July 2014 inside this issue
The new era of hyper The home of crime scene science sensitivity in DNA profiling and the issue of contamination. Page 2 Should contextual bias Welcome to the second issue of be acknowledged as a factor within crime CSEye scene interpretation? Page 4 For terrorists, documents are as important as weapons Page 6 Is overseas research on Welcome to the second issue of CS Eye. I am pleased to say that the first issue was the Post Mortem received very positively. A number of articles was picked up and reported Interval relevant to the elsewhere, such as in Police Oracle. One article that was particularly popular was UK? the Jack the Ripper article by Bob Milne. Page 10 CSI: Canine Scene
Investigators? For the second issue, we have even more articles for your perusal. We have a Page 22 fascinating article by Russ Middleton discussing how documents are a vital tool for Forensic Input into terrorists. Wildlife Crime Page 26 We also have articles relating to sniffer dogs, contextual bias, and investigating Bluestar®: arson. We have features relating to various legal aspects of the crime scene The effect of sciences. disinfectants and surfaces to detect haemoglobin I am also very pleased to highlight student input in to our research, with a PhD Page 30 student producing an article on sniffer dogs, and a couple of undergraduate Forensic Investigators: student’s dissertations being included in this issue. The area of crime scene Private Consultants examination is not considered an academic field, a view particularly held by working within the Civil practitioners. However, if the crime scene sciences is to progress and develop, it is Law important that we look to the research institutions for innovative technologies. It is Page 31 also important for universities to reach out to the practitioners to identify areas that Health Effects Caused need improving. This gap between the research in the lab and the application of by Cannabis Plants to new technology in the field is referred to as the ‘valley of death’ and it is important Police Personnel for both parties on either side to reach across and build this bridge in order to allow Dealing With Illicit innovation to be applied. Cannabis Cultivation Sites Page 38
CSEye Is published by The Chartered Society of Forensic Sciences Page 2
The new era of hyper sensitivity in DNA profiling and the issue of contamination.
Since its discovery DNA has been established as a ever increasing sensitivity may result in a challenge powerful, high tech, and reliable tool in the to the public perception of DNA infallibility. DNA investigation of crime and has led to the may be used to identify an individual but it may not identification and conviction of offenders always be possible to identify the material from throughout the world. DNA has also confirmed the which the profile was obtained an also how it ar- miscarriage of justice with numerous individuals rived at the location. Consideration should be given released from prison and exonerated for crimes to the working practices of forensic committed and convictions made prior to the practitioners and other personnel who may be introduction of DNA. The scientific advances made required to attend crime scenes. Many forensic within the field of DNA have been spectacular with practitioners will consider it logical to assume a an ever increasing sensitivity in identifying correlation between increased sensitivity within offenders. The progress made within the field of DNA profiling and the potential for contamination. DNA profiling should always be considered in comparison to the limitations and evidential value The potential for contamination may be illustrated of blood grouping procedures that were relied by a murder case reported in 2012 in Monte upon prior to the introduction of DNA. Sereno, California, USA where the suspects DNA was recovered from the victim’s fingernails. It was In December 2013 a new and more sensitive DNA reported that the suspect had previously been profiling system called DNA 17 was introduced in treated by a paramedic and stated that DNA had Northern Ireland and the system will be introduced been transferred to the victim by the paramedic in England and Wales in 2014. The introduction of when attending the crime scene. It was stated that DNA 17 is considered by some practitioners to be the DNA had been transferred through the use of one of the most significant advancements in DNA an oxygen monitoring probe that had been clipped profiling since the 1990s. The new system provides to the suspects finger and then later to the victims analysis on 17 aspects of DNA compared with 11 finger at the crime scene. The high profile murder aspects used by the current system. DNA 17 will case of British student Meredith Kercher also provide a robust and sensitive system through highlighted contamination issues through the which in optimum conditions a profile may be possible transference of DNA to the murder obtained from just one or two human cells. The weapon following prolonged contact with the enhanced level of sensitivity provided will enable victim prior to death. DNA profiles to be obtained from poor and degraded material with improved levels of Many forensic practitioners would acknowledge discrimination. that whilst it is possible to significantly reduce the potential for contamination it may not be possible or practicable to totally eliminate contamination. A DNA 17 would appear to represent a major systematic and regulated approach to crime scene advancement within DNA profiling and will examination, robust exhibit retention procedures, enhance the power of DNA as an investigative tool. and the use of protective clothing provide a However, whilst the contribution made by DNA to significant barrier to contamination. However, the forensic science and the investigation of crime is potential for contamination will always exist beyond dispute, it should be acknowledged that through human interaction and introduction of
Page 3 people and foreign items into a crime scene. circumstance, and difficult working conditions at Forensic practitioners often convey forensic crime scenes along with the inability of forensic equipment and packaging material from crime practitioners to claim immunity to the scene to crime scene and from room to room consequences of Locards principles of exchange within a crime scene. Items such as forensic dictate that contamination will occur. Quality exhibit bags are handled by numerous people prior assurance at crime scenes and improved to being issued to forensic practitioners. A further management, coordination, and compliance will be example would be the use of fingerprint brushes at critical factors within the control processes multiple crime scenes before being replaced. governing the prevention of contamination in the new era. It may be questionable as to whether current working practices adopted by forensic practitioners Peter Ellis are appropriate and capable of meeting the new challenges provided by the hyper sensitivity of DNA profiling systems such as DNA 17. From an operational perspective would it be possible or practicable to introduce procedures for the decontamination of forensic equipment and material used in the examination of crime scenes related to high volume crimes. There is a growing case for the increased use of disposable equipment The next issue of CSEye will be live and also tighter controls over crime scene access January 2015. and what is taken into a crime scene.
The increased sensitivity of DNA profiling will We have a number of new articles clearly impact upon current working practices and coming to you in January but are will have cost and resource implications both in always interested to receive new respect of preventing contamination and submissions. processing profiles developed through contamination. The introduction of DNA elimination databases that will include samples If you would like to submit an article, from relevant police officers, forensic practitioners, technical note, case study or re- and laboratory technicians will provide a valuable search abstract please email contribution towards tackling the issue of profiles developed through contamination. However, the [email protected]. database will only be effective if control samples from all relevant personnel are included and the database is efficiently managed and maintained. Quality assurance and compliance with standing operating procedures governing all forensic examinations will critical in ensuring the control of contamination within a risk management approach.
The advancement of DNA sensitivity could result in DNA evidence being subjected to a far higher level of challenge within the courts and with a far higher level of supporting evidence required in order to secure a conviction. Human error, evolving
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Should contextual bias scrutiny. The introduction of codes of conduct and accreditation for forensic science service providers be acknowledged as a and practitioners to comply with quality standards such as ISO 17025 and 17020 have established a factor within crime benchmark for quality. There is now a requirement scene interpretation? to demonstrate competence, independence, impartiality and integrity within forensic science. In recent years there has been much debate regarding the impact of contextual information on Crime scene interpretation is fundamental to the the cognitive process relating to fingerprint formulation of a forensic strategy and recovery comparison. The highly controversial fingerprint plan that govern the retention of exhibits from the identifications relating to Shirley McKie in 1997 at crime scene. The decision as to whether a death the scene of a murder in Scotland and Brandon was the result of criminal activity, tragic accident, Mayfield regarding the Madrid terrorist bombing in or natural causes is one of the most difficult faced 2004 provided a platform for debate on contextual by crime scene investigators. This may be bias within fingerprint evidence. In both cases illustrated in cases where judgment is made as to serious concerns existed with regard to the validity whether the deceased was pushed in a criminal act of the identifications made. In the case of Brandon or accidently fell to their death. A simplistic Mayfield, an American attorney, it was example may be where the deceased is found with acknowledged that the identification made was head injuries at the bottom of a staircase, crime erroneous and a formal apology was issued by the scene interpretation would rely significantly on American government. contextual information. Pressure may be placed upon crime scene investigators through the limited
availability of resources, a need to release the The Scottish Fingerprint Inquiry Report published in crime scene, release police officers for 2011 concluded that fingerprint comparison, as a reassignment, and to comply with the prevailing cognitive process, may be influenced by contextual hypothesis. This pressure can be both tangible and information. However, the wider impact of influential, particularly when related to serious and contextual information and perception within emotive crimes. The wrong decision may result in forensic science has not been subjected to the delay and lost forensic and investigative same degree of scrutiny. opportunities.
Should more consideration be given to the impact Crime scene interpretation must focus on logical of contextual information and individualistic analysis with objective assessment throughout and perceptions in other areas where circumstance with the prevailing hypothesis continually permits subjective analysis and interpretation in challenged. An undisciplined approach may result order to rationalise the unknown. Knowledge and in involuntary bias, particularly with regard to experience contribute to the cognitive process subjective concepts such as corroboration and through which individuals interpret information. intent. The crime scene interpretation process Human judgment and decision making may be should be approached with an independent open distorted by an array of cognitive, perceptual, and mind with variable focus and perspectives applied. motivational biases. Could contextual information, Interpretation should be in context with physical preconception, and confirmation bias be relevant evidence and indicators present within the crime factors within areas such as the interpretation of complex and emotive crime scenes. scene. Independence, impartiality, and integrity must prevail to prevent the loss of forensic and
investigative opportunities and the miscarriage of The Forensic Regulator has established quality justice. investigative opportunities and the assurance within the delivery of forensic science in order to meet the growing demand for increased miscarriage of justice.
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Funded Travelling Fellowships – Prison and Penal Reform
In 2015, The Winston Churchill Memorial Trust will be investing £1.2 million in British citizens, by awarding a record number of 150 Travelling Fellowships, in order to mark its 50th anniversary. This will directly support British citizens who want to travel overseas to gain knowledge, experience and best practice to benefit others in their UK professions and communities, and society as a whole. As part of the third and final year of our three year partnership with the Prison Reform Trust we will be awarding another ten Travelling Fellowships to those people involved in Prison and Penal Reform. Anyone working in the criminal justice system, with a determination to help reduce reoffending and contribute to a more just, humane and effective penal system is encouraged to apply. The International Centre for Prison Studies is also supporting this partnership.
We're particularly interested in applications to visit projects covering these areas: Early interventions to prevent crime & effective alternatives to custody, including reducing the use of custodial remand and pre-trial detention Community penalties and restorative justice Rehabilitation in prison and constructive regimes for serious and violent offenders Programmes that have improved treatment and conditions for people in prison Pre-emptive programmes within education systems with a focus on school exclusion and those with learning difficulties and mental health issues Effective projects with women in the justice system Effective projects with children and young people in the justice system Support for prisoners' families Effective resettlement projects Countries that have succeeded in reducing their prison numbers
Amongst those travelling this year is Debbie Addlestone, a Senior Probation Officer from Leeds, researching effective interventions for shoplifters.
Successful applicants must demonstrate the commitment, the character and the tenacity to travel globally in pursuit of new and better ways of tackling a wide range of current challenges facing the UK, and upon their return work to transform and improve aspects of today’s society. A travelling sabbatical for people with the drive, determination and desire to help others, can further their leadership and role model abilities. Employers often also see great benefits with employees returning with new knowledge, skills and ideas to share with others within the organisation.
Applications are judged purely on project merit, and these opportunities are available to UK residents over the age of 18, of any ethnicity, religion, or gender. Successful applicants will receive an average Fellowship grant of over £6000, covering return airfare, daily living costs, insurance and travel within the countries being visited, for approximately 6 weeks overseas.
The deadline for the 2015 applications is 5pm on 23rd September 2014. FOR FURTHER INFORMATION:
The Winston Churchill Memorial Trust: 020 7799 1660 www.wcmt.org.uk
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“For terrorists, documents are as important as weapons” (Quote attributed to Judge Jean Louis Bruguiere)
In light of recent events and the speculation of a security features never being checked so their en- possible terrorist attack resulting in the tragic loss try level is low and only need to create a of life on the Malaysian Airline flight MH370 this simple simulation of these features. At the very article could not be more relevant; drafted for pub- least basic levels of training to all those required to lication only days before this event. validate travel and identity documents should be a fundamental element in reducing the risk and ex- Ronald Noble (Secretary General) of Interpol has posure to this problem which should been robust in his recent comments suggesting include training in impostors and facial that, had the two stolen passports been checked comparison. against Interpol’s Lost Stolen Travel Document (LSTD) database [containing an estimated 40 Both domestic and international terrorist million documents] then the world would not be organisations have used identity documents for in- speculating if these stolen passports were used by ternational travel, commit attacks, undertake train- terrorists to board the plane. ing, hire transportation, rent
accommodation, open bank accounts and The simple fact of the matter is that these two facilitate fund raising or complete money stolen passports were reported and the details transfers. were passed to Interpol for this information to be
made available globally to all law enforcement agencies and border controls across the world, but The first record of a terrorist using a passport to one obvious and simple check was never carried support an attack was 156 years ago, when in 1858 out. Count Felice Orsini, a well known Italian Revolu- tionary attempted to assassinate Emperor Napo-
leon III on his arrival at a Paris opera. In Sadly if history can tell us anything it should be order that Orsini could complete his mission he reminding us that terrorists will continue to needed to source a passport as he was too well effectively use documents to conduct attacks known to use his own, so he travelled as an unless all levels of public & private sectors take impostor using the British passport of his their international responsibility seriously and associate and co-conspirator Thomas Allsop. implement all necessary steps to hinder and
frustrate the continued use of travel documents by This story of Orsini has many elements of the mod- terrorists and travelling criminals. ern terrorist’s misuse of travel documents. The passport in Orsini’s case provided him with the abil- Over many years security features in travel ity to travel as an impostor and acted as a form of documents have been introduced mainly in identity to register in a hotel. The response to terrorist events. These features are of- passport, which at that time, would be no more ten high tech (forensic level 3) that includes than a sheet of hand scripture with no physical de- biometrics and these raise the bar to entry for most scription or photograph was susceptible to misuse forgers and counterfeiters. Just as many low level as it failed in its ability to be attributed to the ‘security features’ (level 1) are also present to en- bearer. The relevance to this in context of current able the initial visual examination by those world events is that this may be the method used expected to verify the document. However, to be a by the two passport holders to board flight MH370 successful document forger, they rely on these as reporting indicates the documents used were in
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the identity of the genuine holder and therefore On one night the group committed a burglary at a were either ‘look-a-likes’ or the passport had the town hall stealing a large amount of blank image(s) altered in some way. passports, Identity Cards with official seals and notepaper. These were posted back to themselves The terrorist use of stolen passports includes but they got their address wrong and the parcel genuine travel or identity documents stolen from was never received so they committed another government authorities prior to being lawfully burglary to steal more documents. issued and then fraudulently completed by a forger. Not only do terrorists use stolen [blank] documents but they actively seek stolen The Secretary General of Interpol, Ronald Noble in documents already issued to the bearer but none 2007 gave a presentation statement to the Senate as ruthless and deadly as in the case of the Red Subcommittee on Terrorism in Washington DC in Army Faction (RAF) also known as the Baader which he stated, “The terrorist use of fraudulent Meinhof Gang when they actively targeted a US travel documents was one of the most dangerous soldier based in Germany. On 7th August 1985 US gaps in global security back around the time of soldier Edward Pimental was shot dead having September 2001. Unfortunately, it still is.” been subjected to a ‘honey trap’ by a female member of the RAF. The purpose of this callous He also said, “Stolen passports, particularly those attack was to steal his military identity card, which stolen in the blank form, present the greatest was then used the following day to gain access to a threat because they can be made into fraudulent US Air Base where a car bomb was detonated. passports that are among the most difficult to Following this attack the RAF posted Pimentel’s detect.” Identity card to the press as a communiqué accepting responsibility for both the murder and The significance of Ron Noble’s comments has the bombing. never been lost on the terrorist’s desire to obtain travel documents. Ramzi Yousef, convicted of the Since 9-11 Interpol has been promoting its Lost 1993 bombing of the World Trade Centre claimed Stolen Travel Document (LSTD) database and asylum upon entering the United States (US) using encouraging member countries to register details a stolen blank Iraqi passport. His co-conspirator of documents as well to search against. Ahmed also travelled to the US using a stolen Swedish passport that had been photo substituted. The LSTD is also endorsed within a United Nations When his luggage was searched Ajaj also had Resolution to encourage member countries to possession of a partially altered Saudi passport a make use of the Interpol database. This passport from Jordan and a photo substituted international interest in sharing of data relating to British passport in the name of Mohammed Azan as stolen travel documents is encased within UN well as instructions on document forgery and two Resolution 2083 (2012). rubber stamp devices to alter the seal on passports issued from Saudi Arabia. Another of Yousef’s earlier terrorist accomplices Wali Khan, who was Para 51. Encourages all Member States to share, in convicted with him for the Manila Airline bombing accordance with their domestic laws and (Bojinka plot) had a stolen Norwegian passport. practices, with the private sector information in their national databases related to fraudulent, counterfeit, stolen and lost identity or travel Just like Al Qaeda’s desire to obtain stolen travel documents Ulrike Meinhof and others from the documents pertaining to their own jurisdictions. Baader Meinhof terrorist group actively targeted government buildings to identify those that were responsible for the issuing of identity documents.
