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oral performance before an audience.3) This evidence, which concerns the oral aspect of the Ugaritic epic, stands along- side studies that rely on the use of formulaic verses in order to argue that this or that ancient work were composed or performed orally.4) But an oral tradition may be the source of a written text, and conversely — a written text may be the source of oral poetry; moreover, the two traditions may influence each other.5) Therefore the formulaic style of the Aqhat Epic, and of the Ugaritic epics generally cannot by themselves serve as proof that a specific work was composed orally, or that it was intended to be performed orally. One can hypothesize that the consolidation of the work’s written form was influenced by an existing oral tradition, and that the scribe initially intended the work to be recited orally.6) The claim that Aqhat was performed orally, and was initially meant to be thus performed, is strongly affirmed by a literary examination of the epic’s third tablet. Interpreting and understanding the text of the third tablet presents formidable challenges, and this is perhaps the reason that the Epic of Aqhat has been translated so many times. In most cases, the translations and annotations reflect a variety of difficulties related to the tablet’s state of preservation, the limits of our linguistic knowledge, and the text’s particular character and poetic form. In order to understand the surviv- ing fragments of the third tablet, we must take into account not only what is written on it, but also what we know about the literary genre, its purpose, and its social, political, sapi- ential-didactic functions, inter alia.7) As I shall show below,
3) E.L. Greenstein, “The Role of the Reader in Ugaritic Narrative”, in: “A Wise and Discerning Mind”: Essays in Honor of Burke Long (eds. R.C. Culley and S.M. Olyan; Providence, RI: Brown University, 2000), 142, and n. 17. This line may have referred to a certain section of the epic (the sacrifice made by Danel at the end of the mourning period, CAT 1.19, col. iv 22-25), and its intention was to guide the person reciting or singing to expand on the text that is written in shorthand. See D.P. Wright, Ritual in Narrative: The Dynamics of Feasting, Mourning, and Retaliation Rites SUSPENSE IN THE EPIC OF AQHAT: in the Ugaritic Tale of Aqhat (Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 2001), 203. A REEXAMINATION OF TWO PASSAGES 4) The repetitive formulae in Aqhat led Aitken to the conclusion that the work was originally composed orally and only later put into writing. OF CAT 1.19 K.T. Aitken, “Oral Formulaic Composition and Theme in the Aqhat Nar- rative”, UF 21 (1989): 1-16; Cf. R.C. Culley, Oral Formulaic Language Dr. Shirly NATAN-YULZARY in the Biblical Psalms (Near and Middle East Series, 4; Toronto: Univer- Gordon Academic College sity of Toronto Press, 1967); B. Alster, Dumuzi’s Dream. Aspects of Oral Poetry in a Sumerian Myth, (Mesopotamia: Copenhagen Studies in Assyri- ology, 1; Copenhagen: Akademisk forlag, 1972). The edge of the third tablet of the Epic of Aqhat (CAT 5) R. Finnegan, Oral Poetry. Its Nature, Significance and Social Con- 1.19) shows the following inscription: “And here one returns text (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 165; S.B. Noegel, to the story” (whndt.yṯb.lmspr).1) This note was probably “Mesopotamian Epic”, in: A Companion to Ancient Epic (Blackwell Com- 2 panions to the Ancient World. Literature and Culture; ed. J.M. Foley; Mal- meant to guide the person performing or reciting the epic, ) den: Blackwell, 2005), 244. and furnishes proof that the written text was the basis of an 6) Finnegan (Oral Poetry, 166) and Niditch (S. Niditch, Oral World and Written Word: Ancient Israelite Literature [Library of Ancient Israel; Lou- isville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1996], 40-41) mention a similar phenomenon in ancient Greece and Rome and also in medieval Europe. 1) The Ugaritic tablets are referenced according to their numbering in Jensen argues that there was a collaboration between a singer and a scribe. Parker’s edition: Ugaritic Narrative Poetry (SBLWAW, 9; ed. S.B. Parker, M.S. Jensen, “Performance”, in: A Companion to Ancient Epic (Blackwell trans. M.S. Smith, S.B. Parker, E.L. Greenstein, T.J. Lewis and D. Marcus, Companions to the Ancient World. Literature and Culture; ed. J.M. Foley; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1997). Malden: Blackwell, 2005), 50-51. Cf. B. Alster, “Interaction of Oral and 2) I employ the terms “performer” or “poet-narrator” or even “poet- Written Poetry in Early Mesopotamian Literature”, in: Mesopotamian Epic performer-narrator” to signify a person who both narrates the story and Literature: Oral or Aural? (eds. M.E. Vogelzang, and H.L.J. Vanstiphout; performs it orally. In light of research on formulaic oral poetry, one may Lewiston, NY: Mellen Press, 1992), 45-50. also regard this person as the author (see e.g., A.B. Lord, The Singer of 7) For a discussion of the purpose and role of ancient epic poetry, see Tales [Harvard Studies in Comparative Literature, 24; Cambridge: Harvard e.g. M. Sasson, “Literary Criticism, Folklore Scholarship, and Ugaritic University Press, 1964], and additional works mentioned below, note 4.) Literature”, in: Ugarit in Retrospect: Fifty Years of Ugarit and Ugaritic According to Lord’s model, the performer-poet-narrator re-creates the work (ed. G.D. Young; Winona Lake, Ind: Eisenbrauns, 1981), 96-98; L. Honko, every time he sings or recites it. Although the Aqhat Epic is a written work, “Epic and Identity: National, Regional, Communal, Individual”, Oral Tra- this does not prove that it had only one fixed version performed from dition 11 (1996): 18-36; Jensen, “Performance”, 48, 50 and other studies a frozen written text. See, S. Natan-Yulzary, “The Use of Resumptive Rep- published in J.M. Foley, A Companion to Ancient Epic (Blackwell Com- etition for the Construction of Time and Space in the Ugaritic Epic of panions to the Ancient World. Literature and Culture; Malden: Blackwell, Aqhat”, UF 48 (2017): 375-376. 2005). Kirta and Aqhat have a sapiential-didactic and moral-religious 483 SUSPENSE IN THE EPIC OF AQHAT 484
