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Kennedy, D. and Riley, D. 1990 Manning, W.H. 1997 Rome’s Desert Frontier from the Air, Batsford, London ‘Ptolemy and the Pre-Flavian Military Sites of Britain’, in Groenman-van Waateringe, van Beek, Willems & Wynia (eds.) Keppie, L.J.F. 1984 1997, 33-40 The Making of the Roman Army from Republic to Empire, Batsford, London Manning, W.H. 2002 ‘Early Roman Campaigns in the south-west of Britain’, in Lenoir, M. 1977 Brewer (ed.) 2002, 27-44 ‘Lager mit Clavicvlae’, Melanges de l’ecole Francais de Rome: Antiquite 89, 697-722 Manning, W. 2004 ‘The Conquest of Wales’, in Todd, M. (ed.) 2004, 60-74 Lenoir, M. 1979 Pseudo-Hygin, des du camp, Paris Margary, I.D. 1957 Roman Roads in Britain Vol.2, North of the Foss Way-Bristol Lepper, F. and Frere, S. 1988 Channel (including Wales and Scotland), Phoenix House, London Trajan’s Column. A New Edition of the Cichorius Plates. Introduction, Commentary and Notes, Alan Sutton, Gloucester Marvell, A.G. & Owen-John, H.S. 1997 Leucarum. Excavations at the Roman Auxiliary fort at Loughor, Leslie, A.F. 1995 West Glamorgan 1982-84 and 1987-88, Britannia Monograph Roman Temporary Camps in Britain. Unpublished PhD thesis, 12, London University of Glasgow Matthews, K.J., Emery, M., Edwards, J.E.C. & Harrison, L.A. Lewis, H. 1912 1994 ‘The Gaer, Dolau’, Archaeologia Cambrensis 6th ser. Vol. XII, 168 Upton-by-Chester County High School 1994 Trial Excavation. Chester City Council, unpublished report (no. 36) Lewis, S. 1850 A Topographical Dictionary of Wales (4th edition, in 2 volumes) Maxfield, V.A. 1975 London ‘Excavations at Eskbank, Midlothian, 1972’, Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 105, 141-150 Lloyd, J.E. 1935 A History of Carmarthenshire Vol. I: From Prehistoric Times to Maxfield, V.A. & Dobson, M.J. (eds.) 1991 the Act of Union (1536), William Lewis, Cardiff Roman Frontier Studies 1989: Proceedings of the XVth International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies, University of Lowe, C.E. & Moloney, R. 2000 Exeter, Exeter. ‘Excavation of the Roman Temporary Camps at Dullatur, North Lanarkshire’, Britannia XXXI, 239-253 Maxwell, G.S. 1971 ‘Review of The Roman Frontier in Wales, by V.E. Nash- Lynch, F., Aldhouse-Green, S. & Davies, J.L. 2000 Williams. Second edition, revised under the direction of M.G. , Alan Sutton, Stroud Jarrett’, Britannia II, 308-310

Macdonald, G. 1916 Maxwell, G.S. 1981 ‘The Roman Camps at Raedykes and Glenmailen’, Proceedings ‘Agricola’s Campaigns: The Evidence of the Temporary Camps’, of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 50, 317-59 Scottish Archaeological Forum 12, 25-54

Manley, J. 1991 Maxwell, G.S. 1982 ‘Small Settlements’, in Manley, J., Grenter, S. & Gale, F. (eds.) ‘Roman temporary camps at Inchtuthil: an examination of the 1991, 97-115 aerial photographic evidence’, Scottish Archaeological Review I (2), 105-113 Manley, J., Grenter, S. & Gale, F. (eds.) 1991 The Archaeology of Clwyd, Clwyd County Council, Mold Maxwell, G.S. 1989 The Romans in Scotland, Mercat Press, Edinburgh Manning, W.H. 1981 Report on the excavations at Usk 1965-76. The fortress Maxwell, G.S. 1991 excavations 1968-71, University of Wales Press, Cardiff ‘Springboards for Invasion: Marching-camp concentrations and coastal installations in Roman Scotland’, in Maxfield & Dobson (eds.) 1991, 111-13

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Maxwell, G.S. 1998a Owen-John, H. & Evans, D. 1985 ‘Agricola and Roman Scotland: some structural evidence’, in ‘Melyn Court marching camp’, Archaeology in Wales 25, 30 Bird (ed.) 1998, 13-20 Peddie, J. 1994 The Roman War Machine, Alan Sutton, Stroud Maxwell, G.S. 1998b A Gathering of Eagles: Scenes from Roman Scotland, Philpott, R.A. 1997 Canongate, Edinburgh ‘An Archaeological Evaluation at Upton Recreation Centre, Upton-by-Chester.’ Unpublished report: Merseyside Galleries Maxwell, G.S. 2004 ‘The Roman Penetration of the North in the Late First Century Philpott, R.A. 1998 AD’, in Todd (ed.) 2004, 75-90 ‘New Evidence from Aerial Reconnaissance for Roman Military Sites in Cheshire’, Britannia XXIX, 341-353 Maxwell, G.S. & Wilson, D.R. 1987 ‘Air Reconnaissance in Roman Britain 1977-84’, Britannia Pippidi, D.M. (ed.) 1974 XVIII, 1-48 Actes du Ixe Congres International d’Etudes sue les Frontieres Romaines, Bucharest Milner, N.P. 1996 Vegetius: Epitome of Military Science, Liverpool University Pitts, L.F. & St Joseph, J.K. 1985 Press Translated Texts for Historians 16, Liverpool Inchtuthil. The Roman Legionary Fortress, Britannia Monograph Series 6, London Morgan, W.Ll. 1899 An Antiquarian Survey of East Gower, Charles Clark, London Poole, E. 1886 The Illustrated History and Biography of Brecknock, from the Morris, J.E. 1901 Earliest Times to the Present Day, Edwin Poole, Brecknock The Welsh Wars of Edward I, Clarendon Press, Oxford Prestwich, M. 1996 Musgrove, R.K. 1961 Armies and Warfare in the . The English Report of the Latymer Upper School Excavation Group at the Experience, Yale U.P., London site of the Roman Camp at Pen-y-Gwryd 8th-15th April 1961. Unpublished archive report held by RCAHMW Price, T. 1814 ‘An Account of some Roman Remains near Llandrindod’, Musson, C. 1994 Archaeologia XVII, 168-172 Wales from the Air: Patterns of Past and Present, RCAHMW, Aberystwyth Putnam, W.G. 1969 ‘The Roman road from Westbury to Forden Gaer’, Nash-Williams, V.E. 1929 Montgomeryshire Collections 61, 89-96 ‘Topographical List of Roman Remains found in South Wales’, Bulletin of the Board of Celtic Studies IV, 246-271 Pye, W.R. 1976 ‘Hindwell, Walton: A Pre-Flavian Roman site’, Transactions of Nash-Williams, V.E. (ed.) 1949 the Radnorshire Society XLVI, 78-80 A Hundred years of Welsh Archaeology: Centenary Volume 1846-1946, Cambrian Archaeological Association, Gloucester Randall, H.J. 1949 ‘Roman Period’, in Nash-Williams (ed.) 1949, 80-104 Nash-Williams, V.E. 1954 The Roman Frontier in Wales, University of Wales Press, Cardiff RCAHMS 1997 Eastern Dumfriesshire: an archaeological landscape, TSO, Nash-Williams, V.E. 1969 Edinburgh The Roman Frontier in Wales (Second edition, rev. M.G. Jarrett), University of Wales Press, Cardiff RCAHMW 1913 An Inventory of the Ancient Monuments in Wales and Neighbour, T., Armit, I., Finlayson, B., & Ralston, I. 1994 Monmouthshire. III. County of Radnor, HMSO, London ‘A Roman temporary camp at Barnhill, Beattock, Dumfriesshire. Report on an excavation and watching brief 1991’, Transactions RCAHMW 1914 of the Dumfriesshire and Galloway Natural History and An Inventory of the Ancient Monuments in Wales and Antiquarian Society 3rd series LXIX, 7-12 Monmouthshire. IV. County of Denbigh, HMSO, London

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RCAHMW 1917 Richardson, A. 2000 An Inventory of the Ancient Monuments in Wales and ‘The numerical basis of Roman camps’, Oxford Journal of Monmouthshire. V. County of Carmarthen, HMSO, London Archaeology 19(4), 425-437

RCAHMW 1921 Richardson, A. 2001 An Inventory of the Ancient Monuments in Wales and ‘The order of battle in the Roman army: evidence from Monmouthshire. VI. County of Merioneth, HMSO, London marching camps’, Oxford Journal of Archaeology 20(2), 171-185

RCAHMW 1960 Richardson, A. 2002 An Inventory of the Ancient Monuments in Caernarvonshire. ‘Camps and forts of units and fortifications of the Roman army’, Volume II: Central, HMSO, London Oxford Journal of Archaeology 21(1), 93-107

RCAHMW 1968 Richardson, A. 2003 ‘Coelbren’, Archaeology in Wales 8, 16 ‘Space and manpower in Roman camps’, Oxford Journal of Archaeology 22(3), 303-13 RCAHMW 1976 An Inventory of the Ancient Monuments in Glamorgan. Volume Richmond, I.A. 1932 I: Pre-Norman. Part II. The Iron Age and the Roman ‘The four Roman camps at Cawthorn in the North Riding of Occupation, HMSO, Cardiff Yorkshire’, Archaeological Journal 89, 17-78

RCAHMW 1986 Richmond, I.A. 1958 Brecknock () Inventory: The Prehistoric and Roman ‘Roman Britain in 1957: I. Sites explored’, Journal of Roman Monuments Part ii: Hill-forts and Roman Remains, HMSO, Studies XLVIII, 130-149 Cardiff Richmond, I.A. 1959 ‘Roman Britain in 1958: I. Sites explored’, Journal of Roman RCAHMW 1991 Studies XLIX, 102-135 An Inventory of the Ancient Monuments in Glamorgan. Volume 3: Medieval Secular Monuments. Part 1a. Early castles from the Richmond, I.A. 1965 Norman Conquest to 1217, HMSO, Cardiff ‘Roman Wales’, in Foster & Daniel (eds.) 1965, 151-75.

