-Russian language,
free from Latinisms, Hollandisms, Anglicisims, and all other blasphemous isms"
(Chukovskij 1962). Also according to Belinskij, loanwords dirty the language and to use
them instead of a Russian word is an "insult", "There is no doubt, that the goal of
spattering Russian speech with loanwords without need, without any substantial
foundation that is not against sensible thought and sensible taste ... To use a foreign word,
when there is a Russian word of equal value - that is an insult to sensible thought and
sensible taste" (Chukovskij 1962).
2.1.2 Equivalents After the Fall of the Soviet Union (1991-Present Day)
The following words are loanwords and their acceptable Russian counterparts that
should be used instead. They are taken from Vladimir Zhirinovsky's bill, proposing fines
10 for government officials speaking in public for using loanwords, which has a Russian
equivalent (Zhirinovsky 2013):
Loanword Russian Equivalent Definition
sejsn vstreca meeting (in political
context)
diler posrednik dealer (seller) butik lavka boutique, small shop menedzer prikazcik manager
distrib'liter rasprostranitel' distributer biznes-lanc delovoj obed business lunch, working
lunch
gadzet tehniceskoe ustrojstvo gadget
singl pesnJa single (song) performans predstavlenie performance
okej horoso okay, fine vau nice go sebii Wow!
While this particular bill was not enacted, The Law of State Language, enacted in
2005, states that, "When using Russian as the state language of the Russian Federation, it
is forbidden to use words and expressions that do not comply with the norms of the modern Russian language, excluding foreign words which do not have commonly used
equivalents" (Ryazanova-Clarke 2006: 43-44).
11 The reason for the condemnation of these 'unnecessary' loanwords lies in the
ideals of nationalism and purity of the Russian language: "The most ignorant and most harmful pattern for a language consists of the usage of alien words [loanwords] instead of your own [Russian]. This leads a language to impoverishment, preventing the evolution
of new words from old roots and taking away the ability to grow and widen its meaning
and power (Zaimstvovania v russkom 2012)".
The preference of a foreign word over a Russian one seems to mean to purists a
preference of European culture over Russian culture, and is a reaction to the
Europeanization of Russia that was happening during the time that they wrote.
2.2 Incomprehensibility of Loanwords in Media
2.2.1 Early Soviet Period (1917-1929)
After the Revolution of 1917, early Soviet language policy consisted of two main
ideas. The first was that Russian authors of the nineteenth century, such as Pushkin and
Tolstoy, were deemed the authorities on correct Russian language, in areas such as
grammar or style (Gorham, 2003: 107). The second was that the Russian language must take on new words to express the political ideas, those of Marx and Engels, at the center
of the new government (Gorham 2003: 46).
The deference to, an almost idolatry of, Marx's ideas can be seen in Trotsky's
commentary on translating, which states, "Any attempt to rephrase such issues [those
addressed in Marx's Capital] in simpler terms would sacrifice precision and compromise meaning" (Gorham 2003: 46). The official position to use loanwords in political settings meant that the newspapers began to use these words quite frequently Gorham 2003: 28).
12 Therefore, new loanwords of a social, political, and economic nature (Gorham
2003: 24) came into the language:
Loanword Definition
demonstracia demonstration (political) miting meeting
delegate delegate revolilcia revolution
proletariat proletariat
deklassirovannyj declassified
bojkot boycott
Negative responses to new loanwords in this time were mostly limited to
complaints by Russian peasants 2 about how the newspapers were not comprehensible,
such as, "Darned if you don't need a translation!" (Gorham 2003: 29). "Ekh, all those
different words. Our soul aches on account of them" (Gorham 2003: 29). "Look at how they're spoiling and screwing up our thought!. ... You need to make it closer to our way of talking, or else it'll make the head spin" (Gorham 2003: 29).
Mayakovsky, a famous Soviet poet, in 1923 also spoke out against the "clogging"
oflocal rural newspapers with loanwords (Chukovskij 1962). He uses as an example the fact that he knew Russian peasants who misunderstood the word fiasko "fiasco" in the
sentence: Poincare terpitfiasco "Poincare [French Prime Minister of the time] endured
2 Although serfdom was abolished in 1861, the authors referenced still use the word peasant to describe uneducated, lower class citizens of the Soviet Union.
13 the fiasco" (Chukovskij 1962). They apparently thought thatfiasko was a French citizen, with whom the Prime Minister was frustrated (Chukovskij 1962).
The government's response to these complaints was to place the burden of change
on the peasants. The Bolshevik authorities believed that these words were necessary to the modern Soviet citizen, and therefore made a great effort to educate the people so that
every citizen could eventually read the newspaper and understand Soviet ideology
(Gorham 2003: 28-29).
2.2.2 Incomprehensibility After the Fall of the Soviet Union (1991-Present Day)
Aleksandr Bushev lists a group of words that he considers not understandable:
Loanword Definition n'usmejker newsmaker, journalist
sek'uriti security, body guard hedlajn headline rider reader
bebisitter babysitter kasting casting killer hired killer
promousn promotion (marketing) mercandajzing merchandizing
brending branding (marketing) menedzer manager
14 Bushev then describes his frustration with not being able to understand these
loanwords, and blames the situation on those who use them: "Here, we are confronted with a semantic phenomenon: the purposeful invention of language, the changing or the
obscuring of the meaning of a known word" (Bushev, 2007).