ושדי several elements combined are crucial for interpreting the Ginsberg suggested amending the Massoretic text (following the Ugaritic parallel.15 ושרע תה(ו)מ(ו)ת to תרומות -text and the plot of Aqhat: examination of the story contin uum and language of the epic, the literary features of the The parallel has exerted an influence on the interpretation epic, as well as taking to account the epic work as a “mode of the tricolon and its meaning in the Ugaritic context. Sig- of total communication” presenting an “ideal expression” of nificant disagreement emerged concerning the interpretation a culture, which performs a communicative function con- of the preceding verse, which includes the word yṣly, whose necting the audience with the poet-narrator (or: performer of meaning is much disputed (CAT 1.19, col. i 38-40).16) poetry or recitation).8) The communicative function of two passages of the epic 38-40 apnk.dnil.mt/rpi. Now Danel, man of Rapiu, yṣly.῾rpt.b/ḥm.un. Adjures the clouds in the awful poem of Aqhat is illuminated once the above elements are 17 considered.9) In these passages, the poet-narrator-performer heat, ) addresses his audience, making them partners to his creative According to one view, Danel, the hero, cursed the clouds work. This address serves to produce irony, curiosity, and and the water sources because of the murder of his son suspense in the story. Interpreting the epic in this manner Aqhat, and thus brought upon the land a long and devastating removes some of the difficulties encountered by earlier trans- drought.18) According to a different view, Danel prayed or lations and exegesis. The discussion also contributes to the cried out to the clouds and water sources, in an attempt to resolution of the longstanding debate as to the interpretation undo the effects of the drought.19) These differing interpreta- of the verse that parallels David’s curse of Mount Gilboa. tions led to varying determinations of where the hero’s speech begins and ends20). A. Are Danel’s words in CAT 1.19, col. i 44-46 a curse or a blessing? The third tablet of Aqhat contains the famous parallel to Texts from Ugarit (The Biblical Seminar 53; London/New York, 20022), 296, n. 203-205. Cf. Baal, CAT 1.4 col. vii 25-31. David’s curse of Mount Gilboa: “O hills of Gilboa, / Let 15 there be no dew or rain on you, / Or bountiful fields” (2 Sam ) H.L. Ginsberg, “A Ugaritic Parallel to 2 Sam 1 21”, JBL 57 (1938): 10 209-213. For further discussion of the Biblical parallel, suggested emenda- 1:21). ) The Hebrew text is somewhat obscure, but the tions of MT and bibliographical references, see, Wyatt, Religious Texts Ugaritic text is clear (CAT 1.19, col. i 42-46): from Ugarit, 296, n. 203; A. Avishur, “The Curse of the Earth and the Malediction of the Dew: The Curse of Danil (1 Aqhat I 38-42) and Its 42-44 šb῾.šnt/yṣrk.b῾l. Seven years Baal is absent,11) Parallel in the Bible, Talmudic, and Akkadian Literature”, in: Comparative ṯmn.rkb/῾rpt. Eight, the Rider of the Clouds:12) Studies in Biblical and Ugaritic Languages and Literatures (Tel-Aviv Jaffa: Archaeological Center Publication, 2007), pp. 162-163, 169, 173-176. 44-46 bl.ṭl.bl rbb/ No dew, no downpour, 16 13 ) The root ṣ-l-y attested in several Semitic languages, denotes both “to bl.šr῾.thmtm. No swelling of the two deeps, ) curse” and “to pray” (J.C. de Moor, “A Note on CTA 19 [1 Aqht]: I.39- bl/ṭbn.ql.b῾l. No welcome voice of Baal.14) 42”, UF 6 [1974]: 495; Y. Blau – S.E. Loewenstamm, “Ugaritit ṣly ‘qilel’”, Leshonenu 35 [1971]: 8-9 [Hebrew]). cf. Wright, Ritual in Narra- tive, 164 and “/ṣ-l-y/”, Del Olmo Lete – Sanmartín, Dictionary II. 772-773: aspect, although the works do not belong to the genre of wisdom literature. “to implore”. The sequence of the narrative does not make sense if we See, E.L. Greenstein, “The Ugaritic Epic of Kirta in a Wisdom Perspec- choose to interpret that Danel cursed the land. tive”, Te’uda 16-17 (2001): 1-13 (Hebrew); N. Wyatt, “Epic in Ugaritic 17) For a discussion of the word un see: Wright, Ritual in Narrative, see “A Note on CTA ,קסם or לחש as ָאֶון Literature”, in: Foley, A Companion to Ancient Epic, 249-250, 252. 161, n. 21; De Moor interpreted 8) R.P. Martin, “Epic as Genre”, in: Foley, A Companion to Ancient 19 (1 Aqht): I.39-42”, 496); Avishur understands b/ḥm.un as “in his heat Epic, 10. of mourning”, see “The Curse of the Earth and the Malediction of the 9) On interactions between the performer of epic poetry and audience, Dew”, 166-167. He notes: “…the context too calls for a definition of cf. Lord, The Singer of Tales 25 and passim; Finnegan, Oral Poetry 54-55; the passage as a curse. This is because after rending his garments, over the Jensen, “Performance”, 46-47. loss of the thing most dear to him, it is more natural for a man to burst out with a curse rather than a prayer” (p. 165). He interprets all of the parallels ָה ֵרי ַב ִגּ ְלבֹּ ַע ַאל ַטל ְו ַאל ָמ ָטר ֲע ֵל ֶיכם ְוּשׂ ֵדי :The Masoretic text reads (10 -The English translation of MT is taken from the 1985 edition of the he mentions (from Ugaritic, Akkadian, and Rabbinic literature) as signify . ְת ֹרוּמת JPS Translation. ing a curse/cursing. 