RCAHMW 1997 Richmond, I.A. 1968 Brecknock (Brycheiniog) Inventory: The Prehistoric and Roman Hod Hill Volume 2: excavations carried out between 1951 and Monuments Part i: Later Prehistoric Monuments and 1958, British Museum, London Unenclosed Settlements to 1000 A.D., RCAHMW, Aberystwyth Richmond, I.A. 1982 RCAHMW 2002 Trajan’s Army on Trajan’s Column, The British School at Rome, RCAHMW Report 2001-2002, Aberystwyth London

Reddé, M. 1995 Richmond, I.A. & McIntyre, J. 1934 ‘Titulum et Clavicula à propos des fouilles récentes d’ Alésia’, ‘The Roman Camps at Rey Cross and Crackenthorpe’, Revue Archeologique de l’Est 46.2, 349-356 Transactions of the Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society 34, 50-61 Rees, W. 1854 ‘An account of two Druidical Circles and a Roman Camp on a Rivet, A.L.F. & Smith, C. 1979 mountain near , Brecknock’, Archaeologia Cambrensis The Place-names of Roman Britain, Batsford, London new series V, 125-134 Robertson, A.S. 1969 Rees, W. 1873 ‘The Roman camp(s) on Hillside Farm, Dunblane, Perthshire’, ‘Loventium: Its geographical position and reasons for assigning Glasgow Archaeological Journal 1, 35-6 it to ’, Archaeologia Cambrensis 4th ser. Vol. IV, Roxan, M. 1981 113-138 ‘The Distribution of Roman Military Diplomas’, Epigraphische Richardson, A. 1997 Studien Bd. 12, 265-86 ‘Observations on the Geometry of Roman Camps’, Transactions Roy, W. 1793 of the Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and The Military Antiquities of the Romans in Britain, Society of Archaeological Society XCVII, 45-55 Antiquaries, London

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St Joseph, J.K. 1953 Savory, H.N. (ed.) 1984 ‘Air Reconnaissance of Southern Britain’, Journal of Roman Glamorgan County History. Volume II. Early Glamorgan. Pre- Studies XLIII, 81-97 History and Early History, Glamorgan County History Trust, Cardiff St Joseph, J.K. 1955 ‘Air Reconnaissance in Britain, 1951-5’, Journal of Roman Schönberger, H. (ed.) 1967 Studies XLV, 82-91 Studien zu den Militärgenzen Röms, Böhlau, Köln

St Joseph, J.K. 1958 Sellwood, L. 1984 ‘Air Reconnaissance in Britain, 1955-7’, Journal of Roman ‘Tribal boundaries viewed from the perspective of numismatic Studies XLVIII, 86-101 evidence’, in Cunliffe & Miles (eds.) 1984, 191-204

St Joseph, J.K. 1961a Shropshire Newsheet 1980 ‘Air Reconnaissance in Britain 1958-1960’, Journal of Roman ‘The Roman Fort at Eaton Constantine, Salop’, Shropshire Studies LI, 119-135 (Archaeological Society) Newsheet 11, 2-3

St Joseph, J.K.S. 1961b Silvester, R.J. 1994 ‘Aerial Reconnaissance in Wales’, Antiquity XXXV, 263-275 Radnorshire Historic Settlements. Unpublished CPAT report

St Joseph, J.K.S. 1964 Simpson, G. 1962 ‘Rhyd Sarn’, Archaeology in Wales 4, 12 ‘Caerleon and the Roman Forts in Wales in the Second Century A.D.: Part 1 - Caerleon and Northern Wales’, Archaeologia St Joseph, J.K. 1965 Cambrensis CXI, 103-166 ‘Air Reconnaissance in Britain, 1961-64’, Journal of Roman Studies LV, 74-89 Simpson, G. 1963 ‘Caerleon and the Roman Forts in Wales in the Second Century St Joseph, J.K. 1969 A.D.: Part 2 - Caerleon and Southern Wales’, Archaeologia ‘Air Reconnaissance in Britain, 1965-68’, Journal of Roman Cambrensis CXII, 13-76 Studies LIX, 104-128 Simpson, G. 1964 St Joseph, J.K. 1973 Britons and the Roman Army: A Study of Wales and the Southern ‘Air Reconnaissance in Roman Britain, 1969-72’, Journal of Pennines in the 1st-3rd Centuries, Gregg Press, London Roman Studies LXIII, 214-246 Smith, J.B. 1998 St Joseph, J.K. 1975 Llywelyn ap Gruffudd. Prince of Wales, University of Wales ‘Llanfor’, Archaeology in Wales 15, 48 Press, Cardiff

St Joseph, J.K. 1977a Sommer, C.S. 1984 ‘Air Reconnaissance in Roman Britain, 1973-76’, Journal of The Military Vici in Roman Britain: Aspects of their Origins, Roman Studies LXVII, 125-161 their Location and Layout, Administration, Function and End, BAR British Series 129, Oxford St Joseph, J.K. 1977b ‘Llanfor’, Archaeology in Wales 17, 35 Spurgeon, C.J. & Thomas, H.J. 1975 ‘’, Archaeology in Wales 15, 69-70 St Joseph, J.K. 1977c ‘Air reconnaissance: recent results, 42’, Antiquity LI, 55-60 Spurgeon, C.J. & Thomas, H.J. 1977 ‘Moated Sites in Glamorgan’, Archaeology in Wales 17, 40-42 St Joseph, J.K. 1980 ‘Air reconnaissance: recent results, 49’, Antiquity LIV, 47-51 Stanford, S.C. 1960 Savory, H.N. 1950 ‘The Roman Fort at Buckton, Herefordshire - Excavations ‘List of Hill-forts and other earthworks in Wales. II 1959’, Transactions of the Woolhope Naturalists Field Club Monmouthshire’, Bulletin of the Board of Celtic Studies XIII, XXXVI, 210-18 231-8 Stanford, S.C. 1968 Savory, H.N. 1954 ‘The Roman Forts at Leintwardine and Buckton’, Transactions ‘List of Hill-forts and other earthworks in Wales. IV of the Woolhope Naturalists Field Club XXXIX (2), 222-326 Radnorshire’, Bulletin of the Board of Celtic Studies XV, 73-80

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Stanford, S.C. 1970 Van Arsdell, R.D. 1994 ‘The Roman Marching Camp at Bromfield (Salop.)’, The Coinage of the Dobunni. Money Supply and Coin Transactions of the Shropshire Archaeological Society 58, 195-6 Circulation in Dobunnic Territory. Studies in Celtic Coinage, No.1, Oxford University Committee for Archaeology, Stanford, S.C. 1982 Monograph 38, Oxford ‘Bromfield, Shropshire - Neolithic, Beaker and Age sites, 1966-79’, Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 48, 279-320 Visy, Z. 2003 The Ripa Pannonica in Hungary, Budapest Stanford, S.C. 1985 ‘Bromfield excavations - from Neolithic to Saxon times’, Visy, Z. (ed.) 2003 Transactions of the Shropshire Archaeological Society 64, 1-7 The Roman Army in Pannonia, Teleki László Foundation, Hungary Stanford, S.C. 1991 The Archaeology of the (second edition, Visy, Z (ed.) 2005 revised), S C Stanford, Ludlow Limes XIX. Proceedings of the XIXth International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies, Pécs, Hungary, September 2003. Stefan, A.S. 1997 University of Pécs. ‘Les Guerres Daciques de Trajan: les opérations du front alpin’, in Groenman-van Waateringe, van Beek, Willems & Wynia Wacher, J. (ed.) 1966 (eds.) 1997, 517-25 The Civitas Capitals of Roman Britain, Leicester University Press, Leicester Stoertz, C. 2004 The Marches Uplands Mapping Project: a report for the National Waddelove, A.C.E. & Waddelove, E.P. 1983 Mapping Programme. English Heritage Aerial Survey Report ‘A Roman Military Site in the Vale of Clwyd?’, Denbighshire AER/1/2004 Historical Society Transactions 32, 128-30

Taylor, M.V. 1944 Waddelove, E. 1991 ‘Roman Britain in 1943: I. Sites explored’, Journal of Roman Roman Dyffryn Clwyd from Prestatyn to Rhug Park, Coelion Studies XXXIV, 76-85 Trust, Ruthin

Taylor, M.V. 1955 Walthew, C.V. 1978 ‘Roman Britain in 1954: I. Sites explored’, Journal of Roman ‘Property-Boundaries and the sizes of Building Plots in Roman Studies XLV, 121-145 Towns’, Britannia 9, 333-48

