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THE : AMERICA’S FIRST DECLARED WAR

THE WAR OF 1812 TESTED WHETHER THE NEW FEDERAL REPUBLIC COULD SURVIVE ITS FIRST DECLARED WAR. AS COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF, PRESIDENT HAD TO LEAD THE WAR EFFORT AND DEAL WITH ANTI- WAR STATES THAT CHALLENGED HIS PRESIDENTIAL POWER TO WAGE WAR. During the wars of in the early 1800s, France and Britain block- aded each other’s ports. Britain also is- Atop a white horse, General leads U.S. troops at the Battle of . sued , which banned all foreign ships from entering any Eu- The settlers believed the British in fearing this would permanently dam- ropean ports under French control. plotted with the Indians to age commerce with Britain. On the high seas, both nations massacre them. This caused many When the U.S. grievances against searched and seized merchant ships settlers to join the cry for war against Britain continued, Madison recom- belonging to neutral countries like Britain. They hoped to end Indian mended that Congress declare war. the U.S. In addition, the British hostility by invading Canada and Congress erupted in debate. The Re- “impressed” American sailors, forc- driving out the British. publican War Hawks claimed Ameri- ing them into service on can honor, free trade, and protection warships. Declaring War from Indian massacres justified war. A Adopting the slogan, “Free Trade James Madison was elected presi- few Republicans opposed the war. The and Sailors’ Rights,” many dent in 1808. Madison and Jefferson argued the called for war against Britain. Presi- were the chief leaders of the Republi- U.S. could never win a war against the dent , however, re- can Party (not today’s Republican greatest power in the world. sisted war and pressed Congress to Party, which was established in 1854). On June 16, 1812, Britain with- enact an embargo (ban) on all Ameri- The Republicans, who had won drew the Orders in Council, which can foreign trade. Jefferson hoped the control of Congress in 1800, saw had prohibited neutrals like the U.S. embargo would affect the economies themselves as representing the “com- from entering many European ports. of Britain and France and force both mon man.” They favored a small fed- But it took two months for this news nations to lift their restrictions on eral army, no or to reach . Meanwhile, American commerce and end im- federal taxes, and states’ rights. They Congress, for the first time, voted to pressment. But the embargo hurt the also championed cheap land for set- declare war. More than 80 percent of American economy more than those of tlers in the West. Led by the Republicans in Congress voted Britain and France. of Kentucky, Republican Southerners for war. All the Federalists and a few The call for war also came from and Westerners called the “War Republicans voted against it. another group of Americans. In the Hawks” became the loudest voices When Madison finally received treaty that ended the Revolutionary for war against Britain in Congress. notice of Britain’s withdrawal of the War, Britain ceded to the U.S. land Although the Party had Orders in Council, he went ahead from the Atlantic to the Mississippi lost its majority in Congress, it still with the war anyway. His chief rea- River (except ). Seek- dominated New England. The Feder- son was that Britain still refused to ing cheap land, settlers moved into alists represented merchants, ship stop impressing American sailors. the area. Numerous Indian tribes, owners, bankers, and others involved however, still occupied this land and in foreign trade. They opposed the Waging War resisted settlement, leading to much Republican embargo since it crippled Congress had done little to pre- bloodshed on both sides. foreign trade. They objected to war, pare for war. The supporters of the