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Whilst the risk and threat reflecte din the use of The reported theft, loss or permanent damage to a stolen passports a higher threat comes from genuinely issued passport to cover unwanted Fraudulently Obtained Genuine (FOG) Documents. entry/exit stamps has been a method used by These are genuine travel or identity documents terrorists to ensure global travel without issued to the applicant who has used false details unwanted scrutiny by law enforcement. The case of or fraudulent supporting ‘breeder’ documents to Richard Reid, the so-called, shoe bomber, is one deceive the lawful authority into issuing the example of this methodology. document. Often referred to as the “Day of The Jackal” passport highlighted in the Frederick In the US Government’s sentencing memorandum Forsyth novel when a birth certificate of a dead at Reid’s trial it detailed that he had travelled to child was used to obtain a passport. More recently Pakistan in early 2001, then before flying to Israel the same method was used by the Canoe to conduct a reconnaissance mission he went to fraudster who faked his own death and then Amsterdam for a few days where he exchanged his obtained a FOG passport to travel to Thailand. British passport for a new one (claimed it had been damaged in a washing machine) thereby removing suspicious travel stamps. After Israel he did further During the investigation into the 2000 Millennium travelling before returning to Pakistan. Reid then Plot against Los Angeles (LAX) airport it is now known that the terrorist Ahmed Ressam obtained a flew to Brussels where he again exchanged his FOG Canadian passport by using a stolen blank passport to obtain another ‘clean’ passport enabling him to travel to France and board the baptism certificate. flight to the US where he attempted to detonate
his ‘shoe bomb’ This method of terrorists gaining travel documents
was used by Dhiren Barot, described as Bin Laden’s The fraudulent altering details of passports UK General. In his case Barot had possession of nine passports, two of which had been including replacing a photo (Photo substitution) are fraudulently obtained in other identities. all methods of completing unauthorised and unlawful changes to a genuine document.
FOG documents pose a significant threat to global security unless the international community can The Provisional IRA (PIRA) was known to support the exchange of information of these consistently use alias details with supporting documents, as any visual or forensic examination of fraudulently altered identity documents when the document will pass it as genuine [because it is]. operational. They would need passports when Only by intelligence sharing can these be travelling from Southern Ireland and when on the identified and removed from global circulation, the British mainland as identity. Patrick Magee, the most obvious choice for this would be adding them PIRA member convicted of the1985 bombing of the to the Interpol LSTD database and encouraging all Grand Hotel in Brighton, targeted the government member countries to check all passports at borders during a conservative party conference, and before travel. booked a room (room 629) in the hotel using the alias of Roy Walsh. It was only after police So far the methods described being used by identified and traced all those booked into the terrorists do not involve forgery and counterfeiting. hotel except Walsh that Walsh became the focus of Often a Terrorist may want to fraudulently alter the their investigation. After evading arrest Magee fled genuine details of a stolen passport or even to to Amsterdam heading back to Dublin but was later mask travel history to training camps by removing arrested in Glasgow after returning to the mainland unwanted immigration stamps & visas. and was in possession of a British passport believed to have been photo-substituted in the name of David James Henry.
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Technological changes to passports in recent years Within the genre of terrorist use of travel such as laser cut paper surrounding the now micro documents the significance of driving licences should thin photograph of the bearer and microchips’ not be overlooked. The desire to travel by car within containing the biometrics combined with facial a country is no less important to the terrorist than recognition has greatly reduced the capability of a the need to obtain documents for international forger to substitute the image. This step change, travel. The modern driving licence serves to fulfil coupled laser print technology and polycarbonate more than its obvious purpose of validating the ‘pages’ encasing the critical details has diminished requirements for driving a vehicle, it also acts the ability of the forger to remove, and informally as a reputable form of identification, and fraudulently alter personal details. These changes in most cases is a globally accepted form of with additional high tech security features has photographic identity. challenged the limit of what is for the document forger to provide a document to an acceptable In the case of Timothy McVeigh, the Oklahoma level for international travel. Bomber, he fraudulently obtained a driving licence in the name of Robert Kling. Using this licence as a As security features and technology increases it means of identification he hired the truck which was forces forgers towards other methods of used to detonate outside the government building. document abuse that includes producing counterfeit travel and identity documents. These The ETA terrorist group also used a stolen driving are documents that have been completely licence to hire a vehicle whilst commencing an fabricated unlawfully by an unauthorised printing ‘operational’ phase to their attack. Two of their process, and subsequently completed using false group attended a car hire company and when asked details in such a manner to represent a genuine produced a stolen driver’s licence together with the document. accompanying Identity card.
The global proliferation of counterfeit documents The continued use of driving licences as a form of especially passports remains a threat to the identification whilst ‘in country’ remains a security of international travel and they act as a continuous theme with terrorists. The modern photo crime enabler. The focus of mass production of card style licence can easily be counterfeited to a these counterfeit passports has been centred on professional standard which can pass casual scrutiny Thailand over the last 10 years or so. by anyone it is presented to, allowing the terrorist an opportunity to hire a vehicle or fraudulently open In 2005 the Associated Press reported on an a bank account. In a sense the driving licence can Algerian, Yacine Atamnia arrested in Bangkok for serve as breeder document to create a complete running a passport counterfeiting operation in false identity by supporting applications to acquire which the British Embassy had asked the Thai genuine documents which can all build towards the police to investigate allegations that Atamnia was ultimate ‘holy grail’ of identity documents – The supplying counterfeit passports to terrorists. Passport.
More recently in 2010 reporting from Thailand The common theme running through almost every linked the theft of EU tourist passports travelling case study of terrorists over the last 150 years is in Spain to an organised passport ring based in their propensity to fraudulently use identity Thailand reportedly fraudulently altering documents. As global travel became more passports to order for terrorists. accessible to the masses, so the evolution of the international terrorist began, with an interdependency to acquire and use fraudulent travel documents.
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Terrorists are capable of adapting to changes in security features contained within documents and So much of what happens at the crime scene will seeking new and innovative ways to circumvent impact on the work and decisions of others in the border crossing technology. As with many areas of criminal justice process, the investigating officer, security, its strength relies on the weakest point. the forensic scientist, the fingerprint officer, the Therefore the international community should pathologist, the crown prosecutor, the jury and the remain committed to supporting all global judge. initiatives to diminish the terrorist’s opportunities to acquire and use fraudulent documents exerting Do we, as crime scene investigators, fully all possible judicial powers on those identified understand the needs and issues that these exploiting documents. people face as a direct result of our work? Or do we rely on our limited understanding and Russ Middleton was a Detective on the Anti assumptions? Terrorist Branch at New Scotland Yard before retiring in 2013 and has a FSSocDip (Document With each publication of CS Eye 1 hope to provide Examination) as well as a Masters (MSc) in an insight into the expectations of someone who Terrorism Studies. relies on our work, our reports and our evidence. I’ll be speaking to investigating officers, senior Russ is now director of his own company investigating officers, fingerprint officers, forensic Delmont-ID Ltd and works as an Identity Crime scientists from various disciplines, prosecutors and Consultant. the judiciary to see what they have to say about the work of crime scene investigators and how it impacts on what they do. For further information see his website at www.delmont-id.com Hopefully it will identify some best practice, highlight current issues or areas for improvement, may be even identify future needs but most of all it will help us to understand what we need to do to deliver the best support we can to the criminal jus- tice process. Coming Soon to CS Eye – It’s also an opportunity for you to raise any Regular Quarterly Interview Feature. questions you may have for these key stakeholders in our work – if you have anything How often do you reflect on the value and you’d like to ask any of these people then let me importance of your role as part of the wider know and I’ll do my best to get some feedback criminal justice process? included in one of the future articles.
The examination of crime scenes and the recovery I’m certainly looking forward to speaking with and preservation of physical evidence are crucial these individuals and I hope that you will enjoy the to the subsequent progress and effectiveness of quarterly articles that are produced and the investigation. They can direct lines of enquiry, published here on CS Eye. impact on the value of forensic analysis, eliminate or implicate individuals, affect the quality of Martin Gaule evidence presented in court and of course ulti- mately contribute to the outcome of criminal cases and thus the liberty of individuals accused.
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Is overseas research on the Post Mortem Interval relevant to the UK?
Submitted by Emma Zayour to The University of West London as a dissertation towards the degree of Bachelor of Science with Honors in Forensic Sciences
Acknowledgments The author would like to acknowledge Brian Hook for his advice and guidance throughout the research and also the University of West London for access to journals through databases, printing services and use of the library.
Abstract Every year hundreds of research papers are published worldwide on the calculation of the postmortem interval. The purpose of this research was to establish whether or not any of the overseas research could be useful in the UK. It involved collecting a variety of research papers from around the world and analysing them against criteria e.g. climate. Throughout this process a number of papers, from the original sample, were excluded due to not meeting the criteria. The 16 papers that remained provided interesting findings, however, the majority where still in the early stages. For the relevant papers, a trend appeared concerning the year of research. It showed research being published every other year up to the year 2012, with an exception in 2010. Also, Spain and the USA produced the most relevant research out of the selection. This was thought to be due to the socioeconomic background of both countries. Overall, it was concluded that despite promising results, the research is still in preliminary stages and it was recommended that the current method of entomology remained the method to calculate the postmortem interval, until further research can be done.
Introduction Calculating the Post Mortem Interval (PMI) can be difficult. Most of the methods currently used can only give a rough estimate. The reason that this literature review is being conducted is to see whether or not research that has been conducted overseas could possibly help us in the UK to find a more accurate method to establish the PMI. The PMI is the time between death and the discovery of the body. It is used with suspicious deaths, whether it is a natural death or was caused by other means.
Background What is the Post Mortem Interval (PMI)? The PMI is defined by Jackson & Jackson (2011) as ‘the period of time that has elapsed since death oc- curred’.
Entomology Entomology is the study of insects. It has a variety of different uses linked to criminal activity. It is mainly used for estimating the PMI; however, there are several other uses for the presence of insects. One example is that the distribution of eggs or larvae can indicate an area where there is a gunshot or stabbing wound.Not only can it be used for criminal cases, it can also be used with health and safety, more specifically in determining when and where food became contaminated and whether it was deliberate or not. (Barrister Magazine, 2010)
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How is entomology used to calculate the PMI? Entomologists can use the variety of insects found on a body to give an estimate of the time when the person died. They usually provide a time frame, which could be few hours or several months depending on whether the body has been dead for several days or several years. They use the life cycle of the insects present on and around the body to determine an estimate the PMI. There are some species of insect that grow on dead animals or carrion and the movement of the egg, larvae and pupa is extremely limited. This implies that the insect has developed in that area. Once the entomologist knows when the eggs were laid and the life cycle of that particular species, then he or she will be able to give an estimate of the minimum PMI. However, it’s not just the life cycle of the species that needs to be known. The temperature that the larvae developed in is also crucial. This is because the temperature can change the rate of development. The higher the temperature, the faster the rate of development. This is only one way that is used and is not always reliable as other factors have to be taken into consideration when calculating the PMI. (Forensic Entomology, 2008) It has been determined that if the temperature is below one temperature threshold then the rate of growth stops, whilst if the temperature is above another threshold then growth will also stop. However, it has been found that between these two temperatures, the rate of growth of an insect is said to have a linear relationship with the temperature. It is important to note that each insect has different temperature thresholds. As maximum temperature thresholds are rarely experienced at a crime scene they are not involved in the calculation of the PMI.
Figure 1. Calculation of the base temperature using the linear approximation method (Gennard, 2007.pg.115-124)
However, if the temperature remains at or near the maximum threshold then it will affect the accuracy of the estimate of PMI. This is because the growth rate will have slowed down considerably.
Figure 2. Graph showing the justification for using accumulated averaged temperatures over time. (Gennard, 2007.pg.115-124)
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To calculate the PMI, it is necessary for entomologists to calculate the base temperature of the insect in question. This temperature varies between insects and the location of which the insects are found. The linear approximation method is used to calculate the base temperature. It relies on the principle, that the cooler the temperature, the slower the insect grows. A graph, like the one shown in Figure 1, is drawn and then extrapolated to give an estimate of the temperature.
Figure 3. Regression line of crime scene data plotted against the meteorological station temperature (Gennard, 2007.pg.115-124)
The growth and development of any insect requires energy and it is called the physiological development energy budget. It can be expressed in thermal units, otherwise known as degree days or degree hours. The only difference between the two is the length of time, whether it is in hours or days. To calculate this they use the principle mentioned earlier, that the rate of growth has a linear relationship with the temperature increase. This means that the area under the curve can represent the physiological energy budget, if the temperature is above base temperature. (See Figure 2.) From this we can determine that degree days and degree hours can be calculated using formulas which are shown below.
