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LESSON PLAN 1 Copernican Solar System, from Andreae Signing of the U.S. Constitution OBJECTIVES Cellarius, Harmonia Macrocosmica, 1661 • List circumstances that led to the Scientific Revolution. The Scientific Revolution • Summarize the development of the heliocentric theory.

MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES • Describe the and explain Newton’s law of gravity. AND TECHNOLOGY In Such questioning led to the • geocentric • heliocentric theory the mid-1500s, scientists began development of the scientific theory • Galileo Galilei • Describe the importance of the to question accepted beliefs and method still in use today. • Scientific • scientific method scientific method in different fields. make new theories based on Revolution • experimentation. FOCUS & MOTIVATE SETTING THE STAGE As you recall, the period between 1300 and 1600 was a time of great change in Europe. The Renaissance, a rebirth of learning and the Note that the Scientific Revolution began arts, inspired a spirit of curiosity in many fields. Scholars began to question ideas with questions about accepted beliefs. that had been accepted for hundreds of years. Meanwhile, the religious move- What are some ways that people today ment known as the Reformation prompted followers to challenge accepted ways question accepted beliefs? (Possible of thinking about God and salvation. While the Reformation was taking place, Answers: voting, editorials, letters to another revolution in European thought had begun, one that would permanently the editor) change how people viewed the physical world.

The Roots of Modern Science TAKING NOTES INSTRUCT Before 1500, scholars generally decided what was true or false by referring to an Analyzing Causes Use a diagram to list the events The Roots of Modern Science ancient Greek or Roman author or to the Bible. Few European scholars chal- and circumstances that led lenged the scientific ideas of the ancient thinkers or the church by carefully to the Scientific Revolution. observing nature for themselves. • Why do you think historians use the The Medieval View During the Middle Ages, most scholars believed that the earth was an immovable object located at the center of the universe. According word revolution to describe this period Causes of the of change? (Possible Answer: The to that belief, the moon, the sun, and the planets all moved in perfectly circular Scientific Revolution paths around the earth. Common sense seemed to support this view. After all, the changes were enormous.) sun appeared to be moving around the earth as it rose in the morning and set in • Why would the peoples and animals of the evening. Africa open Europeans to new ideas? This earth-centered view of the universe was called the geocentric theory. (They realized they didn’t know every- The idea came from Aristotle, the Greek philosopher of the fourth century B.C. thing.) The Greek astronomer Ptolemy (TOL•a•mee) expanded the theory in the second century A.D. In addition, Christianity taught that God had deliberately placed the In-Depth Resources: Unit 5 earth at the center of the universe. Earth was thus a special place on which the • Guided Reading, p. 25 (also in Spanish) great drama of life unfolded. A New Way of Thinking Beginning in the mid-1500s, a few scholars published TEST-TAKING RESOURCES works that challenged the ideas of the ancient thinkers and the church. As these scholars replaced old assumptions with new theories, they launched a change in Test Generator CD-ROM European thought that historians call the Scientific Revolution. The Scientific Strategies for Test Preparation Revolution was a new way of thinking about the natural world. That way was Test Practice Transparencies, TT80 based upon careful observation and a willingness to question accepted beliefs. Online Test Practice Enlightenment and Revolution 623

SECTION 1 PROGRAM RESOURCES

ALL STUDENTS Reading Study Guide Audio CD (Spanish) In-Depth Resources: Unit 5 STRUGGLING READERS eEdition CD-ROM • Guided Reading, p. 25 Voices from the Past Audio CD • Skillbuilder Practice, p. 30 In-Depth Resources: Unit 5 Power Presentations CD-ROM • Geography Application, p. 31 • Guided Reading, p. 25 • History Makers: Nicolaus Copernicus, p. 41 • Building Vocabulary, p. 29 Geography Transparencies • Reteaching Activity, p. 44 • GT22 Maps of the World, 1492–1761 ENGLISH LEARNERS Reading Study Guide, p. 205 World Art and Cultures Transparencies In-Depth Resources in Spanish Reading Study Guide Audio CD • AT48 Vermeer’s The Astronomer • Guided Reading, p. 153 Electronic Library of Primary Sources • Skillbuilder Practice, p. 157 GIFTED AND TALENTED STUDENTS • “Of Studies” • Geography Application, p. 158 In-Depth Resources: Unit 5 classzone.com Reading Study Guide (Spanish), p. 205 • Primary Source: from Starry Messenger, p. 33 • Literature: from The Recantation, p. 38 Teacher’s Edition 623 wh10te-052201-0623-0628 8/21/03 12:51 PM Page 624

CHAPTER 22 • Section 1 A combination of discoveries and circumstances led to the Scientific Revolution and helped spread its impact. During the Renaissance, European explorers traveled to Africa, Asia, and the Americas. Such lands were inhabited by peoples and ani- mals previously unknown in Europe. These discoveries opened Europeans to the possibility that there were new truths to be found. The invention of the printing A Revolutionary Model of press during this period helped spread challenging ideas—both old and new— the Universe more widely among Europe’s thinkers. The age of European exploration also fueled a great deal of scientific research, Critical Thinking especially in astronomy and mathematics. Navigators needed better instruments • In what way did Copernicus’s theory and geographic measurements, for example, to determine their location in the open contradict religious views? (Christianity sea. As scientists began to look more closely at the world around them, they made taught that Earth was the center of the observations that did not match the ancient beliefs. They found they had reached universe, not the sun.) the limit of the classical world’s knowledge. Yet, they still needed to know more. • Why do you think that Galileo chose to recant? (Possible Answers: fear of A Revolutionary Model of the Universe torture; valued the Church, accepted An early challenge to accepted scientific thinking came in the field of astronomy. its authority) It started when a small group of scholars began to question the geocentric theory. In-Depth Resources: Unit 5 The Heliocentric Theory Although backed by authority and common sense, the geocentric theory did not accurately explain the movements of the sun, moon, and • Geography Application: Theories of the Solar planets. This problem troubled a Polish cleric and astronomer named Nicolaus System, p. 31 Copernicus (koh•PUR•nuh•kuhs). In History Makers: Copernicus, p. 41 • the early 1500s, Copernicus became interested in an old Greek idea that the sun stood at the center of the universe. Tip for English Learners After studying planetary movements for more than 25 years, Copernicus The word heliocentric is a combination reasoned that indeed, the stars, the of the prefix helio and the suffix centric earth, and the other planets revolved meaning “center.” Helio comes from the around the sun. Greek helios meaning “sun,” so heliocen- Copernicus’s heliocentric, or sun- tric means “sun-centered.” centered, theory still did not com- pletely explain why the planets Venus Earth the stars orbited the way they did. He also knew that most scholars and clergy Saturn Sun Mercury JupiterMars would reject his theory because it ▲ This model contradicted their religious views. shows how Fearing ridicule or persecution, Copernicus did not publish his findings until 1543, Copernicus saw the planets revolving the last year of his life. He received a copy of his book, On the Revolutions of the around the sun. Heavenly Bodies, on his deathbed. While revolutionary, Copernicus’s book caused little stir at first. Over the next century and a half, other scientists built on the foundations he had laid. A Danish astronomer, Tycho Brahe (TEE•koh brah), carefully recorded the movements of the planets for many years. Brahe produced mountains of accurate data based on A. Answer They his observations. However, it was left to his followers to make mathematical supported the the- ory mathematically. sense of them. After Brahe’s death in 1601, his assistant, a brilliant mathematician named , continued his work. After studying Brahe’s data, Kepler concluded Recognizing that certain mathematical laws govern planetary motion. One of these laws showed Effects How did that the planets revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits instead of circles, as was Kepler’s findings previously thought. Kepler’s laws showed that Copernicus’s basic ideas were true. support the helio- They demonstrated mathematically that the planets revolve around the sun. centric theory?

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CHAPTER SKILLBUILDER PRACTICE Aclaraciones; resumir 22 Para aclarar la información que lees, puedes buscar el significado de términos desconocidos y sintetizar las ideas principales con tus propias palabras. Al leer Section 1 el pasaje, toma notas acerca de las ideas principales. Busca los términos desco- nocidos o técnicos que no entiendas. Después, completa las actividades a conti- SKILLBUILDER PRACTICE: CLARIFYING; SUMMARIZING nuación. (Consulta el Skillbuilder Handbook, pág. R3.) alileo Galilei fue un matemático, astrónomo En el siglo 15, fabricaron relojes operados por resor- Gy físico italiano. Como físico, abrió un campo tes. Pero ninguno de esos relojes era preciso. En enteramente nuevo de investigación científica: la 1656, un astrónomo holandés construyó un reloj de moderna ciencia de la dinámica. péndulo. Demostró ser más preciso que otros méto- Name Date Cuando era un joven de 18 años, Galileo obser- dos anteriores de medir el tiempo. Es más, la preci- vó los movimientos de un candelabro que se mecía sión de los relojes de péndulo no fue mejorada sino en su cadena en el interior de una catedral. Aristó- hasta la introducción de la electricidad. Además de descubrir la ley del péndulo, Galileo CHAPTER SKILLBUILDER PRACTICE teles había escrito que un péndulo se balancea más Clarifying; Summarizinglentamente al aproximarse a su punto de resisten- realizó otros experimentos en física. Durante días, Clarifying Scientific Terms 22 You can clarify information you read by looking up the meaningcia. of Galileounfamiliar puso a prueba esta idea y descubrió que rodó pelotas cuesta abajo y midió la velocidad que terms and summarizing the main ideas in your own words. As youera errónea.read the pas-Tomándose el pulso para medir el alcanzaban. Esta información le permitió concluir Section 1 sage below, make notes of the main ideas. Look up any unfamiliartiempo, or technical descubrió que cada oscilación del péndulo que los cuerpos en caída libre, bien sean ligeros o terms you do not understand. Then complete the activities thatmedía follow. exactamente (See la misma cantidad de tiempo. pesados, tienen una misma aceleración constante. Skillbuilder Handbook) La observación de Galileo lo condujo a un También descubrió que la velocidad de un objeto nuevo método de medición del tiempo. Durante que se mueve sobre una superficie horizontal per- fectamente lisa no aumenta ni disminuye. alileo Galilei was an Italian mathematician, clocks. But none of losthese siglos timepieces 13 y 14, werelos inventores very europeos habían Class Time 30 minutes geocentric theory, heliocentric theory, revolved, construido relojes que funcionaban mediante pesas. Gastronomer, and physicist. As a physicist, he accurate. In 1656, a Dutch astronomer built a clock began a whole new field of scientific investigation— using a pendulum. It proved to be more accurate 1. Define cada uno de los siguientes términos: the modern science of dynamics. than earlier ways of measuring time. In fact, pen- As a youth of 18, Galileo watched the move- dulum clocks were notFísico: surpassed ______in accuracy until orbited, elliptical orbit. ments of a cathedral’s chandelier as it swung back the introduction of electricity. Task Defining and restating unfamiliar terms and forth on its chain. Aristotle had written that a In addition to discoveringDinámica: the law ______of the pen- pendulum swings more slowly as it approaches its dulum, Galileo performed other experiments in Oscilación: ______resting point. Galileo tested this idea and found it physics. For days he rolled balls down a slope and incorrect. Feeling his pulse to keep time, he found measured the speed at which they moved. His data that each oscillation of the pendulum led him to conclude2. that Identifica freely falling la idea bodies, principal heavy del pasaje. ______Then have students reread “The Heliocentric took exactly the same amount of time. or light, had the same, constant acceleration. He Purpose To better understand the also discovered that an object moving on a perfectly Galileo’s observation led to a new method of ______measuring time. In the 1200s and 1300s European smooth horizontal surface would neither speed up inventors had built clocks that were driven by or slow down. ______

weights. In the 1400s, they turned to spring-driven All rights reserved. heliocentric model Theory” on page 624. Have students work in pairs ______1. Define each of the following terms:

Physicist: ______Escribe un párrafo que sintetice la idea principal y los detalles clave. Recuerda redactar la información en tus propias palabras. to write questions about the main ideas of the Dynamics: ______Instructions Explain that clarifying means defin- Oscillation: ______© McDougal Littell Inc. ______passage. Questions might include “How did the 2. Identify the main idea of the passage. ______ing unfamiliar terms in the material and restating ______Enlightenment and Revolution 223

heliocentric theory develop?” or “Why was the All rights reserved. content in the students’ own words. This process ______3. Write a paragraph summarizing the main idea and key details in this passage. Remember heliocentric theory revolutionary?” Students to restate information in your own words. ______can help reinforce students’ understanding of © McDougal Littell Inc. In-Depth should write other questions about the passage. ______concepts. Have students use a dictionary and the ______Resources in

Have partners answer the questions in their own 30 Unit 5, Chapter 22 glossary to define the following terms: Spanish words and use their answers to write a summary. In-Depth Resources: Unit 5 624 Chapter 22 wh10te-052201-0623-0628 8/21/03 12:52 PM Page 625

