A Brief History of Stereoscopy R

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Focus Article

A brief history of stereoscopy R. Duane King∗

We focus on a timeline for stereoscopic visualization. The timeline can be conceived as three distinct eras. The first era was characterized by the full understanding of stereoscopic vision and the development of the stereoscope technology for viewing three dimensional images. The first era was greatly enabled by the simultaneous development of photographic technologies. The second era was characterized by the development of polarized light and anaglyph stereo technology and was mainly manifested with a dramatic outpouring of motion pictures. The third era, the digital era, was developed in connection with virtual reality and scientific data visualization. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

How to cite this article: WIREs Comput Stat 2013, 5:334–340. doi: 10.1002/wics.1264

Keywords: stereoscopic visualization; stereoscope; shutter glasses; anaglyph stereo; virtual reality

INTRODUCTION • From 1838 to about 1930, devices such as the stereoscope, coupled with newly developing or the purposes of this discussion, we use the terms photography, made 3D image viewing a Fthree dimensional (3D) and stereoscopic to mean fashionable technology and popular especially the same thing; that is, 3D is defined as presenting among the people of the Victorian era. There slightly different images to the left and right eyes is a stereoscope in the Lincoln family home in so that the human visual system can integrate these Springfield, IL1 (see Figure 1). two images into a single image that is stereoscopic. • Sometimes, the term 3D used to mean an image that From about 1950 to perhaps the early 1970s, 3D obeys the principles of perspective with additional stereo gained new interest with the increasing lighting and rendering models so that depth cues can use of anaglyph stereo on the printed page and polarized light stereo in the world of motion be inferred from the image without a true stereoscopic pictures. display. The history of 3D stereoscopic visualization can • Beginning around 1990 the introduction of roughly be divided into three eras. Early stereoscopic high refresh-rate cathode ray tube (CRT) visualization featured side-by-side devices coupled projectors and liquid crystal shutter glasses with the emergence of photography. Later, stereo- until the current time with 3D high definition scopic visualization enjoyed a popular resurgence television sets, stereo has gained additional based on anaglyph and polarizing filters. Even more interest among scientists as well as movie makers recently, a technical resurgence of stereoscopy is and the general public. The early adoption of based on computerized capabilities coupled with shutter glasses and high refresh-rate projectors head-mounted displays (HMDs) and shutter glasses. complemented the growing interest in virtual reality (VR).

∗Correspondence to: [email protected] STEREOSCOPIC TECHNOLOGIES School of Physics, Astronomy and Computational Sciences, George Mason University, Fairfax, VI, USA Hodges2 outlined a number of stereoscopic display technologies. More recently Symanzik3 published Conflict of interest: The author has declared no conflicts of interest an adapted version of Hodges’ technologies. for this article. We present a further, slightly simplified and

crystal devices, are the popular choices in the present era of stereo display devices.

PRINCIPLES OF STEREOSCOPIC DISPLAY The underlying principles of stereoscopic (binary) vision were documented by Charles Wheatstone4,5 (1802–1875). He suggests that Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) had some notion that the left and right eyes would see different images, in particular, that an object, for example, a sphere would obscure different background detail for the left eye and the right eye: FIGURE 1| Stereoscope ca 1890. (Source: From E. Wegman Collection) that a painting, though conducted with the greatest art and ﬁnished to the last perfection, both with regard to its contours, its lights, its shadows and its colours, abbreviated, adaptation of the Hodges–Symanzik can never show a relievo equal to that of the natural taxonomy. objects, unless these be viewed at a distance and with a singleeye....Thetruthofthisobservationistherefore • Time-Parallel evident, because a painted ﬁgure intercepts all the space behind its apparent place, so as to preclude the • Anaglyph eyes from the sight of every part of the imaginary ground behind it.4 • Red–green Wheatstone4 concludes: • Red–cyan

