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The War of 1812: America’S First Declared War

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The War of 1812: America’S First Declared War THE WAR OF 1812: AMERICA’S FIRST DECLARED WAR THE WAR OF 1812 TESTED WHETHER THE NEW FEDERAL REPUBLIC COULD SURVIVE ITS FIRST DECLARED WAR. AS COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF, PRESIDENT JAMES MADISON HAD TO LEAD THE WAR EFFORT AND DEAL WITH ANTI- WAR STATES THAT CHALLENGED HIS PRESIDENTIAL POWER TO WAGE WAR. During the wars of Napoleon in the early 1800s, France and Britain block- Library of Congress aded each other’s ports. Britain also is- Atop a white horse, General Andrew Jackson leads U.S. troops at the Battle of New Orleans. sued Orders in Council, which banned all foreign ships from entering any Eu- The settlers believed the British in fearing this would permanently dam- ropean ports under French control. Canada plotted with the Indians to age commerce with Britain. On the high seas, both nations massacre them. This caused many When the U.S. grievances against searched and seized merchant ships settlers to join the cry for war against Britain continued, Madison recom- belonging to neutral countries like Britain. They hoped to end Indian mended that Congress declare war. the U.S. In addition, the British hostility by invading Canada and Congress erupted in debate. The Re- “impressed” American sailors, forc- driving out the British. publican War Hawks claimed Ameri- ing them into service on Royal Navy can honor, free trade, and protection warships. Declaring War from Indian massacres justified war. A Adopting the slogan, “Free Trade James Madison was elected presi- few Republicans opposed the war. The and Sailors’ Rights,” many Americans dent in 1808. Madison and Jefferson New England Federalists argued the called for war against Britain. Presi- were the chief leaders of the Republi- U.S. could never win a war against the dent Thomas Jefferson, however, re- can Party (not today’s Republican greatest power in the world. sisted war and pressed Congress to Party, which was established in 1854). On June 16, 1812, Britain with- enact an embargo (ban) on all Ameri- The Republicans, who had won drew the Orders in Council, which can foreign trade. Jefferson hoped the control of Congress in 1800, saw had prohibited neutrals like the U.S. embargo would affect the economies themselves as representing the “com- from entering many European ports. of Britain and France and force both mon man.” They favored a small fed- But it took two months for this news nations to lift their restrictions on eral army, no government debt or to reach Washington. Meanwhile, American commerce and end im- federal taxes, and states’ rights. They Congress, for the first time, voted to pressment. But the embargo hurt the also championed cheap land for set- declare war. More than 80 percent of American economy more than those of tlers in the West. Led by Henry Clay the Republicans in Congress voted Britain and France. of Kentucky, Republican Southerners for war. All the Federalists and a few The call for war also came from and Westerners called the “War Republicans voted against it. another group of Americans. In the Hawks” became the loudest voices When Madison finally received treaty that ended the Revolutionary for war against Britain in Congress. notice of Britain’s withdrawal of the War, Britain ceded to the U.S. land Although the Federalist Party had Orders in Council, he went ahead from the Atlantic to the Mississippi lost its majority in Congress, it still with the war anyway. His chief rea- River (except Spanish Florida). Seek- dominated New England. The Feder- son was that Britain still refused to ing cheap land, settlers moved into alists represented merchants, ship stop impressing American sailors. the area. Numerous Indian tribes, owners, bankers, and others involved however, still occupied this land and in foreign trade. They opposed the Waging War resisted settlement, leading to much Republican embargo since it crippled Congress had done little to pre- bloodshed on both sides. foreign trade. They objected to war, pare for war. The supporters of the 6 U.S. HISTORY war pinned their hopes on the fact In October 1813, better trained and His cabinet was unruly. The generals that most of the British army and led American troops, now with their and civilian officials he appointed navy were already fighting Napoleon own Indian allies, forced the British often were incompetent and divided. in Europe. eastward and took control of most of The most serious obstruction to Having only a small federal army, Upper Canada. British forces, how- the war effort came from the states Congress debated whether to call ever, stopped the Americans from in- of Federalist New England. Elected state militias into the service of the vading Lower Canada, which officials, newspaper editors, and U.S. under the command of the pres- extended along the St. Lawrence River. church leaders discouraged enlist- ident. The Federalists argued that As all this was happening in the ment in the federal army, opposed only the states could do this. north, Andrew Jackson was leading war loans, and argued the militias Congress was unsure how to pay a Tennessee militia to fight a Creek could not legally fight outside their for the war. Most federal revenue Indian uprising in the South. Jackson states. State courts ruled that gover- came from customs duties on im- crushed the Creeks and forced them nors could defy Congress and Madi- ports. But the embargo had greatly to sign a treaty that ceded nearly son when they called state militias reduced this source of funds. 