11) Literally, “Seven years Baal is needed” (yṣrk here derived from the 18) See for instance S. Spiegel, “Noah, Daniel, and Job”, in: Louis root ṣrk (YQTL in the N stem, denotes a passive meaning). This is consist- Ginzberg Jubilee Volume, on the Occasion of his Seventieth Birthday (Eng- ent with lines 44-46; other derivations should be rejected, e.g. ṣrr as sug- lish Section; eds. S. Lieberman et al.; New York: The American Academy gested by W.G.E. Watson, “Puzzling Passages in the Tale of Aqhat”, UF for Jewish Studies, 1945), 315; Y. Blau – S.E. Loewenstamm, “Ugaritit ṣly qilel’”; Avishur, “The Curse of the Earth and the Malediction of the‘ צֵֹרר ַמִים ְבּ ָע ָביו ְול ֹא ִנ ְב ַקע ָע ָנן ַתּ ְח ָתּם :n. 50 based on Job 26:8 ,377 :(1976) 8 (“He wrapped up the waters in His clouds; Yet no cloud burst under their Dew”; Wyatt, Religious Texts from Ugarit 295. This interpretation is weight”). influenced, as stated above, by the biblical parallel in 2 Sam 1:21, in which 12) rkb ῾rpt (“the Rider of the Clouds”). The epithet alludes to aspects David cursed the land of the Gilboa, for the death of the heroes Saul and of Baal as Storm God (cf. Ps. 68: 5; 2Sam 22:8-15 [= Ps. 18: 5-18]). The Jonathan. epithet appears here because of its context: The following tricolon refers 19) For example, G.R. Driver, Canaanite Myths and Legends (Old Tes- to the sources of the water - the dew, the deeps and the rains. tament Studies, 3; Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1956), 50; T.H. Gaster, Thes- Lev 21:18, 22:23, Is 28:20) is rare, but certainly pis: Ritual, Myth, and Drama in the Ancient Near East (New and revised) שׂרע .šr῾ or Heb (13 in this context denotes the rise or swelling of the deeps, or of the streaming edition; Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1961), 238; S.B. Parker (trans.), of springs (“šr῾ ” in: G. Del Olmo Lete – J. Sanmartín, A Dictionary of the “Aqhat”, in: Ugaritic Narrative Poetry, 68. Ugaritic Language in the Alphabetic Tradition (HdO I 112; trans. by 20) Parker (“Aqhat”, 69), for example, determined that lines 40-42 are W.G.E. Watson; Leiden 2015; third revised edition) II. 830: “flow”; and Danel’s words, and all the rest is the narrator’s report; Ginsberg compares J. Tropper, Kleines Wörterbuch des Ugaritischen (Elementa Linguarum these lines with the biblical parallel in terms of sense and semantic-prag- Orientis 4; Weisbaden 2008), 123: “Sich-Erheben”, “Anschwellen der matic functions, and considers lines 42-48 to be Danel’s words. Fluten”). thmtm is a dual form. H.L. Ginsberg (trans.), “The Tale of Aqhat”, ANET (3rd edition with sup- 14) Baal’s voice is mentioned as a metaphor of thunder, and thunder is plement; ed. J.B. Pritchard, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, a sign of rain, see: D. Pardee, (trans.), “The ᾿Aqhat Legend”, in: Context 1969), 153 and n. 34. Similarly, Wyatt, Religious Texts from Ugarit, 296. of Scriptures, I: Canonical Compositions (eds. W.W. Hallo and On the inclusion of lines 46-48 in Danel’s words, cf. ibid. pp. 296-297, K.L. Younger, Jr; Leiden, Brill, 1997), 351, n. 97. Cf. N. Wyatt, Religious n. 207. 485 BIBLIOTHECA ORIENTALIS LXXV N° 5-6, september-december 2018 486
It appears that this dispute should be decided in favor of 32-33 ῾l.bt.abh.nšrm.trḫpn./ The vultures circle over her the second view, because of the ironic gap in the conscious- father’s house, ness of Danel’s character: the various details in the narrative ybṣr.ḥbl.diym/ the flock of kites soars. show that he did not sense the portending disaster, did not 34-35 tbky.pġt.bm.lb/ Paghit weeps in her liver, know his son had been murdered, and had no reason to curse tdm῾.bm.kbd/ Sheds tears in her heart, the land with drought. Even the argument that in his sorrow Danel brought upon such a long period of drought does not Vultures usually appear where there are corpses, but here make sense and is incompatible with his actions and his posi- they are circling over her father’s house. Paghit, Danel’s tive characterization in the rest of the epic. daughter, understands that something serious has happened, In CAT 1.19, col. i, 19-25, Danel judges the orphan and and she weeps (although she may not know exactly what the widow. This scene repeats the description that appears transpired). At once she rends Danel’s garment (lines 36-37). in CAT 1.17, col. v 4-8. This repeated depiction produces The motives of this action elude us but based on Danel’s an impression of the hero going about his daily activities in an response we deduce that Paghit’s goal was to awaken him, unperturbed state of mind. In the preceding verse (lines 17-19), to alert him to what was going on around them and motivate the poet-narrator describes the first signs of drought. There him to take action. Now he responds to the drought and the is a sharp transition between the two verses: drying vegetation, and he performs two different actions in order to counteract the effects of the drought. The first is 17-19 wbmt[h] And with his death, 21) ḥmṣ ṣ[a]t [ḏ]/[p]r῾.qẓ. Wi[the]red all issue [of] first found in the section mentioned above: he cries out to the fruits of summer, 22) clouds and asks for rain (lines 38-42). As I argued above, y[bl] šblt/[b]ġlph. All ear [in] its husk has [dried]. 23) the two subsequent verses, which have been long regarded as a curse uttered by Danel (lines 42-46), are not Danel’s 19-21 apnk.dn[i]l/[m]t.rpi. Now Danel, [ma]n of Rapiu, words at all, but rather the poet-narrator’s (or: performer’s) ap[h]n.ġ[z]r/mt hrnm]y. The hero, [man of the Harnam]ite, description of the persistence of the drought despite Danel’s entreaties for rain. In other words, his prayer was not heeded. 21-23 yt[š]u/[yṯb bap ṯ]ġ[r] Gets up [and sits by the gate] He therefore goes out into the fields and makes a second way, attempt: he performs a magical action and blesses the wither- [t]ḥt/[adrm dbgrn] Among [the chiefs on the thresh- ing floor], ing plants so that they turn green again and flourish (CAT 1.19, col. ii 1-25).26) Danel still does not know the reason for 23-25 ydn/[dn almnt Takes care of [the case of the the drought, in other words, he does not yet know that his widow], son Aqhat was killed by the goddess Anat.27) Therefore the y]ṯpṭ/[ṯpṭ ytm Defends [the need of the orphan]. magical action in the fields includes an ironic wish: “May the hand of Aqhat the Hero collect you, / Place you inside 25-28 ]h the storehouse” (tispk.yd.aqht/ġzr.tštk.bqrbm.asm; CAT 1.19, [ ]n col. ii 17-19, and again in lines 24-25). This statement [ ] reflects the hero’s state of consciousness — Aqhat is alive!28) hlk.[ ]