Galileo’s Discoveries An Italian scientist named Galileo Galilei built on the new CHAPTER 22 • Section 1 theories about astronomy. As a young man, Galileo learned that a Dutch lens maker had built an instrument that could enlarge far-off objects. Galileo built his own telescope and used it to study the heavens in 1609. Then, in 1610, he published a small book called Starry Messenger, which described his astonishing observations. Galileo announced that Jupiter had four More About . . . moons and that the sun had dark spots. He also noted that the earth’s moon had a rough, uneven surface. This shattered Aristotle’s theory that the moon and stars Galileo’s Trial were made of a pure, perfect substance. Galileo’s observations, as well as his laws In front of the pope, Galileo retracted his of motion, also clearly supported the theories of Copernicus. support of the theory that the earth Conflict with the Church Galileo’s findings frightened both Catholic and Protes- moved around the sun. A popular legend tant leaders because they went against church teaching and authority. If people reports that as Galileo was being led believed the church could be wrong about this, they could question other church away from the pope, he muttered, “And teachings as well. yet it moves.” Although most historians In 1616, the Catholic Church warned Galileo not to defend the ideas of reject this account, the statement was Copernicus. Although Galileo remained publicly silent, he continued his studies. Then, in 1632, he published Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems. discovered inscribed on a portrait of This book presented the ideas of both Copernicus and Ptolemy, but it clearly Galileo painted around 1640. showed that Galileo supported the Copernican theory. The pope angrily summoned In-Depth Resources: Unit 5 Galileo to Rome to stand trial before the Inquisition. • Primary Source: from Starry Messenger, Galileo stood before the court in 1633. Under the threat of torture, he knelt p. 33 before the cardinals and read aloud a signed confession. In it, he agreed that the • Literature: The Recantation of Galileo ideas of Copernicus were false. Galilei, p. 38

PRIMARY SOURCE World Art and Cultures Transparencies Analyzing With sincere heart and unpretended • AT48 Vermeer’s The Astronomer Primary Sources faith I abjure, curse, and detest the In what two aforesaid errors and heresies [of ways does Galileo Copernicus] and also every other error seek to appease . . . contrary to the Holy Church, and I The Scientific Method the Church? swear that in the future I will never B. Answer He again say or assert . . . anything that declares his former might cause a similar suspicion Critical Thinking beliefs to be false toward me. • How was the scientific method of and swears not to GALILEO GALILEI, quoted in contradict Church The Discoverers exploring ideas different from looking doctrine again. to history for answers? (It was based Galileo was never again a free on observation and experimentation.) man. He lived under house arrest and • Why might the Church dislike the died in 1642 at his villa near Florence. ideas of Bacon and Descartes? However, his books and ideas still spread all over Europe. (In 1992, the (Both questioned old ideas and urged ▲ Catholic Church officially acknowl- Galileo stands experimentation and logic rather before the papal than faith.) edged that Galileo had been right.) court. Electronic Library of Primary Sources The Scientific Method • “Of Studies” The revolution in scientific thinking that Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo began eventually developed into a new approach to science called the scientific method. The scientific method is a logical procedure for gathering and testing ideas. It begins with a problem or question arising from an observation. Scientists next form a hypothesis, or unproved assumption. The hypothesis is then tested in an experiment or on the basis of data. In the final step, scientists analyze and interpret their data to reach a new conclusion. That conclusion either confirms or disproves the hypothesis.

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CHAPTER LITERATURE SELECTION from The Recantation of 22 Galileo Galilei DIFFERENTIATING INSTRUCTION: GIFTED AND TALENTED STUDENTS by Eric Bentley Section 1

In the 1600s, the Roman Catholic Church taught that the earth was the center of the universe. Galileo Galilei, however, observed otherwise. After publicly sup- porting Copernicus’s theory that the earth revolves around the sun, Galileo was declared a heretic. At odds with church teachings, he was asked to recant, or formally deny, this theory. As you read this play excerpt, think about the conse- quences of Galileo’s struggle with the Church.

alace of the Inquisition. Galileo’s quarters. FIRENZUOLA. And understand it? Exploring Galileo’s Recantation PGuards in the entrance hall. Castelli [Galileo’s GALILEO. I could help them understand it. assistant] is eating lunch from a tray. FIRENZUOLA. Between now and tomorrow’s session? Guard. The Commissar General. GALILEO. The world has waited for centuries for Firenzuola enters. these truths. The tribunal could wait another FIRENZUOLA, TO CASTELLI. I wish to see the profes- week or two. sor alone. FIRENZUOLA. And in that spirit you have appealed Class Time 25 minutes torture were displayed as a threatening promise of what Castelli goes out to a back room where, we can from Scheiner to the six cardinals? assume, Galileo has been resting. Enter Galileo. GALILEO. Yes. The two men stand facing each other. FIRENZUOLA. Three of whom, like Scheiner him- FIRENZUOLA. Please be seated, Professor. Galileo self, are members of the . sits. A private conference between the two of us Silence. Any comment? Galileo could expect if he did not cooperate. Not has been deemed desirable before the tribunal GALILEO. Your own irony is a comment. But not Task Studying primary sources within historical context reconvenes. Is that agreeable to you? mine. GALILEO. Has nothing been decided yet? FIRENZUOLA. You wouldn’t, of course, have made FIRENZUOLA. I represent the Inquisition. May I use this appeal if you didn’t think it could succeed? our method of procedure? GALILEO. I wouldn’t. No. surprisingly, Galileo retracted his support for heliocentric GALILEO. By all means. FIRENZUOLA. What are—or were—its chances of Purpose To understand actions of Galileo and the pope FIRENZUOLA. I shall begin by sounding you out a success? little. What is your own sense of the situation? GALILEO. Oh, about fifty-fifty. GALILEO. Do I know what the situation now is? FIRENZUOLA. Yes? theory—at least in front of the pope. Suggest that students FIRENZUOLA. Of the situation . . . as it has devel- GALILEO. Lucignano’s friendly, isn’t he? Gorazio oped during the hearing. How would you say and Sordi will jog along behind him, I should you were doing? think. That’s half the tribunal. Instructions Tell students that Pope Urban VIII was GALILEO. Not too badly. I nailed down the main FIRENZUOLA. You need five votes. weaknesses in Scheiner’s [the leading Jesuit sci- GALILEO. Are you assuming that the individual entist] position. Jesuits don’t think for themselves? read the excerpt from the play The Recantation of Galileo All rights reserved. FIRENZUOLA. You maintained—correct me if I’m FIRENZUOLA. What would you assume? wrong—that he is a liar. Even a forger. GALILEO. That they have to. Because they respect elected in 1623. He loved art, music, and architecture, GALILEO. I proved those things. themselves. And their Order knows about sci- FIRENZUOLA. And proof lies very near to your ence. . . . They are not inquisitors, they are Galilei in In-Depth Resources: Unit 5. Have students read heart, isn’t that true? Catholics, Father Commissar! GALILEO. That is very true. FIRENZUOLA. Ah, then you have a better than fifty-

FIRENZUOLA. Would you expect Scheiner to enjoy fifty chance? © McDougal Littell Inc. even writing a sonnet complimenting Galileo on his scien- GALILEO. Maybe. If this must be regarded as a being exposed? GALILEO.No. gamble. I’d have said faith had something to do the play aloud, taking the various parts. Discuss with FIRENZUOLA. Yet you needed him. No one but he with it. You know, the faith which can move had read your book. mountains. tific work. Galileo hoped that a man open to new ideas in GALILEO. The others could read my book. students why the pope might have abandoned his sup- 38 Unit 5, Chapter 22 the arts would be equally enthusiastic about new scien- port for Galileo’s work and why Galileo might have cho- tific theories. Instead, Pope Urban VIII in effect handed sen to sign the confession. Ask students if they agree with In-Depth Resources: Unit 5 Galileo over to the Inquisition. At the trial, instruments of Galileo’s decision.

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CHAPTER 22 • Section 1

1566 Marie de Coste 1609 Kepler 1610 Galileo Blanche publishes The publishes first two publishes Nature of the Sun and Earth. laws of planetary Starry History from Visuals motion. Messenger.

1520 1570 1620 Interpreting the Chart

Have students tell how the time line 1543 Copernicus publishes 1590 Janssen 1620 Bacon’s book suggests that the scientific revolution heliocentric theory. invents Novum Organum (New Vesalius publishes human microscope. Instrument) encourages was spreading by the 1600s. (Important anatomy textbook. experimental method. scientific events are more frequent after 1600.) Extension Tell students to connect ▲ Nicolaus early events on the time line with later Copernicus began Bacon and Descartes The scientific method did not develop overnight. The work the Scientific of two important thinkers of the 1600s, and René Descartes scientific developments. For example, Revolution with his (day•KAHRT), helped to advance the new approach. the invention of the microscope in 1590 heliocentric theory. Francis Bacon, an English statesman and writer, had a passionate interest in probably led to the observation of science. He believed that by better understanding the world, scientists would gen- bacteria in 1674. erate practical knowledge that would improve people’s lives. In his writings, Bacon attacked medieval scholars for relying too heavily on the conclusions of Aris- totle and other ancient thinkers. Instead of reasoning from abstract theories, he urged scientists to experiment and then draw conclusions. This approach is called , or the experimental method. More About . . . In France, René Descartes also took a keen interest in science. He developed analytical geometry, which linked algebra and geometry. This provided an impor- Newton’s Law of Gravity tant new tool for scientific research. What does an apple have to do with Like Bacon, Descartes believed that scientists needed to reject old assumptions gravity? Supposedly, Newton was sitting and teachings. As a mathematician, however, he approached gaining knowledge dif- under an apple tree when an apple fell ferently than Bacon. Rather than using experimentation, Descartes relied on mathe- matics and logic. He believed that everything should be doubted until proved by nearby. Newton began to wonder why . The only thing he knew for certain was that he existed—because, as he apples always fall to the ground, but wrote, “I think, therefore I am.” From this starting point, he followed a train of strict Contrasting never sideways or up. He reasoned reasoning to arrive at other basic truths. How did that the earth must have a power that Modern scientific methods are based on the ideas of Bacon and Descartes. Descartes’s draws objects to it. Thus began observa- Scientists have shown that observation and experimentation, together with general approach to science differ from Bacon’s? laws that can be expressed mathematically, can lead people to a better understanding tion and study of the force of gravity. C. Answer of the natural world. Descartes empha- sized mathematical Newton Explains the Law of Gravity reasoning; Bacon, Newton Explains the Law experimentation. By the mid-1600s, the accomplishments of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo had shat- of Gravity tered the old views of astronomy and physics. Later, the great English scientist Isaac Critical Thinking Newton helped to bring together their breakthroughs under a single theory of motion. • Why were the new scientific views Changing Idea: Scientific Method so revolutionary? (Possible Answer: They didn’t simply accept answers Old Science New Science from the Church or classical scholars Scholars generally relied on ancient In time, scholars began to use observation, but based conclusions on logic authorities, church teachings, common experimentation, and scientific reasoning to gather knowledge and draw conclusions and experimentation.) sense, and reasoning to explain the physical world. about the physical world. • What was the universe like, according to Newton? (a giant clock) 626 Chapter 22

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CHAPTER 22 Section 1 (pages 623–628) TÉRMINOS Y NOMBRES Revolución Científica Forma de pensar distinta acerca del mundo The Scientific natural, que se basa en observación DIFFERENTIATING INSTRUCTION: ENGLISH LEARNERS cuidadosa y en la disposición a cuestionar Revolution Nicolás Copérnico Astrónomo que afirmó que la Tierra gira alrededor ANTES DE LEER del Sol Teoría de que En el capítulo anterior, aprendiste acerca de guerras teoría heliocéntrica el Sol es el centro del universo y cambios políticos en Europa. Johannes Kepler Matemático que En esta sección, leerás cómo la Ilustración transformó demostró la teoría de Copérnico a Europa y contribuyó a la Revolución Norteamericana. Galileo Galilei Científico obligado The Scientific Revolution por la Iglesia Católica a retractarse AL LEER de sus ideas científicas que Usa el diagrama para registrar los sucesos importantes contradecían la opinión de la Iglesia que ocurrieron durante la Revolución Científica. método científico Procedimiento lógico para reunir y probar ideas Francis Bacon Escritor que ayudó Class Time 20 minutes experiment 4. Looking at the results of the test and al avance del método científico Copérnico: René Descartes Matemático que teoría heliocéntrica difundió el método científico Isaac Newton Científico que descubrió las leyes del movimiento Task Examining scientific discoveries stating whether the idea in no. 3 is correct or incorrect.) y la gravedad Descubrimientos y avances Purpose To better understand the scientific revolution 2. Before the 1500s, looking inside a human body had rarely been done. Why was it important to dissect a Instructions Tell students to look at the time line at the The Roots of Modern Science zaron a cambiar. Los académicos iniciaron lo que (pages 623–624) se llamó la Revolución Científica. Era una nueva forma de pensar acerca del mundo natural. Se All rights reserved. ¿Cómo comenzó human body? (It showed doctors how the body func- la ciencia moderna? basaba en la observación cuidadosa y en la disposi- top of pages 626 and 627. They should notice the ción a cuestionar viejas creencias. Los viajes Durante la Edad Media, pocos pensadores cues- europeos de exploración contribuyeron a provocar tionaron las creencias sostenidas desde tiempo la Revolución Científica. Cuando los europeos tions and helped them treat diseases.) atrás. Los europeos basaron sus ideas en lo que exploraron nuevas tierras, vieron plantas y animales que los escritores antiguos jamás habían visto. © McDougal Littell Inc. creyeron los griegos y romanos o en la Biblia. Aún increasing frequency of scientific discoveries beginning se pensaba que la Tierra era el centro del universo, Estos descubrimientos abrieron nuevos campos de y que el Sol, la Luna y otros planetas y estrellas estudio en las universidades europeas. giraban en torno a la Tierra. 1. ¿Qué fue la Revolución Científica? in the early 1600s. Have pairs of students answer the 3. Why would a microscope help doctors treat disease? A mediados del siglo 16, las actitudes comen- following questions. (With a microscope, it is possible to identify different CHAPTER 6ENLIGHTENMENT AND REVOLUTION 205 types of bacteria and thus identify the disease.) 1. What are the four steps of the scientific method? Reading Study Guide: Spanish (1. Stating a problem or question 2. Stating a hypothe- Students can use the Reading Study Guide in Spanish for Translation sis or idea about the problem 3. Testing the idea in an additional help with Section 1. 626 Chapter 22 wh10te-052201-0623-0628 8/21/03 9:48 AM Page 627