• Had Leonardo da Vinci taken, instead of a sphere, a Polarized light less simple ﬁgure for the purpose of his illustration, a • Separate image cube for instance, he would not only have observed that the object obscured from each eye a different part • Split screen of the more distant ﬁeld of view, but the fact would • Dual screen also perhaps have forced itself upon his attention, that the object itself presented a different appearance to • Head-mounted each eye. He failed to do this, and no subsequent writer within my knowledge has supplied the omission; the • Freeviewing projection of two obviously dissimilar pictures on the • Autostereogram two retinæ when a single object is viewed, while the optic axes converge, must therefore be regarded as a • Time-multiplex new fact in the theory of vision. Wheatstone also discusses Gaspar Monge • Electro-optical (1746–1818) and his contributions to descriptive geometry. Wheatstone’s 1838 paper,4 however, fully • Liquid crystal comprehends stereoscopic vision and describes a • Shutter glasses device for stereoscopic visualization, albeit large and complicated, and as such must be considered the • Mechanical pioneer in stereoscopic visualization.a In the same general timeframe, there was an early There are several other techniques which have introduction of anaglyph stereo. Symanzik3 recounts not gained any substantial following. The stereoscope this early history of anaglyph stereo techniques and in the earliest era is an example of a separate attributes the earliest work to Rollmann6,7 and image viewer. Anaglyph and polarized light stereo d’Almeda.8 Rollmann6 introduced side-by-side images technologies are most represented in the middle era. colored in red and green with the technique of free- HMDs and shutter glasses, usually built around liquid viewing. Later in the same year, Rollmann7 proposed

Volume 5, July/August 2013 © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. 335 Focus Article wires.wiley.com/compstats using filters corresponding to the same colors for film would have been available then. Frequently early viewing the images. D’Almeda8 also proposed using silent movies would be tinted to set the mood, so some light of different colors to produce stereoscopic coloring would have been possible. The first known images. It was not until 1901 when Hering9 proposed 3D feature movie12 shown to a paying audience was a method of using projectors to produce anaglyph The Power of Love in September 27, 1922 at the stereoscopic images. However, anaglyph stereoscopic Ambassador Hotel Theater in Los Angeles. This movie technology did not achieve the popular reception that was shown by using two film projectors producing an the stereoscope received. anaglyph image. It is unknown if filters were used on the projectors to produce color or if the films were tinted. This movie is presumed lost. THE STEREOSCOPE AND THE On December 17, 1922, a 3D movie titled The BEGINNINGS OF PHOTOGRAPHY Man from M.A.R.S. was shown at the Selwyn Theater in New York City. This movie was shown with A stereoscope is usually a hand-held device for a system called ‘Teleview’,c using two interlocked viewing side-by-side 3D stereo images (see Figure 1). projectors, which alternated showing a left and right Such a device aids the viewer in fusing the images eye image. The projectors were linked to hand- into a standard 3D view. Although the principles of held viewers the audience used to actuate a shutter stereoscopic vision were understood, it was not until alternating the view between the audiences’ right and photography emerged that a viable method of pro- left eyes.13 The Teleview system was a forerunner duction of stereo images became available. By 1850 a of the liquid crystal shutter glasses for stereoscopic variety of photographic processes including tintypes, display. The Teleview system disappeared after the albumin, and daguerreotypes were developed. one time run of The Man from M.A.R.S. These were followed by a series of short films, Photographers around the world produced millions which primarily lasted until the period 1952–1954, of stereoscopic views between 1850 and 1930. Their when a number of feature length films were made popularity soared when Queen Victoria and Prince d,14 Albert received the gift of a stereoscopic viewer at using polarizing filter glasses. Best known among 14 the Crystal Palace exhibition in 1851. Soon after, the first era of 3D movies (that Zone calls the Era the American jurist Oliver Wendell Holmes called for of Convergence, 1952–1985) were: the establishment of ‘special stereographic collections just as we have professional and other libraries’. • Bwana Devil—1952 Around the world, independent and entrepreneurial • Kiss Me Kate—1953 photographers broke into the growing market for illustrations of all types of subjects: local history • House of Wax—1953 and events, grand landscapes, foreign monuments, • Hondo—1953 charming genre scenes, portraits of notables and • urban architecture. War and disasters such as floods, Dial M for Murder—1954 fires, train-wrecks, and earthquakes were enormously • Creature from the Black Lagoon—1954 popular subjects. (New York Public Library10) Woods15 identifies approximately 540 3D films Oliver Wendell Holmes (1809–1894) together that were theatrically released with some 206 of those with business man Joseph L. Bates (1807–1886) released since 2007 and some 88 3D films including developed a popular hand-held stereo viewer in 1859. short films released between 1952 with Bwana Devil Holmes declined to patent his device because he felt up to 1956. The 1980s saw some resurgence in 3D that his invention was too simple and obvious. From movies although these tended to be B movies, some on that time until the 1930s stereoscopic viewing of side- the seamier side of movie fare. Of course those films by-side images became a major recreational activity.b 11 released in the 1950s and through 1980s generally See Phillips for a more elaborate discussion of the exploited polarized light filters, while releases on first era of stereoscopic display devices. Video Home System (VHS) tapes exploited anaglyph technology. GOING OUT TO THE MOVIES The Image Maximization (IMAX) movies were filmed on 65-mm film stock and were drawn through The second era began with the popularization of 3D the projector horizontally rather than vertically for movies. The earliest 3D movies were actually filmed conventional film. Early IMAX 3D used polarized around 1915 using anaglyph glasses, basically as stereo glasses and were shot on two separate reels of demonstration shorts. Of course, only black and white film stock. This is part of the era that Zone14 refers

