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Home , Bashan, Edom, Land of Uz, Qos (deity)

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Edna /Edomites in the . According As mother-in-law of Tobias, Edna appears fre- to the HB, the Edomites trace their lineage back to quently in Tobit as a strong female character. When , the older brother of . The birth account Tobias arrives at their home, Edna confirms their of the twin boys (Gen 25 : 21–26) not only provides kinship bond, making him eligible to marry her evidence of shared kinship/linguistic relations be- daughter (Tob 7 : 2–8). Edna is one of the first tween and Edom, but it marks out their geo- to know her new son-in-law survived the night with graphical territories as well. Esau, who emerged as the demon (Tob 8 : 11–15). She performs domestic the first born son even though Jacob “grasped” at responsibilities (Tob 8 : 19) and is named Tobias’ his heel, is called “red” (admônî) and “hairy” (śēār). mother (Tob 8 : 21). Edna makes a beautiful parting Both terms function as puns which associate Esau speech to Tobias (Tob 10 : 12) when the newlyweds with the land of Edom (i.e., “red”) (36 : 8) and the leave. Tobias blesses Edna and Raguel (his father- region of Seir (36 : 9). Esau’s connection with Edom in-law) before his journey home (Tob 10 : 13). is reinforced further in the Genesis accounts. Ac-

■ cording to Gen 25 : 30, Esau asked Jacob for some Bibliography: Moore, C. A., Tobit (AB 40A; New York  1996). “reddish” (hā ādōm) stew as he suffered from hun- Rediger Schulte ger. The double reference to Esau’s red appearance and the red stew thus playfully but carefully identi- fies Esau with Edom and characterizes him as the Edom, Edomites eponymous ancestor of the Edomite people. Genesis 36 : 1 specifically refers to the “generations of I. Ancient Near East and Hebrew Bible/Old Testament Esau,” and in 36 : 43 Esau is called “father of the II. Edomites.” The bulk of the chapter (vv. 2–43) pro- vides a long registry of Esau’s descendants, which I. Ancient Near East and Hebrew Bible/ interestingly includes the succession of Edomite Old Testament kings (vv. 31–39). The genealogical list of Gen 36 indicates that Edom enjoyed several links with the Territory. In biblical times, the country of Edom peoples of . Esau is reported to have married  (MT Ĕdôm) was located south of the and a Hittite woman and a Hivite woman (vv. 1–2), in extended from the Wadi -Hesa to the Gulf of Aqa- addition to a daughter of Ishmael (Gen 28 : 9). bah. Unfortunately, Edom’s eastern and western Esau’s connection with Ishmael underscores the boundaries remained relatively undefined. Num- later relationship between Edom and the wander- bers 20 : 16 notes, however, that was situ- ing Arab tribes who traced their lineage to Ishmael ated on the border of Edomite territory (Num (Gen 25 : 13–18). 20 : 23; Josh 15 : 1, 21). According to the HB, Edom The Jacob and Esau narratives of Gen 25 : 23; was also associated with the mountainous region of 27 : 27–29, 39–40 additionally presuppose the his- Seir (Gen 32 : 3; 36 : 8; Judg 5 : 4) near and torical and political destinies of both kingdoms. In Mount Paran (Hab 3 : 3). the prophetic statement of 25 : 23, the text refers to The Wadi el- clearly demarcated the east- “two nations” in the womb of Rebekah, stating that ern and western portions of Edom. Sixty miles the “older will serve the younger.” Moreover, south of the Dead Sea, the wadi reaches a height of ’s blessing ensures that Jacob (i.e., Israel) will about 2,000 feet above the Dead Sea. From this point it descends about 700 feet until it makes con- have dominion over nations and that they will tact with the Gulf of Aqabah. Steep mountains “bow down” to him. These texts ultimately antici- emerge from the Arabah on both sides of the wadi. pate or foreshadow the arrival of the united monar- The mountains on the eastern side reach heights chy when Israel, under , exercised political that exceed 5,000 feet and are comprised of red Nu- control over Edomite territory (2 Sam 8 : 13–14). Is- bian sandstone. The mountains peak at about 5,600 rael’s dominion over Edom did not last, however, feet as one continues further to the