CHAPTER 22 • Section 1 1637 Descartes’s 1662 Boyle discovers mathematical book Discourse on relationship between the pressure and 1714 1628 Harvey Method sets forth volume of gases, known as Boyle’s law. Fahrenheit reveals how his scientific method invents human heart of reasoning from 1674 Leeuwenhoek observes mercury functions. the basis of doubt. bacteria through microscope. thermometer. The Scientific Revolution 1620 1670 1720 Spreads Critical Thinking 1633 Galileo 1643 1666 France establishes 1687 Newton faces Inquisition Torricelli Academy of . publishes law • How does the Scientific Revolution for support of invents of gravity. Copernicus’s barometer. 1660 England establishes Royal support the saying “Necessity is the theory. Society to support scientific study. mother of invention”? (Possible Answer: Scientists developed tools in order to continue their studies.) ▲ Isaac Newton’s Newton studied mathematics and physics at Cambridge University. By the time law of gravity • What was the likely danger of using live he was 26, Newton was certain that all physical objects were affected equally by the explained how the germs to inoculate? Why were the risks same forces. Newton’s great discovery was that the same force ruled motion of the same physical laws lower if the germs were for a mild dis- planets and all matter on earth and in space. The key idea that linked motion in the governed motion both on earth and ease? (Possible Answers: getting the heavens with motion on the earth was the law of universal gravitation. According in the heavens. disease; The disease was less serious.) to this law, every object in the universe attracts every other object. The degree of attraction depends on the mass of the objects and the distance between them. In 1687, Newton published his ideas in a work called The Mathematical Principles of . It was one of the most important scientific books ever written. The universe he described was like a giant clock. Its parts all worked Clarifying More About . . . together perfectly in ways that could be expressed mathematically. Newton Why was the law of gravitation believed that God was the creator of this orderly universe, the clockmaker who had Scientific Expeditions important? set everything in motion. D. Answer It In 1768, the English navigator and map- explained motion The Scientific Revolution Spreads maker James Cook set out on the first of both on the earth three voyages to explore and chart the and in the heavens As astronomers explored the secrets of the universe, other scientists began to study and helped prove the secrets of nature on earth. Careful observation and the use of the scientific South Pacific. These scientific expeditions that the same phys- method eventually became important in many different fields. were sponsored by the Royal Society ical laws govern of London, a group founded in the both. Scientific Instruments Scientists developed new tools and instruments to make the precise observations that the scientific method demanded. The first microscope mid-1600s to encourage the growth of was invented by a Dutch maker of eyeglasses, Zacharias Janssen (YAHN•suhn), scientific knowledge. Astronomers, artists, in 1590. In the 1670s, a Dutch drapery merchant and amateur scientist named and a botanist went with Cook to gather Anton van Leeuwenhoek (LAY•vuhn•HUK) used a microscope to observe bacteria information about distant parts of the swimming in tooth scrapings. He also examined red blood cells for the first time. world. Captain Cook became one of the In 1643, one of Galileo’s students, Evangelista Torricelli (TAWR•uh•CHEHL•ee), developed the first mercury barometer, a tool for measuring atmospheric pressure first to chart the east coast of Australia and predicting weather. In 1714, the German physicist Gabriel Fahrenheit and the islands of Tahiti, New Zealand, (FAR•uhn•HYT) made the first thermometer to use mercury in glass. Fahrenheit’s and Hawaii. thermometer showed water freezing at 32°. A Swedish astronomer, Anders Celsius Geography Transparencies (SEHL•see•uhs), created another scale for the mercury thermometer in 1742. • GT22 Maps of the World, 1492–1761 Celsius’s scale showed freezing at 0°. Medicine and the Human Body During the Middle Ages, European doctors had accepted as fact the writings of an ancient Greek physician named Galen. However, Galen had never dissected the body of a human being. Instead, he had studied the anatomy of pigs and other animals. Galen assumed that human anatomy was much the same. A Flemish physician named Andreas Vesalius proved Galen’s assumptions wrong. Vesalius dissected human corpses and published his observations. His Enlightenment and Revolution 627

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Summarizing Scientific Advances Class Time 20 minutes • William Harvey shows function of the heart and blood vessels Task Charting advances in scientific thought and discovery • Edward Jenner introduces inoculation for Purpose To understand the impact of the Scientific Revolution Tell partners to use a chart like the one here and to write two to three Instructions Have students work in pairs to complete a chart describing items in each column. the new ideas and discoveries that were happening in different areas of science. Post the following list of discoveries for reference: • Zacharias Janssen invents microscope Scientific Ideas and Discoveries • Anton van Leeuwenhoek views bacteria and blood cells Scientific Instruments Biology and Medicine Chemistry • Evangelista Torricellis develops mercury barometer • Gabriel Fahrenheit and Anders Celsius invent mercury thermometers • Andreas Vesalius creates accurate anatomical drawings of human body Teacher’s Edition 627 wh10te-052201-0623-0628 8/21/03 9:48 AM Page 628

CHAPTER 22 • Section 1 book, On the Structure of the Human Body (1543), was filled with detailed drawings of human organs, bones, and muscle. In the late 1700s, British physician Edward Jenner introduced a vaccine to pre- Vocabulary More About . . . vent smallpox. Inoculation using live small- Inoculation is the pox germs had been practiced in Asia for act of injecting a Smallpox Inoculations centuries. While beneficial, this technique germ into a per- son’s body so as to In the 1600s and 1700s, smallpox killed could also be dangerous. Jenner discovered create an immunity or horribly scarred many infants and that inoculation with germs from a cattle dis- to the disease. young children. In the early 1700s, ease called cowpox gave permanent protec- English writer Lady Mary Wortley tion from smallpox for humans. Because cowpox was a much milder disease, the risks Montague saw women in Turkey deliber- for this form of inoculation were much ately infecting their young children with lower. Jenner used cowpox to produce the smallpox. They did this by breaking the world’s first vaccination. skin and applying some liquid from a vic- Discoveries in Chemistry pio- tim’s sore. These children caught a mild neered the use of the scientific method in case of the disease and gained protection ▲ The famous chemistry. He is considered the founder of modern chemistry. In a book called The Dutch painter Sceptical Chymist (1661), Boyle challenged Aristotle’s idea that the physical world from ever having it again. Lady Montague Rembrandt painted had her own son inoculated, then Anatomy Lesson of consisted of four elements—earth, air, fire, and water. Instead, Boyle proposed that brought the procedure back to Britain, Dr. Tulp in 1632 matter was made up of smaller primary particles that joined together in different ways. from an actual Boyle’s most famous contribution to chemistry is Boyle’s law. This law explains how from which it spread all over Europe. anatomy lesson. the volume, temperature, and pressure of gas affect each other. The corpse was that of a criminal. The notions of reason and order, which spurred so many breakthroughs in sci- ence, soon moved into other fields of life. Philosophers and scholars across Europe began to rethink long-held beliefs about the human condition, most notably the rights and liberties of ordinary citizens. These thinkers helped to usher in a move- ment that challenged the age-old relationship between a government and its peo- ple, and eventually changed forever the political landscape in numerous societies.

ASSESS SECTION1 ASSESSMENT

SECTION 1 ASSESSMENT TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. Group students to complete the web • geocentric theory • Scientific Revolution • heliocentric theory • Galileo Galilei • scientific method • Isaac Newton organizer in question 2. Invite groups to USING YOUR NOTES MAIN IDEAS CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING share their completed webs. 2. Which event or circumstance 3. Before the 1500s, who and 6. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS “If I have seen farther than do you consider to be the what were the final authorities others,” said Newton, “it is because I have stood on the Formal Assessment most significant? Why? with regard to most knowledge? shoulders of giants.” Could this be said of most scientific • Section Quiz, p. 348 4. How did the heliocentric theory accomplishments? Explain. of the universe differ from the 7. ANALYZING MOTIVES Why might institutions of authority geocentric theory? tend to reject new ideas? RETEACH Causes of the 5. What are the main steps of the 8. FORMING AND SUPPORTING OPINIONS Do you agree Scientific Revolution scientific method? with Galileo’s actions during his Inquisition? Explain. Use the Guided Reading worksheet to 9. WRITING ACTIVITY SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Create a reteach the information in the section. television script for a discovery of the Scientific Revolution. Have student pairs answer the questions Include key people, ideas, and accomplishments. with information from the text. CONNECT TO TODAY CREATING A GRAPHIC In-Depth Resources, Unit 2 Research a modern-day invention or new way of thinking and then describe it and its impact • Guided Reading, p. 25 on society to the class in a poster or annotated diagram. • Reteaching Activity, p. 44 628 Chapter 22

ANSWERS

1. geocentric theory, p. 623 • Scientific Revolution, p. 623 • heliocentric theory, p. 624 • Galileo Galilei, p. 625 • scientific method, p. 625 • Isaac Newton, p. 626 2. Sample Answer: A. Renaissance inspires new 5. observation; hypothesis; experimentation 9. Rubric Television scripts should curiosity. B. Exploration broadens European to test; data analysis and interpretation; • be well organized and easy to follow. horizons. C. Scientific discoveries challenge conclusion • tell a well-rounded story of the discovery. accepted thinking. Printing press spreads 6. Possible Answer: Yes–Most scientific accom- CONNECT TO TODAY ideas. Most significant—the work of plishments are based on earlier discoveries. Rubric Graphics should astronomers or of Newton, or advances 7. Possible Answer: They upset the status quo • clearly illustrate the invention. in medicine and threaten authority. • explain the invention’s impact. 3. ancient Greek or Roman thinkers and 8. Agree–Galileo faced torture and had to the Bible appease the Church. Disagree–Galileo hurt 4. Heliocentric—Planets revolved around the sun. the Scientific Revolution by publicly renounc- Geocentric—Planets moved around the earth. ing the truth. 628 Chapter 22 wh10te-052202-0629-0635 8/21/03 9:36 AM Page 629

LESSON PLAN 2 Copernican Solar System, from Andreae Signing of the U.S. Constitution OBJECTIVES Cellarius, Harmonia Macrocosmica, 1661 • Explain the ideas of Hobbes and Locke and other Enlightenment philosophers. The Enlightenment in Europe • Describe women and the Enlightenment. • Explain the legacy of the Enlightenment. MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES

POWER AND AUTHORITY A The various freedoms enjoyed in • Enlightenment • FOCUS & MOTIVATE revolution in intellectual activity many countries today are a • social contract • Rousseau Tell students that Enlightenment philoso- changed Europeans’ view of result of Enlightenment thinking. • • Mary government and society. • philosophe Wollstonecraft phers thought a lot about the responsibil- • ities of individuals and governments toward each other. Ask students what In the wake of the Scientific Revolution, and the new SETTING THE STAGE responsibilities they have as citizens. ways of thinking it prompted, scholars and philosophers began to reevaluate old notions about other aspects of society. They sought new insight into the underly- (Possible Answer: follow laws, respect ing beliefs regarding government, religion, economics, and education. Their others’ rights, be informed) efforts spurred the Enlightenment, a new intellectual movement that stressed reason and thought and the power of individuals to solve problems. Known also INSTRUCT as the Age of Reason, the movement reached its height in the mid-1700s and brought great change to many aspects of Western civilization. Two Views on Government