Taylor, M.V. 1960 Walthew, C.V. 1981 ‘Roman Britain in 1959: I. Sites explored’, Journal of Roman ‘Possible Standard Units of Measurement in Roman Military Studies L, 210-236 Planning’, Britannia 12, 15-36

Taylor, M.V. & Wilson, D.R. 1961 Ward, J. 1913 ‘Roman Britain in 1960: I. Sites explored’, Journal of Roman ‘The Roman Fort at Gellygaer. Discoveries made in 1913’, Studies LI, 157-191 Transactions of the Cardiff Naturalists’ Society XLVI, 1-20

Thomas, D.R. 1879 Webster, G. 1967 ‘Prehistoric and other Remains in Cynwil Gaio’, Archaeologia ‘The Claudian Frontiers in Britain’, in Schönberger (ed.) 1967, Cambrensis X, 55-6 42-53

Todd, M. 1981 Webster, G. 1969 Roman Britain 55BC - AD 400, Fontana, London The Roman Imperial Army of the first and second centuries A.D., A&C Black, London Todd, M. (ed.) 2004 A Companion to Roman Britain, Blackwell, Oxford Webster, G. 1975 The Cornovii, Duckworth, London Toller, H. forthcoming ‘Pen Plaenau Marching Camp’, Archaeologia Cambrensis Webster, G. 1978 Boudica. The British Revolt against Roman AD60, Batsford, London

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Webster, G. 1981 Williams, C.R. (ed.) 1961 Rome Against Caratacus: The Roman Campaigns in Britain AD History of Flintshire. Vol. 1. From earliest times to the Act of 48-58, Batsford, London Union, Gee & Son, Denbigh

Webster, G. 1985 Williams, J. 1856 The Roman Imperial Army of the first and second centuries A.D, ‘History of Radnorshire. Section 6 - Roman Stations and Roads’, 3rd edition, London Archaeologia Cambrensis 3rd ser. Vol. II, 24-39

Webster, G. 1989 Williams, G. & Mytum, H. 1998 ‘Viroconium from the Air’, in Kennedy (ed.) 1989, 200-207 Llawhaden, Dyfed. Excavations on a group of small defended enclosures, 1980-4, BAR British Series 275, Oxford Webster, G. 1991 The Cornovii (rev. ed.), Sutton, Stroud Wilson, D.R. 1964 ‘Roman Britain in 1963: I. Sites explored’, Journal of Roman Webster, P.V. 1969 Studies LIV, 152-177 ‘A Section through the Roman Marching Camp at Pen-y-Gwryd, Caernarvonshire’, Bulletin of the Board of Celtic Studies XXIII, Wilson, D.R. 1965 184-6 ‘Roman Britain in 1964: I. Sites explored’, Journal of Roman Studies LV, 199-220 Webster, P.V. 1984 ‘The Roman Period’, in Savory (ed.) 1984, 277-313 Wilson, D.R. 1966 ‘Roman Britain in 1965: I. Sites explored’, Journal of Roman Welfare, H. & Swan, V. 1995 Studies LVI, 196-217 Roman Camps in England: The Field Archaeology, RCHME/HMSO, London Wilson, D.R. 1967 ‘Roman Britain in 1966: I. Sites explored’, Journal of Roman Wells, P.S. 2003 Studies LVII, 174-202 The Battle that Stopped Rome. Emperor Augustus, Arminius, and the slaughter of the legions in the Teutoburger forest, W.W. Wilson, D.R. 1969 Norton, New York ‘Roman Britain in 1968: I. Sites explored’, Journal of Roman Studies LIX, 198-234 Wheeler, R.E.M. 1925 Prehistoric and Roman Wales, Clarendon Press, Oxford Wilson, D.R. 1974 ‘Roman Camps in Britain’, in Pippidi (ed.) 1974, 341-350 Whimster, R. 1989 ‘The Welsh Marches’, in The Emerging Past: Air Photography Wilson, D.R. 1975 and the Buried Landscape, RCHME, London, 35-65 ‘Roman Britain in 1974: I. Sites explored’, Britannia VI, 220-283

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White, R. & Barker, P. 1998 Wilson, D.R. 1990 Wroxeter. Life and Death of a Roman City, Tempus, Stroud ‘Air-reconnaissance of Roman Wales 1969-88’, in Burnham and Davies (eds.) 1990a, 10-18 Williams, C.R. 1961 ‘The Romans in Flintshire’, in C.R. Williams (ed.) 1961, 31-8 Wilson-North, R. 1990 ‘Enclosure on Upton Heath.’ Unpublished RCHME survey report

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INDEX

Page references in bold indicate illustrations gates 28, 30 hollow 32, 103 Aber 52 orientation 14 Aberdare 116 possible annexe 20 Abergavenny (Monmouthshire) 48, 52, 63, 64, 69 siting 13, 14, 39, 42, 64 Abernethy (Perthshire) 17, 36 size 16, 42, 44, 59 Abertanat (Montgomeryshire) camps/?forts 6, 48, 56, 65 water supply 13 Abertanat A 56, 157 Attingham Park (Shropshire) 11, 35, 56, 147 Abertanat B 157 chronology 37 Abertanat C 157 gates 28 see also Bryn Tanat/Clawdd Coch/Llanymynech Hill orientation 15 (Brecknockshire) 69, 163 siting 12 and auxiliary fort 70 size 42, 59 gates 79 Augustus, period of 61 see also Brecon Gaer Aberystwyth 55 actus 41, 44, 45, 81-3 baggage 60, 61 , see Pant-teg Uchaf baggage animals 42 aerial photographs 1, 2, 65, 135, 186, 188 Bangor 52 aerial reconnaissance 4, 7, 10, 28, 65, 68, 120, 139, 141, 143, 144, Beattock Bankend (Dumfriesshire) 34 146, 147, 148, 151, 154, 186 Beattock Barnhill (Dumfriesshire) 35 aestiva 58 Baker, W.A. 5, 151, 155 Agricola, Cn. Iulius, period of 37, 52, 54, 59, 60, 63, 65, 66, 89 Bala, Lake and town 57, 65, 120 agriculture banks and camp survival 4, 7, 8, 21, 72 breastwork 14 enclosures 72, post-Roman 20, 68 and camp size/design 21-4 field systems and boundaries 116 26, 112 lack of cultivation 4, 7, 10, 68-71, 72 structure 7, 22, 25 pastoral 10 timber corduroy 13 ploughing, effects of 4, 7, 21, 68, see also cropmarks see also , clavicula, traverse agrimensores 1, 35 Bar Kokhba, revolt 30 see also camp surveying Bargoed, see Gelligaer Common Alesia (France) 6, 30 barrows Allt yr Hafod-fawr (Carmarthenshire) 69, 166-9, 167 prehistoric 32, 122 distance from ‘parent’ fort 70 Roman 39, 123, 124 and road 70 Baschurch, possible camp 57, 58, 106 re-use of site 36, 71 Batavians 24, 52, 54 site 72 cohorts 89 Allt yr Hafod-fawr I 73, 76, 77, 79, 82, 84, 166, 167 Bean Burn 1 (Northumberland) 73, 86 Allt yr Hafod-fawr II 73, 76, 77, 79, 83, 84, 87, 166, 167 Bean Burn 2 (Northumberland) 74, 86 Ammianus Marcellinus 60 Beaumaris 52 37, 52, 53-4, 60, 62, 63, 65 Beddgelert 12, 98 Annales Cambriae 46 Belle Vue Farm, see Guilden Sutton 1 annexe, to camp 20, 104 Bellshiel (Northumberland) 24, 30, 103 to fort 4, 7 Bennett, Julian 26 antiquarians 1, 88 Bere, castle of 55 Antonine Wall 6 Berrington (Shropshire) 159 Antonine Itinerary 46, 175 Berwyn, mountains 4, 7, 55, 63, 65 Appian 71 Beulah (Brecknockshire) 18, 56, 91, 92 Aran, River 63 auxiliary fort see Caerau Arosfa Garreg (Carmarthenshire) 19, 56, Colour Fig. 50, 101-4, defences 24 102, 103, Front Cover gates 20, 28 defences 23, 24, 25, 26 orientation 14