Accumulated Degree Hours: Time (hours) x (Temperature - base temperature) Accumulated Degree Days: Time (days) x (Temperature - base temperature)
However, calculations don’t stop there. First it is necessary to work out the physiological energy budget experimentally or using previous literature, before calculating the energy budget at the crime scene. Insects have different life cycles so the energy budget would have to be calculated for each species individually. The energy budget needs to be worked out for the period between death and discovery of the body. As the temperature, before the discovery, is not always known information from the nearest meteorological station is used. A comparison is done of the temperatures given from the meteorological station and that of the crime scene. It is normally done by plotting a scatter graph, then plotting meteorological temperatures against the crime scene temperatures. The crime scene temperatures are ‘the temperatures recorded after 3-5 days after the body has been discovered’. A regression equation is then calculated from this scatter graph and used to correct the meteorological station temperatures. This will generate predicted crime scene temperatures. (Figure 3) The temperature readings are then used to calculate accumulated degree hours or days.
The temperatures are normally based upon hourly or daily averages. This means that the time used is either one hour or one day. The energy budget is calculated for each temperature given. The results are then added to the previous accumulated figure until an experimental value is reached. This is essentially working backwards from the time the body was discovered. The number of days/hours that is required to reach this energy budget is then calculated. This is a preliminary post mortem interval and needs to be confirmed. A table as seen in Figure 4 may be useful, or using an Excel spreadsheet to make sure all calculations are accurate.
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Figure 4. Example of a table set up to calculate the post mortem interval using accumulated degree days or hours. (Gennard, 2007 pg.115-124)
It is necessary that the energy budget be calculated for each species of fly found on the body. Once this has been done it can be used to confirm a predicted post mortem interval that has been calculated. (Gennard, 2007.pg.115-124)
Decomposition It is defined as ‘the natural process of dead animal or plant tissue being rotted or broken down’. The process is carried out by invertebrates, fungi and bacteria. Any products from this process are then recycled. (Countryside Info) There are 5 different stages to the process of decomposition. Fresh Bloat Active Decay Advanced Decay Dry/Skeletal
Fresh: The ‘fresh’ stage is the first one to occur and this normally happens soon after death. The body loses heat and begins the multiple mortis’ processes (Palor Mortis, Algor Mortis, Rigor Mortis and Liver Mortis). Once this occurs, autolysis begins. This is the process where the bodies own enzymes begin to destroy the cells. The cell starts to digest itself as the lysosome release digestive enzymes into the cytoplasm.
Bloat: Bloating occurs from the production of vapours in the body. The cells in the body are still being broken down by the digestive enzymes and bacteria are breaking down the tissues. The intestines push out and undergo distension. This means that the intestine starts to enlarge, ballooning out. This process is indicated by the greenish colour of the found in the skin, which occurs from the formation of sulphhaemoglobin in the blood. The skin will often start to break in this stage and the insides will be released. This stage is where the insect activity usually begins.
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Active Decay: The third stage, active decay, is usually identified by the significant loss of mass. This is due to the feeding of the maggots and the body fluid leaking into the surrounding environment. The leaking body fluid’s start to create an island around the body. Disintegration begins to be seen and the end of the stage is then marked by the dispersion of the maggots.
Advanced Decay: The most prominent sign of advanced decay is the change in the condition of the surrounding soil. This is from the leaking bodily fluids and will cause surrounding plant life to die. The activity of the insects in this stage starts to lessen.
Dry/Skeletal: The last and final stage is the dry/skeletal. In this stage begins with being recognizable by the lack of everything found in a human body, with the exception of skin and bone. Once this occurs it is only a matter of time before the body becomes just a skeleton. This depends on the climate. The hotter the climate the faster the process is, being completed in just a matter of weeks. However, if the climate is cold it can take as long as two years.
During decomposition there maybe three other outcomes. The first, Diagenesis, is linked with skeletonisation. It is defined as ‘the recrystallisation of a solid to form large crystal grains from smaller ones’. It changes the bone structure and is dependent on the breakdown of soft tissue. This process is also affected by the nature of death and the treatment of the body e.g. type of environment that the body has been buried in.
Adipocere is another outcome. This process begins when the environment, that uses both high humidity with high temperatures, causes the subcutaneous body fat of the face, bottom and extremities to hydrolyse. It will also happen to breasts in a female. The hydrolysis process causes the release of fatty acids. The fatty acids are considered a form of food for certain bacteria. This is seen to speed up the rate of adipocere production. Depending on which ion, sodium or potassium, the fatty acids combine with depends on the type of adipocere that is formed. The sodium comes from the breakdown of intercellular fluid and when combined with the fatty acids the adipocere is said to be hard and curly. The potassium, on the other hand, is released when the cell membrane breaks. When the potassium combines with the fatty acids then the adipocere is softer and is often described as ‘pasty’. Mummification is the last possible outcome. This process requires the skin and tissues in the body to lose all water before the skin can desiccate and mummification can begin. (Gennard, 2007. pg. 8-11)
How does decomposition affect the PMI? Decomposition is influenced by a number of factors including age, physical build and previous activities. Any of the above factors can increase or decrease the rate of decomposition. As this is nearly always the case, they have to be taken into consideration when the post mortem interval is calculated. If they are not, then the PMI is most likely to be inaccurate. For example, obese people when they die will decompose much more quickly than a normal weight person. This is due to the bacteria having access to tissues that have a good supply of water. This will increase the overall rate of decomposition making it harder to give an accurate estimation of the PMI.
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Methodology It is useful to determine whether or not there may be a more accurate method to calculate the PMI across the world. If there is it could save time when it comes to solving a crime to help narrow down a suspect list depending on alibi’s. A literature review was the only option for this research as it required analysis of research that was conducted across the world, to see if it was possible to find a method that could be used in the UK. For this literature review a wide selection of research papers from different continents were collected from a variety of different databases and journals, including Forensic Science International. In order to narrow the amount of research down it was decided to use continents instead of countries. The chosen continents were Africa, America (both North and South), Australasia, Asia and Europe. The selection of papers tried to incorporate as many countries as possible from the continents; however this was not always possible depending on the socioeconomic background of the country. Also the Arctic and Antarctica were not chosen as continents due to their climate being so cold any research done there, if any, would be of no use to the UK. When using the databases to search for research papers the key words were post mortem interval and time of death. This gave an overall view of the research on post mortem intervals that was available. Of course there was a selection of papers not relevant to this research, so the search field was narrowed down to exclude research from the UK before reading the titles and abstracts of the remaining papers to decide whether or not it was relevant to the search. Once the research was collected, a preliminary read through was conducted before analysing the research using a series of questions (See Table 1 in Appendix).
Parameters that were looked at: Climate Validity of results (looking at sample size etc.) Validity of methodology Reliability of the source Once this was completed, the results of the analysis of each paper was written up before coming to an overall conclusion as to whether or not there was any methods that were more accurate at calculating the PMI and would be useful to the UK.
Results A variety of different papers from different countries were collected and analysed, however not all were included in this literature review due to a variety of errors. 40 papers were chosen from the selection of approximately 37,000 available. All were analysed but a handful were excluded at the beginning due to lack of relevance to the question in hand. The following papers were included after analysis of papers and the sources. Others were excluded due to limitations, ethical issues and discouraging results. To increase the reliability of results, the majority of papers included in this review used statistics. In some cases, a number of different statistical methods were used. The most common approaches were Pearson’s correlation coefficient and linear regression analysis. Despite analysing a number of different countries, two appeared to produce the most papers that could be of potential use to the UK. This is most likely due to the socioeconomic background as the research would have required funding of some description. Out of the 16 papers found to have potential use to the UK, both Spain and the USA produced 4 research papers that had the potential to be replicated and used to give a more accurate time for the estimation of the postmortem interval. One interesting pattern that was noticed was linked to the years the chosen research papers were published. Up until 2012 and 2013, the research was published every other year, with the exception of 2010/2011; however, the number of research papers that were published showed no consistency. This pattern is most likely due to the development of specific scientific equipment that was used in the research papers and the socioeconomic backgrounds of each individual country.
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In 2012 and 2013, a number of papers were produced, suggesting that the funding for research was more readily available. All sources used were considered to be reliable as they followed the majority of the cri- teria set out at the beginning of the research.
Estimating postmortem interval using RNA degradation and morphological changes in tooth pulp (2013) The results from this research showed promising results, potentially allowing for the estimation of PMI up to 84 days and more if both species of RNA were used. Methodology was good; however, qPCR is not the quickest method available. Also colorimetric analysis involves a variety of calculations to determine correction factors and photography of each tooth. One limitation for this analysis was that not all teeth from the sample group underwent this process due to lack of tooth pulp after the RNA extraction. Overall, it was shown that this could be undertaken in less than a day, so it is important to ask whether this would be practical or not. Researchers undertook certain measures to avoid cross contamination, systematic bias and false positives, which increases the reliability and validity of their results. Analysis of climates showed that the results should not differ as teeth are considered to be a closed system. This would suggest that replicability in the UK would give results fairly similar to those seen in this study.
Profiling of RNA degradation for estimation of PMI (2013) Results found a mathematical model to calculate the PMI with a mean error of 51.4 minutes. This model has been successfully tested against other parts in the research and by the use of statistics, mainly the Pearson correlation coefficient. These results need to be further tested on humans to see if the results are the same. Mice are usually tested before humans so there is a fairly good probability that results will be similar. On the other hand, like the previous research paper, qPCR was used. Is this going to be practi- cal for a crime scene? Most likely another method would be needed for a preliminary PMI at the crime scene before further analysis could be conducted, due to the time needed for qPCR. One limitation with this research is that it is not possible to collect samples instantaneously, which is why a high error was noted at time zero. Systematic bias was avoided by attempting to control the variables in the experiment. Climate does not appear to affect the results of this research, so results should be able to be used in the UK despite a difference in the climate of the two countries, although environmental temperature is key to RNA. More research is necessary to ascertain whether or not the previously mentioned statement about climate is actually true.
Estimation of postmortem interval using the protein marker cardiac Troponin I (2003) Results suggested that looking at how Troponin I degrades over time is a viable method to calculate the postmortem interval. One limitation with the methodology is that the researchers fail to mention what state the specimens were when they were received, and whether they were defrosted before analysis. This could impact the reliability of the results and possible use not just in the UK but in the country this paper originated from. The researchers looked at bovine hearts and then compared to a human sample. This tested the model they were planning to use in the next stage. Since this was successful human donor hearts were obtained. Results compared to the standard human heart showed good qualitative agreement with the postmortem interval. Temperature is a concern in this case. More research is required to see whether or not the temperature has any effect on cardiac Troponin I, especially since it is made of proteins. Climate could potentially be an issue in this case since temperature would have an effect on the decomposition of the heart once it is exposed to the environment. This would be a problem if this methodology was used in real life circumstances. Also factoring the limitation mentioned earlier, is it safe to assume that the hearts had not been affected by temperature in any way before this research?
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Estimation on postmortem interval based on the spectrophotometric analysis of postmortem lividity (2009) In this research the authors make use of a system introduced in 1976 by the Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage. It was created as a method for digital expression of skin colour. To do this each letter in the name (L*A*B*) represents a different measure. L* gives a value for the position along the vertical light-dark axis. This is measured by giving a number between one and one hundred. A* represents a value along the red-green axis, whilst B* gives a position on the blue axis. For both these values they use negative and positive signs to distinguish which end of the scale they sit. For example, a +b value indicates a yellow colour and -a value indicates a green colour. Results gave a weak correlation which would suggest that there were too many factors that could influence postmortem lividity, to make the formulae of any use to accurately determine a PMI, however researchers attempted to include as many factors as they could and also compared to a standard. The use of the L*A*B* system attempts to remove any systematic bias that could occur from determining colour, however, some parts of it don’t allow for indefinite answers concerning colour. Climates of the different countries are virtually the same; at least they are in the same climate category. So overall, the results would not be affected by the climate in the UK. On the other hand, the weak correlation suggests that because there are so many factors to consider that unless further research can be done this research will most likely be of very little use.
Width as an alternative measurement to length for postmortem interval estimations using Calliphora augur larvae (2005) The two temperatures studied could be applied to the UK. There were a large amount of outliers found in the results at 20 degrees. Researchers did not remove these outliers after finding no significant difference in results if they were. Although researchers found little difference, it is putting doubt as to whether or not the results can be relied upon. However, the outliers found at 25 degrees were removed and samples were retested. This improves reliability of the results. They found that the linear model showed good congruence and if the complexity of the model was increased that there would be an only slight difference in the improvements of predictability and there was also a high accuracy of 95%. Researchers need to consider what would happen in real life circumstances. Would a lack of shelter or wet specimens cause the results to change? Temperature is a factor for these results, due to the accelerated growth rate. Researchers have already begun to apply the same principles to other species of fly but more research is still required to perfect the methodology for potential use. Climate in this case, although in the same category as the UK, will have an effect. Temperatures, especially in summer, in Australia are known to be a lot higher. This would affect the larvae growth and potentially alter the results making it useless to use due to no significant pattern.
PMICALC: An R code-based software for estimating postmortem interval compatible with Windows, Mac and Linux operating systems (2009) Quick and easy to use, although no methodology to follow or ascertain how the researchers got this formula. Also the data can be inputted at the scene, so no need for samples to go to a lab. The downside is that this system requires a database of previously analysed samples. In this case they had a significant sample size, but will it be possible for all countries to create such a database? Lots of factors were recorded in the database and any specimens deemed unsuitable were removed, which would increase the reliability. The software also allows for easy comparison and interpretation of results potentially allowing for anyone to interpret the data. The method was tested using samples from cadavers not included in the database. This provided satisfactory results, confirming the validity. It appears that knowledge of what is required to be inputted into the software is necessary, otherwise accuracy and reliability of the estimated PMI will decrease. However, this does appear to be a
Page 19 reasonably sound method to estimate the PMI at the scene of a crime due to its practicality and from the reliability of the source this method came from. In this research, climate is not likely to be an important factor. This is due to the researchers using vitreous humour as a sample and the methodology is a computer run program. The only potential problems would come from human error.
The elusive universal post-mortem interval (2010) This is still in the early stages, however when tested on real life circumstances it proved to be fairly accurate. The researchers took into account a lot of important factors that could affect the rate of decomposition yet allowed the cases to be studied in real life circumstances to get a true interpretation of what would occur, to then determine accurate formulae. The way the formulae are created allows for different climates, however, checking the climate is still necessary. A potential problem is that for these formulae to be of use, temperature has to be 0℃ or above. This would not be helpful during the winter months, especially if the country in question had temperatures that dropped below 0℃. Another question to consider is would the constants change if the formulae were used in a different country. Also the criteria that need to be met for the use of the formulae could possibly be quite restricting, therefore limiting the use. Despite not knowing much about the author of this paper, overall the paper met the majority of criteria for a reliable source. Even though the climates of the UK and Oak Ridge, USA, are in the same climate category, it would be wise for more research to be conducted to establish whether or not any changes would need to be made in order for the formulae to work overseas.
Application of biochemical and X-ray diffraction analyses to establish the postmortem interval (2007) Bone is an example of a closed system and can provide large quantities of samples if required, giving an advantage to this methodology. The results from this research would be a potential alternative to estimate the postmortem interval in cases where skeletal remains were found. The researchers stated ‘Our study chose a group of samples in which neither environment nor constitutional factors were sufficiently important to modify postmortem processes’, but can this be assumed? If it were discovered that environmental and constitutional factors had an impact on this sample group, the whole paper and results would be considered unreliable. More research is required as 46.6% of the variable PMI can be explained by the cortical zone and 32.7% in the medulla but there is still 20% missing. Is this from outside the bone or lost due to human error? This would need to be answered before potential replication. From the research paper it can be assumed that despite a difference in climate, the research should in theory be able to be replicated and potentially used in the UK. However, as mentioned earlier this is based on the assumption that the statement that the researchers made was correct.