south. The and thus Isaac’s words to Esau in Gen 27 : 40 (“you mountains receive adequate rainfall on the western will break his yoke from your neck”) are “fulfilled” ascents and the western edge of the plateau during during the reign of (1 Kgs 11 : 14–22) or the winter due to their height. The eastern and Jehoram (2 Kgs 8 : 20) (Wolff: 135). southern sections are, for the most part, desert re- The land of Edom and the Edomites are men- gions. On the western side of the Arabah in the tioned at various places throughout the . In north, the mountains range from 1,500 feet to a the wilderness wandering period there are brief ref- little over 2,000 feet in height, and they rise gradu- erences to the passing by or through the ally until they reach a height of 2,600 feet in the land of Edom (Num 20 : 14–21; Deut 2 : 4–8; Judg south. This area is mostly desert region. The moun- 11 : 17–18). requested at Kadesh to travel tains on both sides of the Arabah are cut by deep through the land of Edom in order to reach the ter- gorges, which add to the foreboding character of ritory east of the as a starting point of the the land. conquest of the land of Canaan. The Edomites re-

Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception vol. 7 Authenticated | [email protected] © Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/Boston, 2013 Download Date | 1/19/19 5:12 PM 405 Edom, Edomites 406 fused Moses’ request, thus forcing the Israelites to voted to predicting the doom of Edom. Joel charged make a detour to the east of Edom. This narrative Edom with spilling innocent blood in Judean terri- indicates that the Edomites were sufficiently strong tory (Joel 3 : 19). The prophet Malachi stated that enough to prevent the Israelites’ passage along the loved Jacob (i.e., Israel/), but “hated” King’s Highway (Num 20 : 17–19), but it does not Esau and had judged Edom (Mal 1 : 3–4). give evidence that Edom was a well unified country. Not all biblical books contained anti-Edomo- Deuteronomy makes references to the “brother- mite sentiments. Neither Zephaniah nor Zechariah hood” of Edom (2 : 4) and allows Edomites to be included oracles of doom against Edom. Among the admitted to the assembly of YHWH, even up to the wisdom books, the story of likely takes place in third generation (23 : 7–8). Edom. Job is described as the greatest of the sons In the period of the early monarchy, both of the east and living in the (Job 1 : 1–3). and David had contact with the territory of Edom. : 21 refers to the “daughter of Edom The text notes that Saul enjoyed military success who lives in the land of Uz.” Ironically, this late against Edom (1 Sam 14 : 47), and one of Saul’s chief text makes an Edomite, and not the Judeans, the herdsmen, Doeg, was an Edomite (1 Sam 21 : 7). hero of the story. Doeg even aided Saul in the king’s pursuit of David Edom in Extra Biblical Resources. Outside of (1 Sam 22 : 9, 18–19). David, however, gained the biblical literature, the Egyptians were the first to greatest victory over the inhabitants of Edom. After make references to Edom. Papyrus Anastasi, for ex- the decisive defeat in the Valley of the , where ample, contains this report from a frontier official David slew 18,000 Edomites (2 Sam 8 : 13; 1 Kgs from the reign of (r. 1224–14 BCE): “We 11 : 15–16), David subjugated them harshly by in- have finished letting the Bedouin tribes of Edom stalling garrisons in Edom and making the Edom- pass the Fortress [of] Mer-ne-Ptah Hotep-hir-Maat – ites his servants. Later, Solomon occupied Ezion Ge- life, prosperity, health! – which is (in) Tjeku, to the ber, a southern maritime port in the land of Edom pools of Per-Atum … to keep them alive and to keep (1 Kgs 9 : 26). One of Solomon’s most bitter oppo- their cattle alive.” In this text, Edom is presented nents was an Edomite named , who “was of as a foreign territory. This Semitic place name was the royal house in Edom” (1 Kgs 11 : 14). in use by the late 13th century BCE and perhaps as During the period of the divided monarchy, early as the 15th century. The name may be much there were alternating periods of cooperation and older, but an earlier use of the term has gone unde- conflict between Israel/Judah and Edom (1 Kgs tected (Bartlett 1989: 77). 