Mapping the Modern City: Alan Sillitoe's Novels Author(s): Stephen Daniels and Simon Rycroft Source: Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, New Series, Vol. 18, No. 4 (1993), pp. 460-480 Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of The Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers) Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/622561 . Accessed: 04/08/2011 06:13

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http://www.jstor.org 460 Mapping the modern city: Alan Sillitoe's Nottingham novels

STEPHEN DANIELS* and SIMON RYCROFTt *SeniorLecturer, Department of Geography,,Nottingham NG7 2RD tResearchAssociate, Department of Geography,Loughborough University of Technology, LoughboroughLE 1 3TU

RevisedMS received3 June 1993

ABSTRACT As a literary form the novel is inherently geographical. Alan Sillitoe's Nottingham novels deploy the rhetoric of mapping and map reading to articulate a series of perspectives on urban life. Against a background of post-war consumer culture and civic redevelopment, Sillitoe's novels map the modernity of urban life. A key trope in his work is the modernist axis of aerial and labyrinthine worlds. Saturdaynight and Sunday morning(1958/19761) charts a year in the life of an anarchistic 'angry young man', Arthur Seaton, around the labyrinthine world of working-class Nottingham. The death of William Posters (1965) charts the emergence of a socialist 'new man', moving from Nottingham to Algerian desert and the guerilla war against the French administration. Key to the door (1961b) and The open door (1989) chart the life of the modernist 'airman'Brian Seaton, whose literary and cartographic outlook parallel Sillitoe's own. In these novels Sillitoe portrays a belligerent image of Nottingham, contrary to the smoothly progressive image of the city in professional and academic publications of the time. Studies of geographic thought might broaden their scope to take more account of fictional writings.

KEY WORDS: Literature,Mapping, Modernism, Alan Sillitoe, Nottingham, Masculinity, Consumer culture

As a literary form, the novel is inherently geo- capitalist city to its bourgeois citizens as 'accessible, graphical. The world of the novel is made up of comprehensible and controllable' (Bender, 1987, 65). locations and settings, arenas and boundaries, per- Its scope was not confined to the city; early spectives and horizons. Various places and spaces novelists charted transformationsin the countryside are occupied or envisaged by the novel's characters, and colonies too. The refinement of the novel as a by the narratorand by audiences as they read. Any genre was commensurate with the refinement of a one novel may present a field of different, some- number of geographical discourses, such as town times competing, forms of geographical knowledge planning, estate improvement, cartography and and experience, from a sensuous awareness of place topographical painting, which surveyed and to an educated idea of region and nation. These re-ordered the spaces of the modernizing world various geographies are coordinated by various (Alfrey and Daniels, 1990; Varey, 1990; Daniels, in kinds of temporal knowledge and experience, from press). From the time of Defoe the novel has been circumscribedroutines to linear notions of progress fashioned and re-fashioned as an instrument for or transformation (Kestner, 1978; Tuan, 1978; representing various geographies in different Barrell, 1982; Said, 1989). phases, forms and sites of modernization. (Watt, From its formulation in the eighteenth century, 1957; Williams, 1973; Bradbury, 1976; Seidel, 1976; the novel has been a speculative instrument for Berman, 1983, 173-286; Said, 1993). exploring and articulating those material, social and In this article we examine the geographies of mental transformations we call modernization. The novels by Alan Sillitoe (1928-) set in and around novel was first associated with the transformationof Nottingham. We consider how the novels explore London into a world metropolis, representing the conflicts in the modernization of working-class areas

Trans. Inst. Br. Geogr. N.S. 18: 460-480 (1993) ISSN: 0020-2754 Printedin GreatBritain Mappingthe modemcity: Alan Sillitoe'sNottingham novels 461 of the city from the 1920s to the 1950s, in particular the imaginativeness of geographical texts. The the clearance of slums, the building of new housing imaginativeness of texts consists in the images estates and the emergence of a consumer culture. It they express and in the way they construct, was a time when the city corporation, proud of its through modes of writing or composition - how- progressive social and economic planning, pro- ever empirically - particularand partial views of the moted Nottingham as 'the modem city'. We focus world. The worldliness of texts consists in the on the geographies of the novels' Nottingham born various contexts - biographical, economic, institu- male protagonists: local rebel Arthur Seaton in tional, geographical - which are entailed by them Saturday night and Sunday morning (1958/19761), and make them intelligible. RAF conscript Brian Seaton in Key to the door (1961b) and The open door (1989) and international- MAPS AND THE MAN ist guerilla Frank Dawley in The death of William Posters(1965). These novels take us beyond trans- Home is like a fortressof an army which pridesitself formations of mid-century Nottingham to transfor- on its mobility. . . fromthe base,feet define mations overseas, to the violent of colonial Departing ending geography,the eyes observeand systematizeit ... As rule in and Malaya Algeria. the base line in surveyingis essentialfor the formation We situate these novels in terms of a number of of a map and all points on it, so the connectedpoints Sillitoe's other writings: autobiography, travel writ- of birth,place, and upbringingare - for any person, ing, literary criticism, poetry, political journalism.2 and even more so for a writer- factorsnever to be We also consider a range of other cultural dis- relinquished.(Sillitoe, 1987a, 6) courses which bear upon the novels, including aerial Alan Sillitoe was born and raised in the Radford photography, urban sociology and classical mythol- area of a ogy. Above all, we wish to show the importance of Nottingham, nineteenth-century working- class suburb to the west of the centre. Sillitoe maps, map-reading and map-making to the geogra- city recalled the Radford of his childhood as a phies of the novels. This was the subject of a main labyrin- source of this article, an interview we conducted thine world: with Alan Sillitoe in 1991.3 Even when you knew every junction,twitchell and First we will examine the issue of in mapping doubleentry (a concealedtrackway which, connecting relation to Sillitoe's life and his work, literary two streets, figured high in tactics of escape and influences and the modernization of Nottingham. manoeuvre)you never could tell when a gas lamp Secondly we will consider the connections between glowed that someonein the nearbydark was not using mapping, modernism and masculinity. The third and its light as an ambushpen. Neitherdid you know what largest part of the article analyses the texts and waitedbehind the cornerit stood on ... You invented felt that contexts of the novels. Finally we compare the perils, exaggeratedpitfalls, occasionally you even called them Potholes became foxholes, and of Nottingham in these novels with up. geographies foxholes as often or not turned into of the city in official and academic underground geographies cavernsfull of and ammunition,food, and of the time. guns later, publications moregold thanMonte Cristoever dreamedof. In such In this article we to re-vision the try relationship streets you could outdream everybody. (Sillitoe, between 'geography and literature' (Pocock, 1981; 1987b, 3) Mallory and Simpson-Housley, 1987) in a way which takes account of some recent developments As a child, Sillitoe envisaged his neighbourhood in in cultural geography and literary criticism (Said, terms of the underground worlds of the novels 1983; Barnes and Duncan, 1992; Barrell, 1992; which then dominated his reading: The Count of Driver, 1992; Daniels, 1993). We consider geogra- Monte Cristo and, more strongly still, Les mis rables. phy and literature not as the conjunction of two Lesmis rables took me the crisisof essentially distinct, coherent or orders of through prolonged disciplines, childhood... I read the book and ... till - objective and subjective, real and again again knowledge most of it was fixed in ... Froman I and so on - but as a field of textual firmly early age imaginative, was more familiarwith the street names of Paristhan - the novel, the the travel the genres poem, guide, those of London ... Exotic it was in many - though map, the regional monograph with complex ways, Les misrables seemed relevant to me and life overlaps and interconnections. We have brought roundabout ... Gavroche, the street urchin who out both the worldliness of literary texts and remindedme vividly of one of my cousins ... the 462 STEPHENDANIELS and SIMON RYCROFT

FIGURE1. l'he attractivelylaid-out Aspley Housingestate, with the FromNottingham official handbook (IOth edn, 1939)

revolutionary fighting in the streets of Paris ... when world, clearing poor districts to make way for a Jean Valjean rescues one of the wounded fighters from system of broad boulevards, public buildings, parks, one of the about-to-beoverrun barricades by carrying parades and classical perspectives. It was a spectacu- him the sewers. (Sillitoe,1975a, 156; 1975b, through lar vision, planned from a height, in a new survey of 12; 1987a, 12) the city from especially constructed towers and best seen in panoramic views (Pinkney, D., 1958; Clark, The physiography of Nottingham and its attendant 1984, 23-78). Haussman'sParis is in many ways the folklore gave credence to the Parisian connection. vantage point of Hugo's novel. The narratorlooks Under the city, carved out of a cave system, is a back to events of 1815-32 from the perspective of complicated network of chambers dating back to the 1860s, reconstructing, with the help of old medieval times. These were used for storage, dwell- maps, the social geography which Haussman erased. ing, gambling and, during the Second World War, Hugo's 'aerial observer' does not always have a as air raid shelters. Their occasional occupation clear view, peering down into the 'silent, ominous throughout Nottingham's history by outlaws and labyrinth' of the insurrectionary districts (as the rebels sustained a local mythology of a clandestine reader 'peered into the depths' of another 'labyrinth underworld, much like that of Paris as set out in Les of illusion', the conscience of the fugitive Valjean) mis rables (Kempe, 1988, 185-190). (Hugo, 1982, 945-7, 208). While sympathetic to the In Les mis rabies the counterpoint of the under- plight of Les mis rables,the novel tracks them with a world is the spacious, systematic new city planned consciously cartographic eye. by Baron Haussmann for Napoleon III (Hugo, 1982, In Sillitoe's Nottingham novels, the urban under- esp. 399-410). Haussman's plan was a city-wide world is similarly counterpointed by a newly vision which directly opposed the Parisian under- planned, systematic, self-consciously modem city. Mappingthe moderncity: Alan Sillitoe'sNottingham novels 463