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and road 65 Brinsop (Herefordshire) 158 siting 12, 37 Brithdir (Merionethshire) 69,186 size/design 16, 18, 20, 42, 44, 45, 59 Bromfield (Shropshire) 5, 18, 56, 147 water, supply of 13 defences 23, 24, 25 Birch Hill, see Manley gates 28 Birdoswald 73 orientation 15 Birley, Eric 1, 67, 187 ovens, 7, 34, 61 Blaen-cwm Bach (Glamorganshire) 19, 56, 57, 64, 110-112, 110, pits 33 111, 114 prehistoric barrows 32 defences 23, 24, 25, 111-12 siting 12, 39 enclosure 32 size/design 16, 18, 42, 44 gates 28, 31 stakes 27 as ‘gathering ground’ 60 Brompton (Shropshire) 35, 36, 56 orientation 14 chronology 37 ovens 33, 34, 112 campaigning route 37, 65, 148 siting 13, 39 defences 23, 24, 25 size/design 19, 42, 44, 45, 59 gates 28, 35 Blackbush Farm (Herefordshire) 48, 52, 63, 64, 69 orientation 15 Blacon Point Road (Cheshire) 152 possible camps 4, 154-5 Blaen Llia, see Plas-y-gors prehistoric barrows 32 bog/marshland and siting of camps 13, 20, 71, 106, 110, 116 size/design 16, 18, 19, 42, 43, 44, 58, 59 Bolanus, Vettius, period of 53 Brompton I 19, 56, 148 Boatside Farm (Radnorshire) 35, 56, 129, 128, 130 Brompton II 18, 56, 148 chronology 37 Brompton III 9, 154-5 gates 28 Brompton IV 9, 154-5 orientation 15 Brown Dykes 74, 86 siting 12 Browne, David 143 size/design 42, 57, 58 Bryn Tanat (Montgomeryshire) 157-8 Bonn (Germany) 74, 88 Bryn-y-Gefeiliau, see Llugwy practice-works 75 Bryncir, see Derwin Bach Boon, George C. 114 Buckton Park (Herefordshire) 35, 56,153 Bootham Stray (North Yorkshire) ‘practice-camps’ 74 auxiliary fort 153 Camp 1 75 gates 28 Camp 2 75 orientation 15 Boudica 21, 52 size/design 57 box-rampart 157, 158 65 Braich-ddû (Merionethshire) 69, 176, 178-9, 178, 179, 198 Burgh-by-Sands 74 defences 77 Burnswark (Dumfriesshire) 6, 30, 35 distance from ‘parent’ fort 70 see also siege camps gates 79, 87 Burton (Cheshire) 153 size/design 72, 75, 82, 83, 84, 85 Byford (Herefordshire) 56, 64, 153-4 Brampton Bryan (Herefordshire) 5, 19, 56, 146-47 gates 28, 30 as ‘gathering ground’ 60 Caebitra brook 148 orientation 14 Cae Gaer (Montgomeryshire) 69, 132, 152 siting 12 Caerau (Brecknockshire) size/design 16, 19, 42, 44, 59 auxiliary fort 69, 88, 91, 92 Brandon Camp (Herefordshire) 37, 147 marching-camp, see Beulah Branogenium/Bravonio 46 practice-camps, see Llwyncadwgan Brecon Gaer (Brecknockshire) auxiliary fort 39, 58, 59, 64, 68, 69, (Merionethshire) 57, 65, 69, 88 91, 96, 114 garrison 85-6 practice-camp 70 practice-camps 68, 70, 76, 77, 80, 186, also see Rhyd Sarn see also Aberyscir road 180, 183, 186 Brigantes 50, 53 Caergwanaf (Glamorganshire) 64, 66, 69 Brigetio, legionary fortress (Hungary) 74, 75 (Caernarfonshire) 65, 69 ‘practice-works’ 75 Caerleon (Monmouthshire) 4, 8, 66, 69

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foundation of 53 Castlefield Farm (Herefordshire) 48, 52, 63, 64, 69 Caer Llugwy / Bryn y Gefeiliau (Caernarfonshire) 69, 178 Castlesteads 74 (Caernarfonshire) 8, 46, 52, 53, 68, 69, 90 Catuvellauni 21 Caer Noddfa, see cavalry (equites) 41-2, 53, 60, 61, 83 Caerphilly (Glamorganshire) auxiliary fort 64, 69 Cawfields (Northumberland) 103 Caersws (Montgomeryshire) 4, 37, 46, 58, 63, 65, 69 Cawthorn (North Yorkshire) 7, 96, 112 road 130, 131, 152, 161 Camp C 17, 118, 144 see also Llywn-y-brain claviculae 30 Caerwent (Glamorganshire) 46 Cefn-caer, see Pennal Caesar, Julius, period of 27, 42, 55, 61 Cefn Ffordd 110, 114 Caledonii 53, 60 see also trackway caltrops (tribuli) 21, Colour Fig. 54 Cefn Hirgoed (Glamorganshire) 196 Cambrian Archaeological Association 67 Cefn Morfudd (Glamorganshire) 196 Camden, William 135 Cefn Perfedd, see Plas-y-gors Camelon (Stirlingshire) 36 Ceiriog, River 104, 105, 152 Camlad, River 145 Cellan, see Pant-teg Uchaf as campaigning route 65 centuria (century) 84, 86 Cammarch, Afon 13, 91 Cerealis, Petillius, period of 24, 25, 53, 60 Camnant, Afon, see Coelbren cereals, carbonised 34 Camulodunum, see Colchester Cerrig-y-drudion, campaigning route and possible location of camp followers, see lixae marching-camp 57, 106 campaign bases 35 cervi 14 campaigning routes 37, 60-66 cervoli 26, see valli see Clyro, Rhyn Park, Leighton Chapel Rigg (Northumberland) 30, 67 12, 101 size/design 73, 81, 86 Cappuck (Roxburghshire) 39 Chepstow (Monmouthshire) 48 Caratacus 46, 49, 50, 60, 62, 63 Chester (Cheshire) 6, 41, 46, 55, 64, 65, 66, 69 last stand 157 associated ‘practice works’ 69, 70, 71, 74, 74, 88 Cardiff (Glamorganshire) 69 pre-Flavian site 48, 53 early fort 4, 8, 48, 53 Chesterholm (Northumberland) campaigning route 64 fort 73, 74 Carlisle, N. 1, 67, 169 writing tablets 85 Carlops (Midlothian), marching-camp 20 chevauchée 61 annexe 104 Chew Green (Northumberland) marching-camps 39 Carmarthen (Carmarthenshire) 46, 64, 68, 69 Chew Green I 25 Carmel 52 Christleton (Cheshire) 69 see also lead pig Christleton 1 (Stamford Heath) 145 Carn Caca (Glamorganshire) 18, 56, 109, 112-14, 113 Christleton 2 (Stamford Heath) 153 defences 13, 24, 25, 114 Christleton 3 143 gates 29 distance from ‘parent’ base 71 orientation 15 proximity to road 70, 145 siting 13, 39, 64 size/design 75, 83, 86, 87 size/design 16, 42, 44, 57 Church Stretton 150 Carno (Montgomeryshire) 161 Cinder Lane, see Guilden Sutton 2 Carrawburgh 74 Civilis, Iulius, Cartimandua 53 rebellion of 24 Carvoran 73 period of 89, 90 Cassius Dio 61 Claridge, Amanda 30 Castell Collen (Radnorshire) Claudius, period of 51, 52, 60 auxiliary fort 1, 3, 37, 58, 59, 63, 65, 69, 91 clavicula 2, 7, 27-31, 28, 40, 79-81, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, chronology 88 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 116, 118, 119, 130, 131, 132, 133, practice-camps 68, location 188, size/design 77, 80, 81, 85 134, 135, 141, 144, 146, 153, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 175, 178, see Llandrindod Common 179, 181, 186, 192, 198 road 70, 130, 161 absence of 71 Castle Ditches (Llancarfan, Glamorganshire) 62 combined with traverse 81 Castledykes (Lanarkshire) 128 external 30, 28

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practice-camps 67-8, 79, 80 Crew, Peter 120, 156 re-use of 36, 87 crop-marks 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 28, 31, 32, 33, 38, 68, Fig. 49, Fig. 55, Clawdd Coch (Montgomeryshire) 6, 48, 56, 65 109, 125, 128, 135, 136, 139, 149, 150, 154, 155, 156, 172, 189, Clawdd Coch A 158 190, 192, 194 Clawdd Coch B 158 Cwm-is-y-rhiw, see Cwm Nant Cleddau, River 64 Cwm Nant (Radnorshire) 18, 56, 130-32, 131, 132 Clifford (Herefordshire) 35, 48, 64, 154 defences 24 Clun, River 146, 153 gates 12, 29 Clwyd, River 48, 49, 56, 63, 64, 69 orientation 12, 15 Clydach, Afon 101 relationship to other camps 58, 65,143 Clyro (Radnorshire) road 37, 58, 131 large fort/campaign base 2, 35, 37, 48, 63, 129, 154, 161 siting 12 marching-camp, see Boatside Farm size/design 16, 42, 44, 57 Clywedog, River 58 Cwmystwyth 133 Coed-y-Caerau (Monmouthshire) 48 Cynghordy (Carmarthenshire) 69, 165-6, 165 Coelbren (Glamorganshire) 18, 56, 114-16, 115 Cynghordy I 165-6, 165 auxiliary fort, 37, 39, 58, 59, 69, 91, 116 Cynghordy II 165-6, 165 defences 24 defences 77 gates 29 gates 79 orientation 15 siting 72 siting 12, 64 size/design 73, 76, 82, 83, 84 size/design 16, 42, 44, 45, 59 Cynon, River 118 water, supply of 13 Coesike East (Northumberland) 74, 86 Coesike West (Northumberland) camps, re-use of 71 Dacia 30, 61 Coesike West 1 74, 86 Davies, R.W. 68, 70-1, 88 Coesike West 2 74, 86 Decanti 46 coins Deceangli/Decangi 45, 46, 48, 49, 50, 56, 62, 63, 64, 69 British 46-7 Dee, River 13, 45, 48, 49, 54, 55, 56, 63, 65, 69, 109, 120 Roman, and dating of camps 36 defences Colchester 47, 49 temporary/permanent 21-6 Collens, J. 142 later use of 34-6 (Radnorshire) 48, 65, 69 see also banks, rampart, ditches, gates, valli Comãrnicel (Romania) 30 Degannwy 46 construction camp 5, 6, 7, 37 Demetae for legionary base 5-6 territory of 46, 48, 53, 56, 64, 69 for Antonine Wall 6, 38 Derwin Bach (Caernarfonshire) 56, 98, 99 see also labour-camp chronology 37 contubernium 39, 83, 84 defences 24 , River 46, 48, 54, 56, 63, 65, 69 gates 29 Cornovii orientation 12, 15 territory of 46, 47, 48, 49, 56, 64, 69 proximity to fort 37, 57, 65 civitas 46 siting 98 Corwen 55, 63, see also Penrhos size/design 42 Cound Hall (Shropshire) 5, 19, 35, 56, 148, 149 Derwydd-bach, see Derwin Bach chronology 37 Deva, see Chester gates 29 dilectus 90 ‘gathering ground’ 60, 65 Dinorben 62 orientation 15 Dinorwic 46 siting 12 ‘diplomas’ 89-90 size/design 16, 19, 42, 59 ditches counterscarp 26 size and shape of 21, 23, 24-6, 77-79 see also bank, rampart survival of 7 Court Farm Cropmark II (Radnorshire) 158 see also bank, defences, gates, rampart Craigarnhall (Stirlingshire) 20 Dobunni Craven Arms, see Stretford Bridge II coinage and territory 47, 48, 56, 69