28-29 [bn]ši/῾nh.wtphn [Rai]sing her eyes, she sees,24) state of vegetation and grain observed by Paghit (cf. lines 17-19). Accord- ing to this pattern, the third part of this tricolon should have contained This sequence illustrates that Danel is oblivious to the a name of a place. But compare Parker, “Aqhat”, 68. drought and is occupied with his daily activities. He does not 26) Compare these attempts to the scene in which Danel searches for notice the signs that augur ill, as described later in lines Aqhat’s corpse inside the vultures’ bowels (CAT 1.19, col. ii 57 – col. iii 28-33. Only his wise daughter pays attention to them. 41). Danel asks Baal five times to break and rebuild the vultures’ wings, and Baal immediately fulfills his wish. Danel’s wish is articulated in the jussive form. However, in both attempts to counteract the drought, Danel 29-31 [ ]/bgrn.yḫrb [ ] on the threshing floor dries, expresses a wish which is not fulfilled (CAT 1.19, col. i 40-42; col. ii [ ]/yġly. [ ] wither, 16-18, 23-25). Presumably both these requests were addressed to Baal God yḫsp.ib[ ]/ The sprouts wilt[ ].25) of the storm and fertility, although Danel does not mention him by name. But since the drought is a direct result of the shedding of Aqhat’s blood (see below), these two attempts to reverse the drought’s influence fail. 27) The lack of awareness that a murder had occurred has been pointed 21) wbmt[h] is an infinitive construct, with temporal b. out before by Pardee, “The ᾿Aqhat Legend”, 351, n. 95. 22) An examination of photographs of the tablet (via the inscriptiFact 28) Although an address in second person to a dead person, as if he were project) reveal a ḏ at the end of line 17 and an additional sign at the begin- still alive, sometimes appears in a eulogy or a lament, this would not be ning of line 18. Thus, the sequence of legible signs are: wbmt[ ]ḥmṣṣ[ ] appropriate to the present content or context, for two reasons. First of all, tḏ/[ ]r῾.qẓ.y[ ]šblt/[ ]ġlph. See Natan-Yulzary, “The Use of Resumptive typically the dead person is addressed and his virtues are extolled, or feel- Repetition”, 284. n. 44. ings are expressed toward him; second, an analysis of the plot continuum 23) y[bl] has been suggested by Herdner (ed.), Corpus des Tablettes en shows that Danel is not aware of his son’s death at this point. Nonetheless, Cunéiformes Alphabétiques Découvertes à Ras Shamra-Ugarit de 1929 à the appearance of the word yd is not without meaning, on the contrary: the 1939 (Mission de Ras Shamra, 10; Bibliothèque archéologique et histo- word yd suggests a “sign, monument, mausoleum”. This meaning is known rique, 79; Paris: P. Geuthner, 1963), vol. 1, 87, n. 6. from Biblical Hebrew (cf. 1 Sam 15:12; 2 Sam 18:18) and Ugaritic (KTU 24) The tablet reads wtphn (line 29) clearly. Line 32 leaves no doubt that 1.106:17 [=RS 24.250+] ptḥ yd mlk translated as: at the door of the royal it is Paghit, Danel’s daughter who is introduced in lines 25-28. She was mausoleum. G. Del Olmo Lete, Canaanite Religion According to the Litur- probably introduced by her epic epithet, which describes her as a wise gical Texts of Ugarit (Bethesda MD: CDL Press, 1999), 384 and n. 151; woman and one that has special abilities (cf. CAT 1.19, col. ii 1-3; col. iv Cf. D. Pardee (Ritual and Cult at Ugarit [ed. T.J. Lewis, Atlanta: Society 28, 36-38). So it is she who is observing the omens in CAT 1.19, col. i of Biblical Literature, 2002], 54-55) translates: “Open the king’s hand”). 29-33. Use of the “double entendre” is also found elsewhere within the Epic of 25) This tricolon probably appears in a chiastic pattern. We find in lines Aqhat, where it serves to create irony by emphasizing the informational gap 29-31 three synonymous verbs (yḫrb // yġly // yḫsp) that emphasize the dire between the audience and the character of Danel, and therefore the dual 487 SUSPENSE IN THE EPIC OF AQHAT 488
B. Textual sequence and the interruption of narrative al
42-44 šb῾.šnt/yṣrk.b῾l. Seven years Baal is absent, 44-46 bl.ṭl.bl rbb/ No dew, no downpour, ṯmn.rkb/῾rpt. Eight, the Rider of the Clouds: bl.šr῾.thmtm. No swelling of the two deeps, bl/ṭbn.ql.b῾l. No welcome voice of Baal. 44-46 bl.ṭl.bl rbb/ No dew, no downpour, bl.šr῾.thmtm. No swelling of the two deeps, 46-48 ktmz῾/kst.dnil.mt.rpi/ Torn indeed33) is the mantle of bl/ṭbn.ql.b῾l. No welcome voice of Baal. Danel, man of Rapiu, all.