FIGURE2. Enlargeddetail of north-westNottingham. Reproduced from the 1946 1:63,360Ordnance Survey map with the permission of the Controllerof HMSO ?Crown copyright

From the 1920s, the City Corporation promoted cottages, was comprehensively moderized. The Nottingham as 'the modem city' with 'wide Corporation purchased a large swathe of this land thoroughfares, well proportioned buildings, and an and built a spacious zone of boulevards, public parks entire absence of the smoke and grime usually and housing estates (Fig. 2). The 2800 houses of the associated with industry ... creating a broad Aspley estate (1930-32) (Fig. I) were intended for spaciousness that other cities envy and seek to newly married couples from Sillitoe's Radford or to emulate'. In official guides and publications, the rehouse families from cleared slum areas. There was structure of this moder city was displayed in a school at the centre of the estate, a showpiece of aerial photographs: the new city hall (the Council the city's enlightened educational policy, but few House) and civic square, bright new factories, broad other social facilities or places of work. The new boulevards and spacious suburban estates (Fig. 1). working-class suburb contrasted pointedly with the The Corporation was particularly keen on its old: its elegant curves, crescents and concentric new aerodrome outside the city, built in 1928, circles served to emphasize Radford's intricate net- the second in Britain to be licensed: 'the city of work of terraces, back-streets and alleys (Mellors, Nottingham has always been in the forefront in the 1914, 25-60; Chambers, 1945, 47-8; Thomas, 1966, matter of aviation' (British Association for the 1971; Silbum, 1981, 30-3). Sillitoe's autobiographi- Advancement of Science, 1937, 9-18; Nottingham cal story of childhood gang-fights is set on this Corporation, 1939, 25, 35-7, 62-5; Chambers, modem frontier: 1945, 43-53). During Sillitoe's youth the country beyond Our street was a stragglingline of ancientback-to- Radford, estate land developed with a mixture of backson the city's edge, while the enemy districtwas parkland, plantations, collieries, allotments and a new housing estate of three long streetswhich had 464 STEPHENDANIELS and SIMONRYCROFT outflankedus and left us a mere pocket of countryin Failing a scholarship exam, Sillitoe left school at which to run wild. (Sillitoe,1985a, 156) 14 to take a variety of factory jobs, including a spell as a lathe operator in the Raleigh bicycle factory at Despite, or perhaps because of, the fact that his the end of his street, then turned over to war family remained in Radford,Sillitoe sought a height- production, making components for aircraftengines. ened consciousness of Nottingham in a passion for Here, especially through his membership of the maps as well as books. He taught himself to read Transport and General Workers Union, he acquired maps as he learned to read novels and made maps as a political education. he learned to write. Born into a poor family, suffering the insecurities of chronic unemployment, I found it impossibleto work in a factory without Sillitoe 'latched onto maps in order to pull myself believing that socialismwas the ultimatesolution for into the more rarefiedand satisfying air of education all life on this planet.(Sillitoe, 1975b, 17) and expansion of spirit'.Maps helped make sense of Nottingham, clarifiedits characterand development. Sillitoe also enlarged his local, geographical knowl- And they connected the city to a wider world. 'The edge. With his first wages he purchased a bicycle first time I saw a map I wanted to leave home' and explored as far as the Peak District and the (Sillitoe, 1972, 98). Sillitoe collected maps of all Lincolnshire coast. In the absence of signposts, a kinds. A large scale estate map from his map was a necessity. In a Foreword to a history of grandfather's cottage on the fringe countryside the Raleigh company, Sillitoe spelled out the beyond Radford became a 'dream landscape' as this benefits of the cyclist's vantage point: land began 'to be covered by houses and new roads'. An inch-to-the-mile Ordnance Survey map it is often possibleto see over the hedge at the horizon of the Aldershot area marked with tactical exercises, beyond. One can also stop and admirethe view, or a gift from a retired guardsman next door, 'gave a pause to consult a map with no trouble at all ... picture I could relate to the land in my own district. (Sillitoe,1975h, 9) Every cottage and copse was marked, every lane of and footpath.' At school he watched 'with wonder It is the revelatory vantage point regional survey and fascination' as the teacher took a wheeled metal recommended to young urban excursionists of the in Ellis Martin's illustration cylinder and rolled gleaming outlines of Europe or time, one enshrined (Fig. of the on the cover of the Edition North America on the page, 'it was the action of a 3) cyclist Popular magic wand'. (Sillitoe, 1975c, 62-3; Rycroft, 1991, One Inch Ordnance Survey Maps (Matless, 1990c, 10.) 28-30; 1992, 469). the Sillitoe the Air The magic of maps was not just conceptual but During war, joined Training based at the local aerodrome. Here he technical, maps as artifacts not just images. As a Corps a child, Sillitoe made maps of all kinds, of both real acquired military-geographical education, learning and and imaginary places, drawn on wallpaper, in the radio-telegraphy, flight theory, meteorology flyleaves of books, drawn 'with the same attention photogrammetry. The vertical viewpoint offered from a to detail as my lace-designer uncle put into his on training flights over Nottingham was a revelation. The intricate patterns before they were set up on de-Haviland bi-plane oblique Nottingham machines'. Sillitoe esteemed maps as panorama of the topographical observer gave way vision: agents of modem, material transformation, 'a high- to a broader, more penetrating way built where one had not existed before ... a new town settled on the edge of sandy or forest This bird's-eyesnapshot appeared to be just as valu- wastes' (Sillitoe, 1972, 98-9). Wartime conditions able as the dense intricaciesthat came with lesser on the ... It was to out heightened Sillitoe's map consciousness. With sign- visibility ground easy pick factories and their churchesand removed and street torn out of city smoking chimneys, posts maps the Castleand the CouncilHouse, as well the war 'turned into a and me parkspaces, guides, everyone spy as the hide-outs and well-troddenstreets that had into own With the aid of a War my surveyor'. seemedso farapart but thatnow in one glancemade as Office Sillitoe himself manual, taught triangulation smalland close a patternas that on a piece of lace . .. and 'with a simple compass and the expedient of Fromnearly two thousandfeet the hills appearedflat, pacing' made a detailed map of his neighbourhood and lost theirsignificance, but the secretsof the streets (Sillitoe, 1975c, 68; 1987a, 9; Rycroft, 1991, 11-12). that covered them were shown in such a way that no Mapping the moderncity: Alan Sillitoe'sNottingham novels 465 map could have done the job better. (Sillitoe,1975c, 70; 1987a, 10)

During and immediately after the war, progressive experts, including professional geographers, hoped that increased flying experience and familiarity with aerial photography would re-order ordinary people's perceptions of the world and their place in it. In 1946 David Linton told the Geographical Association 'the air view of the ground ... has become a familiar thing to us all' (Linton, 1947, 3).

Direct flying experience... has been extended to a great body of service personnel, ATC cadets and others, and war films and war photographs have brought some appreciationof the airman'spoint of view to virtuallythe whole adultpopulation. (3)

The advantages of the airman'spoint of view were cumulative:

As we leave the groundour visualand mentalhorizon expands, and we have direct perception of space- relationsover an ever wideningfield, so that we may see successivelythe village, the town, the region, in their respectivesettings. The mobility of the aircraft makesour rangeof vision universal... We may fly to the ends of the earth.(5)