Determination of the postmortem interval by Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy using swine skeletal muscles (2012) This methodology provided encouraging results despite using a sample of pig’s skeletal muscle. It allowed researchers to estimate a postmortem interval with an uncertainty of 7%. If this could be applied to humans, there is the possibility that this research provided a more accurate way to estimate the postmortem interval. Unfortunately, the researchers didn’t use any statistical analysis to support their results, which could suggest that this occurrence is an anomaly. More research would be needed to find out if this was the case before research was undertaken to see if this was a viable method for humans.
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A major factor that appeared during this research was the storage conditions as it showed a significant effect on the emission signal performance of each element that was being studied. This provides an opportunity to find out what the optimum storage conditions would be and further the potential use of this method. Although Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy is a reasonably active method, it could be quite time consuming and in most forensic cases an accurate time of death is needed fairly quickly. This method does not seem very practical and allows for errors and contamination to occur, due to human error, between the crime scene and lab. If the storage conditions could be controlled better, then climate, in theory, should not affect the results further. So replicability in the UK would all depend on whether or not the optimum storage conditions could be found.
Biochemical analysis of protein stability in human brain collected at different post-mortem intervals (2007) Although results are positive, the researchers understand the need for more research to be conducted to understand and confirm the biochemical effects during larger postmortem intervals. Climate could be a factor in this case as proteins are most effective at approximately 30 degrees. So depending on the rate of body cooling, this will have an effect on the results of protein stability and PMI. One concern is whether there is any difference between the male and female brains; this is because the sample includes few females, so could potentially make results less universal. Because of the ambient temperature range used, these results could be used in the UK. Since the frontal cortex is the most dominant part of the brain, areas of the research that only used the frontal cortex can still be deemed as relevant, due to the fact that this is the area that is most likely to be looked at. The climates between Bangalore and the UK differ so much; there is a slim chance that the results could be replicated. This comes from the brain being subject to decomposition just like any other organ. So, even though results are promising, it is hard to tell if this would be of any use in the UK.
Estimation of postmortem interval using thanatochemistry and postmortem changes (2012) This research provided a chance to find an equation to estimate the postmortem interval by including changes that would occur. The use of human autopsy cases would allow the results found to be used and applied in real life circumstances, however, as the methodology requires the use of a laboratory, in most cases a preliminary postmortem interval would most likely have to be calculated and then confirmed by this method. On the other hand, the idea of mathematical formulae would definitely be practical, that is once it can be ascertained if the formulae are valid and reliable. Choosing the vitreous humour as the sample to study proved to be an advantage for the researchers. Vitreous humour can be called a closed system as it is not subject to any environmental factors that could potentially influence other samples. Because of the closed system, climate for this research paper should not be a problem. However, it would be necessary to complete research to see if the results could be replicated in the UK.
Estimation of the time since death: Sudden increase of ambient temperature (2007) This research follows on from previous research conducted by the same author. In the previous research it was found that the methodology was only suitable if there was a sudden increase in temperature, so researchers continued on to produce this study. Just like in the previous study, two artificial dummies were heated then allowed to cool to produce a cooling curve. This curve would then be used to estimate the postmortem interval. However, no statistical analysis was used to confirm the reliability of the results that they found. Despite this being the second study on this topic, the results were only able to say that the formulae that were used had a possibility to be used to estimate the postmortem interval. Since climate is taken into account, there is no reason why this research could not be used in the UK, after more research is done to improve the possibility of calculating postmortem interval.
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Improved estimation of postmortem interval based on differential behaviour of vitreous potassium and hypoxantine (2001) A variety of different analytical techniques were used in this research. Each one was used to test a different component found in the vitreous humour. This most likely is a time consuming process even though most analytical techniques are run by machines. The research had a good sample size; however, some of the values for hypoxantine are missing, reducing the sample size for testing this compound. Although the results are good, the one major limitation with this formula is that it can only be used with deaths by hanging. Considering the many causes of death that are possible just focusing on one really is not practical, so more research would be required to see if there was a pattern, using the same sample group, for other causes of death. As the research is proposing a new series of mathematical equations, climate should not interfere with replicability, especially as the sample group studied is vitreous humour. This improves the chance of use in the UK.
Quantification of mRNA degradation as possible indicator of postmortem interval - a pilot study (2003) The comparison between postmortem blood samples and venous blood samples from volunteers really allows this method and results to be used on the general population, especially since the results proposed more accurate mathematical formulae for a number of different equations that had previously been suggested and it covers a lot of causes of death. Analysis using simple linear regression helped the equations to be as accurate as possible at this stage. Like some of the other papers mentioned in the review, this research uses techniques that are quite time consuming and subject to human error. RNA isolation, reverse transcription, PCR and fragment analysis all take time as well as requiring skills to complete them. This would increase a chance of contamination at the scene if people without the right knowledge collected the samples that were to be used for gathering RNA. RNA is sensitive to the temperature as it is made of proteins. This would be a potential limitation, however, the climates of the UK and Germany are very similar, so there is a good chance that the results could be replicated in the UK.
Estimation of postmortem interval depends on the changes in ATP and its degradation products (2013) Unlike some previous research papers from the Asian continent, the way in which the sample rats were treated was ethical and humane. The sample size of 160 rats was something reasonably new; this most likely comes from an increased level of funding allowing the results to have a potential effect on how the postmortem interval is calculated. High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) is a fairly straightforward analytical technique to perform and is capable to running multiple tests in a sequential order. However, depending on how many tests are run will alter the time taken for this to be completed. Using the results derived from the HPLC and combining them with statistical analysis using linear regression analysis, results showed that the k-value was a good index for the estimation of postmortem interval with carcasses maintained at room temperature or cold temperatures. This would work well in the climate of the UK even though China’s climate is the different. More research could be derived from this paper as data for later stages of decomposition was not available. Also, the methodology needs to be tested again for use with humans.
Estimation of short-term postmortem interval utilising core body temperature: a new algorithm (1999) Despite the year this research was conducted, it provided very interesting results that could be taken and expanded on. After testing an averages-based method and comparing the results to a variety of different of methods that had been tested in a previous research paper, results proved that the averages-based method performed significantly better than any of the other methods it had been compared to.
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However, the recording of data has to be considered. This could take quite a long period of time if an accurate postmortem interval was required. In most cases this would be impractical due to lack of time and resources. Climate is considered in this research, as the equations require data to be inputted that the investigator collected, so the fact that San Diego has a desert climate which is a contrast to UK climate, it should not affect results.
Discussion After careful analysis of a variety of papers, the evidence is showing that overall there is no current research that is at a stage that could be useful to calculate a postmortem interval. With every piece of research there are always limitations that appear, this research is no different. Although this research tried to avoid bias if at all possible, looking back shows that with the decisions made as to which papers to include, slight bias may have occurred. However, this research mainly relies on the evidence given by others and the formation of an opinion based on what was seen. To improve, statistical analysis of some form would have been good to confirm results. The question of this review was answered; however, the results were not as expected. At this point in time the majority of the research in this study was in the preliminary stages, so for this to progress further more research into these topics and others would be necessary. Hopefully in the future, time allowing for more research, if this study was completed again, it would be possible to come to a complete or approximation of a method that could possibly be used universally to calculate the postmortem interval.
Conclusion The purpose of this review was to decide whether or not overseas research, that had been done to calculate the postmortem interval, would be useful to the UK. Overall, each different paper reviewed, showed the same conclusion, after it had been analysed and climates compared. It showed that despite the progress in this field of scientific research, a lot more research is required if it is hoped to find a method that could be used universally to calculate the postmortem interval. This review has shown areas that have proven successful in preliminary stages and these can be taken to hopefully progress further. For the moment it will be necessary to remain using current methods to calculate postmortem interval until further research can be done to improve on these methods.
References Barrister Magazine, 2010. The use of Forensic Entomology to assist the Criminal Justice System. [online] Available at: http://www.barristermagazine.com/archive-articles/issue-47/the-use-of-forensic- entomology-to-assist-the-criminal-justice-system.html [Accessed: 22/07/2013] Countryside Info. Decomposition. [online] Available at: http://www.countrysideinfo.co.uk/decompos.htm [Accessed: [22/07/2013] Forensic Entomology, 2008. Forensic Entomology. [online] Available at: http://www.forensic-ent.com [Accessed: 23/07/2013] Gennard, D.E., 2007. Forensic Entomology: An Introduction. 2nd ed. London: John Wiley and Sons Ltd. pp 115-124 Gennard, D.E., 2007. Forensic Entomology: An Introduction. 2nd ed. London: John Wiley and Sons Ltd. pp 8 -11. Jackson, R.W. Jackson, J.M., 2011. Forensic Science. 3rd ed. Harlow, Essex: Prentice Hall part of Pearson Education.
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CSI: Canine Scene Investigators? Irish, L. Parkes, G. and Williams, A.
The scenting abilities of dogs have a long history of being utilised for policing around the world. They are most commonly associated with tracking down criminals and searching for illicit substances such as drugs and explosives (Lorenzo et al. 2003). However, this is only a fraction of their detection capabilities. This article intends to inform the reader of the wider applications of dogs to policing and fo- rensic science.
Human Remains
In the UK, nearly 200,000 people go missing every year (UK Missing Persons Bureau 2012). Whilst the majority are found safe and well, unfortunately, a number of these people will inevitably die through accident, suicide or homicide.
It is well known that dogs are often used in missing persons cases for the search and rescue of living people (Fenton 1992). What is less well publi- cised is the use of dogs for the search and recovery squares placed in contact with living volunteers, of the deceased. Dogs trained to locate human re- and therefore contaminated with living human mains are known as “Victim scent, were employed as controls. No signals were Recovery” (VR) or “Cadaver” dogs (Ingram 2011). given by the dogs to carpet contaminated with live They are most commonly associated with human scent. Dog detection was 98% accurate for searching for buried murder victims, but this is not detection of carpet squares that had been in con- their only use. Research has shown them to be tact with the deceased for 10 minutes, and 86% much more versatile in the way they can be used as accurate for those that had been in contact for just a detection tool (Lasseter et al. 2003). For example, 2 minutes. Dogs were able to correctly identify con- dogs can identify so-called ‘primary’ crime scenes taminated carpet squares after where bodies have been lying contamination, for up to 35 and 65 days of previously but have since been moved to a ventilation for carpet placed in contact with a secondary location. This phenomenon is known as wrapped body for 2 minutes and 10 minutes “residual scent” (Oesterhelweg et al. 2009). One respectively (Oesterhelweg et al. 2008). However, German study has demonstrated the ability of VR despite this research, the reliability of the dogs to detect residual scent from items that have detection of residual scent has been debated in a been in contact with the freshly dead, even when recent court case in USA (State of Florida v. Casey no bodily fluids are present (Oesterhelweg et al. Anthony, 2008). 2008). They utilised two recently deceased men, each with post-mortem intervals of under 2 hours. Each body was wrapped Dogs have also been employed to locate remains in a cotton shroud to simulate clothing and placed scattered as the result of scavenging (Komar 1999). in contact with carpet for 10 minutes and 2 minutes They are particularly suited to this task as they can respectively. There was no direct contact of the search large areas quickly, thoroughly and cost ef- carpet with the flesh. Carpet fectively and thus have applications in search for disaster victim identification (DVI)
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purposes. For example, VR dogs were used in the One research article (Schoon, 2013) found dogs to aftermath of the Columbia space shuttle disaster have superior sensitivity to blood on certain and both the New York 9/11 and London 7/7 surfaces, specifically rough porous surfaces, in terrorist attacks to locate fragmentary human comparison to traditional presumptive tests such as remains (Migala and Brown 2013; Otto et al. 2010; Luminol, Kastle-Mayer and tetrabase. The authors French 2013). Research by Cablk and Sagebiel have also observed dogs correctly detecting blood (2011) showed that dogs are capable of detecting on surfaces such as concrete flooring or clothing, individual human teeth, which can be extremely even after they have been cleaned through valuable for identification purposes, and are often washing, even when bleach has been used. This easily lost and difficult to find through fingertip ability makes dogs a useful screening tool for searches due to their small size (Cablk et al. 2011). potential exhibits contaminated with bodily fluids.
A subset of VR dogs have also been trained to Whilst numerous research bodies have attempted locate submerged human remains. In the UK, these to investigate the scent released from blood and are known as Drowned Victim Detection (DVD) human remains (Vass 2012; Stadler et al. 2013; Dogs. Little is published in peer-reviewed scientific Kusano et al. 2013), it is currently not known which literature about the use of these dogs, despite scent or combination of scents causes a trained VR them being utilised for over 40 years in the USA or FES dog to indicate positively (Hoffman et al. and over a decade in the UK (Osterkamp 2011; 2009). For example, it is not known whether a Arbuthnot and Johnston 2013). single chemical, a set of chemicals or a whole suite of chemicals causes the dogs to present an Human Bodily Fluids indication. Preliminary research by the authors suggests there is likely a core-set of chemicals
(unpublished results). The detection of bodily fluids may be important for
forensic investigations in cases of assault, sexual assault or murder to identify sources of DNA. Most In summary, there are a wide variety of common screening detection methods include applications of dogs as detection tools for policing visual examination followed by the use of and forensic science. They are presently under- utilised, possibly due to limited understanding presumptive chemical tests (Frascione et al. 2012). However, it is possible that forensic scientists may regarding their selectivity and sensitivity to miss minute amounts by visual examination alone, particular chemicals. More research, such as that particularly when dealing with large numbers of currently being undertaken by the authors, is exhibits. required to fill this knowledge gap.
Forensic Evidence Search (FES) dogs, as they are References termed in the UK, are trained to detect bodily fluids such as blood and semen to assist in forensic ARBUTHNOT, G. and JOHNSTON, N. (2013). investigations (Ingram 2011). Most commonly, dogs Personal Communication Police Victim Recovery are trained to locate blood though they may Dog Instructors. Police Service of Northern Ireland. additionally be trained to detect semen depending Conversation with Irish, L. 8th January 2013. on the requirements of the individual police force
(Tinsley 2014; Swindells 2014). There is scant CABLK, M.E. and SAGEBIEL, J.C. (2011). Field published literature on the training, prevalence or purpose of body fluid detection by FES dogs, but it Capability of Dogs to Locate Individual Human is assumed that these particular body fluids are Teeth. Journal of Forensic Sciences. 56 (4), 1018- 1024 targeted as they are commonly associated with
activity of forensic interest.