22 : 47). According to 2 Kgs 3, Jehoram and Jehosha- The Egyptians also made reference to the region phat allied with an unnamed king of Edom in an of Seir and to the bedouins that lived there. unsuccessful attack against king Mesha of The place name first appears in a letter found in (vv. 9–26). : 20–22 includes a notice that the Egyptian archives at Armana from King Abdi- Edom rebelled against king Joram of Judah, a revolt hiba of (first part of the 14th cent. BCE), that continued “until this day.” Hostilities with who wrote to Amenhotep III: “The land of Edom continued into the reign of Amaziah during the king is lost; there is war against us, as far as the which 10,000 Edomites were killed in the Valley of lands of Seir as far as Gath-Carmel” (Pritchard: 488). Salt (2 Kgs 14 : 7). Nearly a century later Ramases II (r. 1290–24 BCE) References to the Edomites in prophetic texts claimed to have decimated the land of the Shasu usually reflect hostility, condemnation, and frustra- and plundered Mt Seir. Ramases III (r. 1193–62 tion. Amos, for example, denounced Edom for their BCE) also reported: “I have destroyed the people of employment of slaves and ferocity in war, and he Seir among the Shasu tribes. I have laid waste their spoke of the impending destruction of Teman and tents, with their people, their belongings, and like- , two Edomite towns (1 : 11–12). pre- wise their cattle without number” (Pritchard: 262). dicted that YHWH would destroy Edom in lan- The Shasu tribes of Edom are even mentioned cross- guage that symbolizes a sacrificial act (34 : 5–6). The ing the border into during the reign of Seti II , likewise, contains strong oracles (r. 1214–8 BCE; Pritchard: 259). Thus, 14th–12th- against Edom that trumpeted the nation’s downfall century BCE Egyptian sources make reference to (49 : 7–22). In the aftermath of the Babylonian exile, both Edom and Seir and their inhabitants, the the prophets ceased to utter oracles against other Shasu. nations, but oracles against Edom continued. Ac- The Assyrians first made contact with Edom cording to Ps 137 : 7 and other sources (Lam 4 : 21; about 800 BCE, when Adadnirari III (r. 810–782 Ezek 35 : 3–15), the Edomites took joy in the de- BCE) conquered “the country of the , Am- struction of Jerusalem. This fact, and perhaps some urru-country in its full extent, Tyre, , Israel, continuing expansion in the area, gave rise Edom, ” and imposed “upon them trib- to continuing hatred towards Edom. Prophetic an- ute” (Pritchard: 282). Quash-Malaku of Edom paid tipathy toward the country is especially evident in Tiglath-pilesar III (r. 745–27 BCE) tribute when the later writings. The entire book of is de- Assyrian king appeared in the west (Pritchard: 282).

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Sargon II (r. 722–5 BCE) listed an unnamed ruler human habitation occurred during the Lower, Mid- of Edom among those involved in the rebellion of dle, and Upper Paleolithic periods. In the Ras en- Ashdod in 713 BCE (Pritchard: 287). Sennecharib (r. Naqb region alone, a period of 100,000 years sepa- 705–681 BCE) reported that Aiarammu from Edom rates sites dating from the Lower Paleolithic and brought him gifts (Pritchard: 287). (r. the Calcolithic periods. Outside of Ras en-Naqb, 680–69 BCE) mentioned Quash-gabri, the king of sign of Paleolithic existence have been discovered Edom, swore allegiance to him at Ninevah along in places such as Shaubak, in the Fjaje region, with twenty-two vassal kings (Pritchard: 291). Fi- where early hunters slew animals as herds migrated nally, Qaush-gabri, king of Edom, paid tribute and through the Wadi-el-Bustain drainage system (Bart- submitted himself to Ashurbanipal (r. 669–27 BCE) lett 1989: 55; MacDonald: 296). after the Assyrian king pursued Uate, king of Ara- About 12,000 BCE, during the early Natufian bia, into the land of Edom (Pritchard: 298). Edom period, sedentary hunters occupied the site of Wadi was thus known and recognized by the Assyrians Judayid. In the Epipaleolithic period, early settlers from the beginning of the 8th century BCE on- developed sites on the Edomite plateau and in the wards. Wadi Hisma. These sites