This expanding field of vision was seen to be potentially one of international citizenship, connect- ing the local with the global in a new post-war world order (Taylor, 1945). Sillitoe's internationalism maintained its leftward bearing. He saw his air-training as preparation for FIGURE 3. Cover, Nottingham, Sheet 54, Ordnance survey 'the fight against fascism', but the war ended too popular edition one-inch map of England and Wales (1921) soon for Sillitoe to participate and he was posted by the RAF to Malaya, to take part in the fight against wrote voraciously. During eighteen months conva- communist insurgents in 1948. Here as a wireless lescence in an army Sillitoe a 'feverish he was my camp began operator required 'against political bout of wireless beliefs' to to bombers to 'hunt urgent writing', filling empty give bearings trying with dozens of sketches and bits out the communist in the and logbooks poems, guerillas jungle' of some of which were used in later maintained his 'accustomed accuracy' with 'lessen- description, works. The most sustained of these enthusiasm' (Sillitoe, 1975d, 56). published pieces ing was a narrative of a In Malaya Sillitoe took in a thirty-page six-day jungle- up writing desultory rescue exercise he had three months way, navigated before in Malaya, based on a diary and maps of the area he had drawn before odd poems and scrapsof prose - generallyconcerned up embarking (Sillitoe, with the beauties of scenery - to pass away the 1975b, 21, 24). Sillitoe also read the canon of fourteen-hourshifts in my radiohut at the end of the western literature, modem works like the novels of runway.(Sillitoe, 1975b, 24) D. H. Lawrence and Dostoevsky as well as Latinand Greek classics newly available in Penguin paperback Upon demobilization, back in England, Sillitoe was translations.At the same time, through a correspon- diagnosed as having tuberculosis and, in response, dence course, Sillitoe 'really got to grips with the 466 STEPHENDANIELS and SIMONRYCROFT proper science of surveying', with a view to a career Sillitoe's cultural exile, and the sense of homeplace in 'the mundane occupation of making maps'. But it sharpened, invites comparison with the local 'as my writing took over my whole existence [so] I collier's son D. H. Lawrence who, writing in left off the studies in surveying' and set about the southern Europe, defined Nottingham and its task 'of getting into the map of my own region as a literary landscape. In an essay on consciousness' (Sillitoe, 1975c, 71-2). Lawrence, Sillitoe (1975g) regards his forbear's Returning to Nottingham in 1950, Sillitoe wrote exile as a condition of his realistic grasp of the a few short stories, some published in a local people and places of his upbringing but notes that magazine, and a long novel 'a vainglorious mish- the longer Lawrence sojourned in sunny, southern mash of Dostoevsky, D. H. Lawrence and Aldous landscapes, the more he 'began to lose his grip on Huxley' promptly rejected by a London publisher local topography' (Sillitoe, 1975g, 133). In Lady (Sillitoe, 1975b, 26). In a second-hand bookshop Chatterley'slover Nottinghamshire was reduced to he met , an American writer and 'a sort of black-dream country that did not seem poet and the woman he was to marry. Because of human or real'. Sustained exile incorporated Sillitoe's illness, they decided to move to the Lawrence in that pastoral literary tradition which sunnier climate of southern Europe, subsisting on bewails the 'ruination of sweet and rural England' Sillitoe's Air Force pension. Expecting to be away and nourishes an 'unreasonablehatred of the urban for six months, they stayed six years, by which and industrial landscape'. Sillitoe also suggests time Sillitoe had established his vocation as a something Oedipal in this 'unreasonable hatred', writer. the rejection of the masculine world of the mining In southern Europe Sillitoe and Fainlight 'were country: culturally severed from England'. 'The magazines we read, the people we met, the books we got hold he had to go to those placeswhere the femalespirit of of, came from Paris, or New York or San Francisco' the VirginMary was in the ascendant,where mother- of the Latinswas the norm.(131) (Sillitoe, 1987a, 10). Sillitoe was part of a great worship post-war migration to the Mediterranean of English In Sillitoe maintained his on local writers and artists (Mellor, 1987, 69-70). Robert contrast, grip not to and Graves, then working on The Greek Myths, lived topography, just by returning England, to but a nearby in Majorca and gave Sillitoe and Fainlight occasionally Nottingham, by sustaining vision: not from a access to his library. Sillitoe wrote some poems on documentary sliding strictly to a scenic idea of classical heroes and a fantasy novel but Graves cartographic softly landscape. offered Sillitoe both a defi- suggested he 'write a book set in Nottingham, Mapping pre-literary nition of Lawrence's and a of which is something you know about'. From a series country way keeping his forbear in his Lawrence, Sillitoe of unpublished short stories and sketches centring sights. Reading reaches for the one-inch which remind him of on the characterof Arthur Seaton, 'a young anarchic maps the to the he made as a boy, roughneck', Sillitoe completed the first draft of cycle trips country before he realized Lawrence had it Saturday night and Sunday morning in 1956-7 years portrayed in his novels. The on Lawrence ends with an (Sillitoe, 1975b, 19-33). essay imaginative journey, viewing key places in The factoryand its surroundingarea ascended with a Lawrence's novels from various hilltops in and not have so intensehad I not claritythat might been around Nottingham: looked out over olive groves, lemons and orange orchards. . . undera clearMediterranean (Sillitoe, sky. such roamingis a constant wonder of triangulation, 1983, 30) surveysthat fix themselvesin the heartand stay there. (141) Writing the novel, Sillitoe was reminded of the clear view of his first training flight over Nottingham but Writing, Sillitoe is surrounded by maps, felt, at the dawn of the space-age, launched further into orbit: a street plan of Nottingham,a large-scaletrench-map I re-drewmy maps and made my survey as if from a of the Gommecourtsalient in 1916, markedby the satellitestationed above thatpart of the earthin which advancingdeath-lines of the Sherwood Foresters,a I had been born. (Sillitoe, 1975c, 70; 1987a, 13; relief chart of Deception Island,and a topographical Rycroft, 1991, 16-17) map of Israelflanked by the Mediterraneanand the Mappingthe moderncity: Alan Sillitoe'sNottingham novels 467 JordanRiver - differentregions I cannotshut my eyes conventional interpretation of his writing. Sillitoe is to. (Sillitoe, 1972, 174-5) concerned accurately to document local characters and their environment but he cannot simply be Sillitoe's resembles an room. study operations 'Just grouped with consciously English, realist contem- as a needs which to his general maps upon plan poraries like Larkin, Amis and Osborne (Lodge, Sillitoe 'so an author campaign', declares, requires 1977, 213). In its continental allusions, cosmopolitan them for his novels and stories' (Sillitoe, 1975c, 68; vantage point and mythological register, Sillitoe's Rycroft, 1991, 13-15). writing may be situated in an earlier modernist For Sillitoe maps are not just a framework for tradition, one which includes authors he esteems: but a medium of On a visit to writing, citizenship.4 Hugo, Lawrence, Conrad and Joyce. in 1964 he admired the Leningrad 'colourful, The very conventions of mapping which help of the in Lenin's head- complex' map city hanging to fix Nottingham's geography also release the 'a street of the October quarters, campaign plan author and his subject from purely local, vernacu- a that 'is sure to be looked at and rising', map lar associations, coordinate Nottingham to other studied on a South American or Asian wall'. many cities and their cultural traditions. Sillitoe exploits both the of and its I could have followed its intricaciesfor an hour. documentary aspect mapping many the of cultural man should, with a of the metaphorical aspect, transposition Every self-respecting plan and associations from one to city he lives in, practiceschemes for an insurrectionin meanings place times of war or trouble,or for its defence should an another. Mapped onto the modernization of insurrectionever come about.(Sillitoe, 1964a, 81) Nottingham, the upheaval and reconstruction of its urban fabric, are epic geographies of insurgent Paris On the same trip to the , Stalingrad is and Stalingrad. envisaged as a New Jerusalemin a modernist mappa In Sillitoe's Nottingham novels, as in Les mis- mundi: rables,the process of surveying proceeds vertically as well as horizontally, in excavations or transects of I felt that Stalingradwas in the middleof the world,a the urban underworld. Sillitoe quotes from Hugo's placewhere the finalbattle between good and evil was novel in characterizing the authorial view as strati- out. It was also the last battle of the Bolshevik fought graphic, both documenting, as if from a mountain Revolution,and be the final decisive contest of may top, the 'external facts' of culture and, as if in the the world,the turningpoint of humanityin its struggle depths of a cavern, its 'hearts and souls' (Sillitoe, between scienceand magic,science and barbarity.(41) 1975a, 152). This vertical axis has long been a central trope in Europeanliterature. In Ovid's Meta- In a poem of 1964, Stalingrad is transposed onto morphosisit is the separation of the world of the Nottingham: labyrinth, occupied by the Minatour, the beast- man from that of the Dedalus, A map of Stalingradpinned on air, occupied by A plan of Nottingham the bird-man. The development of ballooning, the For easy referencefrom crossbredstories: building of skyscrapers and the invention of the Colouredelbows of the Don and Volga aeroplane activated this vertical axis as a defining Chasethe tape worm arteryof the Trent trope of modernism. As authors upheld a civilized To merge in Stalinhamand Nottingrad, superstructure of spirit and vision, populated by and Calverton ... Spartak figures like Joyce's Stephen Dedalus or Geddes' the and the Don run Trent, Volga quiet heroic aviator, so also excavated a Consistentriver drawn to seas they primitive widening substructure of unreason and While men and women talk in the bodiliness, populated like Les mis rables or D. H. Canteensof Raleighand the Red October, by figures Hugo's Lawrence'scoal miners At evening by the lights of Netherfield-Dubovka (Kern,1983, 242-7; Schleier, Walksimilar embankments and announcetheir love 1986, 5-68; Cunningham, 1988, 168-73, 241-65; To riverssnaking over peacetimefaces. Grant, 1989, 385-6; Matless, 1990a, 1990b; (Sillitoe,1964b, 22) Williams, 1990, 51-81; Faris, 1991). Sillitoe's main characters in his Nottingham Mapping, modernityand masculinity novels are variously positioned on this vertical axis. To emphasize the mapping impulse in Sillitoe's While Brian Seaton transcends Nottingham to work and life, and its pre-war roots, is to revise the achieve a cerebral, cosmopolitan vision, one vested 468 STEPHENDANIELS and SIMONRYCROFT like Sillitoe's in maps and air-mindedness, his mobilized by D. H. Lawrence in Sons and lovers brother Arthur remains local and visceral, prowling (1913/19836) in the figure of the hero's lover, lace the warren of streets. Dedalus and Minatour. The worker Clara Dawes, a ten year veteran of the third character,Frank Dawley, never achieves a fully women's movement. Moreover the myth was in- aerial view. After speculating 'what Nottingham corporated in the regal figure which imaged the looked like from the air, he fell like a stoned and 'City Beautiful'modernism in official civic publicity, frozen bird back near the middle of it' (Sillitoe, 'Queen of the Midlands'. Guidebooks used this 1965, 73). But Dawley does escape the city on an feminine image to promote Nottingham as progres- internationalist underground quest, as a guerilla sively pure and healthy, free from the grime and fighter in North Africa. drabness usually associated with coalfield areas As Alison Light has pointed out, there is a (Nottingham Guide, 1927) (Fig. 4). All local manu- distinctly masculine positioning and scope to this facturing industries employed a large proportion of radical mode of literary modernism, in its heroic, women and promotional literature was keen to worldly visions of free movement, political liber- show them working in bright, spacious surround- ation, sexual autonomy and economic independence ings. In contrast, Sillitoe's novels evoke a harsher, (Light, 1991, 24). Such visions were occasionally grimier, more masculine world, the carboniferous awarded to women, in the air-mindedness of some industrialization which shadows both Lawrence's of Virginia Woolf's free-spirited female characters novels and city guides. The factory floor, and work (Beer, 1990) and in the educated, panoramic visions generally, is represented almost entirely as a male of some of D. H. Lawrence's. The opening of preserve, as are most public spaces in the novels. It Lawrence's The rainbow (1915/19895), has men is not just that Sillitoe's male characters rebel archaic and earthbound, women modem and out- against the authority of women, the texts of his ward looking: Nottingham novels rebel against authoritative texts of the city. The women looked out from the heated,blind inter- courseof farm to the world ... She life, spoken beyond ANGRY YOUNG MAN (sic) stood to see the far-off world of cities and governmentsand the active scope of men, the magic Saturdaynight and Sunday morningcharts a year in land to her, where secrets were made known and the life of Arthur Seaton, machinist in a Nottingham desires fulfilled... to discover what was beyond, to bicycle factory, and young urban rebel. The longer theirown and freedom. 1989, enlarge scope (Lawrence, part of the novel 'Saturdaynight' describes Arthur's 42-3) work and, more extensively, his escapes from work his bouts, sexual street Sillitoe's novels com- drinking conquests, fights, Nottingham are, by contrast, and fantasies. The brief and masculine, structured almost fishing trips belligerent prehensively entirely more reflective finds Arthur on the or of male 'Sunday morning' expression repression desire, from one excess and whether in its more visceral or more educated recovering Saturday night's contemplating, reluctantly, the 'safe and rosy path' forms. Indeed what aligns Sillitoe's novels with the to marriage, family and suburban life. gritty realism of his English contemporaries is the Saturday night was 'one of the fifty-two holidays hardness of their male positioning and address, in in the Wheel of the year' (Sillitoe, their heroes, individuated slow-turning Big aggressive, misogynistic 1976, The Wheel is the structure of battles with women. 9). Big driving largely by running the novel. It as a Wheel The of Sillitoe's and the figures carivalesque Big very belligerence heroes, which in the at the of as a sexual eventually appears episode huge portrayal Nottingham battleground, Goose Fair in central at the does at least make his women characters a force to Nottingham, giddy climax of the both the novel's and the be reckoned with. There is a local context for this. city's recreationalcalender. The novel is also geared to an The prevailing mythology of modern Nottingham industrialBig Wheel, the imperative of factory work is feminine. The industrialization of the city in driving men and machines. The cycle of the season the lace, hosiery and clothing industries, with a is subordinate to the urban Big Wheel: conspicuous increase of female workers, was accom- panied by a new urban folklore of formidable, As spring merged into summeror autumnbecame independent women, economically, politically and winterArthur glimpsed the transitionalmechanisms of sexually (Bryson, 1983, 150-61). This was famously each season only at the weekend, on Saturdayor Mapping the moderncity: Alan Sillitoe'sNottingham novels 469