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civitas 46 orientation 12, 14 dolabrae 14 relationship to other camps 58, 65, 143 Dolau (Radnorshire) 5, 37, 56, 161-2 siting 12, 39 Dolau Gaer, see Dolau size/design 16, 42, 44, 45, 57 Dolbelydr (Merionethshire) 3, 4, 69, 176, 179-80, 179, 180 Eshiels (Peeblesshire) 39 defences 77 Eskbank (Midlothian) 28, 35, 139 gates 79 Exeter 53, 66 size/design 72, 82, 84 Dolddinas (Merionethshire) 67, 68, 69, Colour Fig. 51, 177, 180-2, 180, 181 Fabricius, Ernst 67 defences 77-8, 79 Farnsfield (Nottinghamshire) 25 gates 79 Featherwood West (Northumberland) 17 ‘parent’ base 70 Ferndale 118 possible re-use of 36, 87 Fforest Gwladys, see Gelligaer Common road 70 Flavian, period of siting 71 forts 30, 58, 116 size/design 72, 73, 75, 76, 82, 83, 84, 85 marching-camps 30, 36, 39, 63, 64, 65, 66 Dolddinas I 68, 177, 180, 180, 182 foraging 62 Dolddinas II 68, 177, 180-1, 180 Forden (Montgomeryshire), see Thornbury Dolddinas III 68, Colour Fig. 51, 177, 181, 182 Forden I (Montgomeryshire) 56, 127, 152 Dolddinas IV 68, Colour Fig. 51, 177, 181, 182 Forden II (Montgomeryshire) 156 Dolddinas V 68, Colour Fig. 51, 177, 181, 182 Forden III (Montgomeryshire) 156 Dolwen (Montgomeryshire) 29, 56, 152 Forden Gaer (Montgomeryshire) 2, 9, 10, 37, 39, 57, 65, 69 Driver, Toby 4, 68, 105, 194, 195 cropmarks, 7 49 marching-camp, see Thornbury Dulas, River 58, 141 fortlets 87, see also Pen-min-cae and Waun Ddu (Y Pigwn III) 160 Dullatur I (Lanarkshire) 35, 36 Fox Covert Lane, see Picton Dunning (Perthshire) 31, 35, 36 Frere, S.Sheppard 63 Durno (Aberdeenshire) 41 Frisi, 90 Dwyfach, Afon 98 Frontinus, Iulius, period of 52, 66, 89, 116 Dwyryd, Afon 178 conquest of 53 Dynefor Park, Llandeilo (Carmarthenshire) 64, 69, 66 Fulford, Michael 42

Eaton Constantine, see Leighton Gallaberry (Dumfriesshire) 27 Eburones 61 Gallus, Aulus Didius, period of 51 economy 61 Gangani 48, 56, 69 economic warfare 62 Ganganorum Promontorium 46 Edward I, king, period of 45, 62 , see Rhyd Sarn bridge of boats 52 Garreglwyd, see Arosfa Garreg military operations 49, 55, 62 gates 27, 28-31, 77-81 Edward III, king, and camp orientation 14-15, 28 military operations 55, see also chevauchée and internal layout 20, 27, 28 Elan, River 58, 135 and later roads 28 Elm Bank, see Waverton and re-use of camp 35 enclosures dating of 30-31 prehistoric 32, 114 identification 8, 28 unknown date 112 ‘parrot’s beak’ type at forts 66 Erglodd (Cardiganshire) 69 positioning 12, 15, 20, 27, 28 ericus (hedgehog) 27 slighting of 28, 30 Esgair Ddu, see Pant-teg Uchaf types, 8, 27-8, 30, 54, see clavicula, traverse Esgair Perfedd (Radnorshire) 3, 18, 56, 133-5, 133, 134, Back Cover Gaul 61 defences 24, 133-5 Gelligaer (Glamorganshire) 3, 36, 64, 69, 88, 160, 169 gates, 12, 20, 29 Gelligaer Common (Glamorganshire) 3, 3, 67, 68, 69, 70, 85, 87, hollows 32-3, 103, 135 169-73, 169, 170, 171, 172 marshy ground 13 chronology 88

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defences 3, 77, 78 Guilden Sutton 2 (Cheshire) 69, 144 gates 79, 81 re-building of 30, 36, 71 Guilden Sutton 3 (Cheshire) 69, 144 re-use of 87 Gwynant, Pass 16 siting 72 Gwynllyn, Nant 135 size/design 72, 73, 76, 82, 83, 84, 85 Gelligaer Common I 169-70, 169, 170, 173 Gelligaer Common II 87, 169, 169-71, 169, 170, 173 Hadrian, period of 30, 88, 116, 153, 163 Gelligaer Common III 169, 171, 171, 172, 173 adlocutio 83 Gelligaer Common IV 3, 78, 169, 171-2, 172 in Britain 89 Gelligaer Common V 169, 172-3, 172 Hadrian’s Wall 73, 88, 89, 104 Gelligaer Common VI 169, 172-3, 172 Hafod Fawr (Carmarthenshire) 69, 166-70, 167, 168 Gelligaer Common VII 172-3, 196 defences 77 Gelligaer Common VIII 197 gates 79 geophysical survey 4, 9, 34, 35, 39, 112, 120, 122, 138, 145, 153, 155 road 70 Gerald of Wales 62 siting 72 Germanicus, period of size/design 73, 76, 82, 84 marching-camps and campaigns of 21, 26, 61 Haltwhistle Burn (Northumberland) 67 Gilliver, Catherine M. 41 Haltwhistle Burn 3, 74, 86 Girvan (Ayrshire) 36 Haltwhistle Burn 4, 73, 86 Glamorgan, Vale of 59, 64 Haltwhistle Common (Northumberland) 88 Glanmiheli (Montgomeryshire) 12, 56, 125, 126 Hanson, William S. 41 barrows 32, 125, 126 hearths 32 campaigning route 55, 65, 125 Henry II, king of England, period of 55 defences 23 Heol-ddu Uchaf, see Gelligaer Common gates 29 Heol y Gaer (Brecknockshire) 160 orientation 15 Hereford 64 possible road 125 Higham, Nicholas 145 siting 12, 39 Hindwell Farm (Radnorshire) 19, 33, 56, Colour Fig. 55, 135-8, size/design 42. 57 136, 137 Glan-yr-Afon, see Cwm Nant auxiliary fort 37, 48, 63, 65, 69, 136, 137 glass 36 barrows 32, 136, 137, 138 Glenlochar (Dumfriesshire) 33 chronology of 37, 136-8 Glenwhelt Leazes (Northumberland) 30, 81 gates 29 Gloucester (Gloucestershire) 47, 48, 63, 64 marching-camps 4, 6, 10, 34, 35, 56 Gogar Green (Midlothian) 36 orientation 15 Golden Mile, Cowbridge I and II (Glamorganshire) 197 pits 33, 33, 138 Goldsworthy, Adrian K. 60 possible palisade 138 grass-mark, see crop-marks prehistoric enclosure 32, 138 Great Chesters (Northumberland), practice-camps 73, 74 road 37, 138 Greenlee Lough (Northumberland) 25 siting 12, 37, 59 Greensforge (Staffordshire) 48 size and design 16, 43, 44, 57-8 Gresham, Colin A. 184 Hindwell Farm I 19, 33, 56, Colour Fig. 55, 138, 136, 137 Griffiths, William 187 Hindwell Farm II 6, 10, 56, 137, 137, 138 Grillone, A. 41 see also Walton Grindon Hill (Northumberland) practice-camp Hindwell Marching Camp II, see Walton IV builders 86 hill-forts 62 size 74 Hirfynydd (Glamorganshire) 87 Grindon School (Northumberland) practice-camp 88 Hogg, A.H.A. 3, 143, 165, 168 builders 86 Holder, Paul 88, 89-90 size 74 Holgan Camp 62 gromaticus 28 Hoole (Cheshire) 69, 71, 144 grooms 42 claviculae 30, 81 Guilden Sutton (Cheshire) 69, 143-4 Hordley (Shropshire) 159 distance from ‘parent’ base 71 Horstead 21 size/design 75, 87, 143-4 Houlder, Christopher 114 Guilden Sutton 1 (Cheshire) 69, 143 Housesteads (Northumberland) 73, 74