Two Views on Government TAKING NOTES Critical Thinking Outlining Use an outline The Enlightenment started from some key ideas put forth by two English political to organize main ideas • What are some arguments for and thinkers of the 1600s, Thomas Hobbes and John Locke. Both men experienced and details. against an as pro- the political turmoil of England early in that century. However, they came to very posed by Hobbes? (For–creates law different conclusions about government and human nature. Enlightenment in Europe I. Two Views on and order. Against–abuse of power.) Hobbes’s Social Contract Thomas Hobbes expressed his views in a work Government • What document in U.S. history reflects called Leviathan (1651). The horrors of the English Civil War convinced him that A. some of Locke’s ideas about life, liberty, all humans were naturally selfish and wicked. Without governments to keep B. order, Hobbes said, there would be “war . . . of every man against every man,” II. The and property? (the Declaration of and life would be “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.” Advocate Reason Independence) Hobbes argued that to escape such a bleak life, people had to hand over their A. In-Depth Resources: Unit 5 rights to a strong ruler. In exchange, they gained law and order. Hobbes called this B. • Guided Reading, p. 26 (also in Spanish) agreement by which people created a government the social contract. Because • Primary Source: Two Treatises on people acted in their own self-interest, Hobbes said, the ruler needed total power Government, p. 35 to keep citizens under control. The best government was one that had the awesome power of a leviathan (sea monster). In Hobbes’s view, such a government was an absolute monarchy, which could impose order and demand obedience. TEST-TAKING RESOURCES Changing Idea: The Right to Govern Test Generator CD-ROM Old Idea New Idea Strategies for Test Preparation A monarch’s rule is justified by A government’s power comes from the Test Practice Transparencies, TT81 divine right. consent of the governed. Online Test Practice Enlightenment and Revolution 629

SECTION 2 PROGRAM RESOURCES ALL STUDENTS STRUGGLING READERS In-Depth Resources: Unit 5 In-Depth Resources: Unit 5 eEdition CD-ROM • Guided Reading, p. 26 • Guided Reading, p. 26 • History Makers: Baron de Montesquieu, p. 42 • Building Vocabulary, p. 29 Power Presentations CD-ROM Formal Assessment • Reteaching Activity, p. 45 Critical Thinking Transparencies • Section Quiz, p. 349 Reading Study Guide, p. 207 • CT22 The Spread of Enlightenment Ideas Reading Study Guide Audio CD Electronic Library of Primary Sources ENGLISH LEARNERS • from The Persian Letters In-Depth Resources in Spanish GIFTED AND TALENTED STUDENTS • from Gulliver’s Travels • Guided Reading, p. 154 In-Depth Resources: Unit 5 classzone.com Reading Study Guide (Spanish), p. 207 • Primary Sources: from The Social Contract, p. 34; Reading Study Guide Audio CD (Spanish) from Two Treatises on Government, p. 35; from A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, p. 36 Electronic Library of Primary Sources Teacher’s Edition 629 wh10te-052202-0629-0635 8/21/03 9:37 AM Page 630

CHAPTER 22 • Section 2 Locke’s Natural Rights The philosopher John Locke held a different, more positive, view of human nature. He believed that people could learn from experi- ence and improve themselves. As reasonable beings, they had the natural ability to govern their own affairs and to look after the welfare of society. Locke criticized absolute monarchy and favored the idea of self-government. The Philosophes Advocate According to Locke, all people are born free and equal, with three natural rights— Reason life, liberty, and property. The purpose of government, said Locke, is to protect these rights. If a government fails to do so, citizens have a right to overthrow it. Locke’s Contrasting Critical Thinking theory had a deep influence on modern political thinking. His belief that a govern- How does • What is the meaning of Voltaire’s Locke’s view of ment’s power comes from the consent of the people is the foundation of modern human nature differ famous quotation “I do not agree with . The ideas of government by popular consent and the right to rebel against from that of a word you say but will defend to the unjust rulers helped inspire struggles for liberty in Europe and the Americas. Hobbes? death your right to say it”? (Possible A. Answer Hobbes Answers: You have a right to say what believed that The Philosophes Advocate Reason humans were natu- you think, even if others disagree.) The Enlightenment reached its height in France in the rally selfish and • How does power check power in mid-1700s. Paris became the meeting place for people who wicked; Locke’s wanted to discuss politics and ideas. The social critics of view was more pos- today’s U.S. government? itive—humans were this period in France were known as philosophes (three government branches, each reasonable, could (FIHL•uh•SAHFS), the French word for philosophers. The with limited powers) learn and grow, and philosophes believed that people could apply reason to all had natural rights. Electronic Library of Primary Sources aspects of life, just as Isaac Newton had applied reason to • from The Persian Letters science. Five concepts formed the core of their beliefs: 1. Reason Enlightened thinkers believed truth could be discovered through reason or logical thinking. 2. Nature The philosophes believed that what was natural was also good and reasonable. History Makers 3. Happiness The philosophes rejected the medieval notion that people should find joy in the hereafter and Voltaire urged people to seek well-being on earth. Why would a monarch be interested in 4. Progress The philosophes stressed that society and Voltaire? (Voltaire was brilliant and witty.) Voltaire humankind could improve. Voltaire left his studies at age 16 to focus 1694–1778 5. Liberty The philosophes called for the liberties that the English people had won in their Glorious on literary pursuits. He joined a group of Voltaire befriended several European monarchs and nobles. Among them Revolution and Bill of Rights. irreverent young aristocrats and began to was the Prussian king Frederick II. Voltaire Combats Intolerance Probably the most brilliant write witty political verses. While his writ- The two men seemed like ideal and influential of the philosophes was François Marie ing sometimes got him into trouble, it companions. Both were witty and preferred to dress in shabby, Arouet. Using the pen name Voltaire, he published more also introduced him to like-minded rumpled clothes. than 70 books of political essays, philosophy, and drama. Vocabulary people. His acquaintance with these Their relationship eventually Voltaire often used against his opponents. He made Satire is the use of philosophers, artists, and thinkers helped soured, however. Voltaire disliked frequent targets of the clergy, the aristocracy, and the govern- irony, sarcasm, or editing Frederick’s mediocre poetry, ment. His sharp tongue made him enemies at the French wit to attack folly, Voltaire become a great thinker. while Frederick suspected Voltaire of vice, or stupidity. court, and twice he was sent to prison. After his second jail shady business dealings. Voltaire eventually described the Prussian term, Voltaire was exiled to England for more than two years. king as “a nasty monkey, perfidious Although he made powerful enemies, Voltaire never Tip for English Learners friend, [and] wretched poet.” stopped fighting for tolerance, reason, freedom of religious Frederick in turn called Voltaire a Explain that writers sometimes use belief, and freedom of speech. He used his quill pen as if it “miser, dirty rogue, [and] coward.” were a deadly weapon in a thinker’s war against humanity’s names other than their own when they worst enemies—intolerance, prejudice, and superstition. He publish. This is a pen name, or the name RESEARCH LINKS For more on summed up his staunch defense of liberty in one of his most used for the writings of one’s pen. Voltaire, go to classzone.com famous quotes: “I do not agree with a word you say but will defend to the death your right to say it.”

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Enlightenment Beliefs Beliefs Example Class Time 20 minutes 1. Truth can be found through reason. 1. People can reason about right and Task Analyzing the core beliefs of the philosophes wrong. Not necessary to look only to the Bible for answers. Purpose To understand views of different Enlightenment philosophes 2. The natural is also good and 2. Children’s natural desire to run and Instructions To help students understand the five core beliefs of the reasonable. play is good and does not need to philosophes, have them attach each belief to a concrete example. be stopped. Students will fill out a chart, giving an example for each belief. First, have 3. People can find happiness in 3. Happiness can be found in the here them create a chart like the one here. Give them the text under Beliefs. this life. and now, not only in the afterlife. With a series of questions, help them come up with examples. Some 4. People and society can improve. 4. Our local government can get better. possibilities are shown here. 5. People should have the protection 5. Laws protecting freedom of speech of the law. can work.

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Montesquieu and the Separation of Powers Another influential French writer, CHAPTER 22 • Section 2 the Baron de Montesquieu (MAHN•tuh•SKYOO), devoted himself to the study of political liberty. Montesquieu believed that Britain was the best-governed and most politically balanced country of his own day. The British king and his ministers held executive power. They carried out the laws of the state. The members of Parliament held legislative power. They made the laws. The judges of the English More About . . . courts held judicial power. They interpreted the laws to see how each applied to a specific case. Montesquieu called this division of power among different branches Jean Jacques Rousseau separation of powers. All through his life, Rousseau was B. Answer It would Montesquieu oversimplified the British system. It did not actually separate plagued by feelings of guilt, depression, keep any individual powers this way. His idea, however, became a part of his most famous book, On the or group from gain- and inferiority. His attempts to form ing total power; Spirit of Laws (1748). In his book, Montesquieu proposed that separation of pow- friendships often failed, and he spent his ers would keep any individual or group from gaining total control of the govern- each branch would life as an outsider. These difficulties may check the power of ment. “Power,” he wrote, “should be a check to power.” This idea later would be the other branches. called checks and balances. have been the result of a very unhappy Montesquieu’s book was admired by political leaders in the British colonies of childhood. Rousseau’s mother died giving Analyzing Issues North America. His ideas about separation of powers and checks and balances birth to him. His father made him feel What advan- became the basis for the United States Constitution. guilty for this and was either warm and tages did Rousseau: Champion of Freedom A third great philosophe, Jean Jacques affectionate or very cold and rejecting. Montesquieu see in the separation of Rousseau (roo•SOH), was passionately committed to individual freedom. The son When Rousseau was ten, his father powers? of a poor Swiss watchmaker, Rousseau won recognition as a writer of essays. A abandoned him. As an adult, Rousseau strange, brilliant, and controversial figure, Rousseau strongly disagreed with other realized he was more comfortable opposing society than trying to fit into it.

Laws Protect Freedom Laws Ensure Security Analyzing Primary Sources Both Montesquieu and Rousseau believed firmly that fair While laws work to protect citizens from abusive rulers, and just laws—not monarchs or unrestrained mobs—should Montesquieu argues that they also guard against anarchy govern society. Here, Rousseau argues that laws established and mob rule. Laws Protect Freedom and by and for the people are the hallmark of a free society. Ensure Security Ask students to read the primary source PRIMARY SOURCE PRIMARY SOURCE from Rousseau. Then ask them what I . . . therefore give the name “Republic” to every It is true that in the people seem Rousseau says about people’s responsi- state that is governed by laws, no matter what to act as they please; but political liberty the form of its administration may be: for does not consist in an unlimited freedom. bility to laws. Challenge them to think of only in such a case does the public interest . . . We must have continually present to responsibilities U.S. citizens have to the govern, and the res republica rank as a our minds the difference between nation’s laws. (Possible Answers: to reality. . . . Laws are, properly speaking, independence and liberty. Liberty is a only the conditions of civil association. The right of doing whatever the laws permit, create them and abide by them) people, being subject to the laws, ought to and if a citizen could do what they [the Answers to Document-Based Questions be their author: the conditions of the society laws] forbid he would be no longer ought to be regulated . . . by those who come possessed of liberty, because all his fellow- 1. Analyzing Issues They are the ones together to form it. citizens would have the same power. who will be subject to the laws. JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU, The Social Contract BARON DE MONTESQUIEU, The Spirit of Laws 2. Making Inferences Without a sense of justice, people would do whatever they wanted. DOCUMENT-BASED QUESTIONS 1. Analyzing Issues Why should citizens be the authors of society’s laws, according In-Depth Resources: Unit 5 to Rousseau? 2. Making Inferences Why does Montesquieu believe that disobeying laws leads to a • History Makers: Montesquieu, p. 42 loss of liberty? • Primary Source: Social Contract, p. 34