6 U.S. HISTORY war pinned their hopes on the fact In October 1813, better trained and His cabinet was unruly. The generals that most of the and led American troops, now with their and civilian officials he appointed navy were already fighting Napoleon own Indian allies, forced the British often were incompetent and divided. in Europe. eastward and took control of most of The most serious obstruction to Having only a small federal army, . British forces, how- the war effort came from the states Congress debated whether to call ever, stopped the Americans from in- of Federalist New England. Elected state into the service of the vading , which officials, newspaper editors, and U.S. under the command of the pres- extended along the St. Lawrence River. church leaders discouraged enlist- ident. The Federalists argued that As all this was happening in the ment in the federal army, opposed only the states could do this. north, Andrew Jackson was leading war loans, and argued the militias Congress was unsure how to pay a to fight a Creek could not legally fight outside their for the war. Most federal revenue Indian uprising in the South. Jackson states. State courts ruled that gover- came from customs duties on im- crushed the Creeks and forced them nors could defy Congress and Madi- ports. But the embargo had greatly to sign a treaty that ceded nearly son when they called state militias reduced this source of funds. 40,000 square miles of their land to into the service of the . Madison’s treasury secretary rec- the U.S. Smuggling of food and other goods, ommended taxing certain domestic even to British troops and sailors, goods and borrowing from state Obstructing the War Effort was widespread. banks. In 1811, the Republican Con- By 1814, criticism was mounting gress had refused to re-charter the against “Mr. Madison’s War.” Canada Heading for Defeat? Bank of the United States, which still had not been entirely conquered. Napoleon’s defeat in the spring of would have provided cheaper loans. The British blockaded most Ameri- 1814 changed things dramatically. Congress acted slowly to borrow and can ports. The together Britain could now divert its regiments enact federal taxes. with the latest embargo on trade and ships to . This Barely a month after Congress with Britain and France caused many forced the U.S. into a defensive war. declared war, Madison ordered the shortages and a sharp drop in cus- The British raided invasion of British Upper Canada toms revenue. The of towns on . They in- around and Lake . American sailors continued. vaded northern . They Western militias wanted to end seized the coastline of (then a British influence among the Indians. British troops overran the part of Massachusetts). They ex- Madison thought that he could use tended their blockade. Fighting con- the conquest of Canada to bargain militias and marched into tinued in Canada, but the war there for an end to British impressment. the U.S. capital. They was at a stalemate. British soldiers and their Indian al- Most shocking to Americans was lies beat back the American militias burned the Capitol the attack on Washington, D.C. The and federal army troops in three dif- city’s defenses had been neglected by ferent military campaigns. The Amer- Building, the , Madison’s secretary of war and were ican invasion of Canada failed mainly and other public buildings. poorly protected by outmatched local because of incompetent generals and militias. On August 24, 1814, British poorly trained troops. In Congress, the Federalists com- troops overran the militias and The war at sea was a different plained about the embargo. They marched into the U.S. capital. They story. The little U.S. Navy won a se- voted against increasing federal army burned the Capitol Building (where ries of ship-to-ship battles in 1812, recruiting. They argued state militias Congress met), the White House, and most famously by the Constitution, could not be ordered to fight in other public buildings, and then left nicknamed “Old Ironsides.” Canada. Even the Republicans, who the next day. After a political fight within the held a majority in both houses of The sack of Washington was only Republican Party, Madison was re- Congress, defied Madison. The Fed- one of Madison’s troubles. Revenue nominated and re-elected president eralists and various Republican fac- from customs duties dried up with in December 1812. The American tions sometimes joined to block his the British blockade. Newly enacted war effort in the following year was war legislation and appointments. federal taxes were inadequate. Smug- more successful after yet another in- Madison’s natural tendency was to gling became increasingly common. vasion of Canada. defer to Congress since he believed the The embargo had failed, and Con- Meanwhile, Oliver Perry had built Constitution made it the leading ele- gress finally repealed it. a squadron of to take control ment of the federal government. When the U.S. failed to make its of Lake Erie. In September, he won a As chief executive, he was more of debt payments, banks and investors major victory against British gunboats. a scholar than an inspiring war leader. stopped issuing loans. Madison’s

U.S. HISTORY 7 iiei Commons Wikimedia

proposed carving out a neutral Indian state from U.S. territory, serving as a buffer between Canada and the U.S. Both sides quickly rejected each other’s proposals. But Madison sent instructions for his team to drop the impressment demand. He believed (correctly it turned out) that the need for impressment would likely stop naturally with the end of the in Europe. The American concession on im- pressment proved to be the break- through. The British quickly gave up the idea of an Indian neutral state, After signing the Treaty of , British Admiral James Gambier shakes hands with U.S. thus abandoning their wartime allies. negotiator . In September, the negotiators re- secretary of the treasury tried to re- “to adopt all such measures as may be ceived news that the British had failed vive the Bank of the United States as necessary to protect the citizens” from to capture ’s Fort McHenry, a source for more borrowing. Many acts not authorized by the Constitu- the event that inspired Francis Scott Republicans, who always distrusted a tion. The convention also proposed a Key’s “Star-Spangled Banner.” In addi- central bank, joined with Federalists series of constitutional amendments, tion, the British offensive into north- to vote the bank idea down in Con- such as requiring a two-thirds vote by ern New York had been beaten back. gress. The U.S. was bankrupt. Congress to declare war. The Duke of Wellington, Britain’s top , Madison’s new Madison took the threat of seces- army commander, declared that the secretary of war, worked on a plan to sion seriously and placed additional conquest of the U.S. would be too long invade Lower Canada and capture its guards at a Massachusetts armory and costly, something the British pub- capital of . But New England where federal weapons were stored. lic would not support after years of state militias refused to fight in Throughout the war, however, he re- war against Napoleon. Canada, and recruitment for the fed- jected calls from fellow Republicans The War of 1812 ended with the eral army lagged. for laws to arrest those openly oppos- , signed on Christmas Monroe proposed drafting men into ing the war or supporting secession. Eve 1814. The key provision simply the federal army from each state. This Madison did not permit any trials for called for each side to return all cap- enraged the Federalists in Congress. treason, censorship of newspapers, tured territory, thus restoring the sit- After weeks of debating a number of jailing of citizens for dissent, or trials uation that existed before the war. alternatives, Congress finally passed a of civilians by military courts. Not mentioned were the two chief bill that called for 40,000 volunteers American reasons for going to war: from the states to serve in the federal Ending the War neutral country trading rights in army for one year. But the volunteers From the war’s beginning, the wartime and the impressment of could not serve outside their state with- U.S. and Britain held talks off and on American sailors. out the consent of the . about ending it. But serious talks did Regarding the Indians, the treaty Some Federalists in New England not occur until the summer of 1814. required Britain and the U.S. to wanted to secede from the Union and Madison sent an outstanding team of make peace with the tribes that had negotiate a separate peace with negotiators that included John been their former enemies. The two Britain. Delegates from most New Eng- Quincy Adams, an experienced Fed- countries were also to restore to the land states met at Hartford, Connecti- eralist diplomat, and Henry Clay, the tribes “all the rights, privileges, and cut, in December 1814 to discuss this Republican speaker of the territories which they enjoyed in the and a variety of complaints they had House of Representatives. year 1811.” against the federal government. The Americans and a less capable On , 1815, two weeks After meeting a few weeks in se- group of British diplomats met at the after the peace treaty was signed at cret, the never city of Ghent (now in Belgium). Ghent, Andrew Jackson won a deci- voted on secession. The convention Among the list of U.S. demands were sive victory at New Orleans, the did, however, pass a resolution, declar- the abolition of sailor impressment largest, bloodiest, and last battle of ing that any military draft enacted by and British withdrawal from at least the war. News of Jackson’s victory Congress would be unconstitutional. part of Canada. The British refused to reached Washington on February 4, The resolution recommended states consider ending impressment and several days before news of the Treaty