varied from one another The decline and fall of provided Edom based on their size, settlement patterns, and in a few years of relief from imperial administration their material remains. Other Epipaleolithic sites and taxation. Edom became a vassal to have been discovered in northern Edom and near when Nebuchadnezzar took control of the west the city of (MacDonald: 296). after 605 BCE. It is unclear whether Edom had a Evidence of pre-pottery Neolithic civilization hand in the destruction of Jerusalem when Judah has been discovered, most notably, at the ancient openly rebelled in 598 BCE against Babylon. Cer- site of Beidha. Archaeologists have surmised that tain texts indicate that Edom assisted the Babylo- the site was occupied around 7,200 BCE and later nians in the sack of the capital city, but the validity abandoned about 6,500 BCE. Evidence from the site of these statements remains up for debate among indicates that the inhabitants of Beidha most likely scholars. The book of Jeremiah, for example, notes lived in temporary huts initially, but later built a that Edom actually gave shelter to Jews fleeing the wall around the inner structure in order to establish Babylonian forces (40 : 11). Because Edom did not a more permanent dwelling. At the late pre-pottery oppose Nebuchadnezzar it was likely spared the Neolothic site of Abu Nakhaliah, stone-built struc- fury of the Babylonian army. notes (Ant. tures, including round and rectangular buildings, 10.9.7) that Nebuchadezzar subjected and were discovered. Some of these buildings were Moab for five years after the fall, but neither Jose- semi-subterranean and resembled those of the early phus nor the HB indicates that Edom was ever at- Beidha site. At Abu Nakhaliah, archaeologists did tacked. The end of the Edomite kingdom and mon- not find any pottery remains, but evidence of an archy may have come as the result of ’ advanced flint industry did exist. In addition, pre- campaigns in the southern and north- pottery Neolithic sites have been located at places ern Arabia after 552 BCE. According to the Naboni- such as Jebel Queisa and in the Wadi Arabah. dus Chronicle, the Babylonian king besieged a place In the Calcolithic period, sites with circular and that has been interpreted as “the city of Edom.” If semi-circular stone structures have been found in so, Nabonidus may be responsible for the destruc- the region of Ras en-Naqb. Among these sites is evi- tion of the acropolis at Buseira and perhaps the de- dence of refuse pits and thick ash lenses, lithic arti- struction of Period IV at Tell el Kheleifeh (Bartlett facts, and modest pottery assemblages. In and 1989: 157–58). around the city of Aqabah, remains of copper smelt- The history of Edom and its inhabitants during ing from the Chalcolithic period have been found the Persian period is virtually unknown. Naboni- as well as flint sickle blades and objects made from dus’ activities do not appear to have cleared the sea shells. land of its inhabitants, most of whom probably con- Presently, no sites have been exca- tinued in their traditional way of life: dwelling in vated, even though Early Bronze sites were detected caves and tents, working the land, and tending by Glueck along the southeast plain of the Dead herds. A tablet discovered at Tawilan Sea. It is believed that both sedentary and nomadic and dated to the accession year of Darius (521–486 populations inhabited north Edom during the BCE), tells of the sale of livestock by Samsa-yabi and Early Bronze Age period. Some sherds have been Sams-idri to Qusu-sama, who is likely an Edomite. found in the mining areas near the Wadi Khalid, Aramaic ostraca from this time were also found at indicating that mining activity took place in the Kheleifeh testifying to trade with Arabia. Wadi Arabah during the Early Bronze period. Little Edom in the Archaeological Record. The terri- evidence remains of either a sedentary or nomadic tory of Edom has an extensive archaeological his- population during the Middle or Late Bronze Ages tory that extends back to prehistoric times. in Edom; the only exception being in the Feinan Archaeological evidence indicates that the earliest region where copper mining took place.