ġzr.mt.hr[nmy]/ The robe of the hero, man of This is a proleptic comment.29) In other words, the poet- the Har[namite]. narrator (or: performer) interrupts the sequence of narrated time and his report on the characters’ actions, to reveal to his 49 gm.lb[th dnil kyṣḥ] [Danel calls] to [his] daugh[ter]: audience that the drought will last seven years. In essence, this interpolation produces a gap between what the characters At the end of the epic, the poet-narrator tells us that Danel know and the information known to the poet-narrator- mourned his son Aqhat for seven years. Only at the end of performer and his audience. This ironic gap increases sus- the period does he make an incense offering and send his pense and curiosity — how will the drought end? Will daughter Paghit on a mission to avenge Aqhat’s blood. Danel’s actions be to no avail? Although the end of the story is missing, it is reasonable to In order to return the audience to the point in time in assume that Paghit succeeds in avenging Aqhat’s blood, which Danel recognizes the signs of drought and starts his resulting in the cessation of the drought. This assumption attempts to counteract its effects, the poet-narrator employs relies on the parallel between the third tablet and the Book 34 the technique of resumptive repetition.30) of Judith, ) and on the well known connection between the defilement of the land by bloodshed and its visitation by 32-33 ῾l.bt.abh.nšrm.trḫpn./ The vultures circle over her drought, and conversely, on the connection between blood father’s house, revenge or covering of the blood and the end of drought: ybṣr.ḥbl.diym/ the flock of kites soars.31 according to the Book of Deuteronomy, the blood of a mur- der victim defiles the land and endangers the well-being of 34-35 tbky.pġt.bm.lb/ Paghit weeps in her liver, ְול ֹא ִי ָשּׁ ֵפְך ָדּם ָנ ִקי ְבּ ֶקֶרב ַאְר ְצָך ֲא ֶשׁר ה' ֱא ֶֹלהיָך :the entire people ῾ Thus blood of the innocent will“) ֹנ ֵתן ְלָך ַנ ֲח ָלה ְו ָהָיה ָע ֶליָך ָדּ ִמים ,tdm .bm.kbd/ Sheds tears in her heart 36-37 tmz῾.kst.dnil.mt/rpi. She tears the mantle of Danel, not be shed, bringing bloodguilt upon you in the land that the man of Rapiu,32) LORD your God is allotting to you.”; Deut. 19:10). Blood- guilt is removed only when the blood of the murderer is ְו ָשׁ ְלחוּ ִז ְק ֵני ִעירוֹ ְו ָל ְקחוּ ֹאתוֹ ִמ ָשּׁם ְו ָנ ְתנוּ ֹאתוֹ ְבּ ַיד ֹגּ ֵאל ַה ָדּם :shed interpretation of the word should not be rejected here. See S. Natan- the“) ָו ֵמת: ל ֹ ָא־תחוֹס ֵע ְינָך ָע ָליו ִוּב ַעְר ָתּ ַד ַם־ה ָנּ ִקי ִמִיּ ְשָׂר ֵאל ְוטוֹב ָלְך -Yulzary,”Divine Justice, or: Poetic Justice? The Transgression and Punish ment of the Goddess Anath in ‘the Aqhat Story’ – A Literary Perspective”, elders of his town shall have him brought back from there UF 41 (2010): 581-600. and shall hand him over to the blood-avenger to be put to 29) Y. Amit, Reading Biblical Narratives: Literary Criticism and the death. you must show him no pity. Thus you will purge Israel Hebrew Bible, (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2001), 112-113. On the phe- nomenon of disturbance in the time sequence, see. F. Polak, Biblical Nar- rative: Aspects of Art and Design, (The Biblical Encyclopaedia Library 11; second edition, Jerusalem 19942) 152-191 (Hebrew). On the narrator’s use Repetition”, 386-387. Parker (“Aqhat”, 68) has “Torn is the mantle of of prolepsis, see ibid. pp. 174-175. Danel, man of Rapiu”, taking the verb in line 36 as a passive form. For 30) For examples and bibliography concerning the resumptive repetition other opinions on the repeated colon, see: Y. Blau – S.E. Loewenstamm, in the Bible and Mari see Natan-Yulzary, “The Use of Resumptive Repeti- “Ugaritit ṣly ‘qilel’”, 7 n. 1; Y. Avishur, “Hofa῾at ῾of ha-shamayim tion”, 279-280. The examples from Aqhat are discussed in the following u-qeri῾at ha-beged: motiv be-sifrut Ugarit u-ve-targum sheni le-Esther”, pages there. Beit Miqra 10 (1974): 73-74 (Hebrew); S.E. Loewenstamm, “The Rending 31) I translate the verbs in present-tense according to the dramatic nature of Danil’s Garment in the Aqhat Epic”, Comparative Studies in Biblical and performance aspects of epic literature, and following E.L. Greenstein and Ancient Oriental Literatures (AOAT 204; Kevelaer: Butzon & regarding the meaning and function of verbal forms in Ugaritic verse — Bercker; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1980) 471-472; Wright, there is no difference in tense or aspect beweent YQTL and QTL. See Ritual in Narrative 162; Wyatt, Religious Texts from Ugarit, 295, n. 200. E.L. Greenstein, “Forms and Functions of the Finite Verb in Ugaritic Nar- 33) The poet-narrator adds the prefix k (ki), an asseverative particle that rative Verse”, in: Biblical Hebrew in its Northwest Semitic Setting: Typo- I have translated as “indeed”, and here he attaches it to the passive form logical and Historical Perspectives (eds. S.E. Fassberg and A. Hurvitz; of the verb. These changes result in the verse becoming a circumstantial Jerusalem: Magnes Press; Eisenbrauns: Winona Lake, Ind., 2006). Regard- clause, describing a state at a specific point in time. ing narrative sequence see especially pp. 91-94, 101-102. 34) For a comparison of the two narratives, see S.B. Parker, “Death and 32) The verb mz῾ appearing in line 36 is in the active form, whereas in Devotion: The Composition and Theme of AQHT”, in: Love and Death in line 46 it is in the passive form. I follow Ginsberg, “The Tale of Aqhat”, the Ancient Near East: Essays in Honor of Marvin H. Pope (ed. J. H. Marks 153; Cf. the discussion in Natan-Yulzary, “The Use of Resumptive and R. M. Good, Guilford, Conn.: Four Quarters Publishing, 1987), 81. 489 BIBLIOTHECA ORIENTALIS LXXV N° 5-6, september-december 2018 490 of the blood of the innocent, and it will go well with you.”; 27-28 bnši ῾nh.wtphn When, raising her eyes, she Deut. 19:12-13, cf. Gen. 4:11-12; Num. 35:33; 2 Sam 21:1- sees,38) in.š[lm] /[ ]hlk.ġlmm. No peace(?)39) in] the messen- 14; Joel 4:19-21). Therefore, as long as the characters in 40 Aqhat refrain from carrying out the actions required by the gers’ gait. ) event of murder — the drought goes on. If so, the two time 28-29 bddy.yṣ[ ]/ Each apart, they fl[ed…]41) designations — the period of drought and the period of [ ]yṣa.wl.yṣa. [ ] escaped, they escaped mourning — are one and the same. indeed.42) The drought period (CAT 1.19, col. i 42-44) 29-30 hlm.ṯ[nm]/[q]dqd. Striking t[wice] on the head, 42-44 šb῾.šnt/yṣrk.b῾l. Seven years Baal is absent, ṯlṯid.