336 © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Volume 5, July/August 2013 WIREs Computational Statistics History of stereoscopy to as the Immersive Age, 1986–2005. Post-2005, he ordinary motion pictures have a frame rate of 24 refers to as Digital 3D Cinema. The film releases in frames per second and 1990s era National Television this era generally use shutter glasses. Those released Systems Committee (NTSC) TV had a frame rate for home use Blu-Ray discs and stereo capable High of 30 frames per second, CRT projectors of the Definition Television (HDTV) sets. 1992 era were capable of displaying 120 frames Anaglyph 3D comic books (graphic novels) per second. The CrystalEyes shutter glasses were were also popular in the 1950s concurrent with the synchronized using infrared signaling to a computer 3D movie craze. These were presented in anaglyph output at the rate of 60 frames per second for each form usually with red–cyan glasses. Red and cyan eye, yielding a highly satisfactory viewing experience. are complimentary colors and in an additive color This technology coupled with RISC based, graphics- system,e they add to white. In contrast, red and green oriented Silicon Graphics computers provided ideal, add to yellow in an additive color system, hence give if expensive, platforms for experimentation with an overall yellowish cast to the 3D image.16 Examples genuine 3D data visualization frameworks. of the 1950s era 3D comic books are hard to come by Cruz-Neira et al.25 reported on the development because they are highly collectible and consequently of the cave automatic virtual environment (CAVE) expensive. (see Figure 3). Cruz-Neira upon graduation took Applications of anaglyphs to mathematics, a faculty position at Iowa State University, statistical methods, and data visualization lagged where she collaborated with Dianne Cook and other disciplines somewhat. Between 1983 and 1986, others to experiment with the development of 17–19 Daniel Carr and his colleagues described the use statistical graphics applications. Dianne Cook and her 3 of anaglyph stereo in statistical graphics. Symanzik colleagues reported on their experiences in statistical notes also that he and his collaborators independently graphics in the late 1990s with their system named developed anaglyph stereoscopic statistical graphics C2.26,27 This system used Silicon Graphics hardware between 1992 and 1993. Probably an early landmark to display stereo images on three walls (front, left, book containing anaglyph stereo images by Carr, Tom and right) and the floor. Nelson et al.26 conducted Banchoff, and the late Ruben Gabriel was Wegman usability tests on 3D stereoscopic display systems. 20 and DePriest. More recent work containing The authors reported that 3D stereo display of data anaglyph statistical graphics includes Wegman and seemed to allow users to glean more information 21 3 Luo and Symanzik. from the displayed data, but that 3D manipulation of data was harder than using a mouse to manipulate THE COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY ERA: DIGITAL 3D, VR, AND DATA VISUALIZATION The onset of computer technology, even from the 1960s, stimulated interest in digital approaches to visualization. Ivan Sutherland’s 1968 HMD22 was considered as the first VR system.f The HMD began a significant new era in stereoscopic visualization. More modern HMDs are much lighter and more manageable (see Figure 2 for example). Unfortunately, the resolution of HMDs is still relatively poor and not well suited for serious data visualization applications. See Burdea and Coifett23 for a comprehensive history of VR. However, it was not until the development of more powerful computing environments and the corresponding development of higher resolution display devices exploded the interest in VR.24 Interest in VR in the early 1990s revived extensive interest in the use of stereo visualization for scientific purposes. The invention of CrystalEyes FIGURE 2| A contemporary HMD. Tracking devices allow the liquid crystal shutter glasses around 1990 and high computer to determine head orientation and position. These are usually refresh-rate CRT projectors allowed for the emergence based on magnetic sensors, one of which can be seen over the subject’s of highly satisfactory stereo visualization. While head. (Source: Photo by E. Wegman)