40,000 square miles of their land to into the service of the United States. Madison’s treasury secretary rec- the U.S. Smuggling of food and other goods, ommended taxing certain domestic even to British troops and sailors, goods and borrowing from state Obstructing the War Effort was widespread. banks. In 1811, the Republican Con- By 1814, criticism was mounting gress had refused to re-charter the against “Mr. Madison’s War.” Canada Heading for Defeat? Bank of the United States, which still had not been entirely conquered. Napoleon’s defeat in the spring of would have provided cheaper loans. The British blockaded most Ameri- 1814 changed things dramatically. Congress acted slowly to borrow and can ports. The blockade together Britain could now divert its regiments enact federal taxes. with the latest embargo on trade and ships to North America. This Barely a month after Congress with Britain and France caused many forced the U.S. into a defensive war. declared war, Madison ordered the shortages and a sharp drop in cus- The British raided Maryland invasion of British Upper Canada toms revenue. The impressment of towns on Chesapeake Bay. They in- around Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. American sailors continued. vaded northern New York. They Western militias wanted to end seized the coastline of Maine (then a British influence among the Indians. British troops overran the part of Massachusetts). They ex- Madison thought that he could use tended their blockade. Fighting con- the conquest of Canada to bargain militias and marched into tinued in Canada, but the war there for an end to British impressment. the U.S. capital. They was at a stalemate. British soldiers and their Indian al- Most shocking to Americans was lies beat back the American militias burned the Capitol the attack on Washington, D.C. The and federal army troops in three dif- city’s defenses had been neglected by ferent military campaigns. The Amer- Building, the White House, Madison’s secretary of war and were ican invasion of Canada failed mainly and other public buildings. poorly protected by outmatched local because of incompetent generals and militias. On August 24, 1814, British poorly trained troops. In Congress, the Federalists com- troops overran the militias and The war at sea was a different plained about the embargo. They marched into the U.S. capital. They story. The little U.S. Navy won a se- voted against increasing federal army burned the Capitol Building (where ries of ship-to-ship battles in 1812, recruiting. They argued state militias Congress met), the White House, and most famously by the Constitution, could not be ordered to fight in other public buildings, and then left nicknamed “Old Ironsides.” Canada. Even the Republicans, who the next day. After a political fight within the held a majority in both houses of The sack of Washington was only Republican Party, Madison was re- Congress, defied Madison. The Fed- one of Madison’s troubles. Revenue nominated and re-elected president eralists and various Republican fac- from customs duties dried up with in December 1812. The American tions sometimes joined to block his the British blockade. Newly enacted war effort in the following year was war legislation and appointments. federal taxes were inadequate. Smug- more successful after yet another in- Madison’s natural tendency was to gling became increasingly common. vasion of Canada. defer to Congress since he believed the The embargo had failed, and Con- Meanwhile, Oliver Perry had built Constitution made it the leading ele- gress finally repealed it. a squadron of gunboats to take control ment of the federal government. When the U.S. failed to make its of Lake Erie. In September, he won a As chief executive, he was more of debt payments, banks and investors major victory against British gunboats. a scholar than an inspiring war leader. stopped issuing loans. Madison’s U.S. HISTORY 7 Wikimedia Commons proposed carving out a neutral Indian state from U.S. territory, serving as a buffer between Canada and the U.S. Both sides quickly rejected each other’s proposals. But Madison sent instructions for his team to drop the impressment demand.
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