FIGURE4. Cover, Nottingham'The Queen City of the Midlands'Guide (6th edn, 1921)

Sunday,when he straddledhis bike and rode along the of a new working-class affluence and individualism canalbank into the countryto fish. (133) (Hewison, 1981, 163-80; Price, 1987). The most notable ethnography of the time is Richard Correspondingly, there is little organic development Hoggart's The uses of literacy,an account, largely a in the novel's narrative. Each chapter (and most reminiscence, of working-class life in Hunslet, first were originally drafted as discrete pieces) is a published in 1957 and issued by Penguin the largely discrete component in the circularstructure. following year. Like Sillitoe, Hoggart was an exile In both its industrial and recreational expressions, from his working-class upbringing, but a more the Big Wheel of Saturdaynight and Sunday morning academically educated scholarship boy, with a is fixed, offering little escape from the city and its greater sense of Englishness and a frankly sentimen- culture, even in the form of the bicycles Arthur tal sense of the homeliness and neighbourliness of Seaton's factory produces. Movement in the novel his upbringing. He charts the traditions of working- is circumscribed,largely vertical. Reading the novel class culture and their corruption by the 'admass' is like riding the Big Wheel. At some points readers world of 'chain-store modemisimus', pin-ups, pop and, on occasion, characters achieve a panoramic music and pulp fiction. Hoggart reserves particular view of the city and its surroundings, before being scorn for the 'juke-box boys', with 'drape suits, plunged into its lower depths. picture ties and an American slouch'. (Hoggart, First published in 1958 Saturdaynight and Sunday 1958, 24, 40-1, 46-7, 50). morning helped frame its cultural moment. It Saturdaynight and Sundaymorning was aligned to appeared at the time of a spate of accounts of urban a male-centred genre of plays and novels, including working-class life, by academics, playwrights, 's (1956) and John novelists and documentary film makers. Many were Braine's (1957), authored by and concerned with the effect of a burgeoning consumer largely featuring so-called '' culture on working-class life. The very idea of (Atherton, 1979, 15-21; Hitchcock, 1989, 22-49). In 'community' was counterpointed by the emergence contrast to politely accented literature set in the 470 STEPHEN DANIELS and SIMON RYCROFT

FIGURE5. ArthurSeaton cycles home. FromSaturday night and Sundaymorning (1960). BFI stills archive

Oxbridge-London belt and its overseas outliers, the by Alan Sillitoe and directed by , it Angries' work was rivetted in lower-class quarters starred as Arthur Seaton and featured of provincial towns and cities and largely articulated the Nottingham streets, factories, pubs, canals by aggressive, straight talking, often foul-mouthed, and housing estates described in the novel (Fig. male heroes. The Angries' world seemed at the time 5). Switching between high-angled long-shots shockingly visceral, short on wit and irony and long and darker, short-focused scenes, sometimes ac- on sex and violence and general bodiliness. Saturday companied by Arthur'sthoughts, the film opened up night and Sunday morningopens with Arthur Seaton the gap between the panoramic and labyrinthine in a drinking match, knocking-back seven gins and worlds of the text. This was, as Terry Lovell notes, ten pints of beer in quick succession, falling down 'a point of enunciation' in a number of British films the pub stairs and vomiting over a nicely dressed and television programmes of working-class life of middle-aged man and his wife. Saturday night and the time, one especially suited to the position of the Sunday morning made Room at the top 'look like a adult working-class male looking back on the world vicarage tea-party' announced the Daily Telegraph;it he had left. was, claimed the New Statesman, much the real 'very Withinthe familiarlandscape, such a viewer is offered thing' (Marwick, 1984; Segal, 1988). a potent figureof identificationin the young, sexually The popular reputation of Saturday night and active male worker,because he may identifyin him a Sunday morningwas established with the release in fantasyprojection of the self he might have become 1960 of a film of the novel (Sillitoe, 1974a). Scripted had he remained.(Lovell, 1990, 370) Mappingthe moderncity: Alan Sillitoe'sNottingham novels 471 Tied into the film's release was a million selling issued in 1958 (although there was no disguising paperback edition of the novel. This was issued by that Arthur Seaton was a very English rebel, a rebel Pan (regarded, in contrast to Penguin, as a distinctly without a car) (Price, 1987, 162-5; Hitchcock, 1989, low-brow publisher), marketed in the lurid 'sex and 75-8). violence' style associated with American pulp fic- Saturday night and Sunday morning does not tion and sold largely from the racks of newsagents. dwell on material deprivation, moral improvement The front cover (Fig. 6) features an illustration of a or community spirit. In a world of accelerated tough looking Arthur Seaton against the mean industrial production, full employment and rising streets of Nottingham. The back cover shows a still wages, the novel traces the pursuit of pleasure and from the film of Arthur seducing a workmate's wife a new consumer passion among the working class. and, in the wake of the controversial publication of The bicycle factory is booming, with the introduc- Lady Chatterley'slover, the announcement of a new tion of piece-work and streamlined production. author 'from Lawrence country ... who might well The thousands who work there take home good have startled Lawrence himself'. Readers were wages. 'a raw and uninhibited story of a promised working- No more short-timelike beforethe war, or the class district of and the who getting Nottingham people sack if you stood ten minutesin the lavatoryreading live, love, and there'. In a laugh fight giving your FootballPost - if the gaffergot on to you now transatlantic to the Pan made gloss novel, connec- you couldalways tell him whereto put the job and go tions with American works with rebellious male somewhereelse ... With the wages you got you could heroes, like Jack Kerouac's On the road which they save up for a motor-bikeor even an old car, or you