8 U.S. HISTORY A Federalist Speaks Against the Draft from New Hampshire was a Federalist member of the U.S. House of Representatives. In 1814, just before the Hartford Convention met, he delivered a speech before the House against the Madison administration’s proposal to draft men from the states into the federal army. Below is an excerpt from his speech.

It will be the solemn duty of the state governments to protect their own authority over their own

militia, and to interpose between their citizens and arbitrary power. These are among the Wikimedia Commons objects for which the state governments exist; and their highest obligations bind them to the preservation of their own rights and the liberties of their people. . . . A military force cannot be raised in this manner but by the means of military force. If [the] administration has found that it cannot form an army without conscription [a draft], it will find, if it venture on these experiments, that it cannot enforce conscription with- out an army. The government was not constituted for such purposes. Framed in the spirit of liberty and in the love of peace, it has no powers which render it able to enforce such laws. The attempt, if we rashly make it, will fail; and having already thrown away our peace, we may thereby throw away our government. 1. What did Webster mean when he said that it was the duty of states “to interpose between their citizens and arbitrary power”? 2. How does Webster justify this state duty? of Ghent arrived. This caused many Madison is often called the Father Many historians, however, say that Americans to incorrectly believe the of the Constitution because he was at only war weariness in Britain and a had won the the center of creating the federal re- strong U.S. negotiating team pre- war for the U.S. public. Federalism means that the gov- vented the young federal republic ernment in Washington and the states from falling into disunion and defeat. Federalism and the War of 1812 share power. Madison believed the The War of 1812 ended in a mili- states would play a crucial role in DISCUSSION & WRITING tary and political stalemate. Although checking the power of Congress and 1. The Constitution states that Con- the U.S. did not win the war, it did the president. During the War of 1812, gress has the power “To provide win the peace. Madison’s talented however, Madison discovered that the for calling forth the Militia to exe- team of diplomats got the British to federal system limited the ability of cute the Laws of the Union, sup- yield on most of their demands. Congress and the president to wage press Insurrections and repel Americans generally viewed the war. Anti-war states did everything Invasions.” Do you think Congress outcome of the war positively, much they could to obstruct the war effort. did or did not have the authority to to the benefit of Madison and the Re- The federal army remained rela- put state militias under the com- publican Party. On the other hand, tively small during the war. A big ma- mand of the president in the War many accused the Federalists of jority of men who served came from of 1812? Why? (See Art. I, Sec. 8, being unpatriotic obstructionists, local militias and volunteer units. Clause 15 and Art. II, Sec. 2, even traitors. After the war, the federal army was Clause 1 in the Constitution.) Republican James Monroe de- enlarged. But it still depended heavily 2. Why did many Indian tribes join molished the Federalists in the presi- on state militias and volunteers, even the British in the War of 1812? dential election of 1816. Before long, in the Civil War. 3. Why was the federal system in the ceased to exist. Madison declared that the War of the Constitution a problem for But in a final twist, the Republicans 1812 proved that a federal republic President Madison during the adopted many Federalist policies could survive the stresses of war War of 1812? such as re-chartering the national without destroying the Constitution. bank to finance national needs such as roads and ports. ACTIVITY The biggest losers, however, were What Should President Madison Have Recommended to the Indian tribes that had played such an important role in the war, espe- Congress in 1812? cially for the British. Despite the 1. Students in groups will discuss these alternate courses of action for promises made to the tribes in the Madison: Treaty of Ghent, their abandonment a. Congress should declare war against Britain and invade Canada. by Britain permanently broke their b. Congress should not declare war but build up the federal army and power. This led in the following navy to defend U.S. commerce. decades to their relocation beyond c. Congress should continue the embargo against Britain and France. the and sped up the d. Congress should take some other action. American westward movement. 2. Each group will choose a recommendation for Madison and then defend it before the class with arguments and evidence from the article.