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Howey, see Llandrindod Common XIX ingots (pigs) of 46, 54; see also Carmel Howey Hall, see Llandrindod Common XXII lead-silver 52 Hyginus Gromaticus 11, 12, 13, 21, 25, 26, 41, 109 Legio I Adiutrix at Brigetio (Hungary), practice-works 36, 74 De munitionibus castrorum 21, 26, 27, 40, 40 Legio II Adiutrix 66, 68, 144 and the gates of the camp 27, 30 practice-works 36, 74 and orientation of the camp 14 Legio II Augusta 53, 66, 68 Legio XIV Gemina 53, 66 Legio I Hispana 60, 66 Iceni 21 practice-works 36, 74 Inchtuthil (Perthshire) Legio I Minervia at Xanten and Bonn (Germany), practice-works construction/labour camp 6, 6, 33, 36, 74 holding-capacity 41 Legio XX Valeria Victrix 47, 49, 68, 144 legionary fortress 41 Leighton (Shropshire) pits 6, 33 campaigning base 35, 48 Inveresk (East Lothian) 34, 36 possible camps, Leighton I, II, III 155 Ireland 46, 49, 53 Leintwardine (Herefordshire) 35, 46, 69, 63 Ismore Coppice (Shropshire) 35, 56, 150 road 151 chronology 37 Lenoir, M. 41 gates 29 Leucarum, see Loughor orientation 15 Lewis, S. 173 siting 12 Limestone Corner (Northumberland) 24, 35, 45, 103 size/design 43 Little Clyde (Lanarkshire) 41 Israel 30 Livy 27, 60 Ithon, River 58, 65 lixae 42 Ivington (Herefordshire) 56, 154 Llafar, Afon 72, 180 Llanarmon Dyffryn Clwyd, possible camp site 57, 58, 106 Llanbadarn, see Aberystwyth Jarrett, Michael G. 46, 47, 49, 51, 63, 64, 89-90, 160 Llanberis, Pass of 12, 65, 101 Jay Lane (Herefordshire) 37, 48, 63 Llancaiach Fawr, see Gelligaer Common VII Jigur (Romania) 30 Llandegai 52 Jones, G. D. Barri 3, 4, 6, 10, 25, 36, 50, 59, 63, 96, 104, 157, 168 Llandovery (Carmarthenshire) auxiliary fort 59, 64, 68, 69, 96, 166 Jones, J.F. 101, 104 chronology 88 Jordan 30 practice-camps 69, 76, 77, 81, 85 Josephus, Flavius 21, 60 road 70 Judaea 21 see also Allt yr Hafod-fawr/Hafod Fawr Llandrindod Common (Radnorshire) 1, 2, 4, 6, 10, 67, 69, 79, 187-94, 188-189 Kalkriese (Germany) 42 chronology of camps 88 Kenchester (Herefordshire) 46, 64, 130, road 154, 159 defences 77 Kerry 125 gates 30, 79, 80 possible road 125 and road 70, 188 Kimbolton (Herefordshire) 159 tituli/traverses 87, 88 Kintore (Aberdeenshire) siting 72 as part of a series 55 size/design 72, 73, 76, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86 pits/ovens 7, 32, 34, 138, 166 Llandrindod Common I 187, 189, 194 re-use of camp 36 Llandrindod Common II 187-8, 189, 194 water, supply of 13 Llandrindod Common III 187, 189, 194 Knighton 63, 65 Llandrindod Common IV 187-8, 188, 194 Llandrindod Common V 187-8, 188, 194 Llandrindod Common VI 187-9, 188, 189, 194 labour-camp, see construction-camp Llandrindod Common VII 187-9, 188, 189, 194 Lafan Sands 52 Llandrindod Common VIII 187, 188, 189, 194 land-use 8 Llandrindod Common IX 9, 187, 188, 189-90, 189, 191, 194 legionary fortress, see Bonn, Brigetio, Caerleon, Chester, Exeter, Llandrindod Common X 187, 188, 190, 190, 194 Inchtuthil, York Llandrindod Common XI 187, 188, 190, 190, 191, 194 lead Llandrindod Common XII 187, 188, 190, 191, 194

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Llandrindod Common XIII 187, 188, 190, 191, 194 Llyn Hiraethlyn IV 177, 183-4, 183 Llandrindod Common XIV 187, 188, 190, 191, 194 Llˆyn, peninsula 46 Llandrindod Common XV 187, 188, 191-2, 192, 194 Llywelyn ap Gruffudd 62 Llandrindod Common XVI 187, 188, 192, 192, 194 Lochlands III (Stirlingshire) 30, 31 Llandrindod Common XVII 187, 188, 192, 194 ovens/cooking-hollows 34, 36 Llandrindod Common XVIII 187, 188, 192-3, 193, 194 Longforgan (Perthshire) annexe to camp 104 Llandrindod Common XIX 188, 193-94, 193 Loughor (Glamorganshire) auxiliary fort 31, 69, 88, 173, 175 Llandrindod Common XX 4, 187, 188, 190, 191, 194 practice-camps 68, 69, 70, 76, 77, 80, 85 Llandrindod Common XXI 4, 187, 188, 190, 194 see also Mynydd Carn-goch Llandrindod Common XXII 194 Luentinum 46 (Radnorshire) 10, 58, 65 Lugg, River 48, 56, 59, 63, 69 Llanfairfechan 52 Lycia et Pamphylia 51 Llanfor (Merionethshire) 3, 4, 18 Lyne II (Peeblesshire) cooking-hollows 34 auxiliary fort 37, 57, 63, 69 chronology 37 defences 23, 24, 31 Machaerus (Jordan) siege-camps 6 gates 29 Maen Madog, see Plas-y-gors geophysical survey 34 Magna, see Kenchester ‘supply-base’/military compound 32, 37, 63, 76 Malling (Stirlingshire) 17 marching-camps 3, 4, 56, 120-2, 121 Manchester 70 prehistoric barrow 32, 122 maniple 85 orientation 15 Manley (Cheshire) 69, 144 as part of a series 58, 63 size/design 75, 87 siting 12, 35 Manning, W.H. 46, 47, 63, 64 size/design 16, 43, 44, 45, 58 Mansel Gamage (Herefordshire) 159 Llanfor I 18, 26, 56, 120-2, 121 maps, Roman 55 Llanfor II 6, 10, 35, 56, 120-2, 121 marching-camps Llanio (Cardiganshire) auxiliary fort 58, 64, 69 asymmetrical 16-20 practice-camps 68, 69, 70, 76, 77 as base for operations 7 see also Pant-teg Uchaf bog/marsh, avoidance of 13, 20 Llansantffraid ym Mechain 157 campaigning routes 62-5 Llanymynech (Shropshire) 159 capacity 39-45 Llanymynech Mountain/Hill (Montgomeryshire) 6, 7, 50, 156-7 clusters 9, 10, 35, 43, 45, 63 see also Abertanat/Bryn Tanat/Clawdd Coch choice of site 10, 11-14 Llia, Afon 91, 93 classification 5-7, 37-8 Llwyncadwgan (Carmarthenshire) 69, 163-4, 163 corners 7, 13, 20 gates 80 dating 30-31, 36-8 proximity to fort (Caerau) 70 defences 20-5, Fig. 54 size/design 76, 83, 84, 85 distribution 8, 7, 10, 56, 60 Llwyncadwgan I 92, 163-4, 163 5, 7, 25-6 Llwyncadwgan II 92, 163, 164 and forts 12, 30, 37 Llwyn-crwn (Merionethshire) 69, 176, 182-3, 182 ‘gathering-grounds’ 35, 37, 58, 60, 63 defences 77 as instruments of aggression 60 gates 80 internal structures 32-4 size/design 73, 75, 82, 84 ‘legionary’ type 54, 59 Llwyn-crwn II (Merionethshire) 176, 195 and military strategy 60 Llwyn-y-brain (Montgomeryshire) 7, 69, 161 morphology and atypical plans 16-20, 40 Llygwy, River 65 orientation 14-5 Llyn Hiraethlyn (Merionethshire) 4, 70, 69, 72, 177, 183-4 ovens 7, 23 defences 77 palisade 21 gates 80 rampart 5, 7 proximity to road 70 recognition 8, 67 size/design 68, 72, 73, 76, 82, 83, 84, 85 re-use of 28, 38, 43-6 Llyn Hiraethlyn I 177, 183-4, 183 and roads 36, 39, 148, 154 Llyn Hiraethlyn II 177, 183-4, 183 series 36, 55, 57 Llyn Hiraethlyn III 177, 183-4, 183 site clearance 13-4

