1 I \ !-b CHINA’S ESTABLISHED INTELLECTUALS: A Sociological Study of Their Participation in Political Campaigns (1949-1976) Thesis submitted to University of London for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy by PING HUANG at The London School of Economics and Political Science University of London 1991 UMI Number: U050161 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI U050161 Published by ProQuest LLC 2014. Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 Tn^-ses F b& h'D 2 ABSTRACT This thesis examines the participation of China's established intellectuals in political campaigns during the period 1949-1976.This involves a sociological analysis of the historical background and current situation of China's established intellectuals, a systematic examination of the whole process of the continual campaigns launched by the CCP and Mao Ze­ dong to criticise intellectuals or their works, and some detailed case studies of four distinguished established intellectuals. Based on these, the thesis attempts to show that (1) China's established intellectuals do not belong to a specific class, nor do they form an independent stratum, but instead, they are members of different classes or strata; (2) which classes and strata they are members of hinges more on their social position and political experience than on their own choices; (3) under the specific system operating in China, intellectuals have to be passive if they do not obtain high posts in the state/Party organs. The higher and more numerous posts they occupy, the more active and influential they are; and (4) intellectuals within the establishment essentially cannot avoid conflicts between the roles of the intellectual and the official. In brief, like other members of society, intellectuals are greatly tied to the social relations in which they are living and working, and their roles are largely decided by the social positions they obtain. In China, the fate of the intellectual in future will depend upon the development of society and changing social relations. The method used in this research is mainly documentary analysis. 3 CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................6 TABLES .........................................................................................................7 ABBREVIATIONS .....................................................................................8 NOTES ON TRANSLATIONS ............................................................... 9 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ....................................................10 I. Concepts of Intellectual and intelligentsia............................................. 11 (1). Intellectual .................................................................................... 11 (2). Intelligentsia ..................................................................................16 II. Sociological Approaches to the Problems of the Intellectual.......................19 (1). Karl Mannheim's "Free-floating Intellectuals"................................... 19 (2). Alvin Gouldner's "New Class": Cultural Bourgeoisie........................ 24 (3). Antonio Gramsci's Organic and Traditional Intellectuals..................... 33 III. Intellectuals and Intelligentsia in "Communist" Societies....................... 37 (1). Soviet-type "Communist" Societies ................................................ 38 (2). Djilas and "New Class" .................................................................41 (3). Do Intellectuals and Bureaucrats Combine into ..........................O ne? 46 IV. Intellectuals and Social Class: Theory and Method............................... 51 CHAPTER TWO: CHINA’S INTELLECTUALS AND INTELLIGENTSIA: THEIR HISTORICAL BACKGROUND AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS ....................................................... 58 I. Traditional Literati ...........................................................................59 II. The Emergence of the Modem Chinese Intelligentsia............................67 III. Organisational Network of the New System .....................................82 IV. Intellectuals under the New System................................................ 92 CHAPTER THREE: CHINA'S ESTABLISHED INTELLECTUALS IN POLITICAL CAMPAIGNS (I) 110 I. The "Old-type Intellectuals" in Thought Reform Campaign .........................................................I l l n. The "Democratic Personages" in the Hundred-flower Period ........................................................124 HI. The "Democratic Personages" and the Anti-Rightist Campaign ........................................................158 IV. Conclusion ................................................................................... 170 CHAPTER FOUR: CHINA'S ESTABLISHED INTELLECTUALS IN POLITICAL CAMPAIGNS (II) ...................................................... 175 I. A Brief Introduction to the "Revolutionary Intellectuals" ........................................................176 II. The Criticism of The Life of Wu Xun .............................................. 183 ID. The Accusation of Hu Feng, Feng Xue-feng, and Ding Ling .........................................................189 IV. The Purge of Zhou Yang and the "Four Villains".............................. 217 5 V. The Rise and Fall of the Radical Intellectuals around .................M ao 235 VI. Conclusion ..................................................................................239 CHAPTER FIVE: CASE STUDIES(I): NATURAL AND SOCIAL SCIENTISTS AS "DEMOCRATIC PERSONAGES” ..................................................... 242 I. Natural Scientist Hua Luo-geng................................................... 243 II. Social Scientist Fei Xiao-tong ...................................................... 259 III. Conclusion ..................................................................................275 CHAPTER SIX: CASE STUDIES(II): TRADITIONAL SCHOLAR AND LEFT-WING WRITER AS OLD-TYPE AND REVOLUTIONARY INTELLECTUALS ....................................................277 I. Philosopher Feng You-lan .............................................................278 II. Left-wing Writer Writer Guo Mo-ruo........................................... 297 III. Conclusion ..................................................................................315 CHAPTER SEVEN: CONCLUSION ...............................................318 BIBLOGRAPHY 337 6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I do not know how to express my deepest gratitute to Dr Leslie A. Sklair, my supervisor at LSE, for his encouragement, advice, and criticism at each step of the present study. I would never have completed this study without his supervision from the outset, which included not only guidance, directions, and pointers at theoretical, methodological, and empirical levels, but even the correction of my English expressions. I am also greatly indebted to academics at LSE, and at other institutes, both at University of London, and in other parts of the U.K. Amongst them, are: Alan Swingewood, who chaired the Methodological Seminar as an obligatory course for first-year research students at the Department of Sociology, LSE, in the academic year 1987-1988; Stephan Feuchtwang, who gave his criticism to papers I gave to the London China Seminar which he chaired for many years; Dick Wilson, Tom Jennings, and Sue Davies, who either discussed my study with me or read some parts of my manuscript. Finally, I would like to thank Jenny Waters, who has carefully and critically corrected and modified my English, from page to page, word by word, since I started writing this thesis in 1988. 7 TABLES Table 2.1................................................................................. 82 Table 2.2................................................................................. 90 Table 2.3................................................................................. 95 Table 2.4.................................................................................. 101 Table 2.5 .................................................................................. 103 Table 2.6 .................................................................................. 104 Table 2.7.................................................................................. 105 Table 2.8.................................................................................. 105 Table 2.9.................................................................................. 106 Table 2.10................................................................................ 108 Table 3.1 ................................................................................ 115 Table 3.2.................................................................................. 116 Table 3.3.................................................................................. 117 Table 3.4.................................................................................. 118 Table 3.5 .................................................................................