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Standards California History-Social Science Standard 8.5: Students analyze U.S. foreign pol- icy in the early Republic. (1) Understand the political and economic causes World War I and consequences of the War of 1812 and know the major battles, leaders, National High School World History Standard 39: Understands the causes . . . of and events that led to a final peace. World War I. Common Core Standard SL.11–12.1: Initiate and participate effectively in a range of California History-Social Science Standard 10.5: Students analyze the causes . . . collaborative discussions . . . with diverse partners on grades 11–12 topics, texts, of the First World War. and issues, building on others’ ideas and expressing their own clearly and persua- Common Core Standard SL.11–12.4: Present information, findings, and supporting sively. evidence, conveying a clear and distinct perspective, such that listeners can follow the line of reasoning, alternative or opposing perspectives are addressed, and the War in Afghanistan organization, development, substance, and style are appropriate to purpose, audi- National High School Civics Standard 22: Understands how the world is organ- ence, and a range of formal and informal tasks. ized politically into nation-states, how nation-states interact with one another, Common Core Standard RH.11–12.3: Evaluate various explanations for actions or and issues surrounding U.S. foreign policy. (1) Understands the significance of events and determine which explanation best accords with textual evidence, ac- principal foreign policies and events in the United States’ relations with knowledging where the text leaves matters uncertain. the world . . . . (3) Understands the major foreign policy positions that Common Core Standard RH.11–12.6: Evaluate authors’ differing points of view on have characterized the United States’ relations with the world . . . . (9) Un- the same historical event or issue by assessing the authors’ claims, reasoning, and evidence. derstands the current role of the United States in peacemaking and peace- keeping. Common Core Standard RH.11–12.8: Evaluate an author’s premises, claims, and ev- idence by corroborating or challenging them with other information. California History-Social Science Standard 10.10: Students analyze instances of na- Common Core Standard SL.11–12.1: Initiate and participate effectively in a range of tion-building in the contemporary world in at least two of the following regions or collaborative discussions . . . with diverse partners on grades 11–12 topics, texts, countries: the Middle East . . . . (1) Understand the challenges in the regions, in- and issues, building on others’ ideas and expressing their own clearly and persua- cluding their geopolitical, cultural, military, and economic significance and the sively. international relationships in which they are involved. (2) Describe the recent history of the regions, including political divisions and systems, key leaders, re- War of 1812 ligious issues, natural features, resources, and population patterns. (3) Discuss National High School U.S. History Standard 9: Understands the United States ter- the important trends in the regions today and whether they appear to serve the ritorial expansion between 1801 and 1861, and how it affected relations with exter- cause of individual freedom and democracy. nal powers and Native Americans. (7) Understands political interests and views California History-Social Science Standard 11.9: Students analyze U.S. foreign pol- regarding the War of 1812 (e.g., U.S. responses to shipping harassments prior icy since World War II. to the war; interests of Native American and white settlers of the Northwest Common Core Standard SL.11–12.1: Initiate and participate effectively in a range Territory during the war; congressional positions for and against the war res- of collaborative discussions . . . with diverse partners on grades 11–12 topics, olution of June 3, 1812) texts, and issues, building on others’ ideas and expressing their own clearly and California History-Social Science Standard 8.2: Students analyze the political prin- persuasively. ciples underlying the U.S. Constitution and compare the enumerated and implied Standards reprinted with permission: powers of the federal government. (7) Describe the principles of federalism, dual sovereignty, separation of powers, checks and balances, the nature and National Standards © 2000 McREL, Mid-continent Research for Education purpose of majority rule, and the ways in which the American idea of con- and Learning, 2550 S. Parker Road, Ste. 500, Aurora, CO 80014, stitutionalism preserves individual rights. (303)337.0990. California History-Social Science Standard 8.4: Students analyze the aspirations California Standards copyrighted by the California Dept. of Education, P.O. and ideals of the people of the new nation. (1) Describe the country’s physical Box 271, Sacramento, CA 95812. landscape, political divisions, and territorial expansion during the terms of the first four presidents.