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size 5, 16-20, 42-3 Neath (Glamorganshire) surveying 14, 17-20 auxiliary fort 59, 69, 110 uneven ground 14, 42 road 70, 91, 114 water, supply of 13 Vale of 57, 59, 112 and woodland 14, 95 River (Nedd) 48, 56, 69, 110 Maridunum, see Carmarthen Neath Higher, see Coelbren Marteg, River 58, 128 Nero, period of 37, 51, 52, 53 Masada (Israel) siege-camps 6, 30 Neuss (Germany) legionary fortress 70 Maurice, Strategikon 30 Newstead (Roxburghshire), auxiliary fort and claviculae 7 Mawddach, River 53, 63, 65 Nidum, see Neath Maxwell, Gordon S. 41, 42, 44-5, 63, 65, 66 Normandykes camp (Aberdeenshire), as part of a series 55 medieval campaigns, comparative 54-5 Norton (Shropshire) 12, 35, 37, 56, 150 Mediolanium, see Whitchurch Norton I (Wroxeter ‘A’) 18, 56, 150 Melin Court, see Carn Caca Norton II (Wroxeter ‘B’) 56, 150 Menai Strait 52, 53, 60 Norton III, IV & V 155 Menapii 61 dating of camps 37 merchants, see traders gates 29 Middlewich (Cheshire) 153 orientation 15 military exercises 5 size/design 16, 43, 44, 58 military pace 55 Nowtler Hill 1 (Cumbria) 74, 86 military surveyors, see gromaticus Nowtler Hill 2 (Cumbria) 74, 86 Millside Wood II (Roxburghshire) annexe to camp 104 Numantia (Spain), marching-camps 30 Milrighall (Roxburghshire) 30 Numidia, army of 83, 89 external claviculae 144 Mona, see Anglesey Monks Cross (North Yorkshire) legionary ‘practice-works’ 74, 75 Oakwood (Selkirkshire) Monmouth, early fort 4, 48, 63 plan 17 Mons Graupius, battle-site 50, 61, 62 cuspate gates 30 Britons at 89 obstacles, see cervi, cervoli, valli, ericus Morgan, Llywelyn Col. 173 Octapitae 48, 53, 56, 69 Moridunum, see Carmarthen Offa’s Dyke 148, 159 Mortimer’s Cross 59 Old Oswestry 159 Moss Side 2 (Cumbria) 20, 104 Onny, River 13, 150 Muiryfold (Moray), as part of a series 55 as campaigning route, 65 Mule (Miwl), River 55, 125 Orashtie, Mountains (Romania) 30 as campaigning-route 65 37, 45, 50 mules, see baggage-animals conquest of 51 Mur-llwyd (Merionethshire) 174, 195, 195 rebellion of 61, 62 Musgrove, R.K. 25 territory of 46, 47, 48, 53, 56, 69 Musson, Christopher R. 4, 10, 122 Oswestry 55 Mynydd Carn-goch (Glamorganshire) 3, 67, 69, 72, 173-5, enclosure (Shropshire) 159 173, 174 ovens 30, 39, 112, 147, 158 defences 77 gates 80, 81 size/design 72, 73, 82, 83, 84 palaeoenvironment 14, 72 Mynydd Carn-goch I 81, 173-5, 173, 174 palisade 21, 26, 136 Mynydd Carn-goch II 173-5, 173, 174 Pant-teg Uchaf (Cardiganshire) 1, 4, 67, 69, 70, 164-5, 164 Mynydd Carn-goch III 175, 197 defences 77 Mynydd Myddfai, see Waun Ddu gates 80 and road 70 size/design 72, 73, 76, 82, 84 Nahal Hever (Israel), marching-camp 30 Pant-teg Uchaf I 164-5, 164, 196 Nantmel, Y Gaer, Dolau 37, 58 Pant-teg Uchaf II 165, 196 Nantmel, see Trefal Pant-teg Uchaf III 164-5, 164 Nant Rhydwilim 15 Pant-y-ffin, see Pant-teg Uchaf Nash-Williams, V.E. 2 parchmark, see crop-marks

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Pathhead I (Midlothian) 34 size/design 75, 86-7 Paullinus, Suetonius, period of 51, 52, 53, 60, 61 pila muralia 21, 26, 27 peat-cutting 33 Pipers Ash, see Guilden Sutton 3 pedatura 41 pits 32, 33, 39 Pen-Heol-Adam, see Gelligaer Common pit-circle, prehistoric 139 Pen-Llwyn (Cardiganshire) 69 Pitts, Lynn 41 Pen Llystyn (Caernarfonshire) 31, 37, 66, 98 Plas-y-gors (Brecknockshire) 4, 18, 56, 91-5, 93, 94 Pen-min-cae (Radnorshire) 69, 91, 187 berm 25 Pennal (Merionethshire) chronology 66 auxiliary fort 63, 69 defences 23, 24 improbable camp 161 gates 28, 29, 58 Pen Plaenau (Denbighshire) 5, 19, 22, 56, Colour Fig. 53, 104-7, orientation 15 105, 107 pollen analysis 13 campaigning route 37, 55 rampart foundation 25, 78-9 counterscarp 26 road 39, 58 defences 24 siting 12 gates 29, 30 size/design 16, 43, 44 orientation 12, 14, 15, 28 Pliny 52, 53 as part of series 57, 58, 59, 155 pollen 72 siting 13, 14, 39, 64, 65 Polybius 40, 41 size/design 16, 17, 19, 42, 44, 58 Pont Rhyd Sarn, see Rhyd Sarn water, supply of 13 pottery Penrhos (Denbighshire) 19, 56, 106, 108, 109 Roman 36, 138, 145, 160 campaigning route 37, 63 later prehistoric 45, 47 gates 29 practice-camps orientation 15 clusters 67 as part of series 57, 59, 63, 65 corners 5, 67 siting 13, 39, 64 defences 77-9 size/design 43, 44, 58 definition 5, 67-8 Pentrehyling (Shropshire), auxiliary fort 37, 65, 69, 148, see also demolition 71 Brompton discovery 1 Pen-y-coedcae (Glamorganshire) 18, 56, 117, 116-18 distribution 68-71 defences 24 gates 5, 67, 79-81 gates 29 recognition 67, 68 orientation 15 re-use of 87 siting 13, 39, 64 and roads 5, 70, 164, 169, 176, 181, 186 size/design 16, 43, 44, 59 situation 71-2 Pen y Crocbren (Montgomeryshire) 69 size/design 67, 72, 73-7 Penydarren (Glamorganshire) 64, 69 survival 68-70 Pen y Gaer (Brecknockshire) 69 praefectus castrorum 50, 59 Pen-y-gwryd (Caernarfonshire) 3, 12, 18, 23, 56, 100-101 pre-Flavian 10, 37, 48, 64, 65 berm 25 prehistoric features 32 defences 23, 24, 26, 78-9 Price, Thomas 1, 2, 10, 67, 79, 173, 187ff gates 28, 29 Priory Wood (Monmouthshire) 156 orientation 15 Ptolemy Geographia 46 siting 11-12, 39, 57, 65 Pumsaint (Carmarthenshire) auxiliary fort 64, 69 size/design 16, 18, 43, 44, 45, 66 chronology 88 water, supply of 13 practice-camps 68, 69, 70, 76, 77 Pen-y-Waun, see Mynydd Carn-goch Pyrddin, Afon 114 Perry, River 151 Perry Farm, see Whittington pes Drusianus 41-2, 82-3 Radnor Forest 65 pes monetalis 41-2, 81-4, 86 Raedykes (Aberdeenshire) 25 Philpott, Robert A. 144 rampart 22, 25 Pickering Moor 1 (North Yorkshire), see Cawthorn see also bank, defences Picton (Cheshire) 71, 144 Ravenna Cosmography 46

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recruits, training of 88-89 Simpson, Grace 125 Redhill (Shropshire) 162 slag 147 Rees, T. 1, 96 Snowdonia 53, 54, 63, 65, 66, 101 Rey Cross (County Durham) 25 soil-mark 164, 165 gates 27, 30, 35 Stafford Common (Glamorganshire) 69, 175, 175 size/design 41 defences 78 63, 130, 135, 161 gates 80 Rhine, River 61, 90 siting 72 Rhondda Fach/Fawr, River 118 size/design 83, 85 Rhyd Sarn (Merionethshire) 4, 69, 186-7, 186 Stamford Heath, Christleton 1 (Cheshire) 69, 145 date 88 Stamford Heath, Christleton 2 (Cheshire) 69, 153 defences 78 Stamford Lodge, see Stamford Heath, Christleton gates 30, 80 Stanford, S.C. 153 size/design 73, 76, 83, 84, 85, 86 Stanwix 74 Rhyd Sarn I 186-7, 186 Stracathro (Perthshire), gate type 30, 36, 59, 66 Rhyd Sarn II 5, 6, 186-7, 186 Stretford Bridge (Shropshire) 56, 150-1 Rhydwilym, Nant 104, 105 auxiliary fort 48, 69, 150 Rhyn Park (Shropshire) 5, 7, 33, 48, 50, 56, 58, 64, 138, 155 date 37 Richardson, A. 41, 42 gates 29 Richmond, Ian A. 41 marching-camps 56, 150-1 roads orientation 15 Roman 4, 10, 64, 65, 69, 111, 114, 125, 164-65 and road 150 and campaigning-routes 57, 58, 59 siting 12, 14, 65 and marching-camps 4, 10, 23, 33-34, 145, 154, 155 size/design 16, 43, 44, 57 and practice-camps 70, 91, 93, 95, 164, 165-66, 166-69, 176, Stretford Bridge I 18, 56, 150 183, 186 Stretford Bridge II 18, 56, 150-1 Rosolven 114 Stretford Bridge III 56, 155 Roy, William 1, 41, 42, 96 Stretton Grandison (Herefordshire) 48, 64, 69 Ruthin 64 Sugambri 61 Sunny Rigg 1 (Northumberland) 74, 86 Sunny Rigg 3 (Northumberland) 73, 86 St. Clears 64 surveyor, see gromaticus St. David’s Head 46 St. Harmon, see Cwm Nant St. Joseph, J. K. 3, 4, 5, 10, 41, 65, 109, 120, 125, 130, 146, 147, Tacitus, Cornelius 5, 37, 46, 89 150, 151, 152, 155, 160, 162, 169, 172, 175, 176, 185-86 Agricola 46, 51, 52, 53, 54, 59, 60, 90 Sarmizegethusa Regia (Romania) 30, 61 Annals 21, 46, 47, 49, 50, 51, 52, 60, 61, 63, 65 , see roads Histories 24, 46, 53, 60 Scapula, Ostorius, period of 47, 50, 51, 61 tactics 60-66 Scipio Africanus 36, 71 Taff, River 48, 56, 69, 116 Sea Mills 63 Tanat, River 6, 48, 56, 63, 65, 69 sea, transport by 63 Tegeingl 46, see Decangi/Deceangli Seatsides I (Northumberland) 81 Tel Abara (Jordan) 30 , see Caernarfon Teme, River 13, 48, 56, 63, 65, 69, 146, 153 Sellwood, Lyn 47 The Gaer, see Clyro servants, of soldiers 42 Thornbury (Montgomeryshire) 2, 10, 37, 18, 56, 125-8, 127 Severn, River 11, 13, 45, 46, 47, 48, 56, 58, 63, 69, 148, 150, 151 and fort 125 Severus, Septimius 41, 61, 90 orientation 15 Shrewsbury 55 road 125 Sibdon Carwood (Shropshire) 159 siting 12, 65 siege camps 5, 35, 157, see also Burnswark size/design 16, 20, 43, 44, 57 Silures 10, 50 Tiberius, period of 61, 63 civitas 46 titulum/titulus see traverse conquest of 52, 53, 116 Toller, Hugh 4, 105 territory 46-7, 48, 49, 51, 56, 63, 64, 69 Tomen y Mur (Merionethshire) threat of transplantation 61 auxiliary fort 37, 65, 69, 88, 176, 178