This point of view is also applicable to politicians. An author of one article says that politicians use loanwords in order to, "make an impression on the public" or
"increase the significance" of what they are saying (Innostranye 2012). However, they
suggest, "Politicians speak to a large audience and use a plethora of incomprehensible words. But, one should respect their listener. Speech should be adapted, if the audience
does not understand ... We need to use loanwords in their true meaning, and not to
camouflage a concept" (Innostranye 2012).
In both periods, the people's complaints are that the media is using foreign words that they do not understand. In both cases, the purists demand that journalists, or
politicians, speak in a way that is understandable to them.
2.3 Reactions to Slang
2.3.1 Mid-Soviet Period (1940-1960)
"It is necessary to do as much as possible, so that the use of slang does not impede
on the formal conventions ofiiterary speech [speech of high style], does not destroy them. Scholars should know when slang is appropriate ... and when it is ruinous"
(Rozina 2003).
After World War II, some of the youth reacted against the mainstream culture in the USSR, which, in their view did not allow for "individualistic goals" and "self-
15 satisfaction and fun", which were not encouraged by Soviet authorities (Vinicenko, 179).
Therefore, from 1940s until the 1960s there existed the stilyagis, who differed themselves from the average Soviet by dressing more extravagantly, listening and dancing to jazz music, and going to unofficial parties and face punishment from the government or the police if caught there. This way oflife was inspired by Western culture. The stilyagis
learned about foreign cultural trends mainly from films, but also from those lucky enough to be able to travel outside of the country. The stilyagis would buy Western-style
clothing and records in the black market. However, it was even more prestigious to receive actual Western artifacts, mostly clothing, from traveling friends. Then, with the
inauguration of Khrushchev and the induction of "thaw" policies, the average person had the opportunity to travel abroad, and brought back even more knowledge and artifacts to the USSR. Thus, stilyagi culture grew in the late 1950s and early 1960s, even spreading
beyond the two major cities of Moscow and st. Petersburg (Vinicenko).
Mainstream Soviets thought that stilyagis were morally corrupt for wanting to
attract attention to themselves, and that they were polluting Soviet society. In the Stalin
era, those caught may have faced prison or even execution. While the Khrushchev-era
attitude to stilyagis was still very strict, the punishments were much less severe, ranging from expulsion from university to a strict lecturing from the local youth-group.
However, as stilyagi culture was becoming more widely accepted, even propagandists
stopped putting out material condemning. Without the presence of an oppressive force
acting against them, the rebellious spirit of stilyagi counterculture faded out, although while the fashion and music trends remained (Vinicenko).
16 Along with Western clothing, music, and dancing, stilyagis adopted Western words into their discourse:
Loanword Definition
gerly girls
dzaketok jacket, blazer
dinamo dynamo, cool
drinkat' to drink alcohol
lukat' to look
soksy socks
oldovyj old taek tie trenckot trench coat
suzy shoes manuski money fazer the father of a stilyagi
"As a result, there was the intrusion into the conversational speech of educated
speakers of the formal style ... jargon of cliques, of those in opposition of behavioral norms, those like stilyagi and musicians and lovers of jazz"
2.3.2 Slang After the Fall of the Soviet Union (1991-Present Day)
The following is a sampling of slang loanwords taken from Bushev 2007:
17 Loanword Definition
gerly girls
drinkat' to drink
iksk'uz excuse
iskejpnut' to escape kantri country (rural area)
lajkat' to like n'u-vejv§ik person associated with new-wave styles
oldovyj old
pipl people
spikat' to speak tin teenager fen a fan (of something ex. a show) frend friend fejc face forever forever
Modern purists also believe that slang, a part of the conversational style, should not be used in the formal style. On the subject of the word spojler "spoiler", one author writes, "on specialized websites and forums, this word is absolutely appropriate" but when used in journalism, the situation is different, "It is obvious that this word [spoiler]
is not used in official texts [in English]. So that means that it is a slang word? [With
sarcasm] I'm so glad that our journalists know conversational English!" (Garevoj 2014).
18 This author shames journalists for using slang words in English, when, supposedly, they
should only be speaking officially in a higher style.
For example, Vladimir Elistratov describes that Russian university students define the word defolt as a slang term for "a failure", instead of what he considers the only
correct definition, "economic default" (Elistratov 2001). His disapproval, as he explains,
comes from the theory that "Language is structured, it is a system, a 'spirit' ... written in
grammars and dictionaries" (Elistratov 2001). On the other hand, he uses the term
"speech" to mean any person's idiolects and dialects, and says that every person has the right to their own way of speech (Elistratov 2001).
Gab Garevoj also has a similar opinion, when he discusses the entry of the words
LOL and OMG into the Oxford Dictionary, dismissing these words as not worthy enough to be entered into the dictionary. He uses this as an example as to why the Russian
language is better than the English because it does not have such entries in its dictionary
(Garevoj 2011).
The two arguments represent the fear that slang terminology is invading the formal style oflanguage. The people are idealizing here the literary speech, and are afraid that foreign slang words will ruin its integrity.
3 Conclusions
The fact that all of these factors are not limited to one period of time, but appear
both in at least two separate periods shows that the Russian purist reaction is not limited
19 to the unique circumstances of one period's relationship to the West, but reflect purists'
general ideas about language ideals.
20 References
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