῾l.ud[n]/ Three times over the ea[r]. ṯmn.rkb/῾rpt. Eight, the Rider of the Clouds: 31-33 [ ]sr.pdm.rišh[ ] [Un(?)braided are] the tresses of 44-46 bl.ṭl.bl rbb/ No dew, no downpour, [their] heads43) bl.šr῾.thmtm. No swelling of the two deeps, ῾l.pd.asr.ḥ[ ]l[ ]l[ ] For44) the braided tress (?) [ ] (?) bl/ṭbn.ql.b῾l. No welcome voice of Baal. [ ] (?) [ ] 45) [ ]/mḫlpt. [ ] the locks of hair. The mourning period (CAT 1.19, col. iv 13-18) 33-34 wl.ytk.dm῾t And indeed, tears fall down, 46) 13-15 lymm.lyrḫm/ Days become months, km/rb῾t.ṯqlm. Like quarter shekels. lyrḫm.lšnt. Months become years, ῾d/šb῾.šnt. Until the completion of seven years. 38) There is a difficulty here in the text: the verb wtphn implies a femi- 15-17 ybk.laq/ht.ġzr. He weeps for Aqhat the hero, nine singular subject, but it is Danel who is mentioned just above and later ῾ on (in lines 26 and 41-42) (cf. Wyatt, Religious Texts from Ugarit, 299-300, yd[m ] lkdd/dnil.mt.r[pi Sheds tears for the child of n. 218). Some do not see any difficulty in this (Parker, “Aqhat”, 70; Daniel, man of Rapiu. Wright, Ritual in Narrative 173 and n. 1). Though Paghit is not mentioned in proximity, we probably should interpret her as the subject of the verb, 17-18 mk].bšb῾/šnt. 35) Then], in the seventh year, as also corresponding to her character as a wise woman who observes bad omens (CAT 1.19, col. i 28-35) and knows to interpret them (CAT 1.19, Both passages refer to the same period of the narrated col. ii 1-3 and probably also in col. i 25-28. Cf. NatanYulzary, “The Use of Resumptive Repetition”, 387 and n. 54). time. The first designation is prolepsis, and the second is 39) Transliteration in Parker, “Aqhat”, 70: in š[ ]/[ ]hlk.ġlmm. Cf. a summary statement, and in both seven years have been Wyatt, Religious Texts from Ugarit, 300, n. 219: in [aqht] hlk; M. Dietrich, telescoped into a few verses. All of the events recounted O. Loretz and J. Sanmartín (eds.), The Cuneiform Alphabetic Texts from between these two time designations took place a short time Ugarit, Ras Ibn Hani and Other Places (Alter Orient und Altes Testament 36 360; KTU3: Third enlarged edition, Münster: Ugarit-Verlag, 2013), 58: after Aqhat’s murder, and not throughout seven years. ) in.š[lm]/b hlk.ġlmm. 40) These may be Aqhat’s hunting companions (Wyatt, Religious Texts from Ugarit, 300, n. 1). At the end of CAT 1.18, col. iv Anat concludes her C. Addressing the audience as a means of arousing sus- words to Yaṭpanu by declaring that anyone who opposes her will shall also pense and curiosity suffer death at her hands, in addition to Aqhat: uap.mprh.ank/laḥwy (“And even one who would oppose I shall not let live”, lines 26-27); cf. in the The messengers carrying the news of the murder to Danel report of the events that have occurred respectively uap.mprh]/ ῾nt.bṣmt. arrive while Danel is in the fields with Paghit. He is busy mhrh.[ ] (lines 37-38: “And even the ones who opposed, Anat [killed], trying to revive the vegetation, and Paghit espies the nearing when her warrior slayed [ ]”). It may be that in both places mprh refers to the people who were at the camp with Aqhat, of which only the two messengers (lines 27-28). The report of the messengers’ youths who reported Aqhat’s death survived. For a discussion of these lines arrival is suspended by means of a long description, lasting and references and other interpretations see, B. Margalit, The Ugaritic about ten lines: first there is a formula announcing the Poem of AQHT: Text, Translation, Commentary (BZAW, 182; Berlin: approach of the messengers in the middle of Danel’s speech De Gruyter, 1989), 130, 212; Pardee, “The ᾿Aqhat Legend”, 350, n. 75; 37 Wright, Ritual in Narrative, 129, n. 16. ,”be separate“ :בדד line 26). ) Next comes a relatively long description of the 41) The word bddy is a cognate of the Hebrew root) messengers’ appearance, seen from Paghit’s point of view. “alone”, “solitude”, “disconnected”, see “bd (II)”, Del Olmo Lete – The description begins with the rough outlines she can dis- Sanmartín, Dictionary I. 211; “bddy”, id., 214. A possible translation of cern from afar, and ends with the finer details such as tears the reconstruction bddy.yṣ[a is “the only ones who escaped” (as opposed to those who did not escape Anat’s murderous plan). and facial expressions (lines 27-36). Upon their arrival they 42) It is difficult to determine the meaning of the sequence yṣa wl yṣa deliver the message to Danel (lines 40-44). Lines 37-38 are (literally “came out and didn’t come out” or “came out, and came out obscure in this context, and I will discuss them below. indeed”. The root yṣa might be repeated in this verse for emphasis. Wyatt (Religious Texts from Ugarit, 300) translated “they came forth hesitantly”. 26 The words have not left his It is unclear where the youths came from and why. bph.rgm.lyṣa. 43 3 mouth, ) Dietrich et al. (KTU , 58) reconstruct l[ a]sr i.e. the hair of the head is untied. It is a description of hair worn loose, a sign of mourning. See bšpt[h hwth]/ [Nor his speech his] lips, Wyatt, Religious Texts from Ugarit, 300-301, notes 3-4. 44) “῾l (I)”, Del Olmo Lete – Sanmartín, Dictionary I. 152: 2.c “rela- tionship of cause”, “for”. 45) Cf. Dietrich et al., KTU3, 59: ῾l.pd.asr.ḥġ[xx].l gl[ḥ]t. 35) For a discussion of numerical patterns to describe the passage of 46) ytk is an emphatic form of the verb or qal passive derived from the time, see Natan-Yulzary, “The Use of Resumptive Repetition”, 377-379. root ntk. cf. CAT 1.14, col. i 28 tntkn. See D. Marcus, “The qal Passive in 36) Aqhat’s remains could not have survived for seven years in the bow- Ugaritic”, JANES 3 (1971): 107. The verb is preceded by the signs wl, els of the vultures until Danel found them. Therefore, the search for the representing the w (wāw) consecutive with an added l asseverative. See corpse occurs close to the time of the murder and the onset of the drought. J.M. Casanowicz, “The Emphatic Particle [l] in the Old Testament,” JAOS 37) Compare the repeated formula spoken by the messengers in Job 1, 16 (1896): clxvi-clxxi; J. Huehnergard, “Asseverative *la and *lu/law in vv.16, 17 and 18. Semitic,” JAOS 103 (1983): 569-593. 491 SUSPENSE IN THE EPIC OF AQHAT 492