Enlightenment and Revolution 631 Name Date

CHAPTER PRIMARY SOURCE from Two Treatises on Government 22 by John Locke Section 2 English philosopher John Locke (1632–1704) attacked absolute monarchy and Name promotedDate the concept of government by the people in his most famous work, Two Treatises on Government. Published in 1690, his book influenced the ideas of the philosophes Baron de Montesquieu and Jean-Jacques Rousseau as well as the framers of the United States Constitution. At the heart of Locke’s argument was his belief that all people are born free and equal, with three natural rights: CHAPTER PRIMARY SOURCE from The Social Contractlife, liberty, and property. As you read the following excerpt, think about how COOPERATIVE LEARNING Locke defined one of these rights—liberty. 22 by Jean-Jacques Rousseau Section 2 In The Social Contract, published in 1762, the philosophe—a writer during the 18th centrury French Enlightenment—Jean-Jacques Rousseau outlined his ideas self; and he that cannot take away his own Life, about individual freedom and obedience to authority. As Ofyou readSlavery this excerpt, Name Date cannot give another power over it. Indeed hav- think about Rousseau’s argument against22. Thethe use Natural of force Liberty as a meansof Man of govern-is to be free from ing the people. any Superior Power on Earth, and not to be ing, by his fault, forfeited his own Life, by some under the Will or Legislative Authority of Man, Act that deserves Death; he, to whom he has but to have only the Law of Nature for his forfeited it, may (when he has him in his CHAPTER HISTORYMAKERS BaronChapter I—Subjectde Montesquieu of the obedience is legitimate; and, the strongest being Power) delay to take it, and make use of him to Rule.always The in the Liberty right, of the Man, only in thing Society, that is matters to be is to Writing theFirst Science Book of Government under no other Legislative Power, but that his own Service, and he does him no injury by Analyzing Enlightenment Philosophers 22 act so as to become the strongest. But what kind of it. For, whenever he finds the hardship of his Man is born free; and everywhere he is in chains. “It is necessary by the arrangement of things, power checks power.”— establishedright is that bywhich consent, perishes in the when Common-wealth, force fails? If we Section 2 One thinks himself the master of others, and still Slavery out-weigh the value of his Life, ’tis in Montesquieu, On the Spirit of Laws (1748) normust but obey what perforce, the Dominion there is ofno any need Will, to orobey remains a greater slave than they. How did this his Power, by resisting the Will of his Master, to Restraintbecause we of ought;any Law, and but if wewhat are the not Legislative forced to obey, change come about? I do not know. What can make draw on himself the Death he desires. shallwe are enact, under according no obligation to the to Trust do so. put Clearly, in it. the harles-Louis de Secondat, theit legitimate?Baron de That questionstand I think the world I can aroundanswer. them. However, he was not 24. This is the perfect condition of Slavery, which is Freedomword “right”then adds is not nothing what Sirto force:R. F. tellsin this us, connec- O.A. Montesquieu, studied politics throughoutIf I took into his accounta only radical force, who and urged the ruleeffects by the people instead of by nothing else, but the State of War continued, C 55tion,[224]. it means A Liberty absolutely for every nothing. one to do what he Class Time 45 minutes Group members should work together to research life and wrote a huge and exhaustivederived study from of gov- it, I should kings.say: “As He long was asdeeply a people conservative is and hoped to between a lawful Conquerour, and a Captive. lists,Obey to live the as powers he pleases, that andbe. Ifnot this to meansbe tyed yield by to ernment. One of his key views wascompelled that authority to obey, and obeys,maintain it does the privilegedwell; as soon position of the aristocracy. For, if once Compact enter between them, and anyforce, Laws: it is aBut good Freedom precept, of butMen superfluous: under I can should be divided. This idea becameas it popularcan shake in off the yoke,He andbelieved shakes that it off,the king’sit power was dangerous make an agreement for a limited Power on the Government,answer for its is,never to have being a standingviolated. RuleAll power to live comes England’s North American colonies.does still better; for, regainingbut thought its liberty that by a strongthe aristocracy could check one side, and Obedience on the other, the State by,from common God, I admit;to every but one so ofdoes that all Society, sickness: and does that In 1689, Montesquieu was bornsame near right Bordeaux, as took it away,that either authority. it is justified He admired in Englandmade because by the the Legislative Power erected in it; A of War and Slavery ceases, as long as the and write reports about their philosopher. Each strength of its nobles limited the controlmean that of thewe areking. forbidden to call in the doctor? A Compact endures. For, as has been said, no France. His family had long servedresuming in the militaryit or there was no justification for those Task Writing reports about Enlightenment Libertybrigand to[bandit] follow surprisesmy own Willme at in the all things,edge of a wood: and had good social position. He whomarried took a it wealthy away.” But the socialMontesquieu order is aalso sacred saw human nature as the Man can, by agreement, pass over to another wheremust I thenot Rulemerely prescribes surrender not; my and purse not on to compul-be woman who had a good head for rightbusiness—so which is goodthe basis ofsame all rights. around Nevertheless, the world. However, he thought that that which he hath not in himself, a Power over subjectsion, but, to eventhe inconstant, if I could withholduncertain, it, unknown,am I in con- that he often let her run the familythis estates. right does When not come lawsfrom and nature, government and must depended on many factors, his own Life. Arbitraryscience bound Will ofto anothergive it up? Man. For As certainly Freedom the of pistol his uncle died, he became Barontherefore de Montesquieu be founded on conventions.including Beforereligion, coming geography, to and climate. Good report should explain who the man was, what his Naturehe holdsis isto also be undera power. no other restraint but the at age 27 and began serving as a judge.that, I have to prove what I havegovernment just asserted. requires shaping laws to suit local con- philosophers LawLet of Nature.us then admit that force does not create Activity Options Montesquieu soon became famous as a writer. ditions. He thought it was easier23. forThis people Freedom to enjoyfrom Absolute, Arbitrary Power, right, and that we are obliged to obey only legitimate 1. Summarizing Paraphrase Locke’s definition of The Persian Letters appeared in 1721Chapter without iden- III—Theliberty Right in a mountainous of the country islike so Switzerlandnecessary to, or and closely joyned with a powers. In that case, my original question recurs. liberty in your own words. Then share your defi- tifying him as the author. The book was supposedly Strongestan island like England.All rights reserved. Islands protectMan’s people Preservation, from that he cannot part with it, nition with classmates. ideas about government were, and how he written by two Persian travelers whoThe visited strongest France is neverattack strong by enough other countries. to be Harsh conditionsbutfrom by Jean-Jacques what in forfeitsthe Rousseau, his Preservation The Social Contract and Life and Discourses and Other Essays, trans. by G.D.H. Cole (E.P. 2. Recognizing Point of View In this excerpt, and wrote letters to describe whatalways they saw.the master,In this unlessmountains, he transforms he believed, strength lead peopletogether. to have For a spirit a Man, not having the Power of Dutton & Company, Inc., 1950). Reprinted in Peter Gay, Locke refers to Sir Robert Filmer, an author who Purpose To understand the ideas of the way, Montesquieu was free to criticizeinto right, and pokeand obedienceof into individualism duty. Hence that the promotes right liberty. his own Life, cannot, by Compact, or his own ed., The Enlightenment: A Comprehensive Anthology (New promoted the royal view of the basis of govern- fun at French society. The king, heof thewrote, strongest, was a which, thoughMontesquieu to all seeming wanted meant to makeConsent,York: sure Simon that enslave noand part Schuster, himself 1973),to any 322–325. one, nor put mental power. With a partner, role-play a conver- trickster who “makes people kill oneironically, another is reallyeven laid downof the as governmenta fundamental grew prin- too strong.himself The bestunder way the to Absolute, Arbitrary Power of sation between Locke and Sir Robert Filmer agreed or disagreed with the ideas of one of the when they have no quarrel.” Theciple. pope Buthe called are we a never topreserve have an freedom, explanation he said,of was toanother, divide authority.to take away his Life, when he pleases. © McDougal Littell Inc. Discussion Questions about freedom and the role of government. “conjuror,” or magician. Later, Montesquieuthis phrase? wasForce is a physicalThe ability power, to makeand I laws,fail to to carryNo out body laws, can and give to more Power than he has him-

Enlightenment philosophers judge laws should rest in differentAnalyzing branches ofIssues All rights reserved. revealed as the author. see what moral effect it can have. To yield to force Now well-known, Montesquieuis anmoved act of to necessity, Paris notpower. of will—at the most, an 1. Which did Rousseau believe was better—a gov- and joined in the luxurious court actlife of there. prudence. As a In what senseThis can idea it bewas a adoptedduty? in the Unitedernment States freely formed by the people or one other philosophers. Each group should choose result, his fortune dwindled. The combination of when the Constitution was written. Thus, his ideas Suppose for a moment that this so-called “right” imposed on a people by force? financial need and boredom led himexists. to Isell maintain his that thetook sole hold result in isa countrya mass of with traits 2.similar Did Rousseau to those of believe that it was the right of the Instructions Divide the class into five judgeship. He used the money toinexplicable take a long nonsense.tour For,England if force and creates Switzerland. right, Separatedstrongest from Europe to rule? of Europe. He explored art and sciencethe effect and changes met with theby acause: vast ocean, every forcethe United that States3. was Making safe from Inferences How would you compare

© McDougal Littell Inc. Enlightenment and Revolution 35 leading politicians and writers. Heis alsogreater stayed than many the first succeedsattack. In to their its right. rugged As landscape, theLocke’s American ideas about government with Rousseau’s? one member to present its report to the class. people developed a strong sense of individualism. months in England studying its government.soon as it is possible to disobey with impunity, dis-

Upon returning to France, Montesquieu spent All rights reserved. groups and assign each group one of the two years writing a book on the English constitu- Questions tion. Then he decided to write a detailed study of 1. Clarifying How did Montesquieu’s circum- government. For years he worked diligently, using stances allow him to spend his life writing? Refer students to Primary Sources and History as many as six people at a time taking notes. In 2. Drawing Conclusions Why did Montesquieu 1748, after 17 years of reading, writing,34 Unit and 5 ,revis- Chapter 22 think that it was a good idea to have different following philosophers: ing, he published On the Spirit of Laws. It filled powers checking each other? © McDougal Littell Inc. more than 1,000 pages and broke new ground. 3. Contrasting How did Montesquieu differ from Montesquieu attempted to make a science of other writers of the Enlightenment? Makers for more information. Use the Standards government. His work reflected Enlightenment • Hobbes • Montesquieu ideas that people, using their minds, could under- for Evaluating a Cooperative Activity once the 42 Unit 5, Chapter 22 • Locke • Rousseau class has finished the activity. • Voltaire In-Depth Resources: Unit 5 Teacher’s Edition 631 wh10te-052202-0629-0635 8/21/03 9:38 AM Page 632

CHAPTER 22 • Section 2 Enlightenment thinkers on many matters. Most philosophes believed that reason, science, and art would improve life for all people. Rousseau, however, argued that civilization corrupted people’s natural goodness. “Man is born free, and every- where he is in chains,” he wrote. Rousseau believed that the only good government was one that was freely formed More About . . . by the people and guided by the “general will” of society—a direct democracy. Under such a government, people agree to give up some of their freedom in favor The State of Nature of the common good. In 1762, he explained his political philosophy in a book Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau all dis- called The Social Contract. cussed the state of nature, or human Rousseau’s view of the social contract differed greatly from that of Hobbes. For nature, in their philosophies. This referred Hobbes, the social contract was an agreement between a society and its govern- to the way humans behaved before the ment. For Rousseau, it was an agreement among free individuals to create a society and a government. structures of society existed. Hobbes Like Locke, Rousseau argued that legitimate government came from the consent thought this state of nature was of the governed. However, Rousseau believed in a much broader democracy than self-centered and brutish. Locke believed Locke had promoted. He argued that all people were equal and that titles of nobil- humans were naturally reasonable and ity should be abolished. Rousseau’s ideas inspired many of the leaders of the able to make decisions. Rousseau French Revolution who overthrew the monarchy in 1789. thought they were happiest when solitary. Beccaria Promotes Criminal Justice An Italian philosophe named Cesare Bonesana Beccaria (BAYK•uh•REE•ah) turned his thoughts to the justice system. He believed that laws existed to preserve social order, not to avenge crimes. Beccaria regularly criticized common abuses of justice. They included torturing of witnesses and suspects, irregular proceedings in trials, and punishments that were arbitrary or History from Visuals cruel. He argued that a person accused of a crime should receive a speedy trial, and that torture should never be used. Moreover, he said, the degree of punishment should Interpreting the Chart be based on the seriousness of the crime. He also believed that capital punishment Ask students how Voltaire’s and should be abolished. Beccaria’s views impacted the U.S. Beccaria based his ideas about justice on the principle that governments should (Possible Answer: freedom of speech; seek the greatest good for the greatest number of people. His ideas influenced criminal law reformers in Europe and North America. religion guaranteed; no torture) Extension Have pairs prompt each other Major Ideas of the Enlightenment with items from the chart, for example the first item in the “Idea” column. Idea Thinker Impact Partners then make up a question that Natural rights—life, liberty, property Locke Fundamental to U.S. Declaration of Independence

the item answers, such as “How did Separation of powers Montesquieu France, United States, and Latin American nations use Locke’s ideas affect the United States?” separation of powers in new constitutions

Freedom of thought and Voltaire Guaranteed in U.S. Bill of Rights and French Declaration of SKILLBUILDER Answers expression the Rights of Man and Citizen; European monarchs reduce or 1. Analyzing Issues U.S. Declaration of eliminate censorship Independence and Bill of Rights, vari- Abolishment of torture Beccaria Guaranteed in U.S. Bill of Rights; torture outlawed or reduced in nations of Europe and the Americas ous constitutions, French Declaration of Rights of Man/Citizens Religious freedom Voltaire Guaranteed in U.S. Bill of Rights and French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen; European monarchs reduce 2. Forming Opinions Possible Answers: persecution freedom of expression: allows Women’s equality Wollstonecraft Women’s rights groups form in Europe and North America individuality; no torture: forbids inhumane treatment SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Charts Critical Thinking Transparencies 1. Analyzing Issues What important documents reflect the influence of Enlightenment ideas? 2. Forming Opinions Which are the two most important Enlightenment ideas? Support your answer with . • CT22 The Spread of Enlightenment Ideas

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Illustrating Enlightenment Ideas Class Time 30 minutes • Jean Jacques Rousseau: “Man is born free, and everywhere he is Task Creating posters to illustrate quotations from the section in chains.” Purpose To improve students’ understanding of Enlightenment ideas • Mary Astell: “If absolute be not necessary in a state, how Instructions Organize students in small groups and assign each group a comes it to be so in a family? . . . If all men are born free, how is it quote from the section. Use the following quotes: that all women are born slaves?” • Thomas Hobbes: Without governments, there would be “war . . . of Discuss all the quotes, helping students paraphrase and build meaning. every man against every man.” Clarify terms and phrases such as check to power, absolute sovereignty, and in chains. Then have each group copy its quote onto poster paper • Voltaire: “I do not agree with a word you say but will defend to the and create an image to illustrate it. Ask groups to present their posters to death your right to say it.” the class. • Baron de Montesquieu: “Power should be a check to power.”

