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Germinal Matrix-Intraventricular Hemorrhage: a Tale of Preterm Infants

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Germinal Matrix-Intraventricular Hemorrhage: a Tale of Preterm Infants Hindawi International Journal of Pediatrics Volume 2021, Article ID 6622598, 14 pages https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6622598 Review Article Germinal Matrix-Intraventricular Hemorrhage: A Tale of Preterm Infants Walufu Ivan Egesa ,1 Simon Odoch,1 Richard Justin Odong,1 Gloria Nakalema,1 Daniel Asiimwe ,2 Eddymond Ekuk,3 Sabinah Twesigemukama,1 Munanura Turyasiima ,1 Rachel Kwambele Lokengama,1 William Mugowa Waibi ,1 Said Abdirashid,1 Dickson Kajoba,1 and Patrick Kumbowi Kumbakulu1 1Department of Paediatrics and Child Health, Faculty of Clinical Medicine and Dentistry, Kampala International University, Uganda 2Department of Surgery, Faculty of Clinical Medicine and Dentistry, Kampala International University, Uganda 3Department of Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, Mbarara University of Science and Technology, Uganda Correspondence should be addressed to Walufu Ivan Egesa; [email protected] Received 20 December 2020; Accepted 26 February 2021; Published 16 March 2021 Academic Editor: Somashekhar Marutirao Nimbalkar Copyright © 2021 Walufu Ivan Egesa et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Germinal matrix-intraventricular hemorrhage (GM-IVH) is a common intracranial complication in preterm infants, especially those born before 32 weeks of gestation and very-low-birth-weight infants. Hemorrhage originates in the fragile capillary network of the subependymal germinal matrix of the developing brain and may disrupt the ependymal lining and progress into the lateral cerebral ventricle. GM-IVH is associated with increased mortality and abnormal neurodevelopmental outcomes such as posthemorrhagic hydrocephalus, cerebral palsy, epilepsy, severe cognitive impairment, and visual and hearing impairment. Most affected neonates are asymptomatic, and thus, diagnosis is usually made using real-time transfontanellar ultrasound. The present review provides a synopsis of the pathogenesis, grading, incidence, risk factors, and diagnosis of GM-IVH in preterm neonates. We explore brief literature related to outcomes, management interventions, and pharmacological and nonpharmacological prevention strategies for GM-IVH and posthemorrhagic hydrocephalus. 1. Introduction found no significant improvement in survival without neona- tal and long-term morbidity among VLBW infants between Germinal matrix-intraventricular hemorrhage (GM-IVH) 1997 and 2002. remains a devastating neurological complication with con- siderable mortality [1] and neurodevelopmental disability 2. Anatomy and Pathogenesis of GM-IVH [2]. Hemorrhage originates in the capillary network of the subependymal germinal matrix (GM) of the developing brain The GM is located in the subependyma of the ventricular and may disrupt the ependymal lining and progress into the walls. It gives origin to the cerebral neuroblasts and glia, is lateral cerebral ventricle [3, 4]. Although significant strides in highly cellular and gelatinous, and is richly vascularized by obstetrics and neonatal medicine have led to improved sur- capillaries that are poorly supported by muscle or collagen vival of preterm infants with lower gestational age and birth [11]. Vascularization of the GM is prominent from 7-8 weight [5–7], we seem to have reached the nib of our ability weeks of gestation and persists into the beginning of the to ensure morbidity-free survival of very-low-birth-weight third trimester [12, 13]. The thickness of the GM decreases (VLBW) infants in advanced care settings [8, 9]. In the after 24 weeks of gestation and almost disappears by 36–37 United States, for example, Fanaroff and colleagues [10] weeks [11]. Animal studies showed that the characteristic 2 International Journal of Pediatrics architecture of the subependymal matrix as the border zone lation in neonatal intensive care units (NICUs), later declin- between cerebral arteries and the collection zone of the ing by three quarters to 12.5% in 2005, probably as a result of deep cerebral veins makes it susceptible to focal hypoxic improvements in ventilators, and the introduction of surfac- changes [13]. tant and corticosteroids. Based on age at onset, almost 40.6% The pathogenesis of GM-IVH is intricate and multifacto- of low-birth-weight (<2.5 kg) preterm neonates develop GM- rial, but mostly attributed to the combined fragility of the IVH within the first 3 days of life, 50% by day 5, and 71.5% by primitive GM vasculature, fluctuations in cerebral blood flow day 7 [28]. (CBF) due to low mean arterial pressure, and impaired cere- bral autoregulation in clinically unstable preterm neonates 5. Risk Factors for Development and [12, 14, 15] which