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convergence of medieval army 55 orientation 15 practice-camps 68, 69, 70, 71, 75-6, 77, 80, 81, 85, 88, 178-85, siting 13, 39, 64 see also Braich-ddû/Dolbelydr/Dolddinas/Llwyn-crwn/Llyn size/design 16, 17, 43, 44, 58 Hiraethlyn/Tomen y Mur West Twyn y wern (Brecknockshire) 160 road 57 Tyn-y-bryn (Montgomeryshire) 68, 197 Tomen y Mur East (Merionethshire) 35, 37, 56, 69, 122-24, 123, T’yn-y-wern (Denbighshire) 156 124, 172 Ty’r Mynydd, see Gelligaer Common chronology 39 Tywi, River 10, 48, 56, 64, 69 defences 24 gates 28, 29 orientation 15 Uffington (Shropshire) 12, 35, 37, 39, 56, 58, 106 proximity to fort 57, 65, 122 defences 151 road 39, 124 gates 29 siting 12 orientation 15 size/design 43, 66 as part of series 57, 59 Tomen y Mur East I 35, 37, 56, 69, 122-5, 123, 124, 176 siting 12, 39 Tomen y Mur East II 56, 69, 122-25, 123, 124, 176 size/design 16, 43, 44 Tomen y Mur West (Merionethshire) 69, 176, 184-5, 184, 185 Uffington I 19, 56, 151 defences 78 Uffington II 19, 56, 151 gates 80 Upper Affcot (Shropshire) 56, 151 proximity to fort 70 defences 24 size/design 72, 75, 82, 83, 84, 85 gates 29 Tomen y Mur West I 2, 67, 176, 184-5, 184, 185 orientation 15 Tomen y Mur West II 176, 184-5, 184, 185 siting 12 trackways 109, 114, 130, 133, see Cefn Ffordd size/design 43, 44, 57 traders 42 Upper Lodge, see Cynghordy training-grounds 68ff Upton (Cheshire) 69, 71, 145-6 Trajan, emperor 30, 90 distance from Chester 71 column of 14, 30, 32, 88 palaeoenvironment 72 traverse (titulus/titulum) proximity to road 70 at marching-camps 7, 8, 22, 27-31, 28, 35, 40, 110, 146 size/design 75, 83, 86-7 combined with clavicula 2, 81 Upton 1 145 at practice-camps 68, 79, 80, 167-8, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, Upton 2 145 185, 184, 186, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193 Upton 3 145 Trawscoed (Cardiganshire) 64, 69 Upton 4 145-6 Trecastle Mountain see Y Pigwn Upton 6 146 Trefal (Radnorshire) 18, 56, 141-3, 141, 142 Upton-by-Cheshire High School, see Upton defences 24 Upton-by-Chester, see Upton gates 29 Upton Grange (Cheshire) 69, 153 orientation 15 Upton Heath, see Upton relationship to others 58, 65, 135 Upton Recreation Centre, see Upton siting 13, 39 Usipi, mutiny of 90 size/design 16, 43, 44, 57, 132 Usk, River 48, 56, 69 Treoda (Glamorganshire) 160-1 as campaigning route 39, 59 Treval, see Trefal Usk, fortress (Monmouthshire) 4, 8, 37, 47, 48, 51, 52, 54, 65, 69 Tre’r Ceiri 62 garrison 66 tribes 46 tribuli 27, see caltrops tribunalia 32 Valens, Manlius 51 Troutbeck I (Cumbria) 30, 144 valli 26, 27 Tryweryn, R. 120 Van Arsdell, Robert 47 Turpilianus, Petronius, period of 53 Varus, Q. 42 Twyn-y-briddallt (Glamorganshire) 13, 13, 18, 56, 118-20, 118, 119 Vegetius Epitoma Rei Militaris 11, 21, 50 chronology 66 on camp building 21, 35, 81, 83, 103 defences 24 on camp defence 21, 26 gates 28, 29 on camp design 16

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on choice of terrain 11 gates 29 on the ditch 25-6, 78 siting 14 on the orientation of camp 14, 15 orientation 15 on the rampart 22, 25 as part of series 57, 58, 59, 63, 65 on recruits and camp building 67, 77, 81 pits and C14 date 151 on the re-use of camp 34 size/design 16, 43, 44 on role of equites 83 Whitton 62 , see Caerwent Wigmore (Herefordshire) 5, 56, 154, 154 Veranius, Q., period of 51, 52 gates 29 Vespasian, period of 36, 53 orientation 15 Vetera (Germany) 70 Wilderspool 70 camps 74, 75, 88 Wilson, David R. 5 vicus 7, 37 Wistanstow (Shropshire) 159 Vindolanda, see Chesterholm Wnion Valley, see Rhyd Sarn Viroconium, see Wroxeter Wrekin, The 49 Wroxeter (Shropshire) 10, 11, 46, 48, 49, 56, 58, 65, 69, 148, 150, 155 Walford (Herefordshire) 18, 56,147 fortress 35, 37, 39, 51-2, 63, garrison of 66 gates 29, 31 as ‘gathering ground’ 65 orientation 15 see also Norton size/design 16, 17, 43, 44, 57-8 Wye, River 12, 13, 48, 56, 58, 59, 63, 64, 69, 128, 132, 152 Wall Town (Shropshire) 48 Walton (Radnorshire) 4, 12, 37-8, 38, 35, 56, Colour Fig. 49, 135-41, 140 Xanten, see Vetera chronology 37 classification of camps 38 gates 28, 29 Y Gaer, see Dolau as gathering ground 65 Y Pigwn (Brecknockshire) 1, 1-2, 7, 11, 17, 18, 19, 35, 56, orientation 15 Colour Fig. 52, 95-8, 95, 97 possible construction-camp 37 campaigning route 64 prehistoric features 32, 139, 140 corners 17, 20, 106 re-use 35, 39 craters 32 siting 12, 37, 39 defences 24 size/design 16, 43, 44, 57 gates 28, 29, 30 Walton I 18, 56, 56, Colour Fig. 49, 139, 140 internal features 98 Walton II 18, 38, 56, 56, Colour Fig. 49, 139, 140 orientation 14 Walton III 18, 56, 56, 139-40, 140 quarrying 32 Walton IV 152 rampart 96 Walton Cropmark II 158 relationship to road 58 see also Hindwell Farm siting 13, 14, 42, 64 Watchclose (Cumbria) 74, 86 size/design 16, 41, 43, 44, 58, 59 water, supply of 13 Y Pigwn I 19, 56, Colour Fig. 52, 95-8, 95, 97, 106 Waun Ddu (Carmarthenshire) 160 Y Pigwn II 18, 56, Colour Fig. 52, 96-8, 95, 97 Waverton (Cheshire) 69, 71, 146 Y Pigwn III, see Waun Ddu Webster, Graham 26, 51, 151 see also Allt yr Hafod-fawr/Hafod Fawr Webster, Peter V. 25 York, legionary practice-works 75, 88 Weston under Penyard 48, 64 Ystwyth, River 135 Whitchurch (Shropshire) 46, 48 Ystradfellte, see Plas-y-gors Whittington (Shropshire) 5, 12, 19, 56, 106, 151 Ythan Wells (Aberdeenshire) 55 defences 23, 24

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