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Women and the Enlightenment CHAPTER 22 • Section 2 The philosophes challenged many assumptions about gov- ernment and society. But they often took a traditional view toward women. Rousseau, for example, developed many pro- gressive ideas about education. However, he believed that a Women and the girl’s education should mainly teach her how to be a helpful wife and mother. Other male social critics scolded women for Enlightenment reading novels because they thought it encouraged idleness Critical Thinking and wickedness. Still, some male writers argued for more • Why might men hesitate to give education for women and for women’s equality in marriage. women education and equality under Women writers also tried to improve the status of women. In 1694, the English writer Mary Astell published A Serious the law? (Possible Answer: to avoid Proposal to the Ladies. Her book addressed the lack of edu- losing power) cational opportunities for women. In later writings, she used • What does Mary Astell mean that Enlightenment arguments about government to criticize the women are “born slaves”? (They are unequal relationship between men and women in marriage. not free to make their own decisions.) She wrote, “If absolute sovereignty be not necessary in a state, 1759–1797 how comes it to be so in a family? . . . If all men are born free, A strong advocate of education for how is it that all women are born slaves?” women, Wollstonecraft herself received History Makers During the 1700s, other women picked up these themes. little formal schooling. She and her Among the most persuasive was Mary Wollstonecraft, who two sisters taught themselves by Mary Wollstonecraft published an essay called A Vindication of the Rights of studying books at home. With her sisters, she briefly ran a school. These Read aloud the following quote from Woman in 1792. In the essay, she disagreed with Rousseau experiences shaped much of her Mary Wollstonecraft’s A Vindication of that women’s education should be secondary to men’s. Rather, thoughts about education. the Rights of Woman. Then ask students Drawing she argued that women, like men, need education to become Wollstonecraft eventually took a Conclusions virtuous and useful. Wollstonecraft also urged women to enter job with a London publisher. There, what ideas about women and education Why do you the male-dominated fields of medicine and politics. she met many leading radicals of the the quote expresses. think the issue of Women made important contributions to the Enlight- day. One of them was her future husband, the writer . “…[women] spend many of the first education was enment in other ways. In Paris and other European cities, important to both Wollstonecraft died at age 38, after years of their lives acquiring a smattering wealthy women helped spread Enlightenment ideas through Astell and giving birth to their daughter, Mary. of accomplishments; meanwhile strength Wollstonecraft? . social gatherings called salons, which you will read about This child, whose married name was C. Answer later in this chapter. Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, went on of body and mind are sacrificed to Education was One woman fortunate enough to receive an education in to write the classic novel Frankenstein. [indulgent] notions of beauty, to the closed to women; it the sciences was Emilie du Châtelet (shah•tlay). Du desire of establishing themselves—the could help women Châtelet was an aristocrat trained as a mathematician and RESEARCH LINKS For more on Mary improve themselves only way women can rise in the Wollstonecraft, go to classzone.com and was key to physicist. By translating Newton’s work from Latin into world—by marriage.” exercising the same French, she helped stimulate interest in science in France. rights as men Legacy of the Enlightenment Legacy of the Enlightenment Over a span of a few decades, Enlightenment writers challenged long-held ideas about society. They examined such principles as the divine right of monarchs, the Critical Thinking union of church and state, and the existence of unequal social classes. They held • How can you link the belief in these beliefs up to the light of reason and found them in need of reform. The philosophes mainly lived in the world of ideas. They formed and popular- reason to the desire to end slavery ized new theories. Although they encouraged reform, they were not active revolu- and promote social equality? tionaries. However, their theories eventually inspired the American and French (Possible Answer: If everyone has revolutions and other revolutionary movements in the 1800s. Enlightenment think- reason, everyone is equal.) ing produced three other long-term effects that helped shape Western civilization. • How would explaining mysteries by Belief in Progress The first effect was a belief in progress. Pioneers such as math change one’s view of God? Galileo and Newton had discovered the key for unlocking the mysteries of nature in (Possible Answer: One might question the 1500s and 1600s. With the door thus opened, the growth of scientific knowledge if God was behind the mysteries.) Enlightenment and Revolution 633

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CHAPTER PRIMARY SOURCE from A Vindication of the Rights 22 of Woman DIFFERENTIATING INSTRUCTION: GIFTED AND TALENTED STUDENTS by Mary Wollstonecraft Section 2

A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, published by the English writer and reformer Mary Wollstonecraft in 1792, is one of the earliest feminist essays. According to this excerpt, how did Wollstonecraft feel about the education of women?

have sighed when obliged to confess that either physical superiority cannot, therefore, be denied— Inature has made a great difference between man and it is a noble prerogative [right]! But not con- Exploring Mary Wollstonecraft’s Ideas and man or that the civilization which has hitherto tent with this natural preeminence, men endeavor taken place in the world has been very partial. I to sink us still lower, merely to render us alluring have turned over various books written on the sub- objects for a moment; and women, . . . do not seek ject of education, and patiently observed the conduct to obtain a durable interest in [men’s] hearts, or to of parents and the management of schools; but become the friends of the fellow creatures who find what has been the result?—a profound conviction amusement in their society. that the neglected education of my fellow creatures I am aware of an obvious inference: from every Class Time 30 minutes the questions. After all groups have finished, discuss their is the grand source of the misery I deplore; and quarter have I heard exclamations against masculine that women, in particular, are rendered weak and women; but where are they to be found? If by this wretched by a variety of concurring causes, origi- appellation [name] men mean to inveigh [protest] nating from one hasty conclusion. The conduct and against their ardor in hunting, shooting, and gam- answers as a whole. Challenge students to link Mary manners of women, in fact, evidently prove that ing, I shall most cordially join in the cry; but if it Task Connecting background information to a their minds are not in a healthy state; for, like the be against the imitation of manly virtues, or, more flowers which are planted in too rich a soil, strength properly speaking, the attainment of those talents and usefulness are sacrificed to beauty; and the and virtues, the exercise of which ennobles the flaunting leaves, after having pleased a fastidious human character, and which raise females in the Wollstonecraft’s ideas to the women’s liberation efforts of eye, fade, disregarded on the stalk, long before the scale of animal being, when they are comprehen- primary source season when they ought to have arrived at maturity. sively termed mankind; all those who view them One cause of this barren blooming I attribute to a with a philosophic eye must, I should think, wish false system of education, gathered from the books with me that they may every day grow more and written on this subject by men who, considering more masculine. the late 1900s. Explain that these efforts sought equal females rather as women than human creatures, from Barbara H. Solomon and Paula S. Berggren, eds., have been more anxious to make them alluring mis- A Mary Wollstonecraft Reader (New York: New American Purpose To extend understanding of Mary tresses than affectionate wives and rational moth- Library, 1983), 267–269. ers; . . . the civilized women of the present century, with a few exceptions, are only anxious to inspire Discussion Questions social, political, and economic rights for women. Peaking love, when they ought to cherish a nobler ambition, All rights reserved. and by their abilities and virtues exact respect. . . . 1. Analyzing Causes and Recognizing Effects Wollstonecraft’s views and their impact According to Wollstonecraft, what happens when Yet, because I am a woman, I would not lead my readers to suppose that I mean violently to agi- women are not properly educated? tate the contested question respecting the equality 2. Clarifying What is Wollstonecraft’s opinion of in the 1960s and 1970s, many women in the U.S. or inferiority of the sex; but . . . I shall stop a the equality of men and women? moment to deliver, in a few words, my opinion. In 3. Making Inferences Jean-Jacques Rousseau Instructions Make sure that students have read the text the government of the physical world it is observ- believed that a woman’s education should pri- © McDougal Littell Inc. able that the female in point of strength is, in gen- marily teach her to become a better wife and eral, inferior to the male. This is the law of nature; mother. How do you think Wollstonecraft would protested unequal treatment of women and demanded have reacted to his views? and it does not appear to be suspended or abrogat- on this page titled “Women and the Enlightenment.” Then ed [abolished] in favor of woman. A degree of the right to earn and spend money, and to receive equal 36 Unit 5, Chapter 22 give students the excerpt from A Vindication of the Rights pay for doing equal work. Encourage students to share of Woman from In-Depth Resources: Unit 5. Have them what they learned about Mary Wollstonecraft’s ideas with In-Depth Resources: Unit 5 read the excerpt and then work in small groups to answer the rest of the class.

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CHAPTER 22 • Section 2 seemed to quicken in the 1700s. Scientists made key new discoveries in chemistry, physics, biology, and mechanics. The successes of the Scientific Revolution gave people the confidence that human reason could solve social problems. Philosophes and reformers urged an end to the practice of slavery and argued for greater social equality, as well as a more democratic style of government. More About . . . A More Secular Outlook A second outcome was the rise of a more secular, or Attitudes Toward Children non-religious, outlook. During the Enlightenment, people began to question openly their religious beliefs and the teachings of the church. Before the Scientific The Enlightenment changed people’s Revolution, people accepted the mysteries of the universe as the workings of God. views about children, too. People had One by one, scientists discovered that these mysteries could be explained mathemat- believed that children were naturally ically. Newton himself was a deeply religious man, and he sought to reveal God’s sinful small adults and thus needed a majesty through his work. However, his findings often caused people to change the harsh hand. During the Enlightenment, way they thought about God. Meanwhile, Voltaire and other critics attacked some of the beliefs and practices people came to believe that children of organized Christianity. They wanted to rid religious faith of superstition and fear should be better educated and could be and promote tolerance of all religions. allowed to mature into adulthood. Slowly, Importance of the Individual Faith in science and in progress produced a third use of corporal punishment lessened and outcome, the rise of individualism. As people began to turn away from the church playtime increased. and royalty for guidance, they looked to themselves instead. The philosophes encouraged people to use their own ability to reason in order to judge what was right or wrong. They also emphasized the importance of the individ- ual in society. Government, they argued, was formed by individuals to promote their welfare. The British thinker extended the emphasis on the individual to economic thinking. He believed that individuals acting in their own self-interest created economic progress. Smith’s theory is discussed in detail in Chapter 25. During the Enlightenment, reason took center stage. The greatest minds of Europe followed each other’s work with interest and often met to discuss their ideas. Some of the kings and queens of Europe were also very interested. As you will learn in Section 3, they sought to apply some of the philosophes’ ideas to create progress in their countries. ASSESS SECTION 2 ASSESSMENT SECTION2 ASSESSMENT

Group students of different reading TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. proficiencies to answer the questions. • Enlightenment • social contract • John Locke • philosophe • Voltaire • Montesquieu • Rousseau • Mary Wollstonecraft Then have groups share their answers USING YOUR NOTES MAIN IDEAS CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING with the whole class. 2. Which impact of the Enlight- 3. What are the natural rights with 6. SYNTHESIZING Explain how the following statement enment do you consider most which people are born, reflects Enlightenment ideas: “Power should be a check Formal Assessment important? Why? according to John Locke? to power.”