34-35 mp(?)[ ]bm.yd.47) (?) [ ] with their own hand, object (i.e. it means “I shall report the news to you”). Wyatt addresses this problem in a comment: “the pl. suff. makes 35-36 ṣpnhm.tliym[ ]pnhm[ ]/ Their secret revealed[ on] 48 no sense, unless we suppose that Paghit is included in the their faces [ ] ) address; but this is contradicted by the reference only to nṣḥy.šrr.m῾[ ]ay overwhelming them [like an] enemy (?) [ ]49) Danel here at l. 41”. Wyatt therefore suggests emending the text to *nbšrk (“We shall report the news to you”).52) 37 abšrkm. I will Tell you! Only after the messengers deliver their bad tidings does dni[l ]m.bh[ ] Indeed Dane[l] [(?) ] them (?) Danel understand that his son has been murdered and he col- riš.rq[ ]῾[ ] hwt. Head (?) [ ] (?) [ ] him.50) lapses. The poet-narrator communicates this to us by employ- ing the epic formula for receiving bad news (lines 44-47). 38-39 [š]ṣat krḥ.npšhm/ She expelled his life like a breath, We therefore are obliged to ask: What is the role of the lines kiṯl.brlt His soul like a sneeze, that precede the arrival of the messengers? km [qṭr baph]/ From his nose like smoke. As noted above, the form of the word abšrkm is strange if 40 tmġyn.tša.ghm.[wtṣḥn]/ They come, Raise [their] voices, we attribute it to one of the characters. But there seems to be [and cry:] no justification to correct the text, and it is preferable to accept the verbal form as it is, and to attribute it to the poet- 41-42 šm῾.ldnil.mt.[rpi]/ “Attend, Danel, man of [Rapiu]: narrator, who performs the poem. Instead of relating the mt.aqht.ġzr. Aqhat the Hero is dead! actions of the characters, as expected, and reporting to his audience that the messengers arrived and delivered their 42-44 [šṣat]/btlt.῾nt. Anat the Girl [has expelled], news to Danel, the poet-narrator interrupts the continuity of k[rḥ npšh]/ [His life] like [a breath], the sequence to create suspense and a delay. For prior to this kiṯl.brlth. His soul like a sneeze.” moment he took pains to show us that Danel did not know 44-47 [bh p῾nm]/tṭṭ. [Below, his feet] tremble, about his son’s death and that he believed him to be alive. ῾l[n pnh td῾ Above, [his face perspires], At the very moment when we expect Danel to discover this b῾dn]/ksl.yṯ[br [Around], his loins cr[ack], fact, the poet-narrator (or: performer) addresses his audience, yġṣ pnt kslh]/ [The joints of his loins shake], as though he himself were the messenger, and delivers the anš.[dt ẓrh [Those of his back] give way.51) story of the murder to the audience, as the messengers would have delivered it to Danel. By so doing he involves the audi- 47-49 yšu gh]/wyṣ[ḥ/ [He raises his voice] and cries]: ence, as if they were the hero Danel himself or one of the mḫṣ[ ] [ ] has crushed ... characters in the epic who receive the bitter intelligence. The audience becomes involved at the precise climactic moment (CAT 1.19, col. ii 26-49) in which Danel discovers that his son was murdered. The report about the manner of Aqhat’s death is delivered This article began with a mention of the oral literacy char- in lines 38-39 and with slight variations in lines 42-44. acteristic of the period. Audiences did not know how to read Between these two similar verses the poet-narrator relates and did not peruse a written text. They were therefore that the messengers are arriving (line 40). Their message is dependent on the performer of poetry, whether in recitation or addressed to Danel alone (lines 41-42). This sequence is puz- song.53) This possibility solves the puzzle of why lines 42-44 zling. First, the report of Aqhat’s death precedes the arrival repeat lines 38-39. The performer (poet-narrator) is essentially of the messengers. Second, it is unclear why the news is “conversing” with his audience, relating what has happened repeated. Third, the word abšrkm, which is clearly legible on in the story, and this “conversation” was inserted into the the tablet, raises difficulties: appended to the verb form in middle of the climactic passage describing the characters’ the first person singular, is a pronominal suffix of a plural actions and communication regarding Aqhat’s death. If we draw the sequence of events and the textual sequence in graphic form, the result is the following diagram: 47) Dietrich et al. (KTU3, 59) reads tgr[rn.]bm/yd. 48) tliym means “overcomes them”. Cf. CAT 1.14, col. i: 33, CAT 1.16, The murder of Aqhat that is recounted in CAT 1.18 is the col. vi: 2, 14. Dietrich et al. (KTU3, 59) reads: nliym. story’s climax and the main axis of the plot, which exhibits 49) The translation is tentative but follows the previous line in theme. a chiastic structure.54) The right side of the diagram presents The youths’ strong feelings defeat them (nṣḥy.šrr), and thus are revealed the two passages under discussion (in the boxes), which are on their faces. 