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The end of the Late Bronze and the beginning pottery sherds at various locations, evidence for of the signaled changes in the number of Hellenistic occupation remains scant since no rec- settlements and in the size of the population of ognizable architectural remains have been found Edom (Bartlett 1989: 72–74). Glueck was one of the (Bartlett 1989: 167). first to report Iron I sites in Edom and material evi- The archaeological picture changes dramatically dence indicated that the population increased dur- during the Nabatean period. Nabatean sites have ing this period. In terms of location, the Iron I sites been found throughout the Edomite plateau. Wadis appeared primarily in the north between Wadi el- were used for agricultural purposes and supply Hasa and Tafilia. Over the course of time, settle- forts and garrisons guarded extensive trade net- ments sprang up south of Tafilia, especially during works. Farms, hamlets, and villages also dotted the the Iron II period. Sites in the Iron I consisted pri- country side during this time. A number of Naba- marily of small villages and farms. They were gen- tean have been uncovered at places such as erally situated where agricultural activity could Jebel et-Tannur, Khirbet edh Dharih, Qasr el Bint, take place. Pottery remains from the Iron I period and in the Wadi Rum that date to the 2nd–1st cen- have been found in the Feinen region. Archaeolo- turies BCE. The main theatre uncovered at Petra gists’ knowledge of Late Bronze and Iron I Edom from the time of Aretas IV demonstrates that the has been greatly enhanced in light of the recent dis- Nabateans adopted Greco-Roman architectural coveries at Khirbet en-Nahas. Excavators there have styles for their buildings. uncovered an impressive fortress along with work- Language. The Edomites spoke a language that houses which contained equipment to process cop- scholars have labeled “Edomite.” Only a few, rela- per. Although the field site is relatively new, early tively short inscriptions have been found thus far, analysis on the material remains, which included however. Edomite belongs to the larger family of radiocarbon testing, indicates that the site was in Northwest and, in its structure, use at the end of the Late Bronze and the Early Iron most closely resembles Heb. and Phoenician. The Age (i.e., 1200–900 BCE). The dating of the site has written materials recovered from Edom are scant. particular significance for the biblical text and the Most writing samples have been limited to ostraca, since it overlaps with the time of seals, and stamped jar handles that date from the the early monarchy, especially the reigns of David 9th to 5th centuries BCE (Vanderhooft: 137–57). At and Solomon (Levy/Najjar: 28–35). Umm el-Biyara, a seal with the name Qaush-gabri The population of Edom continued to increase on it was found. A signet ring with the name “Jo- into the Iron II period. The Edomites not only de- tham” inscribed on it has come from Tell el-Khelei- veloped agricultural settlements at this time, but it feh. Twelve 7th- or 6th-century stamped jar handles appears that they constructed fortresses and watch- reading “belonging to Quasanal, servant of the towers as well. Umm el-Biyara, Tawilan, and Buse- king” were also discovered at Tell el-Kheleifeh ria were among the most important sites of the Iron (Bartlett 1973: 247). How widespread literacy was II period. Material evidence indicates that these among the Edomites remains uncertain. sites were not inhabited before the 8th century Religion. Like other peoples of the ancient world, BCE. Umm el-Biyara dates to around the middle the Edomites worshiped fertility and god- part of the 7th century BCE with a settlement life desses. Archaeological evidence indicates that the of about fifty years (Bienkowski: 44–45). A large un- Edomites made crude pottery figurines and kept fortified agricultural settlement was located at Ta- them in their houses, most likely to seek the good wilan which dated to the late 8th century BCE. The will of the deities they worshiped. Near Buseria a period of occupation at Buseria extended from the pottery figurine (9th–8th centuries BCE) of a fertil- end of the 8th century into the following century. ity goddess, wearing a lamp as a crown and holding Further south, sherds were found at such places as in her hand some sacred object, was found. A crude Wadi Feinen, Khirbet en-Nahas, Khirbet el-Jariye, pottery plaque representing a pregnant mother- Khirbet Ghuweib, and the Wadi Dana that were goddess figurine with an incense cup has also been dated to the 8th–6th centuries BCE (MacDonald: unearthed at Tell el-Kheleifeh (Bartlett 1989: 192). 297). Information about Edomite religion can be Evidence of occupation in Edom during the Per- gleaned from written sources as well. In the Assyr- sian and Hellenistic periods is sparse. Occupants ap- ian records, the names of several Edomites are de- pear to have inhabited Buseria at the beginning of rived from the divine name or Quas. For exam- the Persian period which may indicate that the Per- ple, the name Qausmalaka (“Qaus has become sians utilized it as an administrative center to ex- king”) is mentioned from the time of Tiglath- tend their control over the region. At Tell el-Khelei- pileser III, and a Qosmalak (“Qos is king”) is one of feh, Period IV was destroyed by the end of the 6th the names on an ostraca from Beer-sheba (Hoglund: century BCE with a new industrial city built over it 345). The ancient historian Josephus wrote that the (Period V). Occupation at Kheleifeh may have con- Idumean family worshiped Koze, the god of the Id- tinued even into the 4th century. Outside of some umeans (Ant. 15.7.9).