increases the likelihood of vascular rup- Progression of GM-IVH ture, resulting in hemorrhage that may either be restricted to the GM or extends to the adjacent lateral ventricle. Hyp- Various pre-, peri-, and postnatal factors have been impli- oxia in the GM triggers upregulation and expression of cated as independent risk factors for GM-IVH in preterm growth factors VEGF and angiopoietin-2 which induce neonates. These include in vitro fertilization, absence of ante- angiogenesis. This consequently leads to formation of fragile natal care, lack of maternal prenatal steroid administration, nascent vessels that lack pericytes, display immature basal chorioamnionitis, multiple gestation, HIV exposure, fetal lamina low in fibronectin, and have astrocyte end-feet cover- distress, vaginal delivery, outborn status, male gender, lower age that is deficient in glial fibrillary acidic protein [11, 16]. In gestational age and birth weight, resuscitation at birth, deliv- addition, platelet or coagulation disorders may accentuate ery room intubation, anemia (low hematocrit), and blood the hemorrhage [11]. Hemorrhagic parenchymal infarction transfusion [22, 25, 26, 28–35]. Other risk factors include is thought to occur when venous occlusion from a hematoma clinically significant patent ductus arteriosus [36], pneumo- impairs perfusion in the periventricular white matter [17]. thorax [33, 37], higher fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO2) during the first 24 hours, early- and late-onset sepsis [31, 3. Grading of GM-IVH 33], postnatal hydrocortisone administration for hypoten- sion, inotrope use [29, 34, 38], respiratory distress syndrome Grading systems developed by Papile et al. [18] and Volpe are requiring mechanical ventilation, hyponatremia, hyperglyce- the most widely accepted, although several others exist [19]. mia [32], hypercapnia [36, 38], and severe metabolic acidosis Using computed tomography scan, Papile et al. [18] devel- [34, 39]. Studies have also indicated that preterm neonates oped a four-grade classification of GM-IVH based on the born at lower health facilities [34] and those transferred to location and severity of hemorrhage. Grade I is defined by another hospital after birth [25, 40] are more likely to develop hemorrhage that is confined to the GM, grade II by extension GM-IVH. As such, women in preterm labor should be trans- of hemorrhage into lateral ventricles without ventricular dila- ported to a tertiary health facility that specializes in high-risk tation, grade III when ventricular hemorrhage is present in deliveries [38]. Equally significant are genetic risk factors such addition to ventricular dilatation, whereas grade IV is defined as factor V Leiden (Arg506Gln), prothrombin (G20210A) by the presence of parenchymal hemorrhage [18]. A similar gene mutations, and methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase grading system by Volpe is based on cranial ultrasound scan (MTHFR 1298A>C) polymorphism [24, 41, 42]. These risk (CUS). Grade I refers to hemorrhage confined to the sube- factors are summarized in Table 1. pendymal GM, and grade II as hemorrhage within the lateral A proportion of preterm neonates with previously diag- ventricle without ventricular dilation and/or hemorrhage nosed mild GM-IVH may deteriorate to severe GM-IVH. occupying less than 50% of the ventricle. Grade III hemor- Several risk factors including maternal lower genital tract rhage is defined by ventricular dilation and/or hemorrhage infection, lower gestational age [43], necrotizing enterocolitis occupying more than 50% of the ventricle, while grade IV (NEC), and thrombocytopenia [44] have been documented. is ventricular hemorrhage extending into the surrounding parenchyma [20]. This is illustrated in Figure 1. Mild 6. Clinical and Laboratory GM-IVH refers to grade I and II hemorrhage, while severe Characteristics of GM-IVH GM-IVH is a term used to refer to grade III and IV hem- orrhage [21]. The majority of cases of GM-IVH are clinically silent [23, 45] and only detectable by routine brain imaging. Symptomatic 4. Incidence of GM-IVH neonates may manifest with convulsions, bulging fontanel, recurrent apnea, unexplained pallor, respiratory distress, The global incidence of GM-IVH among preterm infants and temperature instability [46, 47]. Clinically identifiable ranges from 14.7% to 44.7% [22–25], with considerable vari- seizures are reported more often among neonates with grade ation across gestational age groups, neonatal intensive care IV GM-IVH [48]. units, and countries [6, 22, 25, 26]. Hefti et al. [27] examined A significant reduction in the hematocrit may occur in for GM-IVH in 345 preterm neonates autopsied from 1914 the presence of a large hemorrhage [17]. Biomarkers for early to 2015 at Boston Children’s Hospital in the United States prediction and detection
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