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FENTON, V. (1992). The use of dogs in search, MIGALA, A.F. and BROWN, S.E. (2012). Use of Hu- rescue and recovery. Journal of Wilderness Medi- man Remains Detector Dogs for Wide Area Search cine. 3 (3), 292-300 After Wildfire: A New Experience for Texas Task Force 1 Search and Rescue Resources. Wilderness FRANCIONE, N., THOROGATE, R., DANIEL, B. and and Environmental Medicine. 23 (4), 337-342 JICKELLS, S. (2012). Detection and identification of body fluid stains using antibody-nanoparticle OESTERHELWEG, L., KROBER, S., ROTTMANN, K., conjugates. Analyst. 137 (2), 508-512 WILLHOFT, J., BRAUN, C., THIES, N., PUSCHEL, K., SILKENHATH, J. and GEHL, A. (2008). Cadaver dogs- FRENCH, B. (2013). Personal Communication. A study on detection of contaminated carpet Police Victim Recovery Dog Instructor. Metro- squares. Forensic Science International. 174 (1), 35- politan Police. Conversation with Irish, L. 10th 39 March 2013. OSTERKAMP, T. (2011). K9 Water Searches: Scent HOFFMAN, E.M., CURRAN, A.M., DULGERIAN, and Scent Transport Considerations. Journal of Fo- N., STOCKHAM, R.A. and ECKENRODE, B.A. rensic Sciences. 56 (4), 907-912 (2009). Characterisation of the volatile organic compounds present in the headspace of decom- SCHOON, A. (2013). A Comparison Between Canine posing human remains. Forensic Science Interna- Detection of Blood Residue and tional. 186 (1-3), 6-13 Some Blood Presumptive Tests. Journal of Forensic Identification. 63 (3), 255-262 INGRAM, N. (2011). ACPO Police Dog Manual of Guidance. Version 1.1. Association of Chief Po- STADLER. S., STEFANUTO, P., BROKL, M., FORBES, S. lice Officers of England, Wales, Scotland and and FOCANT, J. (2013). Characterization of volatile Northern Ireland. organic compounds from human analogue decom- position using thermal desorption coupled to com- KOMAR, D. (1999). The Use of Cadaver Dogs in prehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography- Locating Scattered, Scavenged Human Remains: time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Analytical Chem- Preliminary Field Test Results. Journal of Forensic istry. 85 (2), 998-1005 Sciences. 44 (2), 405-408 State of Florida v. Casey Marie Anthony, 48-2008-CF LASSETER, A.E., JACOBI, K.P., FARLEY, R. and -015606-O, 2008. HENSEL, L. (2003). Cadaver dog and handler team capabilities in the recovery of buried hu- SWINDELLS, M. (2012). Search Dogs United King- man remains in the Southeastern United States. dom: Forensic Search. [online]: http:// Journal of Forensic Sciences. 48 (3), 617-621 www.searchdogsuk.co.uk/ forensic_search_new.html Last accessed: LORENZO, N., WAN, T.L., HARPER, R.J., HSU, Y.L., 21/05/2014 CHOW, M., ROSE, S., and FURTON, K.G. (2003). Laboratory and field experiments used to iden- tify Canis lupis var. familaris active odor signa- ture chemicals from drugs, explosives and hu- mans. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry. 376, 1212-1224.
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Forensic Input into Wildlife Crime
Wildlife crime, both nationally and internationally is a publicly emotive issue and tackling it is somewhat of a tricky subject particularly as many of those committing these offences are part of much larger organised crime groups (OCGs) especially in terms of offences falling under the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora legislation (CITES) such as the Ivory Trade and the importation of substances used in some traditional medicines. Whilst there is no legal definition as to what exactly wildlife crime is, it could be described as any illegal activity committed against any species of fauna or flora and the destruction, damage or disturbance of habitats and environments protected by l aw. Commonly in the UK such crimes can be characterised as illegal trapping, hunting or destruction of wildlife and the importation of specimens without appropriate authority.
Badgers and their setts are protected by law
Multi-agency working is important in many cases of wildlife crime; liaison and working alongside government and non-government organisations such as Natural England, RSPB, RSPCA and National Wildlife Crime Unit (NWCU). PAW (Partnership for Action Against Wildlife Crime) www.pawfwg.org was established in 1995 and has encouraged joint working practices between various law enforcement agencies to tackle wildlife crime by sharing skills, resources and knowledge. A forensic analysis fund (FAF) is also available to financially assist police and customs investigation teams with the cost of forensic work. Funding of up to 50% in some cases may be provided. Applications for this should be made through the aforementioned website.
The National Wildlife Crime Unit set up in 2006 aims to provide assistance to the Police by gathering and sharing intelligence and information obtained from various organisations. Yearly objectives are set for tackling UK wildlife crime and published on their website www.nwcu.police.uk which also hosts a large amount of information around issues and aims together with international news regarding endangered and protected species worldwide.
From the forensic practitioner perspective, the approach to wildlife crime scenes should be no different to that of any other committed against human victims or their property, it is simply a matter of understanding methods employed by offenders for commissioning such offences and knowledge of what type of forensic exhibits one may expect to find at scenes of this nature. It is important keep in mind the potential for multiple scenes, victims, suspects, vehicles, property, dogs and storage areas and the necessity to link these forensically through methods such as trace evidence, tool marks, soil, pollen, fingerprints, DNA and footwear.
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Photography is of utmost importance in many of these cases and can alone prove an offence to a court of law; the set-up of a snare or trap can constitute an offence, particularly if that trap or snare has been modified or sustained damage which changes the movements of its working parts in such that a snare may have become ‘self-locking’ as opposed to free running for example. The specific location of a trap may constitute an offence if situated in such a way that non-target animals may become victims. It is therefore important to provide detailed photographic evidence to prove offences committed.
Traps must not be situated in locations where non-target animals may be caught
Legal Free-Running Snare
The examination of Wildlife Crime scenes should follow the same tack as any other forensic scene examination. The photography and documentation of the scene as it presents itself prior to anything being moved or removed should be a priority and note should be made of where each item is found in relation to the scene. Delicate evidence should be preserved and seized as early in the examination as possible, care must be taken of fibres and footwear marks around the area. Many scenes are likely to be outdoors and the movement of hair and fibres for example is a likely risk, so these samples should be sought and recovered early on. This is particularly likely at scenes such as egg thefts where offenders have climbed trees to access nests; fibres on tree trunks, fences or other structures must be considered priority and areas taped. Consider also the possibility of tool marks on the tree trunks from climbing spurs/spikes. These will need to be documented, photographed with scale and where possible, casts taken. Footwear marks around digging scenes, such as badger digging or baiting are a possibility and also spade/shovel marks in the soil. Casting of such marks can be challenging and the most appropriate method to do so should be carefully considered. Casting material such as the Plaster of Paris type used for footwear marks can be used for this purpose.
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It is also important to consider the seizing of soil and pollen samples. Cases have been presented whereby an examination of soil and comparison to that found on a spade found within a suspect’s possession have provided a valuable link to the crime.
Soil and pollen found on footwear and within vehicles may also provide important links.
Some exhibits should not be seized by Scenes of Crime Officers/CSI’s, but be left in the charge of other agencies such as Natural England. Samples of poison or baits should be submitted to the WIIS for identification and comparison to that found within victims at post mortems and care should be taken when seizing items used nearby or in connection with such incidents. Fumigant poison of the type used to illegally gas badger setts or fox earths can contaminate items suitable for later fingerprint examination such as papers, sacks, bags etc. often used by offenders for ‘bunging’ badger sett entrances, these items should be carefully preserved and tested for the presence of fumigants prior to exhibiting and removing from the scene for further examination. Fumigant testing is carried out within the sett entrance by agencies such as Natural England or in some cases the fire service using specialist equipment, this method can also be used to test exhibits for traces of toxic gases prior to forensic recovery.
In incidents of poisoning where poisons are found in original packaging, it is important to photographically record any serial numbers. Records of the individual purchasing these items may be kept at point of sale particularly where the substance is an aluminium phosphide such as Phostoxin or Talunex.
Baits such as rabbit carcases may be found contaminated with poisons such as aldicarb or carbofuran and staked out on the ground or positioned on posts in order to attract and poison birds of prey or foxes for example. The possession and use of these chemicals is no longer permitted, therefore, it is important to identify them both within the bait and, where possible, the victims. Post mortem examinations should be carried out to identify their presence within the crop, mouth or gut particularly since death can occur very quickly after ingestion. In cases where companion animals are suspected of having consumed poisonous substances, samples of vomit should be preserved and submitted for analysis. Care needs to be taken when recovering any these samples and adequate PPE in the form of double layers of nitrile gloves and where necessary, masks should be worn.
Basic forensic examination methods will always apply to any wildlife crime incident and samples presented may be no different to any other crime type. DNA from both human and non-human subjects can be analysed in the same way. Swabs may be taken from victims of wildlife crime such as badger, hare or deer carcases found in hunting and coursing incidents with a view to matching to dogs belonging to suspects, equally blood found within the fur, around the mouths or in bedding of dogs may be suitable for species identification; alternatively swabs may be taken from traps or stakes used to link to human suspects. Hair samples may be taken for analysis to link animal to animal or to scene. Ensure that any reference samples from ‘offending’ animals are taken by qualified veterinary surgeons. The same rules of storage apply to these samples as they do to any other crime type, secure frozen and dry storage appropriate to the sample type must be available.
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Crimes relating to CITES offences and the illegal importation of fauna and flora and parts thereof may also be appropriate for Scenes of Crime Officers/CSI’s to examine. Research is underway into various fingerprint techniques on imported items such as ivory and time is of the essence in many of these cases. It is important to work alongside and closely with officers from the UK Boarders Agency in these incidents.
As with all scene examinations, the use of appropriate personal protective equipment is a requirement and one must bear in mind the potential presence of zoonoses (infections that can be communicated from animals to humans) and hazards surrounding the handling of poisons and pesticides in particular. Double layers of Nitrile gloves and appropriate masks are recommended when handling and seizing samples from scenes to protect against skin contact and the aerosol effect when bagging and packaging victims.
The most important point in the forensic investigation of wildlife crime scenes is the need to be fully informed around items which one can expect to find at each location dependent upon the crime type. The forensic examination should be no more complicated than any other, just an informed understanding of the crime type and methods commonly used in its commission. Educating police and wildlife crime officers around the value of forensic evidence within an investigation of this type should be considered, it should be stressed that often time around recovery is of the essence, both in terms of health and safety to other wildlife and officers and degradation of evidence.
Further guidance around the forensic potential and techniques employed at wildlife crime scenes may be found within the guide to the forensic investigation of Wildlife crime accessed via http:// www.tracenetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/2-wildlife-crime-forensics-guide.pdf .
Elaine Rees Scenes of Crime Officer (Level 3) Bedfordshire Police
Check out the Society website for information on upcoming events and the benefits of membership.
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Bluestar®: The effect of disinfectants and surfaces to detect haemoglobin
Raman Begraj: University of West London
When a violent crime has been committed blood is the most common type of bodily evidence found at crime scenes (Lewis, 2011). Forensic analysis of blood supplies valuable information physically and biologically due to the characteristics of the blood. Many criminals will try to remove traces of blood by cleaning the area with household disinfectants or bleaches. Previous studies have assessed the effects of false positives and disinfectants containing bleach; however, no studies have been conducted on the effects of disinfectants that do not contain bleach (sodium hypochlorite). Consequently, this project will provide an overview of the most effective household disinfectant that removes haemoglobin off porous and non-porous surfaces with addition to identify the surface it is most effective on.
The experimental methodology prepared, assists to evaluate the photographic evidence and analyse the results according to the chemiluminescence intensities, appearance of the reaction and reaction times. The chemical enhancement reagent used to visualize the chemiluminescence was Bluestar® which is a modified form of luminol. The modification to its properties has made it more convenient for crime scene investigators, as it does not require complete darkness. It maintains the same chemiluminescence after each spray and most importantly allows the investigator to distinguish between false positives and actual blood due to the intensity of the chemiluminescence.
The results indicate that Tesco anti-bacterial was the most successful disinfectant at removing haemoglobin, as it had the weakest chemiluminescence and the shortest reaction time on both surfaces, in particular on the non-porous surface. Dettol and Flash had stronger chemiluminescence and longer reaction times on both surfaces, signifying these disinfectants to be least effective, particularly Dettol. No chemical interferences or abnormalities were established in the appearances of the chemiluminescence reactions. In conclusion there is a difference in the effectiveness of each disinfectant to eliminate haemoglobin and there is a difference in the type of surface the disinfectants are effective on.
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Forensic Investigators: Private Consultants working within the Civil Law John Horswell FFSSoc FSSocDip Director and Chief Forensic Consultant
Introduction Throughout the world there are numerous private forensic providers and Malaysia is no exception. Here in Malaysia there are two private providers and both are staffed by scientists and engineers. We at Approved Group International (AGI) undertake forensic investigations covering fires and explosions, vehicle identification, vehicle accident investigation, electrical, electronic, and machinery failures and breakdowns, as well as conducting product storage, fire and security risk, surveys. These investigations are usually undertaken for insurance or civil law matters and related purposes, and lead to comprehensive stand-alone independent reports. Clients of AGI include international insurers, loss adjusters, insurance brokers, barristers and solicitors. These clients require clear, accurate and comprehensive technical advice regarding the cause of a fire, failure and/or accident and often require assistance with determining liability. The work is like Crime Scene Investigation (CSI) conducted by police forces throughout the world working in the Criminal Law. Like CSI, requests for our involvement can be, and usually is, at very short notice. Our staff are ready and prepared to travel anywhere a forensic investigation is required and our Mission is “Service that will Free Your Mind”.
The Role of a Forensic Consultant in Insurance Law This is not routine ‘laboratory’ or ‘office’ based work and for those choosing this as a career must be very sure that ‘field’ and not ‘laboratory’ or ‘office’ work is the career path they wish to follow. Private Forensic Providers offer a rare opportunity to enter a unique and very rewarding forensic science discipline in which the variety and the nature of the scientifically focused casework is diverse and challenging, providing consultants with what, I would consider, considerable job satisfaction. One key attraction to this as a career is that the Consultant will, as their experience develops, have the opportunity to be responsible for seeing a scientific investigation through from beginning, initially collecting the items of potential evidential value at the scene, carrying out the examinations, where in-house capacity exists, to interpreting the results of external test/analytical providers, to preparing the final technical report and finally, briefing legal counsel and giving expert evidence in court. This is unlike working in the criminal law where there are usually many experts involved in a forensic case and caseworkers are usually involved in only one evidence category of the forensic case, one such example is drug analysis for investigating officers in the laboratory. Another example is where the crime scene in conducted by a crime scene investigator, the laboratory analysis is conducted by specialist scientist/s and cases are usually coordinated with Senior Investigating Officers (SIO’s), by a senior forensic science manager.
Consultants working in this field have the opportunity to investigate a wide range of fires and explosions, failures and accidents, including cases of fires and explosions on ships, such as petroleum transporters and container vessels, factory and warehouse fires, machinery fires, and in special cases, domestic fires. Another key attraction to this type of career is the unpredictable nature and location of an incident, requiring Consultants to undertake interviewing witnesses and recording and gathering physical evidence in a variety of situations, many times if foreign countries, which adds to the unpredictability of the work. The casework often requires the Consultant to carefully dismantle and examine machinery and failed components and other physical evidence in a systematic manner in a laboratory and/or workshop environment to obtain the evidence required to determine the cause of the incident, fire or explosion.