A number of people report discomfort when viewing stereoscopic 3D images.29 This condition may be caused by the mechanics of the current stereoscopic display systems. When we observe a 3D image in the real world, the muscles in our eyes will converge on the objects in the scene. Another set of muscles will adjust the focus of the scene; this change of focus is termed accommodation. The 3D viewing mechanisms that have been discussed all have a single plane of focus and will always lead to a mismatch in the convergence and accommodation of our optic system. The next generation of 3D viewing systems will be holographic in nature as postulated in Wilkinson33,34 by Gene Dolgoff. Gene Dolgoff FIGURE 3| The CAVE environment. (Source: This image is available also discusses the mismatch between convergence and 33 at http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:CAVE_Crayoland.jpg, accommodation. His display system will essentially produced in the CAVE at the Electronic Visualization Laboratory, create the light interference pattern which would University of Illinois, Chicago, IL) emanate from a 3D scene in a relatively narrow plane of Light Emitting Diode (LEDs) fitted with the same data in a typical workstation environment microlenses. Much as looking at the holographic (possibly due to a lack of familiarity with 3D input image on a credit card, our eyes would perceive a more devices coupled with a great familiarity with a mouse). realistic 3D scene and would be able to do this without Following the ground-breaking work of Cruz-Neira needing glasses. In the taxonomy we presented in et al., many installations of CAVE-like environments Stereoscopic Technologies, these new technologies have been constructed including five- and six- would be a variant of freeviewing and autostereogram. Dolgoff also discusses the creation of 3D from 2D sided CAVEs. Simply Googling ‘CAVE environments’ 34 will lead the interested reader to descriptions of images, TV shows, and movies. These technologies these environments and comparisons of competing seem to be emerging from a number of sources. environments. Following the burgeoning interest in CAVE-like environments, a series of International NOTES Immersive Projection Technology Workshops28 were established. a An interesting historical aside is that Charles Approximately at the same time by 1992 Wheatstone is often given credit for the invention independently of the Cruz-Neira efforts, we installed of the electrical circuit called the Wheatstone Bridge; a similar projection system used for data visualization although it was actually invented by Samuel Hunter and statistical graphics also using CrystalEyes shutter Christie in 1833, and later improved by Wheatstone glasses, Silicon Graphics computers, and a high in 1843. refresh-rate CRT projector. The experiences of b It should be noted that broadcast radio became Wegman and his colleagues with their immersive widely accessible in the early 1920s, so that system were reported in Ref 29. Traditional multiwall radio tended to supplant stereoscopes as the latest CAVE environments require very large spaces technological marvel. and were quite expensive, easily $1,000,000 or c Another interesting historical aside is that Teleview more. The one-wall projection system that we had was invented by Laurens Hammond later known as developed was more economical in space (about the inventor of the Hammond organ. 400 ft2) and considerably less costly, on the order d It should be noted that early polarizing filters of $250,000. Multiwall systems that require head were linear, one polarized vertically and the other tracking are not particularly amenable to multiple horizontally. This has the unfortunate effect that simultaneous users, while the one-wall immersive if the viewer’s head tilted, the polarizing effect system often needs no head tracking with an would be diminished. More modern filters are approximation to the ideal head position allowing circularly polarized, clockwise and counterclockwise, multiple users and stimulating interaction. Other minimizing the effect of head tilt. comparisons of virtual environments include those e An additive color system is normally composed by Brooks,25 Zielinsky et al.,30 Bowman et al.,31 and of red, green, and blue such as found in color Bowman et al.32 television and movie stock. Green and blue in equal

338 © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Volume 5, July/August 2013 WIREs Computational Statistics History of stereoscopy proportions make cyan in an additive system. Thus f Sutherland’s HMD was nicknamed the ‘Sword of cyan added to red make white so that red and cyan Damocles’ because it was suspended from the ceiling are complementary colors. Green and red in equal by a rather imposing apparatus. See Figure 1 in proportions add to yellow, but green and red are not Sutherland.22 complementary colors.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author would like to acknowledge the insightful comments made by the reviewer, which greatly improved the article. The author also wishes to express his thanks to Ed Wegman for the help in revising this manuscript and putting it into ﬁnal form.

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