FIGURE 6. Cover, Paperback edition of Saturday night and Sunday morning (1960) Pan Books 472 STEPHENDANIELS and SIMON RYCROFT could go for a ten-daybinge and get rid of all you'd all authority, except the authority of men over saved. (Sillitoe,1976, 27) women (Gray, 1973, 123-7; Dollimore, 1983; Segal, 1988, 80-1). In this he has a local ancestry in D. H. Television aerials are 'hooked on to almost every Lawrence's working class heroes, notably the men chimney, like a string of radar stations, each in Nottinghamand the mining country(1930), figures installed on the never-never'. Seaton's father has whose roving 'physical, instinctive' masculinity, sufficient money to chain-smoke Woodbines in cultivated at work underground, is trapped and front of the television all evening, his mother to tamed by women no less than by schools, cinemas hold her head high in the Co-op and nonchalantly or machines (Lawrence, 1981, 117). But Arthur also demand 'a pound of this and a pound of that', now has a more contemporary connection in the comic- 'she had access to week after week of solid wages strip culture of the time, in the war comics of that stopped worry at the source'. The new afflu- rugged individualists taking on the enemy single- ence has not subdued the 'empty-bellied pre-war handed and in the tough, street-wise boy-heroes of battles'; it has aggravated and enlarged them: 'feuds the Beano and Dandy, forever in scrapes with merged, suppressed ones became public' (26-8, 48, authority figures: teachers, policemen and strong- 130). armed mothers (Perry and Aldridge, 1975, 5; Segal, Arthur Seaton spends much of his wage packet 1988, 87). on himself. For a weekend night out he chooses Arthur Seaton's world is a labyrinthine zone, from 'a row of suits, trousers, sports jackets, shirts, recurrently described as a 'jungle' or 'maze'. Arthur all suspended in colourful drapes and designs, prowls the backstreets of the city, or the footpaths good-quality tailor-mades, a couple of hundred of the adjacent country, part guerilla, part predatory quid's worth, a fabulous wardrobe' (174). beast 'caught in a game of fang-and-claw' (Ogersby, Described as a Teddy boy, Arthur seems to fit 1966, 217; Rycroft, 1991, 21-2). At the fairground, the newly affluent image of working-class youth Arthur passes up the aerial thrill of the Big Wheel which alarmed commentators of both Right and for the subterranean thrill of the Ghost Train. Left (Pearson, 1983, 12-24). He comes close to 'Assailed by black darkness and horrible screams Raymond Williams' contemporary definition of a from Hell' Arthur tangles with Death in the form of 'consumer', a word with imagery drawn from 'the 'the luminous bones of a hanging skeleton', 'kicking furnace or the stomach' which 'materializes as an and pummelling until his arms emerged from the individual figure (perhaps monstrous in size but heavy black cover, glistening skeleton bones individual in behaviour)' (Williams, 1965, 322). Yet looking like tiger-streaks over his back, head and in many ways Arthur is a traditional, even anti- shoulders (Sillitoe, 1976, 167-8). Each outing was modem urban delinquent, the bloody-minded 'an expedition in which every corer had to be freeborn-Englishman which left-wing writers turned with care, every pub considered for the ease recruited as makers of the English working-class of tactical retreat in terms of ambush' (209). Known (Thompson, 1963, 77-101). Arthur's leisure pivots and successfully navigated, the streets offer warm on the pub: 'I'm a six foot pit prop that wants a security. pint of ale'. He is contemptuous of many modern commodities, notably television with its impli- Walkingthe streets on winter nights kept him warm cations of passive, domesticated manhood (cf. ... Stars hid like snipers,taking aim now and again when clouds them a Winter was an Spigel, 1992), and cars, with their associations of gave loophole. time for him to hide his secrets, for each dark suburban (he attacks the only car easy living physically and becamea and the to in the The consumer streetpatted his shoulder friend, appear novel). good of each as he Arthur values most is the one he to gaseous eye lamp glowed unwinking helps produce, Houses lay in rows and ranks,a measureof the passed. bicycle.7 safety in such numbers, and those within were He has Arthur Seaton is confident, 'cocksure'(45). snug and gratefulfugitives from the broad track of a mind to take on all figures of authority, 'fighting bleak winds that brought rain from the Derbyshire every day until I die ... fighting with mothers and mountainsand snow from the LincolnshireWolds. wives, landlords and gaffers, coppers, army, (171) government' (224), and all monuments of authority, the factory in which he works, the city hall, the On the way home, with his brother, from a night's castle which broods over the city. Arthur is against skirmishing: Mappingthe modemcity: Alan Sillitoe'sNottingham novels 473 The maze of streets sleepingbetween tobaccofactory her cheek, stinging her into wild gesticulation, and bicycle factory drew them into the enormous confirming her as the slapstick figure of boy's spreadof its suburbanbosom and embracedthem in comics. darkness. the of new sympathetic Beyond empires 'Once a rebel, a rebel', Arthur Seaton red-brickedhouses fieldsand woods that rolledon always lay at the end of the novel before he dons 'suit, to the Erewash and the hills of (120) pleads valley Derbyshire. collar and tie' to meet his fiancee Doreen one cold spring Sunday morning 'on the outskirts of the In the moral order of the city, Sillitoe is charting estate' where are destined to live (207, careful to the warmth of the old indus- housing they distinguish If Arthur's industrial offered trial suburb where Arthur lives from both the 209). neighbourhood him a measure of the new modem bleakness of the new residential suburbs on the snug security, estates on the edge of the city are bleak, aerial outer heights of the city and the dankness of a landscapes. '[Up] Broxtowe, on the estate, I like low-lying slum area, The Meadows, by the river living in them nice new houses', announces Doreen, near the city centre. The Meadows is presented as a 'It's a long way from the shops, but there's plenty dark, decayed, chaotic district, inhabited by drunks of fresh air'.'My sister marrieda man in the air force and prostitutes and Arthur's Aunt Ada. After a life ... and they've got a house up Wollaton. She's of 'dole, boozing, bailiffs' Aunt Ada had 'the per- expecting a baby next week' (154). Arthur and sonality of a promiscuous barmaid'(78). Her 'horde Doreen 'take a walk back to her house, by the of children' are, in contrast to Arthur's rebellious long boulevard that bordered the estate', the 'safe and posturing, ferocious, almost feral figures, 'always rosy path' to domesticity (160). To a disinterested escaping, on the run, in hiding, living with whores, observer they 'seemed like a loving and long- thieving for food and money because they had engaged couple only kept back from marriage by neither ration books nor employment cards', fend- the housing shortage'. But to Arthur the 'new ing for themselves 'in such a wild free manner that pink-walled houses gave an even gloomier appear- Borstal had been their education and a congenial ance than the black dwellings of Radford'.The very jungle their only hope' (134, 78).8 image of 'the modern city' in official publicity If Arthur haunts the streets of Saturdaynight and 1), the new estate is, for Sunday morning, domestic interiors are a woman's (Figure spacious housing Arthur, a trap: realm, inhabited by his mother, aunt, mistresses and fiancee, in which men are either absent or margin- Arthurremembered seeing an aerialphoto of it: a giant alized. A formidable female challenge to Arthur's web of roads,avenues and crescents,with a school like authority, and a main target of his abuse, is a more a blackspider lurking in the middle.(161) public figure who surveys the streets. Stationed at the end of his yard, en route to the factory, is the gossip, Mrs Bull, 'ready to level with foresight and NEW MAN at those that crossed her in the backsight path In a 1965 sequel to Saturday night and Sunday direction': wrong morning, The death of William Posters, a political extension of Arthur Seaton, Frank Dawley, rebel traversedthe from Deep-set beady eyes yard'slength turned revolutionary, strives to break out of streets to factory,were then swivelled back from the Arthur's world and his view of it (Rycroft, 1991, factorywall to where she was standing,ranging along 20-1). twelve of work and upstairsand downstairswindows, no point of architec- Through years factory 'had brooded and built the Bill ture or human movement escaping her. It was marriage Dawley up rumouredthat the governmenthad her namedown for Posters legend' (Sillitoe, 1965, 16), the legend of a a reconnaissanceunit in the next war. (121) local social bandit:

There'sbeen a line of WilliamPosters, a of Mrs Bull controls networks of knowledge which long family mellow lineage always hoved up in some cellar of Arthur can barely discern. Her 'malicious gossip Nottingham Streets. His existence explains many travelled like electricity a circuit, from one through puzzles.Who was GeneralLudd? None other than the to another, and the power-point surprising thing shadowy WilliamPosters, stockinger,leading on his was that a fuse was so rarely blown' (121). Arthur gallantcompanies of Nottinghamlads to smashall that attempts to sabotage the system. Playing the role of machinery ... Who set fire to Nottingham Castle sniper, he shoots Mrs Bull with an air rifle, bruising during the Chartistriots? Later, who spat in Lord 474 STEPHENDANIELS and SIMONRYCROFT Roberts' face when he led the victory parade in people were profoundly fascinating, and George Nottinghamafter the Boer War?Who looted those was lord of all he surveyed when their composite in the GeneralStrike? shops (18) reactions to land and air tied in with his knowledge and sympathy'. But in middle-age 'his visionary Frank'wondered what Nottingham looked like from eyes did not seek harmony any more, but fixity into the air, but fell like a stoned and frozen bird back which people and the three elements slotted with near the middle of it' (73). He eventually breaks out neatness and safety' (199-200). Frankand Myra ... of the labyrinth of Nottingham or rather, through its demolition has it broken during redevelopment, left him standing,looking into the tall drawncurtains for him: that opened onto the backgarden ... Lifehad always seemeda straightroad, and he hadn'teven been foxed One street funnelledhim into space, a view across by a simple dead-endor caught in a false cul-de-sac. rubblethat a few months ago had been a populous Insteadhe was now trappedin an unsurveyablemaze ghetto of back-to-backsand narrowstreets. He lit a of footpathsdarkened by tall hedges. Sucha labyrinth fag, to absorb the sight of all these acres clearedof was extremetorment for a mind that could exist only people, smasheddown and draggedto bits. It wasn't on orderand calm,which wanted everything measured unpleasant,this stalingradof peace. (73-4) andshaped, reduced to a beautifuldesign and set down on The last few days had drawnhim into the As the labyrinth had been cleared, so had William paper. labyrinth,like a doomed fly fixed in helplessnessuntil Posters been unearthed, and exposed destroyed. the spider-godcame out for him. (243-4) 'Bill Posters, thank God, had died at last in the ruins of ... crushed to death under Radford-Stalingrad Frank and Myra leave the cramped world of the slabs and bricks, beams and (309): fireplaces' England, heading south for France, Spain, Morocco, Here enlists as a [Dawley] walked into space, few paces taking him eventually Algeria. Dawley guerilla acrossa clearlymarked street plan on which as a kid fighter with the FLN during the Civil War. eachmoss-dewed corner and doubleentry had seemed This novel and its sequel A tree on fire (1967), miles from each other ... Streets in all directions had appear to be shaped by Sillitoe's reading of the been clawed and grabbed and hammered down, theory and practice of guerilla warfare, some in scooped up, bucketed piled, sorted and carted off. preparation for his script for a projected film of Where had all the Moved onto new people gone? 'Che' Guevara (Sillitoe, 1975e, 121). The spatiality all made for whereashe also estates, decisions them, of warfare, and subtle .. himself but must make his own guerilla 'drifting wanted to uproot 'the web of revolution' moves. (74) arabesques', spider's (Sillitoe, 1965, 308; 1967, 427) characterize Frank tactics his His 'Exploding out of life so far', Dawley leaves 'wife, Dawley's throughout journeying. evokes Che Guevara's notion of the socialist home, job, kids' and the place 'where he had been quest 'new from the 'wolfman' of born bred and spiritually nullified' (16). First he man', evolving capitalist heads east for the Lincolnshire wolds. 'His mind competition (Lowy, 1973, 25-8), and also the high- tech of Khruschev'sSoviet Union. had changed with the landscape since leaving ideology Dawley a modernist, machine-tooled Nottingham; surprising him at times by its breadth' envisages Utopia: (11), Dawley's broad-mindedness is framed by the All I believe in is houses and factories,food andpower copy of Dr Zhivago he carries, its evocation of the stations, bridges and coalmines and death, turing and 'wide of Russia (38, 'big country' open spaces' millionsof things out on a machinethat people can and his affair with a middle-class 55), enlarged by use. It's no use harpingback to poachingrights and woman and his introduction to her library. cottage industries.We've got to forget all that and Criss-crossing the country like a fugitive, Dawley come to terms with cities and machinesand moon heads south, for north London, and another con- landings.We're going to become new men, whether quest of another middle-class wife, Myra Bassing- we like it or not, and I know I am going to like it. field. As Dawley's horizons expand, those of the (Sillitoe, 1965, 259) jilted husband, George, close in. George Bassing- field is a lecturer at the professional geographer, AIRMAN LSE,author of New aspectsof geography.'Few people knew the land of England as well as George, or had It is Brian Seaton, Arthur's eldest brother, who a deeper feeling for it ... the subtleties of land and acquires an airborne cartographic view of the world Mappingthe moderncity: Alan Sillitoe'sNottingham novels 475 in Key to the door (1961b) and its sequel The open Brian Seaton grows up with Alan Sillitoe's passion door (1989). The course of Brian Seaton's life paral- for books and maps. 'Moulded by an addiction to lels Alan Sillitoe's own, from factory work in Les mis rables' he envisages war in the streets of Nottingham, to National Service in Malaya to Nottingham with barricades and sandbag parapets. embarking, as a writer, for the south of France. It is On a huge war-map of Europe he follows the these novels which challenge the prevailing stereo- progress of the Red Army on the eastern front. type of Sillitoe's Nottingham as a 'northern' prov- Brian Seaton works in a claustrophobic factory ince of a London-centred nationalist culture. For world, in the 'underground burrow' (251) of boiler Brian Seaton 'London didn't exist' (Rycroft, 1991, room, having to dig out soot from flues. 9); it was a place you passed over in a more global vision. South of the river Trent is not southern Having to work in the dark set him thinking of coalminesand and the factthat he would England but southern Europe, the Trent is a 'magic pit ponies, go crackersif he didn'tget out andprove he wasn'tburied band of water' separating 'oak from olive, mildew a thousandfeet Jean Valjean from hot and rock' 1989, underground. traipsing pines baking (Sillitoe, 335). the sewers was better than this, I to the door in 1930s' with through though Key begins Nottingham expect EdmondDantes in his tunnels didn't feel too the destitute on the run from the Seaton family good either... Thisis how you get TB,he thought,by bailiffs and the slum clearance programme of 'a breathingblack dust like this for hourafter hour. (243) demolishing council'. While some slum dwellers take 'the benefit of new housing estates', father Brianpulls himself out of this subterraneanworld, to Harold Seaton 'clung to the town centre because its join the air force as a wireless operator in Malaya, burrow was familiar'(Sillitoe, 196lb, 17). Eventually and a life of 'morse and mapmaking' (301), doing they are forced out by the bulldozers and bombard- guard duty in a 'wom out part of the British empire' ment from the air. One area of 'broken and derelict (433). maze' is set aside 'to be the target of bombs from The open door (1989) finds Brian Seaton negotiat- buzzing two-winged aeroplanes, the sideshow of a ing the labyrinth of the Malayan jungle. It was 'a military tattoo whose full glory lay on the city's place where you could be as much at home as in outskirts' (17). The Seaton family take refuge in any maze of streets' but for Seaton, the imperial cottage in a still-rough, semi-rural,warren-like area outsider, it remains intractable, a heart of darkness. at the edge of the city. It is a frontier zone about 'The jungle had inflicted a deadly bite by drawing to feel the turbulent force of modernization, to be him through the valley of the shadow' (75). With turned into a 'tipscape', filled with rubble from the map and compass, he struggles unsuccessfully old slums, levelled and developed. 'Then they'll through this predatory world towards the summit make an aerodrome', Brian speculates, 'to bomb old of a 4000 foot peak, Gunong Barat. And writing it houses like our was on Albion Yard' (78). up, from his diary notes, he remains gripped by the What they actually make is a bright new estate, experience. 'Unable to sleep, he dreamed of creepers lit by electricity, 'magically blessed' with a mains and decomposing trees, and blades of water waving water-supply, marked out with broad boulevards down cliff-faces enlarged my memory's infallible and the first new houses: magnifying glass' (74). Returning to Nottingham, Seaton deploys his Pink houses of new estates were spilling into the cartographic intelligence on a more pliant subject, countryside.Men with black and white poles and the woman he seduces by tracing 'a map upon her notebookscame acrossthe new boulevardsinto lanes back' (167) and embarking on an exotic travelogue, and fields; they set theodolites and dumpy levels 'looking at the Beautiful Horizon, plodding through pointing in sly angles at distant woods ... invading Bangkok, eating the Sandwich Islands, swimming off Brian's his short-cuts and hideouts, obliterating Madagascar, trekking the five-fingered forests of concealedtracks. (191) Gunong Barat . . .' (174). He tries it on his younger brother Arthur too, in offering the lad the kind of Brian is enthralled with the men and machines. educated, reflective prospect of Nottinghamshire that Arthur will, as the rebellious youth in Saturday Instead of woods and fields, houses would appear night and Sundaymorning, never achieve. Brian takes along new roads,would transformthe mapin his mind. Arthur on a bus-ride beyond the city for a spot of The idea of it caughtat him like fire.(192) fraternalbonding on Misk Hill. 476 STEPHENDANIELS and SIMONRYCROFT 'Who showed yer where it was ?' made it 'an epitome of the English scene'; 'Its 'I found it on a map. The top's over five hundred importance in the economic development of the feet above sea level.' country moreover is continually growing and is 'WillI be able to breathe?'He ranon to the plateau likely to increase vastly in the future' (Edwards, of a field,arms in front like ... large pistons 1954, 2). This was not a view; Suburbsstarted three miles houses and fac- just forward-looking away, in the were narrated as of toriesunder mountainous cloud. Faint haze developments past part emphasized the same In a series of the rich squalorof memorabledreams, his past in a progressive story. public semicirclefrom north to south ... lectures on the development of Nottingham, from 'It'ssmashin' up 'ere.'Arthur hurled a stick ... the mid-1930s to mid-1960s, Edwards charted the A shunting train was pinpointed by feathers of expansion and consolidation of the city into 'a smoke.Brian held him tight. 'Don't ever leave it. It's coherent, closely-knit economic and social entity' your hill.' (Edwards, 1937; 1966; 1965, 347). 'Eh,fuck off!' Arthur broke away. 'Areyo' tryingto In the year, 1958, that K. C. Edwards told this fuck or summat?' me, story of Nottingham, in Nottingham, in his address Brian 'Come on let's down.' laughed. loony, get to the conference of the Institute of British Geog- (291) raphers, the first edition of Alan Sillitoe's Saturday night and Sunday morningwas published. Like pro- EAST MIDLAND GEOGRAPHIES fessional planners and geographers, Sillitoe framed Sillitoe's novels chart the modernization of Notting- land and life in terms of maps, but charted a ham in a way which combines and competes with different, darker story. Sillitoe's image of the city official and academic geographies of the city and its and its citizenry is not one of coherence and region. In this article we have presented the novels continuity, of community building, but one of as a field of different,sometimes conflicting forms of conflict and upheaval, of explosive physical and geographical knowledge and experience. To do so social change. As on a military map, the city is we have shown how the narratives are interleaved envisaged as a field of battle. There are, as we have with a variety of discourses on Nottingham and its shown, many mediations in this vision, including region, on other modernizing cities, in fact and representations of insurgent Stalingrad, Petrograd, fiction, on an internationalist politics of citizenship Paris and Nottingham itself during the Luddite and of and, pre-eminently, on geography, specifically maps Reform riots. If official and academic versions in that and map-reading. In so doing we hope to further Nottingham's geography were written the recent broadening of the history of geography progressive, optimistic, enlightened discourse of beyond the usual internal, linear, professional histo- modernism, Sillitoe's version was written in ries, to take account of those 'lateral associations modernism's counter-discourse of violence, oppres- and social relations of geographical knowledge' sion and exclusion (Hall and Reiben, 1993, 14). (Driver, 1992, 35; see also Livingstone, 1992). It is not surprising that City officials responded In the period covered by the novels, the city coolly to the international success of Saturdaynight Sillitoe of corporation's publications represented Nottingham and Sunday morning, moreover accused as a model 'modern city'. Here, through careful stirring up the trouble the novel described (Price, Now both stand planning, economic and social development was 1987; Rycroft, 1991, 18). parties orderly and integrated, creating the frameworkfor a condemned. The City Corporation is accused of and Edwardiantreasures' to prosperous, enlightened city and citizenry. From pulling down 'Victorian Sillitoe is 1954 this progressive view was endorsed and make way for 'moder monstrosities'; extended to the city's hinterland by the regional condemned for tarnishing the world that remained journal, The East Midland Geographer.Under the standing. The renovation of Nottingham's derelict as a founding editorship of K. C. Edwards,himself active textile district, the Lace Market, heritage future. 'Ten in local regional planning and policy making, the spectacle promised a more stylish years journal charted infrastructuraldevelopments in the ago the Queen of the Midlands had a slightly the of city and its region: the modernization of the mining dowdy look [now] it is no longer dirty city industry, the rationalization of the railways, the Alan Sillitoe's Saturday night and Sunday morning' It is too building of municipal estates, the construction of (NottinghamEvening Post Supplement,1988). motorways (Freeman, 1979, 95-6). The region's soon to say if post-industrial planning will erase the or the which representativeness in landscape and human activity memory of Arthur Seaton, mythology Mapping the moderncity: Alan Sillitoe'sNottingham novels 477 sustained him. He was recently spotted, in the summer of 1993, in Albert Finney's scowling por- trait, printed on the T-shirts of protestors against the closure of local collieries (Fig. 7).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We wish to thank Alan Sillitoe for his co-operation. Robert Bartram, Zena Forster, John Giggs, John Lucas and David Matless offered helpful comments on earlier drafts of this paper. The referees made constructive suggestions for improving the sub- mitted version.