• Section Quiz, p. 349 Enlightenment in Europe 4. Who were the philosophes and 7. ANALYZING ISSUES Why might some women have been I. Two Views on what did they advocate? critical of the Enlightenment? Government 5. What was the legacy of the 8. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS Do you think the philosophes RETEACH A. B. Enlightenment? were optimistic about the future of humankind? Explain. II. The Philosophes 9. WRITING ACTIVITY POWER AND AUTHORITY Compare the Have students complete the Guided Advocate Reason views of Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau on government. A. Reading worksheet for Section 2. Then Then write one paragraph about how their ideas reflect B. draw the organizer on the board and their understanding of human behavior. review students’ answers as a class. In-Depth Resources: Unit 5 CONNECT TO TODAY PRESENTING AN ORAL REPORT Identify someone considered a modern-day social critic. Explore the person’s beliefs and • Guided Reading, p. 26 methods and present your findings to the class in a brief oral report. • Reteaching Activity, p. 45 634 Chapter 22

ANSWERS

1. Enlightenment, p. 629 • social contract, p. 629 • John Locke, p. 630 • philosophe, p. 630 • Voltaire, p. 630 • Montesquieu, p. 631 • Rousseau, p. 631 • Mary Wollstonecraft, p. 633 2. Sample Answer: I. A. Hobbes’s social con- 3. life, liberty, and property 8. Possible Answer: Yes, they believed in tract, B. Locke’s natural rights. II. A. Reason 4. French thinkers and social critics; applying progress and urged people to find joy and supports all, B. Philosophes support tolerance, reason to many aspects of life well-being on earth. separation of powers, freedoms, humanity. 5. greater belief in progress, rise of secularism, 9. Rubric Paragraphs should III. A. Women want education and equality, the rise of individualism • identify and compare the three views. B. Women spread Enlightenment ideas. IV. 6. No one powerful group should be in charge, • link each view to human behavior. A. Belief in progress, B. More secular outlook, but various groups should check the influence CONNECT TO TODAY C. Importance of individual. Possible Answer: of others, thus forcing compromise. Rubric Oral reports should Belief in progress–Spurred efforts to improve 7. Many of its thinkers had little interest in • explain the person’s beliefs and methods. society. Importance of individual–Promoted improving women’s rights. • provide examples of the critic’s philosophy. growth of democratic ideas. • be delivered in a concise manner. 634 Chapter 22 wh10te-052202-0629-0635 8/21/03 9:39 AM Page 635

Using Primary Sources CHAPTER 22 • Section 2

European Values During Different Perspectives the Enlightenment Writers and artists of the Enlightenment often used satire to comment on European OBJECTIVE values. Using wit and humor, they ridiculed various ideas and customs. Satire allowed artists to explore human faults in a way that is powerful but not preachy. In the two • Understand that European Enlighten- literary excerpts and the painting below, notice how the writer or artist makes his point. ment values can be examined from more than one perspective. A PRIMARY SOURCE B PRIMARY SOURCE Voltaire Jonathan Swift INSTRUCT Voltaire wrote Candide (1759) to attack a philosophy called The narrator of Gulliver’s Travels (1726), an English doctor Discuss how the three primary sources Optimism, which held that all is right with the world. The named Lemuel Gulliver, takes four disastrous voyages that explore Enlightenment values in different hero of the story, a young man named Candide, encounters leave him stranded in strange lands. In the following the most awful disasters and human evils. In this passage, passage, Gulliver tries to win points with the king of ways. Voltaire undercuts optimism. Candide meets a slave in South America, who explains why Brobdingnag—a land of giants—by offering to show him Swift criticizes the inhumanity of which he is missing a leg and a hand. how to make guns and cannons. humans are capable. Hogarth comments on political corruption. “When we’re working at the sugar mill and catch our finger The king was struck with horror at the description I had in the grinding-wheel, they cut off our hand. When we try to given of those terrible engines. . . . He was amazed how so run away, they cut off a leg. I have been in both of these impotent and grovelling an insect as I (these were his situations. This is the price you pay for the sugar you eat in expressions) could entertain such inhuman ideas, and in so Europe. . . . familiar a manner as to appear wholly unmoved at all the “The Dutch fetishes [i.e., missionaries] who converted me scenes of blood and desolation, which I had painted as the Interactive This feature is available in [to Christianity] tell me every Sunday that we are all the common effects of those destructive machines; whereof, he an interactive format on the eEdition. sons of Adam, Whites and Blacks alike. I’m no genealogist, said, some evil genius, enemy to mankind, must have been Students can view a large version of but if these preachers are right, we are all cousins born of the first contriver [inventor]. first cousins. Well, you will grant me that you can’t treat a the Hogarth painting, follow hyperlinks relative much worse than this.” for vocabulary help, and listen to audio excerpts.

C PRIMARY SOURCE William Hogarth More About . . . The English artist William Hogarth often used satire in Satire his paintings. In this painting, Canvassing for Satire is an artistic style that uses humor Votes, he comments on to ridicule the practices of a society or political corruption. While 1. What is the main point that Voltaire is making in Source A? institution through art instead of open the candidate flirts with the What technique does he use to criticism. For example, Voltaire’s main ladies on the balcony, his reinforce his message? supporters offer a man characters maintain optimism despite 2. What does the king’s reaction in money for his vote. Source B say about Swift’s view of constant evidence of stupidity and evil, Europe’s military technology? implying that optimism and its followers 3. Why might Hogarth’s painting in lack reason. Source C be difficult for modern audiences to understand? Does Electronic Library of Primary Sources this take away from his message? • from Gulliver’s Travels

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DOCUMENT-BASED QUESTIONS: ANSWERS

1. Christian missionaries are hypocritical in their treatment of slaves. 2. He saw such technology as cruel and wasteful. Voltaire shows this by contrasting the brutality of slavery with the mis- 3. Hogarth’s painting requires knowledge of the unfamiliar elements in the sionaries’ empty words about all men being the sons of Adam. Voltaire scene that most modern audiences will lack. However, once the ele- uses satire to reinforce the message of hypocrisy. ments are understood, observers can more easily empathize with Hogarth’s message about political corruption.

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LESSON PLAN 3 OBJECTIVES Copernican Solar System, from Andreae Signing of the U.S. Constitution • Explain how Enlightenment ideas Cellarius, Harmonia Macrocosmica, 1661 spread throughout Europe. • Describe changes in art, music, and The Enlightenment Spreads literature during the Enlightenment.

• Show how Enlightenment ideas MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES reformed monarchies in , POWER AND AUTHORITY An “enlightened” problem- • salon • enlightened , and . Enlightenment ideas spread solving approach to government • baroque despot through the Western world and and society prevails in modern • neoclassical • Catherine profoundly influenced the arts civilization today. the Great FOCUS & MOTIVATE and government. Explain that Enlightenment ideas spread The philosophes’ views about society often got them in through discussion, printed materials, SETTING THE STAGE trouble. In France it was illegal to criticize either the Catholic Church or the gov- songs, and visual arts, as well as laws ernment. Many philosophes landed in jail or were exiled. Voltaire, for example, and governmental decisions. Ask students experienced both punishments. Nevertheless, the Enlightenment spread through- how they learn about new ideas. out Europe with the help of books, magazines, and word of mouth. In time, (Possible Answers: television, Internet, Enlightenment ideas influenced everything from the artistic world to the royal print media, at the mall, from friends) courts across the continent.

TAKING NOTES A World of Ideas INSTRUCT Summarizing Use a web diagram to list In the 1700s, Paris was the cultural and intellectual capital of Europe. Young A World of Ideas examples of each people from around Europe—and also from the Americas—came to study, phi- concept related to the losophize, and enjoy the culture of the bustling city. The brightest minds of the spread of ideas. age gathered there. From their circles radiated the ideas of the Enlightenment. Critical Thinking The buzz of Enlightenment ideas was most intense in the mansions of several • How was Diderot’s Encyclopedia art and wealthy women of Paris. There, in their large drawing rooms, these hostesses held literature monarchy different from those you use today? regular social gatherings called salons. At these events, philosophers, writers, (Possible Answer: It included opinions; Spread of artists, scientists, and other great intellects met to discuss ideas. most modern encyclopedias do not.) Enlightenment Ideas Diderot’s Encyclopedia The most influential of the salon hostesses in Voltaire’s • Why do you think Enlightenment ideas time was Marie-Thérèse Geoffrin (zhuh•frehn). She helped finance the project of spread so readily? What does this sug- circulation a leading philosophe named (DEE•duh•ROH). Diderot created a gest about their appeal? (improved of ideas large set of books to which many leading scholars of Europe contributed articles communication; widespread appeal) and essays. He called it Encyclopedia and began publishing the first volumes in 1751. In-Depth Resources: Unit 5 The Enlightenment views expressed in the articles soon angered both the • Guided Reading, p. 27 (also in Spanish) French government and the Catholic Church. Their censors banned the work. They said it undermined royal authority, encouraged a spirit of revolt, and fos- TEST-TAKING RESOURCES tered “moral corruption, irreligion, and unbelief.” Nonetheless, Diderot contin- ued publishing his Encyclopedia. Test Generator CD-ROM The salons and the Encyclopedia helped spread Enlightenment ideas to edu- Strategies for Test Preparation cated people all over Europe. Enlightenment ideas also eventually spread through newspapers, pamphlets, and even political songs. Enlightenment ideas Test Practice Transparencies, TT82 about government and equality attracted the attention of a growing literate mid- Online Test Practice dle class, which could afford to buy many books and support the work of artists. 636 Chapter 22

SECTION 3 PROGRAM RESOURCES ALL STUDENTS STRUGGLING READERS In-Depth Resources: Unit 5 In-Depth Resources: Unit 5 eEdition CD-ROM • Guided Reading, p. 27 • Guided Reading, p. 27 Power Presentations CD-ROM Formal Assessment • Building Vocabulary, p. 29 Electronic Library of Primary Sources • Section Quiz, p. 350 • Reteaching Activity, p. 46 • Letter to Catherine the Great Reading Study Guide, p. 209 classzone.com ENGLISH LEARNERS Reading Study Guide Audio CD In-Depth Resources in Spanish • Guided Reading, p. 155 GIFTED AND TALENTED STUDENTS Reading Study Guide (Spanish), p. 209 In-Depth Resources: Unit 5 Reading Study Guide Audio CD (Spanish) • Connections Across Time and Cultures: The Search for Truth and Reason, p. 43 Electronic Library of Primary Sources 636 Chapter 22 • Letter to Catherine the Great wh10te-052203-0636-0639 8/21/03 12:48 PM Page 637

CHAPTER 22 • Section 3

Cybercafés These days, when people around the world gather to explore new ideas and discuss Connect to Today current events, many do so at Internet cafés. These are coffee shops or restaurants that also Cybercafés provide access to computers for a small fee. While Internet cafés originated in the By late 2002, China’s government had United States, they are thought to be on the either permanently or temporarily closed decline in America as more people become able to afford their own computers. about 12,000 Internet cafés, officially for Overseas, however, Internet cafés continue safety code violations. Still, many accused to boom. Observers estimate that some the government of simply trying to limit 200,000 operate in China. Most of them are illegal. China’s Communist government has Internet access. Certainly, China’s laws— little desire to give so many of its citizens cafés off-limits to those under 16, cafés access to the kind of uncensored information list users’ names—do much to control that the Internet provides. As was the case with the Enlightenment, however, the spread access. In addition, the government of new ideas is often too powerful to stop. blocks many sites.

New Artistic Styles New Artistic Styles The Enlightenment ideals of order and reason were reflected in the arts—music, literature, painting, and architecture. Critical Thinking Neoclassical Style Emerges European art of the 1600s and early 1700s had been • How does reflect the dominated by the style called baroque, which was characterized by a grand, ornate ideas of order and reason? (Possible design. Baroque styles could be seen in elaborate palaces such as Versailles (see Answer: Simple structures with limited page 600) and in numerous paintings. decoration suggest order and reason.) Under the influence of the Enlightenment, styles began to change. Artists and • Why did novels become popular in the architects worked in a simple and elegant style that borrowed ideas and themes from classical Greece and Rome. The artistic style of the late 1700s is therefore ? (Possible Answers: The called neoclassical (“new classical”). middle class had more leisure time; Changes in Music and Literature Music styles also changed to reflect more people knew how to read; they Enlightenment ideals. The music scene in Europe had been dominated by such wanted entertainment.) composers as Johann Sebastian Bach of Germany and George Friedrich Handel of England. These artists wrote dramatic organ and choral music. During the Enlightenment, a new, lighter, and more elegant style of music known as classical More About . . . emerged. Three composers in Vienna, Austria, rank among the greatest figures of the classical period in music. They were Franz Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus The Literate Middle Class Mozart, and Ludwig van Beethoven. The middle class, eager for news, ideas, Writers in the 18th century also developed new styles and forms of literature. A and entertainment, readily purchased number of European authors began writing novels, which are lengthy works of prose popular magazines that began to circu- fiction. Their works had carefully crafted plots, used suspense, and explored charac- late in the 18th century. One of the most ters’ thoughts and feelings. These books were popular with a wide middle-class audi- ence, who liked the entertaining stories written in everyday language. Writers, famous, The Spectator, offered essays including many women, turned out a flood of popular novels in the 1700s. about social behavior, love, marriage, Samuel Richardson’s Pamela is often considered the first true English novel. It and literature. Another, The Ladies Diary, tells the story of a young servant girl who refuses the advances of her master. was aimed at middle-class women. Another English masterpiece, Tom Jones, by Henry Fielding, tells the story of an By the , over 150 magazines orphan who travels all over England to win the hand of his lady. were available in England. Enlightenment and Revolution 637

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CONNECTIONS ACROSS TIME AND CULTURES THEMATIC CONNECTION: CHAPTER 22 The Search for Truth and Reason CULTURAL INTERACTION DIFFERENTIATING INSTRUCTION: GIFTED AND TALENTED STUDENTS As you read in this chapter, Enlightenment intellectuals and artists made use of Section 3 ideas and styles from classical Greece and Rome. In what ways are classical ideals reflected in the philosophy, art, and literature of the Age of Reason? Review Chapter 5 and then answer the questions that follow.