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This practical aspect of the work also extends to being innovative in devising and undertaking tests, and, if necessary, seeking the assistance of outside laboratories or consultants who would be engaged, dependant on the evidence type and the information and answers required, on an-as-and-when the need arises basis.
Searching Fire Scene for Evidence of an Electrical Failure as a Fire Cause
The list below provides an overview of the various aspects of the role of a Consultant working in this field: Scene-based attendances and investigations to record and gather available physical evidence following the release of the scene to the Insurers or their representatives. Obtaining details regarding the background and circumstances surrounding the incident by interviewing individuals associated with the incident. Interpretation of the nature and circumstances of the incident. Undertaking telephone and internet enquiries as well as liaison and discussion with team colleagues, supervisors and managers. Reviewing technical documentation that may include standard operating procedures, manuals and maintenance records. Reviewing relevant standards, acts and regulations. Undertaking technical literature reviews by researching hard and soft copy library holdings and the Internet. Keeping clients advised with timely progress reports and verbal, followed by written advice, which can be readily understood by a layperson. Innovation in devising and conducting tests. Liaising with officers from relevant authorities, such as Police and Fire Service, who may be willing and disposed to assisting with enquiries. Awareness of, and liaison with, specialists that maybe required to conduct tests or provide advice outside of AGI’s in-house specialist capabilities and/or facilities, be able to interpret the results obtained within the meaning of the overall investigation and include the interpretation of the results in the final report. Preparing final ‘house-format’ reports that are detailed, illustrative, comprehensive which can stand -alone and withstand scrutiny that may ultimately be required for subsequent court proceedings, which could be several years after AGI’s involvement. Attending client meetings to discuss and make case presentations regarding investigations undertaken. Meetings with expert/s appointed by the other involved party/s as part of the litigation process. Provide a list of potential questions for counsel in preparation for cross examination of opposing experts. Provide Counsel with answers to questions that will be led during the expert’s appearance in court as an expert witness. Provide expert evidence in court, which will involve being questioned in-depth by a barrister during cross examination, who may have been also briefed by a technical expert.
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Casework Examples – Circumstances, Venues and Industries Provided below are a few examples of the types of investigations AGI’s consultants have undertaken, which serve to illustrate the diversity of the work that AGI Consultants encounter:
Explosions and fires on ships whilst at sea or in dry-dock. Fires that have caused the almost total destruction of factories and warehouses. Deliberate and accidental fires involving fatalities. Explosions in warehouses and dwellings following gas leaks. Dust and chemical explosions in factory settings. Vehicle fires resulting from electrical and/or fuel failures. Deliberate and accidental dwelling fires. Deliberate fires set in commercial premises in order to defraud insurance companies. Fires involving white goods such as, washing machines, tumble dryers, and dishwashers. Fires within the electricity supply company’s equipment providing power to factories and high rise dwellings. Fires in electricity supply generation power stations. Reconstruction of motor vehicle accidents. Identification of motor vehicles through the restoration of obliterated, altered and over-stamped engine and chassis numbers. A variety of electrical, electronic and mechanical failure analysis. Non-destructive testing and thermography - looking for potential impending failures within process infrastructure and electrical reticulation. Providing product storage advice where the product is susceptible to self heating. Providing advice on the fire protection and security of high-rise building/s, whilst under construction. Metallurgical examination of failed components.
The venues where private forensic consultants conduct their casework are many and varied and include: private dwellings, factories, warehouses, vehicles - cars, motor cycles, trucks, bicycles, ships and pleasure craft, hotels, stand-alone shops, shopping complexes, cinemas, bars, offices, high-rise buildings, night clubs, karaoke bars, restaurants, food halls, resorts, Roads, sea ports, parking stations, public places.
The industries where private forensic consultants conduct their casework are also many and varied and include: Cotton (ginning, weaving and finished textiles), Biodiesel, Leather (tanning), Pharmaceuticals, Retail outlets, Oil and Gas, Chemical Manufacturing, Food Manufacturing, Poultry production (eggs and meat), Aquarium wholesalers and retailers, Electro-plating, Gyprock Manufacturing, Printing, paper and stationary, Timber processing (saw mills and furniture manufacturing), Cement manufacturing, Computer manufacturing, Battery manufacturing, Paint manufacture and retailing, Chemical storage and warehouses, Clothing, Rubber production, Rubber glove production, rice growing, rice flour production, Melamine manufacturing, Abattoirs and meat processing, Motor cycle outlets, repair and parking, Vehicle spare parts manufacturing, wholesaling and retailing, Polystyrene and Polyurethane manufacturing, Aerosol filling and packing, Electrical sub-stations, Mattress manufacturers, Foundries, Oil palm mills, Water filter manufacturers, Sewerage pumping stations, Electrical appliance retailers, Steel manufacturing, and Supermarkets.
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Engine Number Etching
Vehicle Fire in Progress
Interviewing witnesses
Fatal Motor vehicle accident
Petroleum Ship Transporter Fire
Fire Dating using Forensic Botany
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Warehouse Electrical Fire Involving Lights
Examining a Fire Scene from a Safe Distance Using a “Cherry Picker”
International Standing and Exposure AGI is an international company which is staffed by internationally recognised experts in their own field. The company has international offices and is compliant to international management standards (ISO 9001:2008). AGI is also involved with associate laboratories that undertake analysis and/or examinations on AGI’s behalf and likewise these Associates are internationally recognised possessing relevant international accreditation (ISO 17025:2005) and/or certification (ISO 9001:2008).
Approved Group International has its headquarters in Malaysia and offices in Indonesia, India and Singapore. The Chief Forensic Consultant is an internationally recognized Forensic Scientist who has been working in this field in both government and private forensic science for the past thirty nine (39) years. The Chief Forensic Consultant has published in the International Literature: forensic science encyclopedia, referred journal articles, a number of book chapters and has edited and contributed to a CRC monograph titled; The Practice of Crime Scene Investigation, which was published in the United States during 2004. He holds or has held various university appointments in Australia and Malaysia and has made presentations in many countries including Australia, Asia, Europe, Mauritius, Middle East, Japan and North America. AGI’s Consultants are members of International Associations and have Certifications from a number of these bodies. AGI’s Consultants have conducted forensic investigation casework in Brunei, China (PRC), India, Indonesia, Korea, Malaysia (West - Peninsula and East - Borneo Island), Maldives, Pakistan, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Timor Leste and Vietnam. AGI’s Consultants hold current Passports and an Asia Pacific Economic Co-operation (APEC) Business Travel Card, obtaining business visas for those economies that are not included under the APEC umbrella as and when required.
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Forensic Consultant Background and Abilities The role of a Consultant, working as a Forensic Investigator for AGI, is physically and scientifically demanding, a knowledge of chemistry and physics is important but also the ability to tackle problems from first principles, be innovative, flexible and have the ability to improvise.
The Ideal person we expect to perform at a high level within this field will: Possess a degree in a science or an engineering discipline. Be a member or prepared to become a member of relevant professional associations. Sit for relevant professional certification examinations during career progression. Have gained several years of postgraduate experience. Possess a track record of honesty, integrity and ethical practices. Possess a good understanding of the theoretical and practical application of the scientific method. Be able to demonstrate an aptitude and enthusiasm for problem solving. Be self-motivated and be able to work effectively and efficiently under pressure. Be practical, meticulous and able to work in a systematic manner. Be able to demonstrate common sense and the ability to analyse and distil information critically. Be able to demonstrate the ability to communicate technical concepts clearly, both verbally and in writing, to others with varying degrees of subject knowledge. Be flexible and work unpredictable hours, as and where the work demands, including long periods of travel whilst undertaking national and international casework. Be flexible and self-reliant whilst working independently and when required come together as a team player and on occasions lead a team. Possess excellent time management skills, be organised and able to prioritise casework commitments. Be prepared to appear as expert witness in court as and when required.
Forensic Investigator Training Our Consultants receive comprehensive theoretical, “on-the-job”, and “mentoring” type training in the conduct of forensic investigations and the preparation of reports for our insurance and legal clients is provided in-house and is supplemented by selected internal and external courses both locally and internationally. Career advancement and rewards are based on the Consultant’s attitude, ability and commitment. There are opportunities which arise from time-to-time to transfer to other offices overseas as AGI currently has offices in Jakarta in Indonesia, Mumbai in India, and Singapore. There are plans to further expand into the Asian Region.
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A Week with the Chief Forensic Consultant and Senior Forensic Consultant There are many instances that have taken our Consultants overseas and I have chosen three fires which we investigated in Pakistan. One in a Cotton Warehouse (Godown) in Lahore, the second in an open Bailed Cotton storage area in (Goddown) in Karachi. There have been a number of times when such back-to-back investigations have taken place, as well as those quick turn-around investigations and those requiring a quick return to duty from international holidays.
On the job training The Travel Plan The Chief Forensic Consultant and a Senior Forensic Consultant (The Team) departed Kuala Lumpur International Airport on Thursday 3rd January 2008 at 0750 hours on Royal Thai Flight TG 420 arriving Bangkok at 0855 hours. They transferred in Bangkok to Royal Thai Flight TG505 which departed Bangkok at 1015 hours and arrived in Lahore at 1330 hours.
Following our Forensic Investigations on-site on the 4th January 2008 in Lahore we transferred to Faisalabad by car for an on-site investigation on 5th January 2008. Following our Forensic investigations we transferred to Karachi on Pakistan International Airways Flight 341 departing Faisalabad at 0825 on 6th January at 0950 for an on-site investigation on 6th and 7th January 2008.
The Team departed Karachi on Monday 7th January 2008 at 2355 hours on Royal Thai Flight TG502 arriving Bangkok 8th instant at 0630 hours. They transferred in Bangkok to Royal Thai Flight TG415 which departed Bangkok at 0855 arriving Kuala Lumpur International Airport at 1410 hours.
Fire One – Cotton Warehouse Fire in Lahore At about 0100 hours on Friday, 28th December 2007 a fire was reported to have commenced at a block of six (6) warehouses (godowns) owned by a cotton spinning mill, situated in Lahore, Pakistan.
The spinning mill occupies a lot of land that houses the company office, main mill, workshop and the block of warehouses (godowns). The company stores compressed pure cotton and polyester mix bales within the warehouses that are used to produce yarn in the main mill when ordered to do so by commercial banks who own the compressed pure cotton and polyester mix bales.
After examining all available evidence and statements of the witnesses, it was the attending Team’s view that the fire was deliberate being caused by human intervention by a person or persons unknown. All other accidental fire causes were taken into consideration by the team and eliminated before reaching this conclusion.
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Fire Two – Compressed Cotton Bale Fire in Compound at Ginning Factory in Faisalabad At about 1515 hours on Saturday, 22nd December 2007, a fire was reported to have commenced within a row of compressed cotton bales which were kept within the compound of a cotton ginning factory, in Faisalabad, Pakistan.
The cotton ginning mill occupies a single lot of land that is surrounded by a 5 feet high brick wall fencing topped by barbed wire. The lot of land houses a ginning house and an oil extraction unit, along with harvested unginned cotton and compressed cotton bales kept side-by-side in the middle of the compound.
After examining all available evidence and statements of the witnesses, it was the attending Team’s view that the fire was caused by careless use of smoking materials by a person or persons unknown, who had discarded a cigarette butt or a burning match within the row of compressed cotton bales within the compound. Deliberate and other accidental causes of fire has been taken into consideration by the team and eliminated before reaching this conclusion.
Fire Three – Packaged Finished Textile Goods Warehouse Fire in Karachi At about 0930 hours on Tuesday, 1st January 2008, a fire was reported to have commenced on the ground floor storeroom housing packaged finished goods and subsequently spread up through a staircase into the stitching department on the second floor within a textile manufacturing factory in Karachi, Pakistan.
The textile manufacturing factory occupies a three storey main block with a basement and a separate two storey block on a lot of land surrounded by wall made of kilned, clay bricks cemented with mortar approximately 11 feet high. The two blocks are also separated by a smaller brick partition wall approximately 7.5 feet high which divides the lot of land into two sections.
After examining all available evidence and statements of the witnesses, it is the attending Team’s view that the fire was caused by an electrical failure that had ignited the packaged finished goods and other combustible material kept within the ground floor warehouse’s east block. The fire had then progressed and spread towards the middle staircase beside the carton packaged goods awaiting shipment were temporarily placed. The staircase loaded with combustible material provided a “chimney effect” that spread the fire towards the second floor stitching and bundling section. Deliberate and all other accidental causes of fire have been considered and eliminated before reaching this conclusion.
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Health Effects Caused by Cannabis Plants to Police Personnel Dealing With Illicit Cannabis Cultivation Sites Donna Toms-Sheridan BSc(Hons), Dr David Potter PhD CBiol MSB FLS CMIOSH, Nick Kettle MBE MSc CMCIEH
The rapid escalation of illegal cannabis farming in the UK has resulted in increased policing, detection and destruction of numerous illicit sites. Concerns have been expressed as to whether cannabis plants and associated spores are causing ill health effects to personnel involved in these operations. This review confirms that cannabis plants do not produce spores, they sometimes produce pollen. Pollen, primarily produced by male cannabis plants, may cause reactions in atopic individuals previously predisposed to atmospheric plant allergens. These reactions present as an allergic response, similar to other allergen sensitive responses. Moulds growing on cannabis plants produce spores; these spores may have health implications for people with severely compromised immune systems (HIV, leukaemia, organ transplant). Cystolythic trichomes present on foliage may cause certain individuals to develop a rash if handled without barrier protection. The rash is akin to that produced from nettles with no lasting effects. All cannabis plants contain THCA ∆9- tetrahydrocannabinolic acid and CBDA cannabidiolic acid, these are non active ingredients. The active cannabinoids ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) responsible for psychoactive changes in individuals, is only present once heat in excess of 70º is introduced to a cannabis product. Research confirms THC is not generally detected as an airborne contaminant in illicit farms; therefore there is no risk of absorption from atmospheric inhalation, resulting in intoxication in personnel. Poor plant harvesting including storage of cannabis products can present a hazard to the safety of police personnel, however, these can be effectively mitigated. There is no significant risk to individuals that are exposed to growing cannabis plants.
Introduction
Illegal cannabis farms have increased significantly in the UK over the last five years with 7,685 farms detected in 2010/11, compared to 3,032 in 2007/08 (ACPO 2012). Illicit cultivation, possession and drug abuse has driven police forces in the UK to conduct large scale covert operations to locate and remove clandestine sites.
The rise in illegal cannabis production has resulted in an increase in enforcement, collection, storage and destruction of plants, along with removal and disposal of the associated paraphernalia.
Concerns have been raised by the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) as to whether personnel engaged with the collection and storage of cannabis are being exposed to potential health hazards created by cannabis plants and associated spores. A number of employees have reported occurrences of ill health after attending such scenes: feeling light headed and nauseous along with breathing difficulties and accounts of anecdotal ‘highs’ (Appendix 1 case studies). Investigation now needs to commence to identify whether there are potential health risks to personnel engaged in these activities.