NOTES 1. The first edition was published in 1958, but the edition used as a source for this paper was published in 1976. 2. Sillitoe's many works are catalogued in Gerard (1988) along with many works of criticism and commentary. This has proved a valuable resource for the article. Also valuable is the Sillitoe collection at the Central Library, Nottingham, especially the file of newspaper cuttings on his early career. The most comprehensive work of criticism on Sillitoe is Atherton (1979). A study of Sillitoe with of connection with this points FIGURE7. T-shirt with portrait of Albert Finney as Arthur article is Daleski (1986). Seaton.Trades Council May Day Rally,Nottingham 1993 3. An edited transcript of this interview is provided in Rycroft (1991). 8. Arthur's cousins are the for the hero of 4. Sillitoe's political sympathies shifted in the 1970s from prototype Sillitoe's 1961 short The loneliness the the Soviet Union to Israel, although his sense of story of long- distancerunner citizenship remained fairly constant. See Sillitoe (Sillitoe, 1985b). (1974b; 1978). The New Left's Anti-Zionism built on the activities of like the Black Dwarf and the organs REFERENCES Red Mole in the late sixties forced Sillitoe to recon- sider his position. ALFREY,N. and DANIELS, S. (eds) (1990) Mapping the 5. The first edition was published in 1915, but the edition landscape:essays on art and cartography(University of used as a source for this paper was published in 1989. Nottingham) 6. The first edition was published in 1913, but the edition ATHERTON, S. (1979) Alan Sillitoe: a critical assessment used as a source for this paper was published in 1983. (W. H. Allen, London) 7. Sillitoe has said that because he was out of the country BARNES, T. J. and DUNCAN, J. S. (eds) (1992) Writing for most of the Fifties, 'what I was doing, I think, was worlds:discourse, text and metaphorin the representationof really bringing my experience from the Forties up into landscape(Routledge, London) the Fifties' (Sillitoe, 1975-6, 176). Sillitoe's Nottingham BARRELL,J. (1982) 'Geographies of Hardy's Wessex', Jnl. seems in some respects more like 1960 'Worktown' Hist. Geog. 8: 347-61 (Bolton), about which Mass Observation commented: BARRELL,J. (ed.) (1992) Paintingand the politics of culture: new essays on Britishart (Oxford University Press) Despite the telly, despite increased working class car BEER, G. (1990) 'The island and the aeroplane', in ownership, despite the whole complex of commod- BHABA, H. (ed.) Nation and narration (Routledge, ity fetishism which looks as if it is changing the way London) ordinary people in England live ... the pub still BENDER, J. (1987) Imagining the Penitentiary:fiction and persists as a social institution. Qualitatively and architectureof mind in eighteenth-centuryEngland (Univer- quantitatively. Never having had it so good doesn't sity of Chicago Press) mean only washing machines and holidays abroad; it BERMAN, M. (1983) All that is sold melts into air: the is also more beer (Harrison, 1961, 194). experienceof modernity(Verso, London) 478 STEPHENDANIELS and SIMON RYCROFT BRADBURY, M. (1976) 'The cities of modernism', in GOSLING, R. (1980) Personalcopy: a memoirof the sixties BRADBURY, M. and McFARLANE, J. (1976) (eds) (Faber and Faber, London) Modernism (Penguin, Harmondsworth) 96-104 GRANT, M. (1989) Myths of the Greeks and Romans BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT (Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London) OF SCIENCE (1937) A scientificsurvey of Nottingham GRAY, N. (1973) The silent majority:a study of the working (BAAS, London) class in post-war Britishfiction (Vision, London) BRYSON, E. (1983) Portraitof Nottingham (Hale, London) HALL, S. and RIEBEN,B. (1993) Formationsof modernity D. 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(1979) 'Twenty-five years of "The East phy, economics and revolutionary warfare (Monthly Midland Geographer" 1954-79', East Midland Geogra- Review Press, London) pher 7: 95-9 MALLORY, W. E. and SIMPSON-HOUSLEY, P. GERARD, D. (1988) Alan Sillitoe:a bibliography(Mansell, (eds) (1987) Geographyand literature:A meeting of the London) disciplines(Syracuse University Press) Mapping the moderncity: Alan Sillitoe'sNottingham novels 479 MARWICK, A. (1984) 'Roomat the top, Saturdaynight and SCHLEIER, M. (1986) The skyscaper in American art, Sunday morning and the "cultural revolution" in 1890-1931 (Da Capo Press, New York) Britain',J. Contemp.Hist. 19: 127-52 SEGAL, L. (1988) 'Look back in anger: men in the fifties', MATLESS, D. (1990a) 'Ordering the land: the in CHAPMAN, R. and RUTHERFORD, J. (eds) Male "preservation" of the English countryside 1918-39', order: unwrapping masculinity (Lawrence and Wishart, unpubl. Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Geogr., Univ. of London) 68-96 Nottingham SEIDEL, M. (1976) Epic geography:James Joyce's Ulysses MATLESS, D. (1990b) 'Preservation, modernism and the (Princeton University Press) nature of the nation', Built Env. 16: 179-91 SILBURN, R. (1981) 'People in their places', in One MATLESS, D. (1990c) 'The English outlook: a mapping of hundredyears of Nottingham(University of Nottingham, leisure, 1918-39', in ALFREY, N. and DANIELS, S. Nottingham) 16-35 (eds) Mapping the landscape:essays on art and cartography SILLITOE, A. (1958/19761) Saturday night and Sunday (University of Nottingham) 28-32 morning (Grafton, London) A. The rats and other H. MATLESS, D. (1992) 'Regional surveys and local knowl- SILLITOE, (1960) poems(W. Allen, edges: the geographical imagination in Britain, 1918- London) 39', Trans. Inst. Brit. Geogr. NS 17: 464-80 SILLITOE, A. (1961a) 'Novel or play?' The Twentieth 169: 206-11 MELLOR, D. (1987) A paradise lost: the neo-romantic Century A. to the door H. imagination in Britain 1935-55 (Lund Humphries in SILLITOE, (1961b) Key (W. Allen, association with the Barbican Art Gallery, London) London) A. Road to H. MELLORS, R. (1914) Old Nottingham suburbs: then and SILLITOE, (1964a) Volgograd (W. Allen, now (J. and H. Bell, Nottingham) London) SILLITOE,A. A out love and other NOTTINGHAM CORPORATION (1927) Nottingham, (1964b) falling of poems (W. H. Allen, London) 'The Queen City of the Midlands'. The OfficialGuide (E. J. A. The death William Posters H. Burrow, Cheltenham and London) SILLITOE, (1965) of (W. Allen, London) NOTTINGHAM CORPORATION (1939) Nottingham SILLITOE,A. (1967) A tree on (W. H. Allen, officialhandbook (E. J. Burrow, Cheltenham and London) fire London) SILLITOE,A. (1972) Raw material(W. H. Allen, London) OGERSBY, J. R. (1966) 'Alan Sillitoe's Saturdaynight and SILLITOE, A. (1974a) 'Saturday night and Sunday Sunday morning',in HIBBARD, G. R. (ed.) Renaissance morning' screenplay, in TAYLOR, J. R. Masterworksof and modernessays (Routledge and Kegan Paul, London) the British cinema (Lorimer, London) 267-328 PEARSON, G. (1983) Hooligan:a historyof respectablefears SILLITOE,A. (1974b) 'My Israel',New Statesman20 Dec.: (Macmillan, London) 890-2 PERRY,G. and ALDRIDGE, A. (1975) The Penguinbook of SILLITOE,A. (1974-5) 'A sense of place' Geographical comics (Penguin, Harmondsworth) Magazine 47: 685-9 PINKNEY, D. (1958) III and the Paris Napoleon rebuildingof SILLITOE, A. (1975a) 'Mountains and caverns', in (Princeton Press, Princeton, NJ) University SILLITOE, A. Mountains and caverns (W. H. Allen, T. Williams and the PINKNEY, (1989) 'Raymond London) 152-60 "two faces of modernism"', in EAGLETON, T. SILLITOE,A. (1975b) 'The long piece', in SILLITOE,A. Williams: critical (ed.) Raymond perspectives (Polity, Mountains and caverns (W. H. Allen, London) 9-49 12-33 Cambridge) SILLITOE,A. (1975c) 'Maps', in SILLITOE,A. Mountains D. C. D. 'The novelist's of the POCOCK, (1979) image and caverns (W. H. Allen, London) 59-73 Trans. Inst. Brit. N.S. 4: 62-76 North', Geogr. SILLITOE,A. (1975d) 'National service', in SILLITOE,A. POCOCK, D. C. D. (ed.) (1981) Humanisticgeography and Mountains and caverns (W. H. Allen, London) 50-8 literature(Croom Helm, London) SILLITOE,A. (1975e) '"Che" Guevara', in SILLITOE,A. PRICE, T. (1987) 'The politics of culture: Saturday night Mountains and caverns (W. H. Allen, London) 121-7 and Sunday morning', unpubl. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of SILLITOE,A. (1975f) 'Arnold Bennett: the man from the Nottingham North', in SILLITOE,A. Mountains and caverns(W. H. RYCROFT, S. (1991) Ordinance and order in Alan Allen, London) Sillitoe'sfictional topographyDept. of Geogr., Univ of SILLITOE, A. (1975g) 'Lawrence and district', in Nottingham Working Paper No. 13 SILLITOE, A. Mountains and caverns (W. H. Allen, SAID, E. (1983) The world, the text, and the critic(Faber and London) Faber, London) SILLITOE,A. (1975h) 'Foreward', to BOWDEN, G. H. SAID, E. (1989) 'Jane Austen and empire', in The story of the Raleighcycle (W. H. Allen, London) 9-10 EAGLETON, T. (ed.) RaymondWilliams: critical perspec- SILLITOE,A. (1975-6) 'An interview with Alan Sillitoe', tives (Polity, Cambridge) 150-64 Modern Fiction Studies 21: 175-89 SAID, E. (1993) Culture and imperialism (Knopf, New SILLITOE,A. (1978) 'Iron in the sand', Geog. Mag. Nov.: York) 137-42 480 STEPHENDANIELS and SIMON RYCROFT