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Scholars have debated the identity of the god ture, however, most references to Edom/Esau and Qos/Quas and the meaning of his name (Bartlett his descendants are not about this ancient people. 1973: 245–47). Many are of the opinion that the Rather, they are about the Romans or the Chris- word Qos is related to the Arabic ‘quas’ (“bow”). It tians, groups that Jews saw as the contemporary was characteristic of many polytheistic cultures of real or symbolic descendants of Edom/Esau. (See Israel’s neighbors, to depict storm gods holding “Esau III. Judaism”) But a few legal and philosophic bows with which they launched lightning bolts. texts do apply to the historical Edomites. Consequently, the Edomte deity Qos may have been Classical rabbinic literature sees a mixed mes- conceived of as a storm god, similar perhaps to the sage in Deut 23 : 7–8 [MT: 8–9]: “You shall not ab- god Hadad of the Aramaens or of the Canaan- hor an Edomite, for he is your brother …; children ites. However, many theophoric names using com- born to them may be admitted into the assembly of pounds of Qos reflect a kinder figure than is usually the Lord in the third generation.” Of course the found in conceptions of storm gods (Bartlett 1989: first phrase, “You shall not abhor an Edomite,” dis- 204). plays a positive attitude to Edomites, calling them While the written evidence may suggest that the Jews’ brothers, a title not given to any other Qos was the primary deity worshiped by the Edom- ancient people. But the second phrase about the ites, the shrine at Horvat Qitmit may indicate oth- third generation is interpreted in rabbinic literature erwise. The shrine included three identically sized as a sanction against Edomites (perhaps for their rooms and podiums which suggest the Edomites misbehavior when they set out with a large armed worshiped a collection or group of deities. If so, the force against the Israelites who were wandering in identity of the other gods remains unknown. The the desert [Num 20 : 20]; so Rashi in Deut). As Mai- fact that the shrine at Horvat Qitmit is the only monides, summarizing the consensus of talmudic clear example of a place of worship only compli- law, writes (MishT, Issurei biah 12 : 17–19), “Each cates our understanding of Edomite religion. and every idolater who converts … is like a born Another divine name perhaps known in Edom Jew for all laws … and may enter the congregation was Eloah, who according to Habbakuk, came from [i.e., marry a Jew] immediately … except for four Teman (3 : 1). This name appears most frequently in nations: the Ammonites, Moabites, Egyptians, and Job, whom some contend to be an Edomite. Edomites.” Jewish law stipulates that an Edomite Bibliography: ■ Bartlett, J. R., “The Moabites and Edom- convert to Judaism has to marry another Edomite ites,” in Peoples of Old Testament Times (ed. D. J. Wiseman; convert (or a member of some other class of Jews Oxford 1973) 229–58. ■ Bartlett, J. R., Edom and the Edom- of dubious lineage) for two generations before the ites (JSOTSup 77; Sheffield 1989). ■ Bienkowski, P., “The descendant is permitted to marry a Jew by birth. Edomites: The Archaeological Evidence from the Transjor- A few medieval thinkers, especially from Se- ,” in You Shall Not Abhor An Edomite For He is Your Brother: phardic countries, argued that the lengthy genea- Edom and Seir in History and Tradition (ed. D. V. Edelman; Archaeology and Biblical Studies 3; Atlanta, Ga. 1995) 41– logical listing of Edomites in Gen 36 was written to 92. ■ Dicou, B., Edom, Israel’s Brother and Antagonist: The Role afford them protection. Since the Bible writes (Deut of Edom in Biblical