Research conducted in America by Martyny et al. 2012, suggests staff attending illegal cannabis grow sites may be exposed to serious health hazards, from inhalation of fungal spores growing on infected plants and within the associated environment. There is however, no evidence to support health being at risk from cannabis plants per se.
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This review presents the findings from consultations with health and safety practitioners and scientific advisors, in conjunction with the results from analysis of published medical, scientific, peer reviewed and opens source literature.
The purpose of this review is to ascertain whether there is evidence to support or refute potential health risks to staff, from exposure to cannabis during the retrieval and storage phases.
In addition, publications addressing the following topics will be explored: • Cannabis spore / pollen inhalation. • Whether ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is present in sufficient quantities in illegal forms to cause exposure symptoms. Risks from inhalation of fungal spores from infected cannabis.
History
Cannabis is one of the oldest most versatile plants cultivated and utilised in many countries throughout the world (Russo 2007; Small 1976). Indigenous to (Small et al. 1976 cited from Shultes 1970) and considered to have originated from Central Asia (Russo 1970), it was introduced historically to Europe and the surrounding continents (Small et al. 1976) for food, fibre, medicine and drug use (Cole 2003).
Taxonomy
Cannabis belongs to the Cannabaceae family, the genus being Cannabis (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, 2005; Russo 2007). Although there is continuing debate and ongoing research to identify whether the species Cannabis sativa is monotypic (Small et al. 1976; Hillig & Mahlberg 2004) the following species are accepted by some as being of the cannabis genus: Cannabis sativa, Cannabis indica and Cannabis ruderalis (West 1998; Russo 2007). These putative species vary in morphological features, cannabinoids, levels of potency and manufacturing applications (Small et al. 1976). A great deal of diversity has been documented in plants grown in the wild and those cultivated for legal and illegal purposes (Cole 2003). It is suggested by Small et al. 1976 that Cannabis Sativa is the species that all others are assignable to. Scientists and taxonomists continue to research the varying characteristics to ascertain taxonomy(Watson & Clarke 2007).
Cannabinoids
Cannabisplants are unique, due to the production of cannabinoids from glandular trichomes on most surfaces of the plant (Hillig & Mahlberg 2004). Studies have identified more than 60 different types of cannabinoids (Hillig & Mahlberg 2004); the most significant and of greatest interest to illicit users and cultivators is ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the primary psychoactive ingredient.
Cannabinoids produced in the glandular trichomes on flowering female plants, undergo a number of naturally occurring chemical reactions, this results in the production of acids, including THCA ∆9- tetrahydrocannabinolic acid and CBDA Cannabidiolic acid. These acids are inactive and will not cause intoxicating effects (EMCDDA Insights 2012). The synthesised acid is however unstable and by adding a catalyst, the active ingredients THC and CBD (cannabidiol), which cause intoxication are created.
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To produce the active ingredients, the plant requires a catalyst in the form of heat above 70º. Heating causes a further chemical reaction called decarboxylation (removal of carbon dioxide from a molecule), leaving THC and CBD. Contact with the plant or the resin or inhalation of any pollen that may be present will therefore not result in any intoxicating effects.
THC is the active chemical derived from cannabis which causes psychoactive changes in humans, altering an individual’s mood, perception and behaviour. The effects of the drug can be influenced by many factors: route of administration, mood of the user, amount taken, potency of the THC and the amount of cannabidiol (CBD) present (Zuardi et al. 2006).
Cannabidiol (CBD) is an active cannabinoid also found in cannabis. Research conducted by Zuardi et al. (2006) identified that CBD display properties similar to antipsychotic drugs, comparable to those used for patients with schizophrenia (Zuardi et al. 2006). Studies suggest that CBD inhibit the psychotic effects caused by THC (Zuardi et al. 2006).
Synthesis and decarboxylation of cannabinoids THC and CBD
Terpenoids
Cannabinoids produced in the resinous hairs on cannabis plants are devoid of fragrance, the pungent smell associated with cannabis is the r esult of terpenoid compounds growing in conjunction with cannabinoids in the resin. Terpenoids are the primary aromatic compounds of cannabis (Watson & Clarke 2007), these increase in number on plants produced for skunk, resulting in the distinctive aroma associated with this product. There are many different terpenoid compounds in cannabis plants; different varieties of plants will produce varying types. Terpenoid characteristics are such, that the cannabis strain can be associated with its geographical location (Watson & Clarke 2007). Studies suggest that terpenoids may modulate the effects of THC in the brain (Watson & Clarke 2007; McPartland & Russo 2001).
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Legal Produce
Selective breeding has enabled cannabis cultivators to develop cannabis varieties and cultivars that meet their specific needs (Cracker & Gardner 2010), facilitating industrial markets to produce plants with greater fibre and food content, pharmaceutical companies to develop plants for medicine, and illicit breeders to increase their yield and potency; thus creating greater amounts of the psychoactive ingredi- ent ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC).
Cannabis is grown legally in Europe and South Asia as ‘Hemp’ (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2005). Hemp is produced as an industrial crop as it bears high levels of fibre. Legally cultivated hemp has been developed by selective breeding to ensure THC levels are extremely low and industrial produce is high (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2005). The seeds (achenes), which contain minute amounts of the psychoactive ingredient THC, (long associated with drug abuse), contain high levels of essential fatty acids and B-vitamins and are utilised for foods, oil and fuel. The stalks are used for fibre, paper, canvas, rope and cloth (Russo 2007; Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2005).Although industrial hemp does contain the psy- choactive ingredient THC, the levels are so low it is highly unlikely to be utilised by a person to obtain in- toxication (West 1998).
Cannabis is also grown under licence, regulated by the government and international regulatory laboratories for medicinal purposes. Female plants are used to provide the cannabinoids necessary for pharmacological produce, as male plants produce few trichomes, containing cannabinoids (Elsohly 2007). Medical cannabis is used for the treatment of pain, anxiety and depression amongst many other ailments and medical conditions; ongoing research into the benefits of certain cannabinoids continues (Musty 2007).
Illegal Produce
Illicit drug growers aim to maximise quantities of THC in their plants and minimise CBD; higher THC levels in illegal drug products increase the street value and are more highly sought after (Canadian Public Policy 2002); hence the upsurge in illicit clandestine production and more intensive farming.
Confusion is common in the public domain in relation to nomenclature of illicit products. Understanding cannabis products their route of administration and potency will assist with identifying the perception of risks associated with cannabis. The following explains the common names, approximate potency levels and the ways in which the drug can be administered, along with the classifications of the drugs under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971.
Approximate figures can only be given for THC values as THC potency and cannabinoid content varies be- tween importers and growers.
Herbal Cannabis / Marijuana / Home Grown (Class B Misuse of Drugs Act 1971).
These refer to the dried flowering tops and leaves of the cannabis plants, seed and stalk material may also be found in this product.
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West African and Caribbean material may be compressed to make cannabis blocks. Central and Southern Africa produce rolled material wrapped in vegetable fibres, referred to as ‘Com Bobs’, alternatively plant matter may simply be left loose (Cole 2003). Products from South East Asia are generally higher quality consisting of fruiting / flowing tops (Cole 2003).
Herbal cannabis can be made into a cigarette (spliff / reefer) with or without tobacco and smoked; it can also be placed into foods and drinks and ingested. The effects of these applications differ somewhat. Smoking has an almost instantaneous effect on the user, travelling through the lungs to the brain impacting on the central nervous system, the active ingredient, THC is absorbed rapidly (Huestis and Smith 2007). Although a high percentage of THC maybe lost though side stream smoke the effects of smoking is considered far greater than when ingested (Canadian Government Commission of Enquiry 1972). Oral ingestion is far slower with effects occurring between 1-4 hours after consumption. Oral ingestion of cannabis has a prolonged effect in the body (Huestis and Smith 2007).It is reported that cannabis taken orally requires 3 times the level of THC to that required when smoked to provide an equivalent level of intoxication (Canadian Government Commission of Enquiry 1972). However, the high produced lasts much longer and unlike smoke, users are less likely to consume more, to seek additional ‘highs’.
Before the introduction of selective and intensive breeding, original THC levels varied from 1 - 3.5% in 10 mg / reefer (Ashton 2001; Cole 2003), with plant material usually containing 1% THC and flowering material approx 3.5% (Cole 2003).
However a potency study carried out by the Home Office (2008) confirms THC content in nearly all cannabis produce has increased considerably, with imported herbal cannabis exhibiting average THC levels of 8.4%.
Skunk / Sinsemilla (Class B Misuse of Drugs Act 1971)
Skunk / Sinsemilla are nomenclature used to describe intensively grown herbal cannabis through selective breeding and controlled management. This product uses only fruiting / flowering tops of unfertilised female plants. Sinsemilla means without seed (EMCDDA Insights 2012).
The crop can be propagated from seeds or more commonly from cuttings. The cuttings are typically taken from a mother plant that has been selected for its ability to produce high yielding, potent female plants (EMCDDA Insights 2012). The crop is grown intensively in cannabis farms where the environment is adapted to simulate night and day, sunlight and air movement at specific times; deceiving the plant and initiating faster growth (Hough et al. 2003). Viable plants in varying stages of development will be found in illicit cannabis farms to ensure continual production.
The method employed to produce skunk relies on the removal of any male plants prior to female plants flowering. When female plants flower they produce resin to protect the plant from predators, this resin contains cannabinoids and terpenoids. Skunk and sinsemilla crops contain extremely high levels of THC with very little CBD content (EMCDDA Insights 2012). This method of production develops crops with potency levels averaging 16.2% (Home Office Potency Study 2008).
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Since this product contains very little CBD the effects on the user is far more intense and differs to the effects produced by herbal cannabis containing CBD. The user may experience hallucinations or bad reactions as the relaxing CBD component has been removed (EMCDDA Insights 2012). This product is administered as described previously.
Cannabis Resin / Hashish (Class B Misuse of Drugs Act 1971)
Cannabis resin is produced in various ways. Mediterranean suppliers thrash and sieve the plants to collect the resin, and then shape it into blocks. The Indian subcontinent collects it by rubbing the plants with their hands, collecting the resin in their palms, then shaping it into slabs (Cole 2003). Resin can be smoked by heating and breaking into small pieces and placing into a cigarette or a pipe. There are a number of different pipes available on the open market, some heat the cannabis to a temperature which creates a vapour, some filter the smoke through water and others heat the resin producing smoke which is inhaled through a tube (EMCDDA Insights 2012).
Cannabis resin can also be placed into drinks and foods and ingested (EMCDDA Insights 2012). 27,866kg of cannabis resin was seized in 2010/11 (ACPO 2012).
The potency of cannabis resin is 4-7% from Moroccan importers and 4-10% from Pakistan or Afghanistan importers (ACPO 2012). Home Office study confirms average THC potency levels are still within the previously reported concentrations with samples averaging 5.9% THC.
Cannabis Oil / Hash Oil (Class B Misuse of Drugs Act 1971)
This is produced from either cannabis resin or herbal cannabis, manufactured in a way that produces oil containing high levels of cannabinoids. The oil is made by removing the plant material by refluxing (separating) with an organic solvent (ether or petrol (Cole 2003)). The levels of THC are higher in oil than herbal cannabis (Baker et al 1980) but there is little information supporting cannabis oil figures, as this variety of drug is uncommon in the UK and is usually imported (EMCDDA Insights 2012).
Studies carried out by Baker et al. 1980 confirm that hash oil displays the highest levels of THC from importers from the Middle East and Indian subcontinent. The route of administration for this product is as previously described.
Cannabis Pollen / Cystolythic Trichomes / Spores
Cannabis plants are naturally dioecious (Russo 2007; West 1998; Wheelock 2002) signifying separate male and female plants within the species (EMCDDA Insights 2012).
This is not usually apparent until the plant flowers, as the flower structures are different (Cole 2003 pg 50). Male plants produce pollen from stamens and females produce inflorescence (colloquial street term is bud), which, when pollinated produce seeds. Pollen is released by the male plant from yellowish flowers, tepals (indistinguishable petals) which hang down. Upon maturity and after anthesis (expansion of the flowers) the male plant dies (Pate 1994). Female plants have dense leaves and flower bracts (a special leaf at the base of a flower). Each flower produces only one achene (seed) after pollination, which is dispersed via animal consumption or shedding (Pate 1994).
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Male flowering plant Female flowering plant
As previously mentioned, illicit cannabis cultivators generating skunk / sinsemilla, remove male plants from farms to prevent pollination and to increase greater glandular trichome activity by female plants. Resin is produced by females during the reproductive phase. Resin is produced to create protection from predators; the removal of male plants will ensure little or no pollen is present in the farms therefore pollination is inhibited and the females continue to produce the protective resin barrier. This generates more cannabinoids, terpenoids and greater THC concentrations (Elsohly 2007).
Of the literature available on cannabis plants, cannabis production and health hazards pertaining to cannabis, there are no papers that suggest or support spore production by the plants. In view of the fact that male plants produce pollen and female plants produce seed, the only feasible airborne contaminant that can possibly be produced by the plant is in the form of pollen, however illicit cultivators attempting to increase yield and potency will remove male plants, therefore the likelihood of pollen at an illicit scene is negligible.
Pollen
Research carried out by Freeman (1983) to verify whether cannabis pollen causes hypersensitivity of the skin, conducted tests on 129 patients, (90 of which were atopic (allergen sensitive)). The results confirmed 70% of the atopic subjects displayed a positive reaction to the test. The majority of those tested were predisposed to other atmospheric plant pollens.
Freeman (1983) further proposes that inhalation of airborne pollens may cause sensitization in atopic individuals. A similar investigation conducted by Stokes et al. (2000) supports allergic skin reactions caused by cannabis pollen.
Tests were administered to 127 patients to identify positive reactions for cannabis pollen, 78 of which had positive results. 30 subjects were randomly selected from those with positive skin tests, to discover whether they also suffered allergic rhinitis and/or asthma symptoms during the cannabis pollination period, 73% (22) of those tested confirmed they did (Stokes et al. 2000).
Cystolythic Trichomes
Direct skin contact with abrasive cystolythic trichomes on cannabis foliage and stems may cause varying degrees of skin irritation. Those exposed to cannabis plants might develop mild urticaria (hives) which is transient, and typically disappears hours after contact with the plant. Alternatively, exposed individuals may develop a form of phytodermatitis that can last for many days. This occurs where skin is abraded and
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irritants within the plant penetrate the damaged skin(Safety & Health Assessment & Research for Prevention Aug 2001). Forearms are especially vulnerable. Reactions to plant based irritants such as proteolythic enzymes, acids and calcium oxylate crystals (which are abundant in cannabis) are common. These can be an allergic or a non allergic reaction. Personnel do not need to be sensitised to these chemicals to initiate a response(Safety & Health Assessment & Research for Prevention, Aug 2001).