50) or: “word”. The tricolon is unclear. It may be that the poet tells the used by the poet-narrator (and performer) as a device for listeners about the approaching youths through Danel’s point of view – he holding suspense in the telling of the story and maintaining now notices their gestures. The poet may also tell his audience what they the listeners’ interest, while he advances the plot for the will speak (hwt) when they reach Danel (line 40ff.). length of two full columns after its climax (see at the top of 51) For discussion of this formula see D.R. Hillers, “A Convention in Hebrew Literature: The Reaction to Bad News”, ZAW 77 (1965): 86-90; Aitken, “Oral Formulaic Composition and Theme”, 9-10. This formula 52) Wyatt, Religious Texts from Ugarit, 302, n. 230; Similarly, Margalit appears three times in Ugaritic poetry. It always appears after the poet- and Aitken emend the text: nbšrkm (B. Margalit, “The Messengers of Woe narrator reports that one of the characters is raising its eyes and espying the to Dan’el: A Reconstruction and Interpretation of KTU 1.19:II:27-48”, UF approaching messengers (Aqhat CAT 1.19, col. ii, 27-28, 40-47; Baal CAT 15 [1983]: 108; K.T. Aitken, The Aqhat Narrative: A Study in the Narra- 1.3 col. iii, 32-38; ibid. CAT 1.4, col. ii, 1-21). But whereas in the examples tive Structure and Composition of an Ugaritic Tale [Journal of Semitic from Baal, the formula for raising the eyes is followed by the beholder Studies Monographs, 13; Manchester, University of Manchester, 1990], 64 collapsing for fear of dreadful news, an apprehension that is later proven and n. 89). Cf. Parker (“Aqhat”, 71) does not emend the text and translates mistaken, in Aqhat, Danel collapses only after the messengers arrive and the verb in first person singular. deliver their message clearly. One should note that in this instance the 53) Compare Neh. 8:7-8 where a listening audience is relying on the formula’s sequence is divided into two parts, and the long description of person reading or reciting or interpreting the text. the approaching youths (lines 28-44) intervene between the formula of rais- 54) S. Natan-Yulzary “Contrast and Meaning in the Aqhat Story”, VT ing the eyes (line 27) and the description of Danel’s collapse (lines 44-47). 62 (2012): 14-16. 493 BIBLIOTHECA ORIENTALIS LXXV N° 5-6, september-december 2018 494
Character’s Text sequence Poet-Narrator / Performer between the poet-performer and his audience. The interaction consciousness breaking frame increases the audience’s involvement, creating suspense, Murder of Aqhat curiosity, and dramatic irony, with the poet-performer and (CAT 1.18. col. iv 27-39). Section A audience on one side, and Danel on the other. Beginning of the drought The next time the poet-performer breaks the story frame, Danel and Paghit do not (CAT 1.19, col. i 17-19). know about the murder Danel’s prayer for rain he addresses the audience directly and makes them partners yet, and take action (CAT 1.19, col. i 38-42). against the drought to the story, playing the role of one of the characters who The poet-narrator discloses to the audience that the drought receives the news of the murder. The audience and poet- will last seven years, thereby performer share the knowledge of the murder, and the irony producing suspense and and suspense of the moment are enhanced by the gap in Rites performed in the fields curiosity. CAT ( 1.19, col. i 49 – col. ii 25). (CAT 1.19, col. i 42-46). information that sets Danel apart, as well as by the delayed delivery of the information to Danel. These devices, along
The performer-narrator himself with the recognized instruction to a performer in the line tells the audience about the appearing on the edge of the third tablet CAT 1.19 of Aqhat: murder before Danel is apprised “And here one returns to the story”, thus provide further of it, thus introducing a delay Discovery of the murder and creating suspense. affirmation of the view that the written work was intended to (CAT 1.19, col. ii 40-47). (CAT 1.19, col. ii 37-39). be performed orally in front of an audience. Search for Aqhat and his burial Section B (CAT 1.19, col. ii 47 – col. iii 41).
Danel and Paghit know Curse of the vultures lest they
Seven years of drought and mourning about the murder and disturb the grave (CAT 1.19, col. iii 42-45). perform the actions required in response to Curse of the towns near the site of Aqhat’s the murder murder (CAT 1.19, col. iii 45 – col. iv 7).)
At the end of the mourning period Danel offers incense and sends Paghit on a mission of blood revenge (CAT 1.19, col. iv 17-40).
Suggested: Paghit takes revenge and the drought ends (CAT 1.19, col. iv 40-61).
Section A of the diagram). The events in Section B of the diagram take place after the characters already know about the murder, when they are already taking action in response to this knowledge, and their purpose is to mend the situation. This part extends over the last two columns of Aqhat. In other words, this entire section is the denouement of the plot’s complication.
D. Summary In the Ugaritic parallel to David’s curse, Danel neither curses nor blesses; rather, it is the poet-narrator’s voice that is represented. The view that the verses in CAT 1.19, col. i, 42-46 contain a curse rests primarily on the interpretation of the verb ṣly, which can itself be understood in two opposite ways. Secondly, this view is influenced by the type of utter- ance encountered in the Biblical parallel — the curse of Mount Gilboa in David’s lament over the death of Saul and Jonathan. The interpretation that should be accepted is that Danel is actually offering a brief prayer, after which the poet- narrator (or performer) interrupts the story’s chronological sequence to reveal to his audience that the actions Danel is performing against the drought and its effects will be to no avail. The verse that parallels David’s curse is a traditional trope for describing the drying up of water sources, which can serve different functions depending on the context. In one text these phrases may be evoked as a curse, and in another as a proleptic description of a continuous state. This example is highly consonant with the performance of epic literature, during which a unique interaction takes place