Prophecy and Story (JSOTSup 169; Sheffield 2 : 5) that it is forbidden for Jews to “provoke” or 1994). ■ Hoglund, K. G., “Edomites,” in Peoples of the Old go to war against Edomites, Jews had to be given a Testament World (ed. A. J. Hoerth et al.; Grand Rapids, Mich. detailed description of “Who is an Edomite” so that 1994) 335–47. ■ Knauf, E. A., Ismael: Untersuchungen zur Ge- campaigns against the Edomites’ neighbors and rel- schichte Palästinas und Nordarabiens im 1. Jahrtausend v. Chr. atives – the Seirites or the Amalekites – would not (ADPV 7; Wiesbaden 1985). ■ Knauf, E. A., : Untersu- chungen zur Geschichte Palästinas und Nordarabiens am Ende des accidentally hurt an Edomite (Saadia, Introduction 2. Jahrtausends v. Chr. (ADPV 10; Wiesbaden 1988). ■ Levy, to Sefer ha-Galui, 170–72; Maimonides, Guide 3, 50). T. E./M. Najjar, “Edom and Copper,” BAR 32/4 (2006) 24– In a famous mishnaic story (mSot 7 : 8), King 35. ■ MacDonald, B., “Archaeology of Edom,” ABD 2 (New Agrippa I, who was of Edomite descent, cried, fear- York 1992) 295–301. ■ Pritchard, J. B. (ed.), ANET (Prince- ing that he was not worthy to be king because of ton, N.J. 31969). ■ Vanderhooft, D. S., “The Edomite Dia- his lineage. It is unclear how sincere the rabbis were lect and Script: A Review of the Evidence,” in You Shall Not when they reassured him: “You are our brother.” Abhor An Edomite For He is Your Brother: Edom and Seir in History and Tradition (ed. D. V. Edelman; Archaeology and Biblical The common rabbinic position (following mYad Studies 3; Atlanta, Ga. 1995) 137–57. ■ Wolf, H. W., “The 4 : 4) is that after King ’s policy of popu- Kerygma of the Yahwist,” Int 20/2 (1961) 131–58. lation exchange, the identity of all Gentile nations Kevin Mellish is in question, so biblical rules about specific na- tions (like the Ammonites and Moabites) do not ap- II. Judaism ply. Scholars of Jewish law differ about whether According to Gen 25 : 30; 36 : 1; 36 : 8 and 36 : 19, that principle applies to the Edomites as well (Tal- Edom is another name for Esau. The Edomites, the mudic Encyclopedia 1.151–52, s.v. Adomi). ancient people of biblical and early post-biblical Bibliography: ■ Froind, Y., “Do Not Abhor an Edomite, for times, are thus seen in Jewish texts as descendants he is Your Brother…,” Bet Miqra 11/3 (1966) 117–21. [Heb.] of Esau. In classical and medieval rabbinic litera- ■ Harkavy, A. (ed.), Ha-S´ arid we-ha-palit mi-Sefer ha-Egron we-

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Sefer ha-Galui (St. Petersburg 1891). [Judeo-Arabic, Heb.] kadian/Babylonian, Elamite, Hurrian, Hittite and ■ Talmudic Encyclopedia, vol. 1 (ed. M. Bar-Ilan/S. Zevin; Jeru- Canaanite, while the Sumerian curriculum pre- salem 1947). [Heb.] served the Sumerian language and literature for Martin Lockshin nearly three millennia. The sources for the recon- See also /Esau; /Idumea, Idumeans; /Seir struction of the scribal curriculum derive primarily (Person) from southern Babylonia during the Old Babylo- nian period in the first half of the second millen- nium BCE and during the Neo- and Late Babylo- Edrei nian periods in the latter half of the first millennium BCE. 1. Town in The earliest school texts consist of lexical lists, which, among many others, compiled the names of   Edrei (MT Edre î) appears in the Bible as a city in the birds, fish, trees, and wooden objects, known to “the kingdom of Og” (Deut 3 : 10). The name is also the Mesopotamians. These lists formed the basis of    mentioned in Egyptian ( Itr ) and Ugaritic (Hdry ). It a student’s training in the cuneiform writing sys-  is located at modern Der ā (32°37’ N, 36°06’ E), tem, and served as vocabulary for memorization. where Iron Age pottery has been found. The name The earliest examples were found at Uruk during   is connected to the root ḏr (“arm”) or dr (“cover- the archaic period (Gesche: 9–10), at Fara and Abu ing, defense”). Salabikh in the Early Dynastic period (Gesche: 10– Bibliography: ■ Elitzur, Y., Ancient Place Names in the Holy 12), and at in Syria in the second half of the Land (Jerusalem/Winona Lake, Ind. 2004). [Esp. 251–63, 3rd millennium (Gesche: 24–25). 