Mould Spores
McPartland (1991) as cited by McPartland (1994) discovered and documented over 100 diseases associated with cannabis; 88 of which are fungi (McPartland 1996). All but a few of these were associated with outdoor grown hemp. The number of diseases associated with indoor grows is very small. McPartland 1994 suggests very few of the diseases and micro-organisms discovered are harmful to human life; however there are some exceptions, which may be transmitted to humans. It is important to stress that McPartland’s research in 1994 was in relation to identifying contaminants on marijuana, particularly marijuana used for medicinal purposes, for patients with [1]compromised immune systems. His aim was to identify whether micro-organisms, opportunistic bacteria or fungi found on cannabis was placing patients at risk. He states that “opportunistic plant pathogens associated with post harvest and storage decay of marijuana… may infect immune deficient individuals and develop into opportunistic human pathogens” (McPartland 1994).
Aspergillus genus is a mould with approximately 185 documented species and varieties (Krishnan et al. 2009). These moulds can be found distributed naturally in the environment from decaying vegetation, soil, leather, fabrics, foods (Mould and Bacteria Consulting Laboratories (MBL) 2012; Krishnan et al. 2009) and marijuana. Contaminated marijuana displays changes visible to the eye, the texture of the surface of the developing plant changes and the colour becomes darker. Threads of fungal hyphae are visible to the eye and can be seen as a white / grey colour with a musty or stale smell. Fungi like Aspergillus are darker blue-green or green - black (McPartland 1994). Under humid conditions a large number of species can utilise many organic materials as food. Some strains can be found on building materials (Aspergillus versicolor) (MBL 2012).
Aspergillus species can elicit many types of conditions in individuals which may cause ill health. Aspergillus moulds have been associated with the production of toxins, pathogens, carcinogens and allergens (Masters 1999). Most people are immune to these types of infections and will not develop any related diseases (Masters 1999).
Toxic compounds produced by some Aspergillus species are referred to as aflotoxins. Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus fumigatus are known to produce aflotoxins (MBL 2012); Aspergillus fumigatus can cause disease in humans and animals. Diseases caused by Aspergillus are termed Aspergillosis (MBL 2012).
Under the right growth conditions aflotoxins can develop on marijuana (Llewellyn & O’Rear 1977). These moulds are particularly active when harvested organic plant material is not dried adequately and stored in plastic bags or packaging (Masters 1999). Plants not cured to less than 13% moisture provide an environment viable to reproduce moulds. Fungus does not develop in vegetation with less than 13% moisture. Heat produced from bacterial fermentation on decaying moist organic vegetation in plastic, provides an environment in which Aspergillus flourish (Masters 1999). Personnel involved in collection or destruction of cannabis stored in plastic are at risk of inhalation of spores if the bags become damaged, as too are those staff employed in destruction if required to remove bags prior to destroying (Masters 1999).
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Several of the Aspergillus species also produce dry spores; personnel handling plants containing this mould maybe exposed to these spores (Llewellyn & O’Rear 1977). Aspergillus fumigatus produce spores which, due to their small size, 3 µm, and presence in the atmosphere can easily be inhaled into the lung (Donaldson et al. 1997). The Mould and Bacteria Council 2012 suggest approximately 70% of Aspergillus fumigatus spores can reach the primary bronchi and penetrate the trachea, causing allergic reactions; spores have been located in lungs, ears and nasal passages of humans, by medical practitioners. Immunocompetent hosts are generally immune to aspergillus and do not develop aspergillus related disease. However Aspergillus sinusitis may occur in hosts with competent immunity, presenting as stuffy nose, chronic headache or discomfort of the face. Individuals with compromised immunity are at greater risk from Aspergillus sinusitis (Masters 1999).
Aspergillus niger is a pathogen. Viruses associated with this species are ear, nose and lung infections although it must be emphasised these are mainly evident in immuno-compromised individuals (BCL, 2012).
Aspergillus clavatus is an occupational allergenic which causes hypersensitivity pneumonitis. This condition has been documented under a number of different names: malt worker lung, humidifier or air-conditioner lung and bird breeder's lung (MBL 2012; A.D.A.M medical encyclopedia 2011). Hypersensitivity pneumonitis is caused by inhalation of certain types of fungus, moulds and dusts; a number of which are occupational allergens. Continual exposure can develop into lung disease (A.D.A.M medical encyclopedia 2011). However many opportunistic organisms can produce allergic reactions if inhaled and although not infectious can cause allergic pneumonitis in hypersensitive individuals. Individuals with asthma or chronic lung conditions are more likely to be susceptible to these spores as inflamed or injured lungs are more vulnerable (Wagner 1984 as cited by Donaldson et al. 1997).
A recent study by Martyny et al. 2012 was conducted to identify the potential risks and dangers faced by personnel associated with operations on indoor marijuana sites. They determined that over 60% of the indoor grow areas tested displayed elevated mould spore levels, in both viable and non-viable samples, when compared to the out door levels. Although the species tested for, were Aspergillus and Penicillum, the spore traps used for non-viable spores could not differentiate between the two species and an assumption was made that the majority of moulds were Penicillum. This assumption was based on the fact that Penicillum mould is common in the surrounding vicinities and there were greater numbers of Penicillum on the viable samples. Only one test for viable spores using a different collection method displayed elevated Aspergillus moulds. An elevated mould spore count was identified during dismantling of the grow areas.
The study by Martyny et al. 2012 further attempted to quantify THC levels in the atmosphere and on gloved hands and surfaces within the grow environment. This was to ascertain whether THC levels were present in sufficient concentrations to cause exposure symptoms in personnel. Twenty four grow areas were monitored; airborne THC was only recorded at very low levels in one, supporting the evidence that THC is not normally to be detected as an airborne contaminant in the atmosphere. Higher levels of THC were recorded on surfaces and gloved hands of officers, but were of levels not considered to cause any intoxicating effects. The highest levels were obtained during dismantling of the equipment, on gloves, two recorded at levels considered to be sufficient to cause intoxicating effects on an individual.
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The study by Martyny et al. 2012 confirmed the presence of THC on the hands of officers and surfaces within the grow zones. This result is a false positive. The results by Martyny et al. 2012 reflect isolation of THCA, not THC. During analysis using GC-MS (Gas chromatography - mass spectrometry), the prod- uct is heated in order to quantify, adding heat to THCA will synthesis it to THC thus the result indicating the presence of THC. The study concluded that elevated mould levels may cause individuals with compromised immune systems severe reactions; however no issues were raised in relation to effects to personnel from THC levels in the environment.
Misuse of Drugs Act 1971
“Any plant of the genus cannabis or any part of such plant (by whatever name designated) except that it does not include cannabis resin or any part of the following products after separation from the rest of the plant, namely: (a) Mature stalk of any such plant (b) Fibre produced from mature stalk of any such plant (c) Seed from any such plant “(King 2003; Cole 2003).
Figures
Cannabis is the most widely used illicit drug in the UK amongst all ages (ACPO 2012). Although cannabis is imported from many countries a significant increase has been noted in the production of cannabis and illicit farms in the UK (www.drugscope).
Association of Chief Police Officers (ACPO) commissioned a number of reports to identify the ‘UK National Problem Profile on Commercial Cultivation of Cannabis’ in 2008, 2010 and 2012 (ACPO 2012). These reports were required in order to identify emerging trends and threats in relation to criminality and organised crime, associated with the illegal production of cannabis (ACPO 2012).
The 2012 report confirms that during 2010 / 2011 there were 167,681 cannabis seizures from all police forces and UK Border Agencies (UKBA) in England and Wales.When these figures are compared to those for seizures ofcocaine (17,689) and Heroin (10,812) the full extent of illicit cannabis activity can be seen. Comparative figures demonstrate cannabis production and related crimes are growing considerably and concerns in relation to illicit cannabis production in the UK are well founded.
The number of cannabis production offences is predicted to rise from 14,982 (2010/2011) to 16,464 (2011/2012), with the number of detected farms increasing by almost 1000 (6,866 in 2009/2010, to 7865 for 2011/12 (ACPO 2012)), almost 3 per day throughout the UK.
The number of cannabis farms identified in the Metropolitan Police area for April 2010 - Dec 2011 was just below 1100, equating to a detection rate of approximately 55 farms per month (ACPO 2012). The 2012 ACPO report further identifies changes to the way illicit producers manufacture crops. Large scale commercial farms are decreasing in number to be replaced by the preferred method of smaller domestic / residential properties, with farmers overseeing a number of farms. The purpose of this is to spread the risk of identification and decrease any financial loss (ACPO 2012; Home Office 2010/11). These growing figures suggest that illicit cannabis cultivation will no doubt continue to increase, therefore ensuring the protection of all employees engaged in policing, collection and destruction of plants, is paramount.
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Safety on Policing Operations and Risk Mitigation The management and documentation of significant work related hazards is captured in the Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations and associated guidance. The Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999[2]require employers to: • Undertake a systematic general examination of work activity; • Identify the significant risks arising out of work; • Assess the risks to the health and safety and record ‘significant’ findings.
The Approved Code of Practice (ACoP)[3]to these regulations states the following: • The purpose of assessment of risks is to determine what measures should be taken to manage the risks to a level that is as low as is reasonably practical. These measures can be identified by looking at the health and safety legislation and any other relevant standards such as approved codes of practice and manufacturers’ instructions, which apply. (This will include Association of Chief Police Officers and Home Office Guidance.)
In the policing environment this normal risk assessment process is often supplemented by: • Intelligence prior to an operation and scene hazard profile once a scene has been secured; • Dynamic risk assessment. This is where individual officers and operational staff carry out subjective assessments of hazards and take appropriate and immediate actions to manage the hazards and control the risk.
A review was undertaken of a number of forces[4]risk assessments (for police raids on illicit cannabis farm operations) and an evaluation of their risk mitigation, including the use of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE). The hazard profiling in these assessments incorporated a broad range of potential biological, chemical and physical hazards that are generally associatedwith illicit cannabis farms. These assessments capture the hazards associated with the cannabis plant that are documented in this paper.
An evaluation of the scientific and medical literature summarised in this paper indicates cannabis plant hazards are as follows: • Skin irritation from direct skin contact with cystolythic trichomes. Typically this skin irritation would be akin to nettle rash. The symptoms would generally be transient in nature, with no long term health consequences. • Mould growth and the presence of mould spores are ubiquitous in the environment, especially in the presence of decaying organic matter. Mould and associated mould spore hazards have also been documented in cannabis production; this hazard is more likely to be observed in the event that harvested cannabis plants are inappropriately dried or stored. A number of published papers consider the presence of fungal mould spore contamination of cannabis products (McPartland 1991, McPartland 1994). Illicit cannabis growers attempt to prohibit mould growth as this dam ages the harvest and financial yield. The presence of any mould and associated spores are not necessarily pathogenic. Concern has been raised in a number of internet articles (Report T. Lewis, 2008) relating to ill health associated with exposure to Aspergillus spores on cannabis. Aspergillus. sp can cause allergic reactions including sinusitis, presenting as stuffy nose, chronic headache or discomfort of the face. Some Aspergillus species are pathogenic. Individuals with asthma or chronic lung conditions are more likely to be susceptible to these spores as inflamed or injured lungs are more vulnerable. The presence of significant mould growth would be visually obvious on plants and cannabis products; any such growth is not necessarily pathogenic e.g. Aspergillus species.
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Pollen may be present in the growth environment; however, it is unlikely to be at levels to cause concern except, possibly, to pollen atopic individuals. Informed illicit cannabis farm growers will seek to ensure pollen in the growth environment is kept to an absolute minimum. Growers will seek to ensure that only female plants are retained in the grow areas as pollination of female plants will reduce the production of cannabinoids impacting on the cannabis yield. It is also worth noting that the female plant may also eventually produce pollen in the absence of a male plant, however, plants are normally harvested before this point in order again to maximize yield and profit. The presence of pollen may cause mild and transient irritation to susceptible individual with, in general, no lasting health consequences.
There is no hazard or risk of inadvertent intoxication from the active cannabinoids, as the chemical change only occurs when heat is introduced above 70 degrees. The active cannabinoids are not present in the growing environment. The only conceivable exposure route during police cannabis operations is in the event of a fire or illicit use. In addition the pungent odour associated with terpenoids also present no intoxication hazard.
The cannabis plant hazards listed above can be mitigated by adoption of appropriate use of PPE including, where required Respiratory Protective Equipment (RPE). In summary: • Skin irritation caused by direct plant contact (cystolythic trichomes) can be mitigated by a suitable PPE barrier, such as disposable protective coveralls (e.g. Tyvex type suits) suit and gloves. • Where there is evidence of mould growth, or poor storage of the cannabis product which may present a mould growth environment, the risk of exposure to mould spores can be mitigated by the use of suitable RPE. The RPE should provide suitable protection to prevent inhalation down to a minimum of 3 microns. This should be further supported by suitable undressing regimes with appropriate handling/disposal of the PPE/RPE; • Little can be done to mitigate the hazard presented by pollen owing to the multiple mucus membrane routes of absorption.
Post police operations the hazard profile from the cannabis plant and product can change if subsequently mishandled or inappropriately stored as evidence. This would include poor storage practices that could encourage mould growth and attract pests.
Other potential hazards associated with illicit cannabis farms (environment/infra-structure hazards, electrical hazards, booby traps, confined spaces etc) are likely to present a greater risk on police operations rather than those associated with the cannabis plant and products.
Conclusion
This review was conducted to identify whether cannabis plants grown illegally in clandestine farms, could cause ill health effects to personnel entering the environment and those involved in collection, storage and transportation of the plants. The literature published in relation to the cannabis plant hazards indicate that there is no significant risk to individuals that are exposed to the growing plant. Poor plant harvesting including storage of cannabis products, can present a hazard to the safety of police personnel on illicit cannabis farm operations but these can be effectively mitigated. The other potential hazards associated with illicit cannabis farms (environment/infra-structure hazards, electrical hazards, booby traps, confined spaces etc) are likely to present a greater risk on police operations rather than those associated with the cannabis plant and products.
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[1] Clarification of patients with compromised immune systems are those with diseases or conditions that render them susceptible to infection e.g. HIV, leukaemia, subjects who have had bone marrow or organ transplants. [2] Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999 (Statutory Instrument 1999/3242) [3] Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999 - Approved Code of Practice and Guidance. Published 2000 (ISBN 9780717624881). [4] South Yorkshire Police, Police Service Northern Island and Metropolitan Police Service.
APPENDIX 1 Case Study 1 Two members of staff employed on 8 hour days, in a property store, containing vast amounts of cannabis, claimed to be feeling light-headed. They went off to the local park and were found on the kids play equipment and swings. Supervisors were concerned that their exposure to the cannabis was rendering them unsafe for work and liaised with Occupational Health. Occupational health concerned too that the cannabis plants were affecting these individuals requested drug test sampling. Hair samples were taken and tested. The tests came back negative for cannabis absorption. Case Study 2 Two members of staff employed in separate exhibit stores complained of a range of symptoms (headache, nausea, fatigue and general malaise) they claimed they were as a result of exposure to pungent odours from cannabis products in the store. Civil claims for damages were submitted and settlements were agreed out of court. Case Study 3 A police officer involved in an illicit cannabis farm operation, claimed that a range of symptoms, (dizziness nausea, flu like symptoms and disorientation), were as a result, of close contact with cannabis, after transporting the plant for destruction Case Study 4 Police officer subject to internal compulsory drug testing proved positive for cannabis. It was subsequently claimed that this was as a result of exposure to cannabis during a police drugs operation.
References
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