1. The classical art of Greece set standards of order, balance, and proportion that influenced future generations of artists. How are those standards reflected in the art of the Age of Reason? ______Researching Enlightenment Arts ______

2. The Greeks wrote tragedies about human themes such as love, hate, war, and betrayal, and comedies, many of which were . How does classical literature compare with Class Time 40 minutes can begin their research with the textbook and then Enlightenment literature? ______

3. Greek thinkers in search of truth and knowledge were called philosophers, meaning Task Developing oral reports about architecture and the extend to general and topic encyclopedias and other “lovers of wisdom.” How did the views of the French philosophes compare with those of the Greek philosophers? ______books. Each group will develop and present an oral report ______arts during the Enlightenment 4. The Greek philosopher Aristotle invented a method for arguing using the rules of logic. How did Aristotle’s work lay the groundwork for the scientific method developed that includes examples of the art form. These can include during the 1600s? ______Purpose To help students recognize the Enlightenment’s ______

5. In what other ways does the Age of Reason compare with the “golden age” of classical

pictures, books, audio recordings, videos, and other items. All rights reserved. impact on culture Greece? ______

The literature and drama groups may wish to read aloud a 6. Classical Greece left a lasting legacy in art, government, literature, and philosophy. What Instructions Organize students into five groups and © McDougal Littell Inc. do you think is the greatest legacy of the Enlightenment? ______short excerpt from a novel or play. ______assign each group one of the following topics: painting and sculpture, architecture, music, literature, and drama. After students present their reports, have them complete Enlightenment and Revolution 43 the Connections Across Time and Cultures activity. Use the Groups should conduct research to learn how their art In-Depth Resources: Unit 5 form changed during the Enlightenment and who were Standards for Evaluating an Oral Presentation to assess the most important persons associated with it. Students students’ work. Teacher’s Edition 637 wh10te-052203-0636-0639 8/21/03 12:49 PM Page 638

CHAPTER 22 • Section 3 Enlightenment and Monarchy A. Answer From the salons, artists’ studios, and concert halls of Europe, the Enlightenment Intrigued by spirit also swept through Europe’s royal courts. Many philosophes, including Enlightenment Voltaire, believed that the best form of government was a monarchy in which the ideas and con- Enlightenment and Monarchy ruler respected the people’s rights. The philosophes tried to convince monarchs to vinced by rule justly. Some monarchs embraced the new ideas and made reforms that philosophes, they wanted to make Critical Thinking reflected the Enlightenment spirit. They became known as enlightened despots. their countries Despot means “absolute ruler.” • Why must all rulers balance their stronger and their The enlightened despots supported the philosophes’ ideas. But they also had no own rule more philosophical goals with practical intention of giving up any power. The changes they made were motivated by two effective. concerns about support? (Without desires: they wanted to make their countries stronger and their own rule more effec- support, they cannot stay in power or tive. The foremost of Europe’s enlightened despots were Frederick II of Prussia, Analyzing Motives make any changes.) Holy Roman Joseph II of Austria, and Catherine the Great of Russia. Why did the enlightened despots • Why were most of the reforms applied Frederick II, the king of Prussia from 1740 to 1786, com- undertake reforms? to middle and upper classes? How did mitted himself to reforming Prussia. He granted many religious freedoms, reduced rulers view the peasants? (Reformers censorship, and improved education. He also reformed the justice system and abol- ished the use of torture. However, Frederick’s changes only went so far. For exam- came from the middle classes. Vocabulary ple, he believed that serfdom was wrong, but he did nothing to end it since he Serfdom was a sys- Peasants had little power and were needed the support of wealthy landowners. As a result, he never tried to change tem in which peas- viewed as unimportant.) the existing social order. ants were forced to live and work on a Perhaps Frederick’s most important contribution was his attitude toward landowner’s estate. being king. He called himself “the first servant of the state.” From the begin- ning of his reign, he made it clear that his goal was to serve and strengthen More About . . . his country. This attitude was clearly one that appealed to the philosophes. Joseph II The most radical royal reformer was Joseph II of Austria. The Joseph II son and successor of , Joseph II ruled Austria from 1780 to 1790. He introduced legal reforms and freedom of the press. He also sup- In 1765, Joseph was appointed co-regent ported freedom of worship, even for Protestants, Orthodox Christians, and by his mother, Maria Theresa. He had lit- Jews. In his most radical reform, Joseph abolished serfdom and ordered that tle power and could do almost nothing peasants be paid for their labor with cash. Not surprisingly, the nobles firmly without his mother’s approval. He pro- resisted this change. Like many of Joseph’s reforms, it was undone after his death. ▲ Joseph II posed many radical reforms, such as Catherine the Great The ruler most admired by the philosophes was Catherine II, mandatory military service for young known as Catherine the Great. She ruled Russia from 1762 to 1796. The well- nobles, religious toleration, an end to educated empress read the works of philosophes, and she exchanged many letters with government spying on private affairs, Voltaire. She ruled with absolute authority but also sought to reform Russia. In 1767, Catherine formed a commission to review Russia’s laws. She presented limiting nobles’ power, and using the it with a brilliant proposal for reforms based on the ideas of Montesquieu and army for public works projects. Joseph Beccaria. Among other changes, she recommended allowing religious toleration was unable to implement any of these and abolishing torture and capital punishment. Her commission, however, accom- reforms until Maria Theresa’s death plished none of these lofty goals. in 1780. Catherine eventually put in place limited reforms, but she did little to improve the life of the Russian peasants. Her views about enlightened ideas changed after a mas- sive uprising of serfs in 1773. With great brutality, Catherine’s army crushed the Vocabulary Note Changing Idea: Relationship Between Ruler and State Explain that the suffix -dom creates a noun that describes state or condition, Old Idea New Idea position or rank, office or character. The state and its citizens exist to serve the The monarch exists to serve the state and Examples include freedom, serfdom, monarch. As Louis XIV reportedly said, “I support citizens’ welfare. As Frederick the Great said, a ruler is only “the first servant stardom, kingdom am the state.” and . of the state.” 638 Chapter 22

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CHAPTER DIFFERENTIATING INSTRUCTION: STRUGGLING READERS 22 GUIDED READING The Enlightenment Spreads Section 3

A. Drawing Conclusions As you read about art, literature, and politics in the Age of Reason, explain how each of the following people reflected Enlightenment ideas.

The Arts Creating Flash Cards 1. Denis Diderot

2. Franz Joseph Haydn

Class Time 45 minutes • Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart • Franz Haydn 3. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

4. Ludwig van Beethoven Task Making flash cards of important persons in • Ludwig van Beethoven • Henry Fielding 5. Samuel Richardson the section Have group members work together to make flash cards Government Purpose To build understanding of key persons and for each person. Each flash card should include the name 6. Frederick the Great 7. Joseph II reinforce knowledge of their significance of the person, a drawing of the person or something asso- All rights reserved. ciated with the person and, on the back, facts about the 8. Catherine the Great Instructions Organize students in small groups. Review © McDougal Littell Inc. person, and a sentence linking the person to B. Summarizing On the back of this paper, define the following terms: key persons from the section, such as the following: salon baroque neoclassical enlightened despot Enlightenment ideas. After group members have finished, Enlightenment and Revolution 27 • Catherine the Great • Joseph II have them use the cards to quiz each other. • Frederick the Great • Denis Diderot In-Depth Resources: Unit 5 For students who need help, provide the Guided Reading • Marie-Therése Geoffrin • Samuel Richardson worksheet for Section 3. 638 Chapter 22 wh10te-052203-0636-0639 8/21/03 9:41 AM Page 639

rebellion. Catherine had previously favored an end to serf- CHAPTER 22 • Section 3 dom. However, the revolt convinced her that she needed the nobles’ support to keep her . Therefore, she gave the Synthesizing nobles absolute power over the serfs. As a result, Russian How accurately serfs lost their last traces of freedom. does the term Makers Catherine Expands Russia , who ruled History enlightened despot Russia in the early 1700s, had fought for years to win a port describe Catherine Catherine the Great the Great? Explain. on the Baltic Sea. Likewise, Catherine sought access to the B. Possible Answer . In two wars with the Ottoman Turks, her armies Ask students, With which of Catherine It accurately finally won control of the northern shore of the Black Sea. the Great’s decisions might Voltaire have describes two sides Russia also gained the right to send ships through Ottoman- of her rule—she disagreed? (Possible Answer: crushing tried to make controlled straits leading from the Black Sea to the the peasant rebellion) In fact, Catherine reforms, but she Mediterranean Sea. the Great wrote letters to Voltaire and also ruled with Catherine also expanded her empire westward into Catherine the Great claimed to rule by enlightened principles. absolute authority; . In Poland, the king was relatively weak, and inde- 1729–1796 it’s not very accu- pendent nobles held the most power. The three neighboring The daughter of a minor German Voltaire, in turn, flattered Catherine, rate, since she was , Catherine was 15 when she was calling her “the star of the north,” ultimately more powers—Russia, Prussia, and Austria—each tried to assert their influence over the country. In 1772, these land-hungry handed over to marry the Grand Duke “benefactress of Europe,” and “the first despotic than Peter, heir to the Russian throne. enlightened. neighbors each took a piece of Poland in what is called the Peter was mentally unstable. person in the universe.” What might have First Partition of Poland. In further partitions in 1793 and Catherine viewed her husband’s been his motivation for praising her? 1795, they grabbed up the rest of Poland’s territory. With weakness as her chance for power. (Possible Answer: to gain her favor) these partitions, Poland disappeared as an independent She made important friends among country for more than a century. Russia’s army officers and became Electronic Library of Primary Sources known as the most intelligent and By the end of her remarkable reign, Catherine had vastly • Letter to Catherine the Great best-informed person at court. In enlarged the . Meanwhile, as Russia was 1762, only months after her husband becoming an international power, another great power, became czar, Catherine had him Britain, faced a challenge from its North American arrested and confined. Soon colonies. Inspired by Enlightenment ideas, colonial leaders afterward, Peter conveniently died, decided to do the unthinkable: break away from their ruling probably by murder. country and found an independent republic.

SECTION3 ASSESSMENT ASSESS

TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. SECTION 3 ASSESSMENT • salon • baroque • neoclassical • enlightened despot • Catherine the Great Ask students to complete the questions USING YOUR NOTES MAIN IDEAS CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING independently. Then pair students to dis- 2. What are two generalizations 3. What were the defining aspects 6. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS What advantages did salons have cuss their answers in peer conferences. you could make about the of neoclassical art? over earlier forms of communication in spreading ideas? spread of Enlightenment ideas? 4. What new form of literature 7. ANALYZING ISSUES In what way were the enlightened Formal Assessment emerged during the 18th despots less than true reformers? Cite specific examples art and • Section Quiz, p. 350 literature monarchy century and what were its main from the text. characteristics? 8. MAKING INFERENCES How did the Encyclopedia project Spread of 5. Why were several rulers in 18th reflect the ? Enlightenment Ideas RETEACH century Europe known as 9. WRITING ACTIVITY POWER AND AUTHORITY Imagine you enlightened despots? are a public relations consultant for an enlightened Use the Reteaching Activity to review the circulation of ideas despot. Write a press release explaining why your client ideas of the section. is “Most Enlightened Despot of the 1700s.” In-Depth Resources: Unit 5

INTERNET ACTIVITY • Reteaching Activity, p. 46 Use the Internet to find out more about a composer or writer INTERNET KEYWORDS mentioned in this section. Then write a brief character sketch on that biography European Enlightenment artist, focusing on interesting pieces of information about his or her life. Enlightenment and Revolution 639

ANSWERS

1. salon, p. 636 • baroque, p. 637 • neoclassical, p. 637 • enlightened despot, p. 638 • Catherine the Great, p. 638 2. Sample Answer: Ideas–Encyclopedia, salon. 5. They were absolute rulers who attempted 9. Rubric Press releases should Literature/art–Neoclassicism, novels, classical reforms in the Enlightenment spirit. • discuss reforms and their effects. music. Monarchy–Frederick II, “servant of 6. access to many great artists and educated • include specific details. state”; Joseph II, abolished serfdom. Possible people; held in private homes so guests could • use effective persuasive language. Answer: Ideas spread via written materials speak freely without threat of jail and salons; enlightened despots instituted 7. wouldn’t give up real power or complete limited reforms. reforms such as abolishing serfdom Rubric Sketches should 3. Possible Answer: a simple and elegant style 8. Possible Answer: collected, examined, and • include key facts about the subject. that borrowed ideas and themes from spread new ideas; urged people to learn • depict the subject’s personality. classical Greece and Rome and reason Go to classzone.com for a Web 4. the novel; long prose fiction, suspense, research guide. carefully crafted plots, revealed characters’ thoughts and feelings Teacher’s Edition 639