SILLITOE, A. (1983) 'Alan Sillitoe', Author Autumn: THOMAS, C. J. (1966) 'Some geographical aspects of 28-30 council housing in Nottingham', East Midland Geogra- SILLITOE,A. (1984) Sun beforedeparture. Poems 1974 to pher 4: 88-98 1982 (Granada, London) THOMAS, C. J. (1971) 'The growth of Nottingham since SILLITOE,A. (1985a) 'The death of Frankie Butler', in 1919', Midland Geographer5: 119-32 SILLITOE,A. The lonelinessof the long-distancerunner THOMPSON, E. P. (1963) The making of the English (Grafton, London) 154-74 working class (Vintage Books, New York) SILLITOE,A. 'The loneliness of the (1985b) long-distance TUAN, Y. F. (1978) 'Literatureand geography', in LEY, in A. The loneliness the runner', SILLITOE, of long- D. and SAMUELS, M. (eds) Humanistic geography: distancerunner 9-54 (Grafton, London) prospectsand problems(Croom Helm, London) 194-206 SILLITOE,A. (1987a) 'We all start from home', Bulletinde VAREY, S. (1990) Space and the eighteenth-centuryEnglish la Soci t des de l'Enseignment rieurno. 3. Anglicistes Sup novel (Cambridge University Press) Sept.: 6-16 WATT, I. (1957) The rise of the novel (Penguin, SILLITOE, A. (1987b) Alan Sillitoe's Nottinghamshire Harmondsworth) (Grafton, London) WILLIAMS, R. (1965) The long revolution (Pelican, SILLITOE,A. (1989) The open door (W. H. Allen, London) Harmondsworth) SPIGEL,L. (1992) 'The suburban home companion: tele- WILLIAMS,R. (1973) The and the (Chatto and vision and neighbourhood in post-war America', in country city Windus, COLOMINA, B. (ed.) Sexuality and space (Princeton London) Architectural Press, Princeton, NJ) WILLIAMS, R. (1990) Notes on the underground:an essay STEEDMAN, C. (1986) Landscapefor a good woman on technology,society and the imagination (MIT Press, (Virago, London) Cambridge, Mass.) TAYLOR, E. G. R. (1945) Geographyof an air age (Royal Institute of International Affairs, London)