377] ■ Lipin´ ski, E., The Aramaeans (OLA 100; Leuven et al. The first explicit reference to the establishment 2000). [Esp. 366–67] of schools comes from the reign of Shulgi, king of Ur (e.g., Shulgi Hymn B 308–15), and it is possible 2. Town of that the school curriculum underwent major Edrei (MT Edreî) is, according to the book of changes in the Ur III period during his regime Joshua, a town allocated to Naphtali (Josh 19 : 37), (Steinkeller: 16–17). Indeed, we have the seals and of unknown location. It is perhaps identical with a names of thousands of scribes indicating that scri- place mentioned by Thutmose III (Itr). bal education was widespread at this time. In the later Old Babylonian period, we have un- Bibliography: ■ Aharoni, Y., The Land of the Bible (Philadel- phia, Pa. 21979). [Esp. 162] ■ Elitzur, Y., Ancient Place Names ambiguous physical evidence of schools in the in the Holy Land (Jerusalem/Winona Lake, Ind. 2004). [Esp. archaeological record. This demonstrates that scri- 251–63] bal training took place now within private houses, Matthieu Richelle with single teachers instructing several students at any given time (Veldhuis 1997: 26; Robson). At school, Babylonian-speaking children were taught Education to read and write Sumerian, a language that had been dead for several centuries (Michalowski), as I. Ancient Near East II. Hebrew Bible/Old Testament well as their own Babylonian language, although III. Greco-Roman Antiquity there is limited textual evidence for the latter (Ge- IV. orge 2009). V. Judaism Most of what was taught in school during the VI. Christianity Old Babylonian period was not practical knowledge VII. Islam (Veldhuis 2004: 66), since the study of Sumerian VIII. Literature continued long after it ceased to function as the pri- IX. Visual Arts mary administrative language in southern Mesopo- X. Music XI. Film tamia. Instead, the subject matter consisted of an “invented tradition” in order to emphasize the ex- tent of Babylonian cultural unity (Veldhuis 2004: I. Ancient Near East 67) and to educate children who likely would go on The cuneiform writing system was disseminated to be court scribes and state administrators. A through a network of schools whose origins lie in child’s bite marks found on an elementary school the temples of southern at the end of tablet indicates that education began at an early age the 4th millennium BCE. For the next three millen- (Guinan/Leichty). Evidence of female scribes exists nia cuneiform writing and scribal education spread as early as the millenium in cities such as Iri-Sagrig throughout the Near East from Susa in south east- and Umma and in the Old Babylonian period at ern Iran to Bogazköy in central Anatolia, to Mari and Sippar, from which there is explicit evi- on the northern Syrian coast and El-Amarna in cen- dence for the scribal training of girls (Lion: 100). tral Egypt. The cuneiform script and associated The Old Babylonian Sumerian school curricu- school curriculum were used to write and teach Ak- lum was divided into two phases. In the Elementary

Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception vol. 7 Authenticated | [email protected] © Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/Boston, 2013 Download Date | 1/19/19 5:12 PM